L8 PureLambdaCalculus PDF

Foundations of Computer Science
Pure Lambda Calculus

C. Aravindan
<AravindanC@ssn.edu.in>
Professor of Computer Science and
Assistant Director
SSN School of Advanced Software Engineering
13 August 2013
C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)
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Outline
1
Introduction
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Outline
1
Introduction
Boolean data and functional abstractions
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Outline
1
Introduction
Conditions
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Outline
1
Introduction
Conditions
Natural Numbers
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Outline
1
Introduction
Conditions
Natural Numbers
Fixpoints and Recursion
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Outline
1
Introduction
Conditions
Natural Numbers
Data abstractions
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Outline
1
Introduction
Conditions
Natural Numbers
Data abstractions
Functional Programming Languages
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Outline
1
Introduction
Conditions
Natural Numbers
Data abstractions
Summary
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Lambda Calculus
We have discussed the basics of lambda abstractions and

combinations.
The syntax is extremely simple!
Semantics is given by reductions
Reductions are in general non-deterministic and hence strategies are
needed normal order and applicative order
We have briefly looked at some important theoretical results in the
form of Church-Rosser theorems and Church-Turing hypothesis.
We have also touched upon some principles of programming
languages.
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Pure Lambda Calculus
It is possible to encode both data and functional abstractions in

lambda calculus!
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Boolean data and functions

Consider the following two abstractions:
let T = xy x
let F = xy y
We will let these abstractions denote the boolean constants true
and false respectively!
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let T = xy x
let F = xy y
What is so special about them?
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let T = xy x
let F = xy y
What is so special about them?
Consider the following abstraction:
let ANON = xy x y F
Now evaluate the following: (ANON F F ), (ANON F T ),
(ANON T F ), and (ANON T T ).
What do you think the ANON is actually abstracting?
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ANON is actually performing the logical and operation!
let AND = xy x y F
(AND T T ) (T T F ) T
(AND F T ) (F T F ) F
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let AND = xy x y F
Is this the only lambda expression for and function?
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let AND = xy x y F
let AAND = xy y x y
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let AND = xy x y F
let AAND = xy y x y
Can you think of a lambda expression for logical or operation?
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let AND = xy x y F
let AAND = xy y x y
let OR = xy x T y
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let AND = xy x y F
let AAND = xy y x y
let OR = xy x T y
How about logical negation?
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let AND = xy x y F
let AAND = xy y x y
let OR = xy x T y
How about logical negation?
let NOT = x x F T
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Conditional evaluation
Conditional evaluation is a very fundamental programming concept
and I do not know of any programming language that does not have
some form of if-then-else!
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Our abstractions of true and false make it extremely simple to
encode if-then-else in lambda calculus:
let ITE = cxy c x y
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let ITE = cxy c x y
If the expression abstracted by c evaluates to T , then
(T x y ) x
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let ITE = cxy c x y
If the expression abstracted by c evaluates to T , then
(T x y ) x
Else, if the expression abstracted by c evaluates to F , then
(F x y ) y
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Encoding Natural Numbers

If f is a lambda abstraction and x is a lambda expression, then the
Natural numbers including zero (technically, positive integers) can be
encoded as x , f (x ), f (f (x )), , f n (x ),
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let 0 = fx x
let 1 = fx f x
let 2 = fx f (f x )
let 3 = fx f (f (f x ))
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let 0 = fx x
let 1 = fx f x
let 2 = fx f (f x )
let 3 = fx f (f (f x ))
Note that 0 and F are the same lambda expressions! Inferring the
type can help us to interpret the expression appropriately.
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Operations on Natural Numbers: Successor

The successor function can be defined as follows:
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let succ = nfx f (n f x )
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Let us reduce succ 2:

succ 2 = ((nfx f (n f x )) (fx f (f x )))
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= fx f ((fx f (f x )) f x )
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= fx f ((fx f (f x )) f x )
= fx f (f (f x ))
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= fx f ((fx f (f x )) f x )
= fx f (f (f x ))
=3
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Operations on Natural Numbers: Addition
Addition of two numbers can be achieved by the following abstraction:

let add = nmfx n f (m f x )
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Operations on Natural Numbers: Addition
Addition of two numbers can be achieved by the following abstraction:

let add = nmfx n f (m f x )
Try reducing (add 2 3)
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Operations on Natural Numbers: Multiplication
Multiplication of two numbers can be achieved by the following

abstraction:
let mult = nmf n (m f )
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Operations on Natural Numbers: Multiplication
Multiplication of two numbers can be achieved by the following

abstraction:
let mult = nmf n (m f )
Try reducing (mult 2 3)
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Operations on Natural Numbers: Zero checking
The isZero function can be realized by the following lambda

expression:
let isZero = nxy n (z y ) x
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expression:
It is easy to verify that (isZero 0) reduces to boolean constant T
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expression:
It is easy to verify that (isZero 0) reduces to boolean constant T
For any non-zero n, (isZero n) reduces to boolean constant F .
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Recursion in Lambda Calculus
x is a fixpoint of a function f if f (x ) = x .
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Examples: f (x ) = x 2 , f (x ) = x + 1, f (x ) = x .
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In Lambda calculus, if F is a lambda abstraction and N is any lambda
expression, we say that N is a fixpoint of F if (F N) N
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In Lambda calculus, if F is a lambda abstraction and N is any lambda
expression, we say that N is a fixpoint of F if (F N) N
Theorem: Every lambda abstraction F has a fixpoint.
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Turings Fixpoint Combinator
let A = xy y (xxy )
Turings fixpoint combinator is now obtained as let = AA.
For any lambda abstraction F , N = F is a fixpoint of F !
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Turings Fixpoint Combinator
let A = xy y (xxy )
Turings fixpoint combinator is now obtained as let = AA.
For any lambda abstraction F , N = F is a fixpoint of F !
N = F
= AAF
= (xy y (xxy )) A F
F (AAF )
= F (F )
= FN
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Consider the following:
fact n = ITE (isZero n) (1) (mult n (fact (pred n)))
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What is the lambda expression for the abstraction fact?
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fact = n ITE (isZero n) (1) (mult n (fact (pred n)))
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fact = (fn ITE (isZero n) (1) (mult n (f (pred n)))) fact
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fact = (fn ITE (isZero n) (1) (mult n (f (pred n)))) fact
If we let F = (fn ITE (isZero n) (1) (mult n (f (pred n)))), this
expression becomes
fact = F fact
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That means, fact is nothing but a fixpoint of F ! Using Turings
combinator, we can obtain fact as
fact = F
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fact = F
You are welcome to try out the reduction of (fact 2)!!!
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fact = F

There is also another fixpoint combinator discovered by Curry:
let Y = f (x f (x x )) (x f (x x ))
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fact = F

There is also another fixpoint combinator discovered by Curry:
let Y = f (x f (x x )) (x f (x x ))
You can verify that YF is a fixpoint of any lambda abstraction F .
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Data Abstraction: Pairs
A pair P = (M, N) can be represented by the abstraction x x M N
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Note that this data abstraction is also a functional abstraction that
takes a function as an argument and applies that on its data fields.
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Methods on pairs: How do we access the first and second elements
of P?
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Methods on pairs: How do we access the first and second elements
of P?
let first = p p (xy x )
let second = p p (xy y )
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Data Abstration: Pairs
Try reducing (first (3, 6)) and (second (3, 6))
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(first (3, 6)) = (p p (xy x )) (x x 3 6)
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(first (3, 6)) = (p p (xy x )) (x x 3 6)
= (x x 3 6) (xy x )
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(first (3, 6)) = (p p (xy x )) (x x 3 6)
= (x x 3 6) (xy x )
= (xy x ) 3 6
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(first (3, 6)) = (p p (xy x )) (x x 3 6)
= (x x 3 6) (xy x )
= (xy x ) 3 6
=3
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Data Abstraction: Tuples
The idea of pair abstraction can be extended to tuple of any length!

An n-tuple T = (M1 , M2 , , Mn ) can be encoded as
x x M1 M2 Mn
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x x M1 M2 Mn
The projection function to access the i th element can be given as
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x x M1 M2 Mn
The projection function to access the i th element can be given as
let in = t.t (x1 x2 xn xi )
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Data Abstraction: Sequences
We have already seen the fundamental concepts of sequences and

how they are different from tuples
A sequence is nothing but a pair, where the first element is the head
of the sequence and second element is the tail of the sequence
For example,
S = h0, 1, 0, 1i
S = (0 h1, 0, 1i)
S = (0 (1 h0, 1i))
S = (0 (1 (0 h1i)))
S = (0 (1 (0 (1 hi))))
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In lambda calculus, an empty sequence can be defined as follows:
let nil = xy y
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let nil = xy y
And we know how to abstract a pair S = (H TL):
let (H TL) = xy x H TL
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let nil = xy y
Examples:
xy y
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let nil = xy y
Examples:
xy y
xy x (fx f x ) (xy y )
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let nil = xy y
Examples:
xy y
xy x (fx f x ) (xy y )
xy x (fx f (f x )) (xy x (fx f x ) (xy y ))
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These encodings are special in that recursive operations on sequences
can be easily carried out.
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Note that a sequence is also a functional abstraction that can be
applied on two arguments: (l P Q)
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If l happens to be nil, this reduces to Q!
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Otherwise, l is a pair (H TL), and so (l P Q) reduces to (P H TL)
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Can you now suggest a lambda abstraction to check if a given
sequence is empty?
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sequence is empty?
Let us define a lambda abstraction to find the sum of a given
sequence of numbers:
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sequence is empty?
let addlist l = l (ht add h (addlist t)) (0)
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sequence is empty?
let addlist l = l (ht add h (addlist t)) (0)
See how to reduce (addlist (5 hi))

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Data Abstraction: Binary Trees
Like a sequence, a binary tree can also be encoded as a pair of left

sub-tree and right sub-tree
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We can let a leaf to be labelled by a natural number
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The lambda encodings are very similar to those of sequences:
let leaf (n) = xy x n
let node(L, R) = xy y L R
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The lambda encodings are very similar to those of sequences:
let leaf (n) = xy x n
let node(L, R) = xy y L R
Note that we have not talked about an empty tree! A tree has to be
either a leaf or a node.
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Following are some examples of binary trees:
T 1 = (leaf 10)
= xy x 10
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T 1 = (leaf 10)
= xy x 10
T 2 = (leaf 5)
= xy x 5
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T 1 = (leaf 10)
= xy x 10
T 2 = (leaf 5)
= xy x 5
T 3 = (node T 1 T 2) = (node (leaf 10) (leaf 5))
= xy y T 1 T 2 = xy y (xy x 10) (xy x 5)
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T 1 = (leaf 10)
= xy x 10
T 2 = (leaf 5)
= xy x 5
T 3 = (node T 1 T 2) = (node (leaf 10) (leaf 5))
= xy y T 1 T 2 = xy y (xy x 10) (xy x 5)
T 4 = (node (node (node (leaf 20) (node (leaf 6) (leaf 2))) (leaf 1))
(node (leaf 12) (node (leaf 7) (node (leaf 5) (leaf 3)))))
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Recursive operations on trees are easy to code.
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Consider (t P Q).
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Consider (t P Q).
If t is a leaf, this reduces to (P n)
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Consider (t P Q).
Otherwise, t is a node, and this reduces to (Q l r )
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Consider (t P Q).
Can you now think of a lambda abstraction for adding all the
numbers in a tree?
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Consider (t P Q).
numbers in a tree?
let addtree t = t (n n) (lr add (addtree l) (addtree r ))
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Consider (t P Q).
numbers in a tree?
let addtree t = t (n n) (lr add (addtree l) (addtree r ))
Try reducing (addtree T 4)!
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Summary
We have seen that programming can be done using pure lambda

calculus
Basic data types such as boolean and numbers can be easily encoded
and basic operations on them can be easily carried out
We have seen that if-then-else can be easily encoded as a
functional abstraction
Beauty of the lambda calculus is that every functional abstraction has
a fixpoint and that is used to solve recursive expressions.
It is also easy to build higher-order data structures such as pairs,
tuples, sequences, and binay trees
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What next?
Review the basics of sets, relations, and function.

Practice various proof techniques
Work on the exercises given during the lectures.
Review the basics of algorithm design and complexity analysis of
algorithms
In the next couple of lectures, we will look at some basic functional
programming concepts using ML
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Foundations of Computer Science

Pure Lambda Calculus

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functional abstractions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functional abstractions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functional abstractions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functional abstractions

Fixpoints and Recursion

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functional abstractions

Fixpoints and Recursion

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functional abstractions

Fixpoints and Recursion

Functional Programming Languages

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functional abstractions

Fixpoints and Recursion

Functional Programming Languages

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

We have discussed the basics of lambda abstractions and

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Pure Lambda Calculus

It is possible to encode both data and functional abstractions in

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Boolean data and functions

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Encoding Natural Numbers

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Encoding Natural Numbers

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Encoding Natural Numbers

Operations on Natural Numbers: Successor

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Operations on Natural Numbers: Successor

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

Operations on Natural Numbers: Successor

Let us reduce succ 2:

C. Aravindan (SSN Institutions)

A pair P = (M, N) can be represented by the abstraction x x M N