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Introduction to
Photonics Laboratory
Laboratory
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Contents
Syllabus
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Course Syllabus
OSE 3052 L - Introduction to Photonics Laboratory
Instructor:
Class location:
CREOL A210
Wednesday
5:00 7:50 pm
Class website:
UCF Webcourses
Credit Hours:
Co-requisite:
Objective:
The objective of this lab to become familiar with the fundamental properties of light, explore
optical phenomena in a laboratory setting, make careful measurements, and draw own
conclusions about the models and theories that describe these phenomena.
Description:
The laboratory course is designed to reinforce the concepts discussed in class with a handson approach and to allow the students to learn laboratory techniques for observing optical
phenomena and quantitative experimental characterization in geometrical optics, polarization,
interference, and diffraction.
Learning outcomes:
After successful completion of this course, students will be able to:
Comment on basic concepts and principles of geometrical optics, dispersion, aberration,
polarization, interference, and diffraction
Discuss the nature of light, its propagation, polarization and reflection and refraction at
planar interfaces
Describe basic optical phenomena and their applications
Handle and align optical elements and set up basic optical experiments
Operates optical devices and equipment
Present their observations and conclusions in a clear informative document
Course Requirements:
The student is expected to review the textbooks, notes, and the lab handout and come
to lab prepared to perform the scheduled experiment.
A laboratory notebook must be used to properly document all experimental procedures,
observations, data, and measurements during the laboratory session. All entries must be
in ink. Lab notebooks will be examined and graded at the end of each lab.
A type-written, clear, and informative laboratory report (in Word or PDF format) must be
prepared for each experiment. The report must include the experiment title, objective,
introduction and theory, experimental method, results and data analysis, observations,
conclusions, and references.
Grading policy:
The final grade will be based upon:
Laboratory participation
20%
Laboratory notebooks
60%
Formal laboratory report
20%
Lab notebooks will be handed out to you on the first day of the course and collected after
the experiments are completed.
Absences and Makeup Lab Sessions:
Because of the fluid nature of the lab with the experimental setup changing every
week, there will be NO MAKEUPS ALLOWED except in cases of genuine emergency.
It is expected and encouraged that students finish their experiments within the
assigned class time on Thursdays. However, with prior arrangements with the
teaching assistant, students may be allowed to access the lab before and after the
class time of the same week.
The instructor reserves the right to change or modify any portion of this schedule
without prior notice or recourse by the students.
Grading Scale (%)
100 93
90
80
70
Rubric Description
90
87 83
77
73
67 63
60
80
70
60
January 13
Introduction
Lenses I: Measurements of the optical power of a lens
January 20
January 27
February 3
February 10
Imaging II: Imaging with more than one lens, pupils and
stops
February 17
February 24
March 2
March 16
March 23
10
March 30
11
April 6
12
April 13
13
April 20
May 2
5|Page
6|Page
You should also be sure that your informal notes, experimental setup sketches table and
plots are clear.
Make sure you have taken and reported all required data and presented in in the manner
asked for. If you choose to present the data in additional ways then you can do so, but
you should state why. Be sure that all your error analysis is complete where appropriate.
Explicitly answer all questions asked about the data , experimental method, etc.
Ensure that you fully answered all of the discussion and analysis questions (those that
require you to answer questions beyond your actual lab measurements). While your
answer should have depth, they should also be concise do not try to use long
sentences to mask a lack of understanding. It is important that your answers are in
complete, readable sentences.
For each laboratory, you will be graded according to the following rubric.
Item
Organization, neatness and
readability of informal notes
Correctness and presentation of
results (Including, where
appropriate, tables, plots, error
analysis)
Depth and conciseness of answers
to Discussion and Analysis
questions)
Maximum
score (%)
Your
Score
25%
35%
25%
15%
Total
100%
7|Page
Item
Title
Describes lab content concisely, adequately, appropriately
Abstract
Conveys a sense of the full report concisely and effectively
10
Introduction
Successfully establishes the context (concept/lab procedure) of
the lab
Effectively presents the objectives and purpose of the lab
Presents interesting questions or issues related to the lab
15
Experimental Methods
Gives enough details to allow for replication of procedure
Lists equipment used and shows sketches where approriate
15
Results
Opens with 1 or 2 sentence(s) describing main finding of lab
Presents visuals clearly and accurately
Presents verbal findings clearly and with sufficient support
Successfully integrates verbal and visual representations
8|Page
20
Discussion of Results
Opens with explanation of how findings link to the context of lab
Addresses questions & issues related to the lab & discusses the
answers
Sufficiently addresses other issues pertinent to lab
10
Conclusions
Convincingly describes what has been learned by doing the lab
Recommendations for future experimental work
10
Presentation
Citations and references adhere to proper format
Format of tables and figures is correct
Report is written in scientific style: clear and to the point
Grammar and spelling are correct
10
100
9|Page
Background:
Lenses are used throughout optical technology, ranging from microscopes and telescopes to
shaping beams devices. Knowing their basic properties such as optical power and focal length is
important for any optical system design. This lab introduces one method to measure these
properties.
The Geneva gauge (or spherometer) is a device that measures the sag of a spherical surface.
It consists of three steel prongs, the outer two of which are fixed, and an inner prong that is free
to move along its axis. The inner prong is connected to an indicator gauge through a mechanical
linkage.
The measure sag is related to the radius of curvature of the surface by:
R zs 2 rs2 R 2
zs2 rs2
.
2zs
r
zs
(rs, zs)
r
Geneva Gauge
R
R- zs
(0,R)
Knowing the radius of curvature the optical power of a lens can be determined when the refractive
index is known. The gauge is calibrated to calculate the optical power of the surface assuming a
value for the lens refractive index (typically n=1.523).
K surface
n 1 0.523
R
R
10 | P a g e
Experimental:
Generally, measurements made with a Geneva gauge are accurate to 0.25 diopters. A
Geneva gauge can be easily checked for rough accuracy by pressing it against a piece of
window glass (or other flat surface) to see if it reads zero optical power. It is important,
when using a Geneva gauge, to make sure that it is perpendicular to the surface being
tested.
The gauge is pressed onto one surface of the lens to be tested, and the surface power is
read directly from the dial.
Repeat the above procedure at least five times and calculate the mean, deviation from the
mean, and standard deviation of the lens power to get a quantitative measure of the
accuracy of this technique.
Thin lens:
The net optical power of a thin lens, in diopters (reciprocal meters), is the algebraic sum
of the two readings.
If the thin lens being tested has an index of refraction other than 1.523, and the actual refractive
index nlens is known, the focal length of the thin lens with nlens can be calculated from the original
fmeasured (assuming n=1.523) using:
f true
0.523
f measured
n lens 1
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
11 | P a g e
12 | P a g e
13 | P a g e
Using the measured optical power obtained from the Geneva gauge for each
surface of the lens K1 and K2 the two radii of curvature, R1 and R2, is obtained from:
Ri
0 .523
Ki
Along with the thickness, t, the actual refractive index, n, and the two radii of
curvature R1 and R2, the focal length of the thick lens is obtained from:
1 n 1 1 n t n 1 1 n
F
R1
R2
n R1
R2
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
14 | P a g e
Discussion:
Based only upon the uncertainty of your measurements, what are your estimated accuracies
(in %) for the optical powers and focal lengths of both lenses measured by the Geneva gauge?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How much error results in the calculation of the focal length of the real lens when making the thin
lens assumption (t=0 m) for the particular lens you measured?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How much error would be introduced in the Geneva gauge measurement if there were an error
of 0.1 in the refractive index of the lens?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15 | P a g e
Background:
Lenses are used throughout optical technology, ranging from microscopes and telescopes to
shaping beams devices. Knowing their basic properties such as optical power and focal length is
important for any optical system design. This lab introduces two methods to estimate and
measure the focal lengths of various lenses, respectively.
The simplest method to estimate the focal length of a lens is to image a distant light source such
as a flashlight or a lamp. If the distance between the light source and the lens is much larger than
the focal length of the lens an image of the light source will be formed approximately at one focal
length away from the lamp.
One of the simplest methods for locating the focal point of a lens is the auto-collimation technique
illustrated in Figure 1 below. Light from a fiber illuminator source (white light source) passes
through a slit and then through the lens whose focal point is to be found. After passing through
the test lens, the beam is reflected by a plane mirror tilted very slightly so that the return beam
does not pass back though the slit, but forms a small spot to one side of it.
The distance
between the slit and the test lens is then adjusted until the size of this slit image reaches a
minimum. At this position the image of the slit lies at the focal point of the lens and the focal length
can be measured.
16 | P a g e
Experimental:
Distant light source imaging:
Adjust the distance of a lens from a white piece of paper to obtain an image of the room
lamps. At this position, measure the distance between the lens and the white paper using
a ruler. Repeat this 5 times using a ruler (mm scale).
Repeat this experiment using a flashlight held in considerable distance from the lens.
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
17 | P a g e
Auto-collimation experiment
Set-up an experiment as shown in Fig. 1 using a white light source and an optical rail with
the indicated optical components
Make sure that the light emerging after the slit is centered on the lens.
Adjust the distance between the slit and the test lens by moving the carriage upon which
the lens is mounted until the size of the slit image reaches a minimum.
For this experiment, determine the focal length of the lens by merely measuring the
distance between the lens and the pinhole with a ruler (mm scale).
Repeat at least five times and calculate the mean, deviation from the mean, and standard
deviation to get a quantitative measure of the accuracy of this technique for determining
the focal length of the lens.
Repeat the experiment for 3 different lenses, a plan-convex, a bi-convex, and a cylindrical
lens.
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
18 | P a g e
19 | P a g e
Discussion:
Based only upon the uncertainty of your measurements, what is the estimated accuracies (in %)
for the focal lengths measured by the two techniques?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discuss the trade of between accuracy and time consumption between the two techniques?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How does the accuracy of the performed experiments compare with the focal length
measurements using the Genever gauge?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20 | P a g e
Background:
Imaging of objects is one of the most common uses of optical systems. Newtonian and Gaussian
lens formulas connect image distances and sizes with the focusing properties of the applied
lenses. This lab is designed to make students familiar with both lens formulas by applying them
to obtain the lens properties from measured image positions and magnifications.
The Newtonian distances are defined as the distance x from the object to the front focal point and
the distance x from the back focal point to the image.
P
P'
F'
x
f
L
h'
F'
f'
x'
h'
L'
The Newtonian distances x and x are related to the front focal distance f (distance from the front
principal plane to the front focal point) and the back focal distance f (the distance from the back
principal plane to the back focal point). From the graph:
h'
h
x'
f'
h h'
x f
ff ' xx '
F f ' f
F 2 xx'
This is known as the Newtonian lens equation. The product of the two Newtonian distances x and
x; is the square of the focal length of the thick lens or lens system.
21 | P a g e
P'
F'
f'
L1
h1'
L1'
P'
P'
F'
h2'
f'
L1
L1'
L2
L2'
d
D
In each position Li is the directional distance from the front principle plane to the object and Li is
the directional distance from the back principle plane to the image.
The Gaussian lens equations at each of the two positions are:
1
1
1
L' 2 L2 F
&
1
1 1
L'1 L1 F
1
1
1
1
L'1 L1 L' 2 L2
22 | P a g e
Since the distance between the object and the image D has not changed, a shift of distance d
in the position of the lens system results in:
L'1 L'2 d
L1 L2 d
1
1
1
1
L' 2 d L2 d L'2 L2
d L2 L'2 0
In terms of the system magnification M2 at the second position, the conjugate equation at the
second position is:
1
L2 F
M2
1
1
1
L' 2 L2 F
L'2 F 1 M 2
M2
L' 2
L2
d
1 F 1 M 2 F F M 2
M 2
M2
d
M 2 1 M 2
Therefore, the focal length of the system can be determined from the shift distance d of the lens
between the two imaging positions and a measurement of the magnification M2.
Similarly, it can be shown that:
d L'1 L1
and
1 M 1 M 1
M1 1 M 2
i.e., the magnification at the two positions are reciprocal.
23 | P a g e
Experimental:
Determining the two Newtonian distances x and x:
Fig. 3.4. Setup for determining Newtonian distances. Fiber illuminator and fiber carrier are
interchanged between front and back.
Mount the fiber carrier, the iris and the lens (or lens system, represented by the principle
planes P and P) on the optical bench. The iris is intended to limit the size of the beam
passing through the lens.
Use the auto-collimation method (Fig. 5) to produce a parallel beam with the primary
focal point located in the plane of the slit.
Record the position of the lens on the optical rail using the Vernier scale for accuracy.
P P'
A
24 | P a g e
Move the lens (or lens system) to a new position where it forms a real image of slit A in
the plane of slit B (Fig. 6, you may increase the distance between the two slits to get a
real image).
Record the new position of the lens carriage on the optical bench.
The difference between the two readings is the distance from the object to the front focal
point, which is the Newtonian distance x (for a given separation between the two slits).
P P'
F'
f'
x'
Fig. 3.6. Setup for determining Newtonian distances. Move the lens by a distance x to
get an image of slit A in the plane of slit B.
F'
f'
x
x'
Fig. 3.7. Setup for determining Newtonian distances. Measure the distance x that you
have to move the lens in order to go from the imaging position to the focal length away
from slit B.
Use the auto-collimation technique in the backward configuration with slit B illuminated
and the mirror on the other side of the lens (or lens system). Move the lens until the rear
focal point of the system in the plane of slit B.
The difference between the readings taken in Steps 2 and 3 is the second Newtonian
distance x.
The focal length is the square root of the two distances x and x.
25 | P a g e
If the lens system is set as in Step 1, the principle plane P is located by measuring one focal
distance from slit A in the direction of the system. In a similar manner, the rear principle plane
P is determined from the configuration of Step 3 by measuring one focal length from slit B.
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
26 | P a g e
Set-up an experiment as shown in Fig. 8 using a white light source and an optical rail with
the indicated optical components
Position 1:
Use the ruler millimeter scale as the object. Position the observation screen in the image
plane a distance at least four times the estimated focal length (L > 4F) from the object.
Move the lens (or lens system) to Position #1 such that a sharp image of magnification
greater than unity is formed on an observation screen.
Record the position of the lens on the optical rail (reading A).
Remove the observation screen and slide the carriage holding the microscope until the
real aerial image of the millimeter scale is in focus.
Lock positions of the carriage holding ruler (object) and the microscope (assures L will
remain constant).
Position 2:
Move the lens (or lens system) to Position # 2 such that a sharp image of magnification
less than unity is formed in the image seen through microscope.
Record the position of the lens on the optical rail (reading B).
The difference between the two readings of the bench carriage is position shift parameter
d :
d AB
27 | P a g e
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
Align a mark on the reticle in the measuring microscope with a mark on the image of the
millimeter scale.
Record reading a on the translation stage upon which the measuring microscope is
mounted.
Translate (perpendicular to the rail) the measuring microscope through a known number
of divisions (of separation h) on the image of the millimeter scale.
Record reading b on the translation stage upon which the measuring microscope is
mounted.
M1
a b 2
h
Note that :
h'1
or
h
M 1M 2 1
M2
a b 2
h
h' 2
h
The focal length of the lens or lens system is now calculated using the expression:
d
M 2 1 M 2
or
1 M 1 M 1
For the lens, compare your result with that calculated by the auto collimation technique
and with the curvature measurements obtained with the Geneva gauge.
28 | P a g e
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
29 | P a g e
Discussion:
Based only upon the uncertainty of your measurements, what is the estimated accuracies (in %)
for the focal lengths measured by the two techniques?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discuss the trade of between accuracy and time consumption between the two techniques?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How does the accuracy of the performed experiments compare with the focal length
measurements using the Genever gauge and the auto-collimation methode?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
30 | P a g e
Theoretical background:
For a single lens, we can find the image using principal rays as sketched below or by using the
thin lens equation,
F
/ .
For two or more lenses, the image produced by one lens just becomes the object for the next:
and
, where,
31 | P a g e
A Keplerian telescope uses a positive objective along with a positive ocular (eye lens), producing
.
inverted images. Here, | | | | (in contrast to the compound microscopes where
In this case, for both object at infinity (distant object) and image at infinity (relaxed eye), the lens
(infinite conjugate or afocal configuration), where both focal
separation is given by
lengths are positive.
As the object is at infinity, we describe performance in terms of angular magnification:
Galilean telescopes use positive objectives along with negative oculars, producing erect (upright)
images. Again, | | | | and the lens separation is given by,
where fe is negative.
Exit pupils
32 | P a g e
Assuming the objective lens (or an aperture at the position of the objective, forms the aperture
stop (AS) and an entrance pupil (EnP). DEnP and DExP are the diameters of the objective
lens/AS/EnP and the exit pupil (ExP), respectively.
Marginal ray
Principal ray
ExP
DEnP
DExP
Marginal ray
Principal ray
DEnP
DExP
ExP
The respective magnifications are given by:
Angular magnification:
Transverse magnification:
/
/
33 | P a g e
Experimental procedure:
Imaging with a single lens.
Using a fiber light source to illuminate a translucent object, place a
15
focal length lens
at a distance greater than the focal length from the object in order to produce a slightly magnified
image on a screen. Measure the object and image distances and the magnification of the image.
Record these quantities. Sketch the setup with positions of the lens, object and image.
Are the object and image distances, focal length and magnification what you expect? Explain!
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Align an iris on the optical axis, as close as possible to the lens. Observe the image as you
open and close the iris.
What do you observe? Can you explain what you observe?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
34 | P a g e
Calculate the expected position of the final image and the magnification of the complete system.
Do your measurements agree with the calculations?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Compare the quality of the images obtained with the single lens and two lenses. Do you
observe any differences? Why might you expect differences?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
35 | P a g e
36 | P a g e
Now place a diffuse light source to the left of the objective lens and use a screen to locate the
image of the iris. This is the locations of the ExP. Is it where you calculated? Why might the
observed position not be exactly the same as the calculated position?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now remove the light source and screen and observe the object on the wall through the telescope.
Have your partner open and close the iris as you move your eye slowly away from the eye lens
to the position of the exit pupil.
What do you observe when closing the iris while your eye is at the position of the exit pupil?
Contrast this with when your eye is close to the eye lens. How is the image quality affected by
closing the iris?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now place another aperture near the focal plane of the objective lens, between the two lenses.
How does this affect what you see when you look at the image?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Of the two apertures now in the system, which would you say acts as the aperture stop (AS), and
which as the field stop (FS)?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------With FS partly closed, measure the angular field of view of the telescope and the diameter of
/ 0.
the FS. Compare this to the value calculated using
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
37 | P a g e
Replace the
15
eye lens with a
2.5
lens, again ensuring that the lens spacing
is approximately the sum of the focal lengths. Try to keep the field stop in the same position and
with the same diameter. Adjust the lens spacing so that you can observe the object again. What
do you see now? Is the field of view altered?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What is the calculated angular magnification of this telescope?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Can you suggest a way to measure the angular magnification experimentally?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Where is the exit pupil for this telescope? If the AS is 2 cm in diameter, what is the diameter of
the exit pupil?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38 | P a g e
After again adjusting the lenses so that you can see the object on the wall through the telescope,
describe what you see. Compare this Galilean telescope with the Keplerian telescope of the
same magnification.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Calculate the position of the exit pupil. How does the position of the exit pupil affect the usability
of this telescope?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The FS cannot be placed in the Galilean telescope. Measure the angular field of view of the
telescope and discuss what controls this field of view.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
39 | P a g e
Discussion:
How would you design a telescope to be used in low-light conditions?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Compare and contrast the Keplerian and Galilean telescopes. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each? Suggest where you might find application for each one.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Based on your observations, how do the AS and FS affect the quality of the image?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40 | P a g e
The variation of the refractive index of optical materials with the light wavelength is called
dispersion.
Due to dispersion, the angle of refraction at an interface between two optical materials (Snells
Law) will vary with wavelength.
An optical spectrum is produced upon refraction.
2.0
Blue
Red
1.5
Red
Red
Blue
Blue
The refractive index of a material is typically specified for a few selected wavelengths that
correspond to spectral lines associated with specific elements.
It is common to use the C (red 656nm), d (yellow 588nm), and F (blue- 486nm)
spectral lines to characterize the dispersive properties of the medium.
nF-nC
nF
nd
nC
nd-1
nd-nC
1.0
F
-
Vd
nd 1
nF nC
41 | P a g e
The ideal image is when a point source in the object plane is mapped to a point in the image
plane. Due to dispersion of the lens, different colors of light from the same point in the object
maps into different locations in the image planes. This unwanted effect is called chromatic
aberration.
1
1
KF
L' F L
Yellow
Blue
Red
1
1
KC
L 'C L
L'F
L'd
L'C
K
Kd
L' d2 d
V
V
K n 1C1 C 2
n 1
Kd
nd 1
n nF
L' F L'C L'C L' F C
nd 1
K d
42 | P a g e
Achromatic doublet:
-
An achromatic doublet is two lenses (in contact) made with different glasses
(different V numbers).
The powers at the center wavelength of each lens are selected such the total
power of the system is unchanged:
K d K d ,1 K d ,2
-
The V numbers for the glass of each of the two lenses are selected such that:
Kd ,1 Kd ,2
0
Vd ,1 Vd ,2
-
The chromatic aberrations will be eliminated at two wavelengths (lines F and C) while
maintaining the element power.
Those two wavelengths will be focused at the same spot, but other wavelengths will not.
The residual chromatic aberration is called a secondary spectrum.
Secondary
spectrum
Image
point
Blue
Red
43 | P a g e
Experimental:
Qualitative observation of chromatic aberration:
Use a white light source and spatial filter assembly (excluding pinhole) to illuminate the
clear aperture lens provided as shown.
With a singlet lens (Plano-convex Lens: Edmund Catalog No. 32975. (F~150mm)) used as
the test lens, observe and study the effects of longitudinal chromatic aberration upon the onaxis image of a point source of white light.
Note the colored images produced by the (uncorrected) lens as you observe the image
through-focus.
For comparison repeat using an achromatic doublet (Doublet: Newport No. PAC 086.
(F~150mm)
First look at the doublet lens itself. Can you see two parts that are glued to each other?
44 | P a g e
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
Do you observe any transverse chromatic aberration for the singlet and doublet?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Helpful hint: By using an iris right before the lens and an aperture diameter down to
approximately 10-15 mm effects of spherical aberration can be drastically reduced.
45 | P a g e
Replace the spatial filter assembly source with a monochromator (minichrom) as shown above.
Place a mask over the test lens to only allow two small pencils of light through the lens.
Place a knife-edge on a two-axis translation stage as shown in the set-up above.
Image the monochromator output slit with the test lens.
Make sure the system is aligned to minimize the effects of off-axis aberrations.
The focal length (at the reference wavelength of 550 nm) of both the plano-convex lens and the
doublet test is F=150 mm.
Focus the measuring microscope upon the back vertex of the lens and record its position A on
bench.
Determine the location of the image by positioning the knife-edge such that it cuts through the
two pencils of light uniformly (precisely at the crossover point).
Record the reading on the translation stage that is holding the knife-edge and moves along the
direction of travel a(550 nm).
Focus the microscope on the knife-edge and record the new microscope position as B.
Determine the image location L' for the middle wavelength (550 nm) from: L' A B ,
where is the directional distance from the back vertex of the lens to the rear principle plane of
the lens.
Measure the difference in image location L' (relative to L at 550 nm) for 8-10 different
wavelengths spanning the visible spectrum (400 nm-700 nm). The wavelength can be varied by
turning the dial on the monochromator.
Measuring the longitudinal chromatic shift is done as before by positioning the knife-edge such
that it cuts through the two pencils of light uniformly (precisely at the crossover point).
46 | P a g e
Record the translation stage reading a() for each wavelength. This again is the position of the
translation stage that is holding the knife edge.
Measure a() several times, and average, for each wavelength. Now L' ( ) is given by either
L ' ( ) a ( ) a (550 nm ) or L ' ( ) a (550 nm ) a ( ) , depending upon the direction in
which the translation stage is moved.
Clearly L' ( ) is positive (negative) if is greater than (less than) 550 nm.
Calculate and plot the relative longitudinal chromatic aberration L' / L' as a function of
wavelength.
Record your notes here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
47 | P a g e
48 | P a g e
Discussion:
Define and briefly discuss chromatic aberration.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
How well does the achromatic doublet used in this experiment correct longitudinal chromatic
aberration (reduction factor in L' / L' from that of the simple lens) over the spectral range
0.42 < < 0.65 and for the spectral range 0.47 < < 0.65?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
49 | P a g e
Theoretical background:
Polarization is a property of waves that can oscillate with more than one orientation at a given
plane. In most cases, electromagnetic waves, such as light, and gravitational waves are
transverse waves that exhibit polarization. The polarization (the electric field) is perpendicular to
the wave's direction of travel. In contrast, sound waves in a gas or liquid are longitudinal waves
that do not have polarization because the medium vibrates only along the direction in which the
waves are travelling.
By convention, the polarization of light is described by specifying the orientation of the wave's
electric field at a point in space over one period of the oscillation. The polarization state of a field
is described by the shape traced by the instantaneous electric field vector or in a fixed plane by
the electric vector as time change (the plane wave passes over it).
For a wave of angular frequency propagating in the z direction in a uniform medium, the electric
field is of the form:
E E 0 x cos( kz t x ) x E 0 y cos( kz t y ) y
In general, the shape traced by the electric field in a given plane is an ellipse
E y2
E x2
Ex E y
2 cos
2 sin 2
2
E0 x Eoy E0 y
E0 x
Ey
with y x
The radii (a, b) and orientation angle of the ellipse
are given by:
Ex
with
tan 2
2E0 x E0 y
E 02x E 02y
cos .
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Special cases:
Linear polarization:
The electric field is oriented in a single direction when the two field components are in
phase.
x y
tan E 0 y E 0 x ; a
E 02x E 02y ;
b0
Circular Polarization:
The electric field rotates on a circle as the wave travels when the two field components
are equal and are quarter wave out of phase.
E0 x E0 y E0
y x 2
a b E0
Elliptical Polarization:
Experimental:
Align your laser beam and
establish your optical axis
along the rail:
As shown in the
picture
(left),
the
HeNe laser will be
mounted off the rail
and
two
steering
mirrors will be used to
guide the beam along
the rail (optical axis).
The HeNe laser as well as the two steering mirrors will be mounted on moveable magnetic
bases.
Be sure to account for the height of the optical elements on the rail before beginning
alignment. Once your height has been established, you can adjust the height of the laser
and mirrors accordingly and begin to adjust the steering mirrors to establish the optics
axis.
Remove everything from the rail. Mount one iris along one of the center screws on a
carriage and bring the carriage to the front of the rail (close to mirror 2) and lock it in place,
adjust the height of the iris to the height that you have pre-determined for your setup. Now
place a second iris on a second carriage, adjusting the height of the iris to the predetermined height as well. Place this second iris at the back of the rail.
51 | P a g e
Your beam should be roughly guided along the optical rail, although it will not be going
straight along the optical axis. To establish the optical axis, use mirror 1 closest to the
laser source to align the beam through the first pinhole.
Use mirror 2, the one furthest from the source, to guide the beam through the second iris.
Note, when you adjust the second the mirror, you will lose your placement of the beam
through the first iris. However, through an iterative process of adjusting mirror 1 to align
the beam through the closest iris, and adjusting mirror 2 to align the beam through the
furthest iris (walking the beam), you can establish the optical axis.
Set the rotary mount to 90 (transmission axis horizontal), then rotate the polarizer to
obtain a maximum signal on the laser power meter. Make sure the beam is centered on
the power meter sensor.
Record the position of the rotary mount and calculate the orientation angle. (record on
next page)
Record the power meter reading, Pmax (proportional to irradiance of beam). (record on next
page)
Rotate the linear polarizer 90 and record the power meter reading, Pmin, for the orthogonal
polarization. (record on next page)
Pmin / Pmax .
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Record your notes and data here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
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Set polarizer 1 to the rotation angle of maximum transmission. Add polarizer 2 to the path of
the laser beam and study the effect of its rotation on the beam. Measure and plot on the next
page the transmitted power for every 10 degrees of rotation of polarizer 2. (record on next
page)
Find the exact angle of the polarizer 2 for which the laser beam power is at a minimum. (record
on next page)
In how many locations per rotation can you see a minimum in transmitted power? Can you
justify the number?
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Now rotate the first polarizer by 10 degrees from the minimum transmitted power position.
Find the angle of rotation for the second polarizer that minimizes the output for this situation.
(record on next page).
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Predict the relation between the rotation angles of the first and second polarizers.
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Record your notes and data here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
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Rotate the first polarizer to the maximum transmission position and insert a half-wave plate
between the two polarizers with a 45 angle relative to the axis of polarizer 1.
Propose a set-up that enables you to determine the orientation and the ellipticity of the
beam and sketch this experiment on the opposite page.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
What are the orientation and the ellipticity of the beam leaving the half-wave plate?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Repeat the experiment using a quarter-wave plate instead of the half-wave plate.
What is the orientation and ellipticity of the beam?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
From this data explain how wave-plates change the state of the polarization.
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Record your notes and data here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
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Discussion:
In the absence of marking on the polarizer, suggest a method of telling whether the beam
transmitted through the polarizers is vertically or horizontally oriented?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sketch and describe an experiment that you would propose to determine the handedness
(direction or rotation) of an elliptically polarized beam.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.) X claims that she put either of the waveplates in the set-up and for a specific rotation angle,
she observed no change in the polarization state of the beam. Is that possible? Draw a diagram
that shows the polarization of the input beam and the orientation of the waveplates in this case?
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Theoretical background:
Youngs double slit experiment:
a: Slit separation
D: Distance from slits to screen
S: Slit width
For D >> a with tan
For D >> a << 1 tan
sin
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Experimental:
Youngs double slit experiment:
This is the classic experiment that demonstrates interference of light and its diffraction. The light
(= 632.8 nm) that passes through two slits, diffracts and interferes to generate a substantially
different pattern in the far-field. The set-up of the experiment is shown below.
For an aperture with the width of S, how far from the aperture can you see the Fraunhofer
diffraction?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Observe the interference/diffraction pattern of various double-slits (4 pairs of slits on one slide)
on a cardboard placed near the end of your optical rail.
Measure (several times) and record (on the next page) the distance between the slit and
the screen.
For the first set of slits measure (several times) and record (on the next page) the envelope
of the diffraction pattern to estimate the slit widths. Compare it to the nominal width.
For the first set of slits measure (several times) and record (on the next page) the fringe
spacing (period) of the diffraction pattern to estimate the slit separation. Compare it to the
nominal slit separation.
Now use the slit pair #2 with the larger slit separation and repeat the experiments of point
two and three. Do you observe any changes besides different measurement values?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Now repeat the experiments of point two and three use slit pairs #3 and #4 that have larger
slit widths.
Record your notes and data here. (Include your set-up and measurement data)
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For large patterns, the far-field occurs further away from the aperture. One way to bring the farfield closer to the object, is to use a Fourier transform lens. In your classes you will learn/have
learned that because of its shape, a lens adds sufficient phase to the wavefront to bring the farfield into exactly the focal point.
Use the set-up below to get the far-field, hence the diffraction pattern of a larger double slit at the
focal point of the lens.
Move a piece of paper from the slit slide to the lens and from the lens to some distance away to
observe transition from near field to far-field. Describe your observation.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Record images of the diffraction pattern for the various double slits on the slide. Compare these
to the diffraction patterns observed without the Fourier transform lens.
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Discussion:
What is the role of the iris in this experiment?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------This experiment is one of the few ways to measure the wavelength of light in absolute terms
without using any known reference. Estimate the accuracy that can be achieved for such a direct
measurement of the wavelength of light.
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Theoretical background:
Aperture diffraction occurs when light passes through small openings, such as slits or pinholes.
The amount of diffraction is directly related to the size of the aperture; smaller apertures will result
in greater diffraction. The diffraction patterns depend on the aperture shapes. If multiple closely
spaced apertures are present interference effects will shape the observed diffraction patterns.
Experimental:
Rebuild the set-up below that you used last week to observe the far-field diffraction pattern of a
double-slit. The trick is again to use a lens (Fourier transform lens) to bring the far-field
(Fraunhofer diffraction) to a distance close to the object. Before placing the lens, observe the
transition from Fresnel to Fraunhofer diffraction as light travels away from the object slide. All
pictures taken should be collected in Appendix to Lab# 8 and printed at the end of class.
Observe and record the diffraction patterns of small and large single slits (from near field to farfield) as well as circular apertures (small and large pinhole). Collect pictures of in Appendix to
Lab# 8. Note how Fraunhofer diffraction patterns scale with aperture size.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Observe and photograph the near field and far-field diffraction patterns of a small hexagon and
square. Again note the symmetry and add pictures to Appendix to Lab# 8.
65 | P a g e
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Observe and photograph the Fraunhofer diffraction patterns of circular, rectangular, triangular,
parallelogram, and semi-circular apertures. Add pictures to Appendix to Lab# 8. Note the
symmetries. Comment on the aspect ratio of Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of rectangular aperture
relative to aspect ratio of the aperture itself.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Can you find features of both the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern from a circular aperture and a
rectangular aperture in the pattern of the semi-circular aperture?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Compare the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of the triangle with that of the hexagonal aperture.
Can you explain the differences in the nature of the diffraction flares?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Observe the effect, upon the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern, of a narrow rectangular obscuration
across the diameter of a circular aperture. Speculate upon the reduction of the peak irradiance
from that without the obstruction. Observe the effect of telescope secondary mirror spiders upon
the image of a star (3 spiders and 4 spiders).
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66 | P a g e
Theoretical background:
a sini sinm m
a : Grating period
i : Incident angle
m : Diffraction angle
m : Diffraction order
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3. Littrow configuration:
The Littrow configuration is a special geometry, in which the blaze angle B is chosen such that
diffraction angle and incidence angle are identical. For a reflection grating, this means that the
diffracted beam is back-reflected into the direction of the incident beam (blue beam).
In this case the grating equation simplifies to:
2d sinm m
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Experimental:
Set-up the experiment according to the sketch above using a HeNe laser ( = 632.8 nm)
an iris and blazed holographic diffraction grating #1.
Rotate the grating to find the angle at which the zero order is reflected back into the
direction of the incident beam and determine the blaze angle B .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Rotate the grating until the Littrow condition is satisfied for the +1 order. Record the
position of the rotary stage and calculate 1 .
Repeat for the 1, +2, and -2 diffracted orders and calculate -1, 2, and -2 .
Calculate the grating period for each diffraction order measurement using the grating
equation.
Average the result for the grating period and calculate the average number of groves per
millimeter of the diffraction grating.
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Discussion:
Name several applications of diffraction gratings, not all involving their dispersive properties.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Name at least two different techniques for manufacturing diffraction gratings and comment upon
their relative advantages and disadvantages.
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Theoretical background:
a sini sinm m
a : Grating period
i : Incident angle
m : Diffraction angle
m : Diffraction order
Thus the following question arises: how does the diffraction pattern transitions between that of
the double slit and a typical grating pattern when the number of slits is successively increased?
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Experimental:
Prepare the following set-up to observe the diffraction of multiple slits (slide no. 9165c). Notice
that since the spacing between the slits is very small, the far-field pattern is at reasonable distance
from the aperture slide. Therefore, there is no need for a Fourier transform lens.
Iris
laser
Piece of paper
Multiple slit
slide
translation
stage
Rail
Observe the interference patterns produced by two, three, four, and five equally
spaced slits of finite width and sketch them on the next page.
What are the similarities and differences of these interference patterns with the
double-slit interference pattern?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As the number of slits increases, how does the peak and width of each of the lobes
evolve?
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Can you predict what would be the diffraction pattern of a slide with 100 slits of the
same spacing and width as the above one?
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Diffracted Orders
Grating
m = -1
m=0
m = +1
Wall
O pti ca
l Benc
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Replace the multiple-slit slide of Fig. 9.1. with the transmission grating slide #1.
Using a He-Ne laser (= 632.8 nm) at normal incidence onto the transmission grating,
determine the diffraction angle of the first few diffracted orders by measuring their
displacement from the zero order on the observation screen, and the distance of the screen
from the grating.
The diffracted angle is then given by the angle whose tangent is the ratio of those two
distances.
tan
Hint: In order to mitigate errors related to the fact that the grating is not precisely
perpendicular to the beam, measure the distance between the +1 and -1 diffracted orders
and divide by two. Likewise measure the distances between the +2 and -2 orders, and +3
and -3 orders, etc.
Calculate the grating period from the grating equation and estimate the experimental error.
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Discussion:
Compare your results with the expected values for lines per mm.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------How does the diffraction pattern change when a laser with a shorter wavelength of about 500 nm
is used?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Discuss and compare advantages and disadvantages of transmission and reflection gratings that
might be important for specific applications.
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Theoretical background:
A list of important low-order monochromatic aberrations and their effect on images are given on
the next page.
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O'
Reference
Sphere
Wavefront
Reference
Sphere
O'
Wavefront
Spherical Aberrations:
Rotational symmetric aberration
characterized by a variation of the
focal position with the radial zones
of the beam.
Field
curvature
Field Curvature:
A flat object normal to the optical
axis is not a flat image plane.
O'
Object
plane
Image
plane
Distortion:
A rectangular grid would be imaged
with a barrel (positive) or
pincushion (negative) shape
Coma:
Variation of image location and
size with zonal radius in the pupil.
Astigmatism:
Cylindrical deformation of the
wavefront resulting in two line foci
located at different planes.
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Experimental:
Qualitative observation of spherical aberration
Spherical aberrations which are characterized by variation of the focal position with the radial
zones of the beam are always present (no clear focal point, but focal line). In order to observe
other type of aberrations, spherical aberrations need to be minimized in order to have a
reasonably well defined focal plane. This is achieved by reducing the beam size to reduce
spherical aberrations (more paraxial rays). However, the smaller size beam will have more
pronounced diffraction.
Set up equipment as shown above. Use a HeNe laser as the light source.
Make sure the beam is aligned parallel to the optical bench as you will need to observe
image over a long focal range.
Remove the spatial filter and make sure the heights and axial positions of all other
elements is correctly aligned.
On the spatial filter carriage orient a translation stage so that propagation is perpendicular
to the optical axis.
Mount the spatial filter assembly and screw a 20x microscope objective into its holder in
the assembly.
Adjust the height of the spatial filter assembly so that the laser light propagates through
the center of the objective.
Insert the pinhole in the focal plane of the objective so that light is transmitted through it.
Now fine adjust the position of the objective relative to the pinhole, using the micrometer
screws built into the spatial filter assembly, until you get a large beam that exits from the
pinhole. You might also have to adjust the position of the pinhole to center it on the focused
beam. Be very precise during this process as this is a tedious step.
Once you have a large beam exiting the pinhole place your collimating achromatic doublet
lens at a position on the rail so that the beam is collimated after passing through the lens.
Your beam should be very uniform.
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Use an iris after the doublet lens to limit the size of the beam.
On a new carriage mount a rotational stage, a post holder and a plano-convex test lens.
Use the test lens to image the point source (pinhole), using the proper orientation of the
lens (curved side facing the incident uniform beam) for minimum spherical aberration.
Reduce the size of the iris diaphragm (stop down) to approximately 1cm diameter.
Setup a new carriage with two translation stages to allow for x and y translation. On this
carriage mount your CCD fixed with a 10x microscope objective.
Position the CCD camera to observe and record images. The CCD camera must be
plugged into the computer with a USB cable. Open the viewing program on your desktop
titled uEye.
If your image is to bright adjust the laser light intensity using one or two polarizers.
Align the test lens to get a rotationally-symmetric image (no off-axis aberrations).
Observe the image noting alternating bright and dark spots on axis. Reduce the size of
the pinhole to make this more evident.
Measure and record the axial distance, d, between the 1st two dark spots on either side
of paraxial focus.
Record images at several focal positions with CCD camera for printing an attachment to
the lab notebook.
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Spherical Aberrations:
Open up the aperture to substantially increase spherical aberration, and again observe
through focus image. Note symmetry (or lack thereof) about best focus.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Can you readily discern the soft and the hard side of best focus? Can you locate the
paraxial focus?
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Record images at several focal positions with CCD camera for printing an attachment to
the lab notebook.
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Astigmatism:
Repeat the observations and recordings for tilting the lens by 20 degrees.
Can you determine the focal position that produces the circle of least confusion?
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