HSC STUDY BUDDY

National Study- India 1919-1947

1. Gandhi and Nationalism in the 1920s
Political, economic and social issues in India in 1919
Nature of Satyagraha
- Weapon of the strong. Admits no violence under any circumstances and always insists upon the
truth, patience and self-suffering
Economic Issues
- Economic situation- propagating an atmosphere of unrest and discontent
- Context
- Post WWI- inflation rapidly increasing
- Monsoon failure of 1918-1919- hit farmers
- Those that were less well off were outraged by the ability of a few Indians to make large
fortunes
- Middle class- caught between high cost of living and their fixed incomes
- Merchants- faced the possibility of decreases in their high wartimes profits- need
for materials failing
- Working class- likely to lose their war bonuses
- Untouchables- particularly difficult- shortages of food and other basic necessities
- Spanish Influenza
- Affection society with thousands of deaths
- Fundamental changes to the economic makeup of India
- British influence
- Met with opposition
Social and Political Issues
- Indian longing for Home Rule- after WWI
- Khilafat Issue (Illustrated the Nature and impact of Nationalism- Reasons for the Growth
and Impact of Nationalism)
- Muslim wants
- Result of the defeat of Turkey- Muslims fearful of what wold happen to their holy
places in the Middle East
- Wanted the Sultan of Turkey (despite defeat) should retain power to defend the
faith
- Remain guardian of Islams holy places
- Ali brothers- realised that Gandhi could deliver their cause a considerable measure
of All-India support
- Anxious to maintain Gandhis position as the Hindu leader of the Khilafat
movement
- Gandhis role
- Issue of Hindu-Muslim unity
- Opportunity for India to rise above the politics of separate communities and
establish a national political movement
- Demonstrate to the British their ability to work together in the interest of an
independent India
- Propelled Gandhi to the forefront of National politics- Non-cooperation campaign
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- Problems
- Khilafat movement embraced violence- while Gandhi was a strong advocate from
non-violence
- Muslims regarded this as foolish
- Restlessness grew
- Rowlatt Bills (Illustrates the changing nature of imperialism, the nature and impact of
nationalism and the differing views of democracy)
- The Defence of India Act, 1919
- Under the act- India had been given social powers in regards to anti-terrorism
legislation
- Suspended civil liberties
- Indians did have have human rights
- The Media was censored
- Power of provincial governors to imprison suspected terrorists without trial
- In any area of India notified as subversive to the British
- The government should be authorised to take action and impose martial law
- Laws effected very few Indias
- Most of Indias population were peasants (could not read or write)
- Problems
- Committees proposal- attempt to prolong the governments wartime
powers
- Indian politicians strongly against
- Argued that terrorist acts were isolated and did not justify
powers to impose restrictions on the whole country
- British misuse of power
- Implementation of the Rowlatt Bills
- Gandhis opposition to the Bills- Satyagraha campaign
- Hartal- An effort to discover, discern, obtain or apply the truth
- British governments bemused by the concept
- Stated that the laws deprived the people of their God given right of
free expression, thus breaking the law of God
- The Hartal (A campaign of resistance and an event showing the nature and impact of
nationalism)
- Gandhis dream
- the idea came to me in a dream, that we should call upon the country to
observe a general hartal
- Planning
- With a lack of forethrough- Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal, 6th April
- How the hartal was to be obserced by local leaders- Gandhi gave
them no guidance
- Informed the Viceroy that he would start recruiting signatories if the
government did not chnage its position
- Indian oposition
- Opposition from many senior Indian political figues
- Saw Gandhi as a naive Gujarati upstart, playing with fire by
trying to mobilise the masses
- Many disciples who were committed to non-violence
- Troubled by the idea of using satyagraha against measures
designed to contol terrorism
- The Hartal
- Mass confusion
- Delhi, March 30th

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- Started a week early

- Crowds clashed with police and troops
- Mistaken belief that 2 of their numbers had been
arrested
- Police swung steel-tipped tathis
- 6th April
- Response poor in Calcutta and Bengal
- Bombay- 4/5th of shops closed
- The Amritsar Massacre (Event showing the changing nature of imperialism and the
nature and impact of Satyagraha)
- Sir Michael ODwyer
- About to retire after 6 years as a Lieutenant
- Relish the prospect of a final showdown before he left
- Ordered armed police onto the streets of Lahore and Amritsar
- News of Gandhis arrest
- ODwyer issued an exclusion order banning him from the Punjab- Gandhi
taken off the train and arrested
- News spread thought the city- protesters began taking to the streets
- Punjab- Mob soon out of control in full-scale riots
- Attacking any Europeans they saw
- Burning down government buildings
- Cutting telegraph wires
- Looting houses and shops
- Murdering British police sergeant
- Graffiti- Kill all Europeans. Murder them wherever they are
found
- Context of the Amritsar Massacre
- Beginning of Hartal in Lahore
- Began peacefully but protests began heading towards the civil lines
- ODwyer feared an invasion of the European quarter
- Sent troops out to dive them back behind the walls
- Students explained that their intentions were entirely
peaceful and that they only wanted to show their
sorrow at Gandhis arrest
- Police opened fire
- Crowd advancing through the city
- Indian version- Crowd was sorrowing and peaceful
- Men had removed Turbans and shoes in tradition sign of
mourning
- British version- saw crowd as a menacing mob
- Had thrown off its turbans- ready for battle
- 40,000 men- mood of excitement and aggression
- Troops opened fire- 4 people killed
- Mob of fury
- A mass of destruction- headed to the heart of the city
- 5 European men killed
- Attack on a white woman
- Seen as being sacred
- Beaten and left for dead
- Arrival of General Dyer
- Classic product of the Raj- attitude made ODwyer look like
a watery liberal
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- Enforcement of the crawling orders

- All Indians reguardless of age or status who passed
along the street where Miss Sherwood had been
attacked- forced at bayonet to crawl on their bellies
- Platform erected
- Selected Indian men who might have been
involved in the attack were publicly flogged
- Gandhi Response
- Gandhi was mortified after reading the reports from the Punjab
- Blamed himself- described as a Himalayan miscalculation in
asking the people to disobey the law before they were properly
prepared for satyagraha
- Acknowledged that a great deal needed to be done in
educating the people before it could be safely used as a
mass weapon
- Impact of Gandhi
- Gandhi had established himself as a national figure with his own political
platform
- Poised to challenge the existing order at all levels
- Political leaders still did not know what to make of him or how his
idiosyncratic ideas could be harnessed
- Success of the campaign
- Showed India that there was an alternative to the kind of politics that had
been practiced for decades without result
- Represented a turning point of modern India
- Destroyed any moral justification that the British might have
claimed for their presence in India
- The Hunter Committee- Investigate the recent disturbances in Bombay, Delhi and the
Punjab- (An event indicating the change nature of imperialism and the nature and
impact of Nationalism)
- May 1920, concluded that His majestys government repudiates (refuses to accept
or be associated with) emphatically the doctrine of frightfulness upon which
General Dyer based his actions
- Montagu accepted it in its entirety
- A complete violation of the principle of minimum force
- Which remained the prime factor of government policy
- Crawling order offended against every canon of civilised government
- The Morning post- launched a fund to raise money for the man who saved India
- Dyer presented with a jeweled sword
- Inscribed To the Saviour of Punjab
- Gandhi- When a government takes up arms against its unarmed subjects then it
has forfeited its right to govern. It has admitted that it cannot rule in peace and
justice. Nothing less than the removal of the British and complete self-government
could satisfy injured India
- Observed a 24 hour fast on the anniversary of the massacre
- The 1919 Government of India Act- (an event showing the changing nature of imperialism and
differing views of democracy)
- New reforms- Montagu Chelmsford reforms were to be introduced
- After the end of the Rowlatt campaign- review on the administration of India
- Introduction of Diarchy
- Aspected of governments were allocated to elect provincial
assembles (limited home rule)

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- Advance in the constitution of India

- Right to vote severely restricted
- Many important aspects of government still remained in the hands of the British
government- Viceroy + council
- Authority to veto the actions of any province
- Therefore reforms offered very little genuine loosening of British authority
in India
- Executive power remained firmly in the hands of the Viceroy- responsible to the
British parliament
Nature, impact and significance of campaigns of resistance 19191922
Non-Cooperation Campaign 1920-1922
- Nature
- As a result of the inhuman killings at the Amritsar site- Gandhi responded with a policy of
non-cooperation
- He identified the two wrongs which the British government had imposed on the
people of India
- Khilafat issue and the Hunter Commission Report
- Techniques of non-cooperation
- Boycotting British products (swadeshi)
- Refusing to work for British employers
- Pulling children out of British schools
- Refusing the supply the British with services
- Not paying taxes
- No participation in the changes introduced under the Montagu-Chelmsford
reforms- no one stand for eletion
- All titles and honours conferred on Indians by the British were to be given
up
- Congress reaction
- Not finally determined until its annual meeting at Nagpur, 1920
- Overwhelmingly committed itself to a policy of non-cooperation
- Clear that for the first time, the western educated elite of Indian society no
longer predominated
- Impact
- Heavily impacted on the people of India
- Thousands gathered to shout Mahatma Gandhi ki jai
- Gandhi realised that if the British continued to club and jail vast numbers of peaceful
demonstrators- would make the government look like bullies in the eyes on the world
- Campaign appealed to the British conscience
- Impact on the people
- Thousands renounced titles and medal
- Lawyers abandoned their legal practices and left the British court system
- Many students and teachers left the cities to teach literacy and non-cooperation in
the villages
- When Gandhi told audiences that they must not wear foreign clothing- they
applauded
- Stripped off clothing into a pile- Gandhi burned them
- Indians begun to spin and weave their own clothing
- Annual meeting of congress- all but 1 of 6000 delegates dressed in Khadi
- Khadi- opened up opportunities for women
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- By spinning and wearing khadi- women participated in the creation of the

nation
- New era of action
- Gandhi argued that this new era should begin if they were to achieve swaraj
- Actions
- Recruiting men and women for the restructured Congress
- Raising enough money to sustain local Congress committees
- Transform India into a totally self-governing society of peaceful,
harmonious and industrious people
- The arrest of Gandhi
- Issued a pre-trail statement urging the Indian people to course of non-violent noncooperation
- Sentenced to 6 years in prison, released after 2
- Trial for sedition- played a major role in communicating his political
message
- I invite and cheerfully submit to the highest penalty that can
inflicted upon me
- Demonstration of Gandhis strong will and determination to achieve
Home Rule
- Inspired others not to be afraid of jail if it mean pursuing their
national goal
- Significance
- End of the campaign
- Gandhi called off the 1922 non-cooperation movement- after the Chauri Chaura
killings (22 Indian policemen hacked to death and burnt)
- Campaign shaped the growth of Indian nationalism
- Gandhi offered nationalism a prospect of success- in lace of the decades of
an ineffectual constitutionalism and self-destructive terrorism
- Barbara D. And Metcalf
- Argue that as the collapse of Non-cooperation makes clear, the movement
towards independence was not to by marked by a steady unrelenting
Type to enter text
pressure sustained year after year
- The role, ideas and impact of Gandhi
- Roles and Impact
- Spinning Wheel and Khadi- principle of Swadeshi
- Revival of the spinning wheel
- Economic benefits for an impoverished rural people
- Boycott of foreign goods
- Brought self-reliance and hope
- sound of spinning became the sound of freedom
- Gandhi no longer focused on rapid revolutionary changes- but on the slow daily
incremental socioeconomic changes every peasant could bring to his and her life
- Each contributing to Indias eventual Swaraj by hand spinning
- Gandhi- the cloth binds all brothers and sister of India into one, which
purifies and ennobles their soul and will lift them to freedom from the
present life of poverty and bondage

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- Khadi- constructed an India that was united, disciplined and cohesive- for a British
would have previously viewed India as a land of separate communities whose
varied clothing styles announced their unfitness for self rule
- Spinning was a means to self-reliance and self-respect
- In speeches, gandhi reminded people that before the advent of the British,
every village of self-sufficient
- Leader of National Congress
- Able to appeal effectively to the people outside the marrow population of the
educated elite
- Influenced the Congress into accepting his ideas on non-cooperation
- Meant that his role was crucial- affected what action the Indian political
leader took
- Related to the poverty stricken Indian masses
- Through use of symbolism- wearing a dhoti, diet and traveling 3rd class
- Gain independence
- By forcing the British to realise that they had no reason to continue to
occupy India through non-violent means
- Nature and Impact of Satyagraha and Nationalism 1924-1930- social reform initiatives
- After release from prison 1924- Gandhi temporarily withdraw from the nationalist
movement to concentrate on a life of prayer, contemplation and social reform
- Encourages hand spinning and weaving
- Believed that poverty was cased by the introduction of machinery
- Remove prejudice from untouchables
- Improvements in villages
- Cleanliness a feature of his campaign
- Neatly swept streets, uncluttered drains and personal hygiene
- Impact of symbolism
- Chadha- the wearing of khadi was the only visible and tangible tie that bound the
educated elite to the masses
- Used fasting as a form of self-suffering to express his views and concerns with the
public
- Rights for women
- Spoke on problems such as widow marriage, prostitution, divorce, dowries, child
brides and wife beater
- Begun a deliberate appeal to woman to participate in swaraj
- All of India must be involved in order to obtain swaraj- including women of all
casts and religions
- Fasting
- Technique worked very effectively- public cared for Gandhi and would listen to
him if it meant that he would stop fasting
- Used to make the opponent feel guilty about their actions- press attention
- Further events in the 1920s
- The Simon Commission (illustrates differing views of Democracy)
- Britain announced a proposal to advance India towards self-government
- Due to the upcoming British election- feared that the Labour party would
win and allow changes in India to occur more rapidly
- Report on Indias readiness for further progress to self-government
- Commission- only consisted of British MPs
- Congress- boycotted the commission
- Nehru report (differing views of Democracy)
- Establish a committee to draft an alternative proposal to whatever
the Simon commission might propose
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- Demanded Dominion status for India (not complete

independence)
- Suggested the abolition of separate electorates and their
replacement by joint and reserved seats
- Brought back Gandhi to the forefront on Indian politics
- Worked out compromise
- If British granted dominion status- Congress would
accept
- If Britain had not granted it by the end of 1929Congress would opt for complete independence
- British declared that Dominion status was their objective
- Complete independence was declared the Congress
objective
2. Congress and Consolidation in the 1930s
- The Significance of the Salt Satyagraha (An event showing the changing nature of
imperialism, the nature and impact of nationalism and nature and impact of Satyagraha)
Salt Satyagraha
- Second of Gandhis campaigns- The Civil Disobedience Campaign
- Showed the absolute brutality of the British government- received worldwide publicity
- Nature
- Personally and publicly break the salt laws
- Made it illegal for individuals to manufacture salt in India
- Government had a monopoly
- All Indians regarded salt as as absolute necessity in their diet
- Therefore, an attack on the salt laws would have a powerful and
emotional appeal
- Encourage some of his followers to join him in breaking the law
- Only those who had been rigorously schooled in the techniques of Satyagraha
- No violence on the part of the Indians involved
- British government would be seen to be defending he indefensible against the starving
millions of India
- Would not seriously threaten government finances and would not alienate those who
feared a serious struggle with the British
- Introduce many more to Gandhis technique of Satyagraha
- Provide him with an opportunity to educate people
- The Campaign
- Gandhi sent a letter to Irwin to warn him that the civilian insubordination would start
- I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor mans standpoint
- Not a threat- but an invitation for open communication
- Irwin- refused to see him or arrest him
- 12 March, 1930- dressed only in khadi
- Gandhi began his long March to Dandi
- Ashram in Agmedabad to Dandi on the seashore
- Accompanied by 78 carefully selected and trained satygrahis
- 2 untouchables
- 2 Muslims
- 1 Christian
- Marchers stopped in villages

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- Gandhi addressed the people

- Wished to be arrested- believed it would contribute to achieving Home Rule
- Number of marchers grew with every village visited
- Reached the sea- anniversary of the Hartal
- Stooped down and picked up a lump of salt
- Proclaimed that he had made salt an illegal act
- Broadened his campaign
- Prohibition and swadeshi
- Urged students to leave their schools
- suspend your studies and join in the fight for freedom
- Fearful that the movement might die away
- Government arrested more than 60,000 people
- Gandhi arrested- government detained him without a trail and no fixed sentence
- Significance
- Effective because it reached a wide audience- beginning of a social revolution
- Gave Indians the conviction that they could lift the foreign yoke from their shoulders
- Made the British aware that they were crushing India
- Raid on the Dharasana Salt Works
- Naidu- you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows
- Satygrahis approached the salt pans
- Webb Miller- Marchers simply walked forward until stuck down. Not one
of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows. They went down
like ten-pins
- Not enough stretchers to carry off the wounded
- 25 men would advance and sit down
- Police lashed out at the men sitting with their lathis
- Miller- The police commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the
abdomen and testicles
- Impact
- When the Indians allowed themselves to be beaten with batons and rifle
butts and did not cringe- they showed England was powerless and
India invincible
- Changes in British Power: The Round Table Conferences & the Government of India Act
1935 (show the changing nature of imperialism, the nature and impact of nationalism, and
the differing views of democracy)
The Round Table Conferences
- First R.T.C
- Held in London
- Aims
- To discuss ways that Indian self rule could be granted
- Congress- most of its leaders in prison, refused to attend
- Significance
- Shown that peaceful progress could be made
- Irwin realised that without the involvement of Gandhi and Congress- no lasting
solutions were likely to emerge
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact
- Irwin- could not be seen bargaining with Congress but wanted the RTC to succeed
- Decided to release Congress leaders from jail
- Invited Gandhi to hold talks with him
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- From these talks emerged the Gandhi Irwin Pact 1931

- Congress would end Civil Disobedience
- All future negotiations would include Congress
- The future constitution would be federal
- Strong provincial governments with weak central governments
- People living in coastal areas would be permitted to collect salt for their own use
- Second Round Table Conference
- Gandhi- went to London as the sole Congress delegate
- Role not successful
- Muslims did not accept the claim that Congress fairly represented the
Muslims
- Muslims would not accept that reserved electorates would guarantee them
just treatment
- British view (Churchill) was much less sympathetic to Indian ambitions
- Gandhi- I want to turn the truce that was arrived in Delhi, into a permanent
settlement. But for heavens sake give me, a frail man, a little bit of a chance.
- The Communal Award
- A decision confirming separate electorates for Muslims and Untouchables
- Bitter blow to Gandhi- fasted
- Not wanting to be responsible for his death, British relented
- Third RTC
- Tidy up loose ends to satisfy the British Conservatives
- No Congress representatives
- Outcome
- Gandhi resigned from Congress
- Clearly many Indians disagreed with his strict ideals of moral, spiritual and
economic renewal
- Still prepared to resort to violence
The Government of India Act 1935
- Act passed in 1935, final outcome of the Simon Commission and the RTCs
- Responsible government granted to the provinces
- Gave limited emergency power to each provinces governor (appointed by the
British)
- Diarchy retained
- Power share between the Viceroy and two federal assemblies
- Members from the princely states
- Elected members from the provinces of India
- Viceroy
- Retain control over Defence and foreign affairs
- Governors- appointed by British
- Veto powers
- Congress Attitude
- Few delegates
- Very critical- Nehru, branded the act as a charter of slavery
- Regarded at impossibly complicated
- Opposed the weight given to the princely states
- Wanted full dominion status- not to be under British control
- Majority
- Wanted to give it a try
- Civil Disobedience had failed

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- Supported by Gandhi
- The 1937 Elections and the Formation of Congress Ministries (changing nature of
imperialism and nature and impact of nationalism)
- Congress won 716 seats- sweeping victory
- Significance
- Chadha- poor showing by the Muslim League and the attitude of Congress ensured that
the seeds of discord were sown and nurtured, contributing to the countrys partition a
decade later.
4. The Road to Independence and Partition
- The Impact of WWII on Anglo-Indian Relations
- Outbreak of WWII- Indian army 205,000 men
- Grew to be the largest all-volunteer force rising to over 2.5 million
- 1939, Viceroy Linilthgow proclaimed (without consulting any Indian) that India was at war with
Germany
- A meeting was held between over 50 Indian leaders and the Viceroy
- Nehru- India cannot associate herself with a war said to be for democratic freedom when
that very freedom is denied to her
- Viceroy- Dominion status was the goal of the British policy in India and that the Act of
1935 would be open to modification at the end of the war
- Outcome
- All Congress provincial ministries resigned
- Gandhi supported non-violence
- Left governors in charge
- Nehrus proposition
- Demanded recognition of Indian right, which would include independence after the
war
- If the British agreed to this demand, Congress would assist Britains war
effort
- Gandhi resigned from a party now prepared to accept violence
- Jinnah and the Muslim League left in charge- Day of Deliverance
- Lahore resolution, 1940
- Presented the two nations theory
- Demanded that India be partitioned and the areas in which the Muslims are
numerically in a majority should be grouped to constitute Independent
States
- Gandhi opposed resolution
- August 1940 offer
- Faced with the prospect of a German invasion of India- British cabinet offered an
Indianised Executive Council immediately and an Indian Constitute Assembly after the
war to draw up a constitution with regards for minority rights
- Although British virtually conceded to the right of Indians to determine their own
future- Congress was unenthusiastic and rejected the offer
- Despite their concessions, it was obvious that the government would remain
firmly under the Viceroy's council
- Atlantic Charter
- Indian hopes raised when Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter with Roosevelt
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- Promised all peoples the right to live under the governments of their choice after
the war
- Dashed when Churchill made a speech to British parliament expressly
excluding India from the provisions of the Charter
- Japanese declaration of war
- Fall of Singapore and invasion of Burma
- Bose- planned a collaboration with the Japanese
- Gandhi believed that India should remain passive with neutral in the world conflict
- The Cripps Mission
- Roosevelt- impressed upon Churchill the urgent necessity of winning more positive
support for the war effort in India- through new and more generous concessions to
Nationalist demands
- Churchill had no desire to transfer what he regarded as a Brahman oligarchy- but
was in no position to resits American demands
- Dispatched Sir Cripps to India with Cabinets new proposals
- Cripps
- Labour member of the British coalition government
- Friend of Nehru and the Congress party
- Confusion over what he was entitled to offer India in support for the war
- Offered
- Promised India Dominion Status immediately after the war
- Envisaged setting up of an elected constitution making body- fame a
constitution for Indian union
- British cabinet conscious of the importance of retaining the
allegiance of Muslims (during WWII)- provided the possibility for
Pakistan
- Any province in India which wished to remain outside the
Union was free to frame its own constitution and exist as an
independent dominion
- Immediate interim reforms- war time government
- Work under the supervision and control of the Viceroy
- Gandhi and Nehru reaction
- Could not accept the governments long term proposals
- Feared they would eventually lead to the fragmentation of the Indian
Union
- Willing to accept the interim suggestions
- Provided all responsibility for defence was given to an Indian
member of council
- Dismayed by the possibility of a Japanese invasion
- Believed if the Indians had control of defence it would
secure greater Indian participation in the war effort
- Outcomes
- Long and futile negotiations- Cripps was compelled to give up his mission
and return to London
- Congress saw the offer as little too late
- Gandhi- a post-dated cheque of a failing bank
- Increased the atmosphere in India of bitterness and discontent
- Churchill ensured that the Mission achieved nothing
- Satisfied Americans- saw that the British had made a genuine offer
- The Impact of the Quit India Movement

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- Context
- Gandhi noted that the people were in no mood to resist a Japanese invasion
- Believed that the only solution was an immediate declaration of independence
- While the British troops should remain on Indian soil, the British must hand
over the administration
- Believed that given a stake in the defence of their country- the people would rally
behind their leaders and see the country through the crisis
- British refused to grant independence- Gandhi and Congress authorised a civil
disobedience campaign- Quit India
- Gandhis beliefs
- Britain had to leave immediately- not after the war
- India had nothing to fear from the Japanese
- Nehru opposition
- Claimed that there was nothing in the recent Japanese record to
support Gandhis optimistic view
- Gandhi stated that with the British gone, the Japanese would
no longer have any interest in India
- If the Japanese did invade, they should be resisted
with unadulterated non-violent non-cooperation
- 1942, Congress passed the Quit India resolution- committed itself to a non-violent mass
struggle for freedom
- Gandhi determined to gain independence- do or die situation
- we shall either free India or die in the attempt
- Impact
- British were not going to treat any civil disturbances lightly
- War to be fought- trouble in India not tolerated
- Morning after- Gandhi and important Congress leaders in jail
- Resulted in mass demonstrations- government attempted to suppress rigorously
- Imprisoned leaders powerless to control it
- Campaign went through 2 phases
- Period of widespread violence- brutally suppressed
- 6 week campaign fought in the countryside
- Main targets= roads, railways and other limes of communication
- Harshly suppressed
- Last well into 1943, period of terrorism and guerilla warfare
- Created only limited problems for the British
- End of 1943- 1065 killed, 91,836 arrests
- Gandhi begins to fast
- Protesting the government accusations that he was responsible for the violence of
the campaign
- Viceroy offered to release Gandhi for the duration of his 3 week fast
- Gandhi declined- government made secret security arrangements for his
possible death
- Quit India movement was a failure in its attempts to non-violently gain independence
- Gandhi- Jinnah Talks
- Gandhi turn to brother Jinnah to discover whether Congress and the Muslim League
could come to an arrangement- lead the British to revise their attitude
- Brought about hope for the Muslims- believed that it now amounted to Gandhis
acceptance of Pakistan in principle
- Jinnah- understood that he was maneuvering to a position of strength in his talks with
Gandhi
- Had the blessing of the British
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- Saw him as a useful counter-blast to Congress

- Chadha- the fact that these talks took place at Gandhis initiative and at Jinnahs
house indicated that advantage which the Muslim League had acquired while the
Congress was in the wilderness
- Talks lasted 18 days
- Gandhi emphasied that he had come as an individual- representing no one but
himself
- Outcome
- No agreement achieved
- Reasons for and the Nature of Independence
Reasons
- 1945, Congress leaders released and British had to face the question of their role in India
- Churchill realised that the end of the British Raj was in sight
- British public exhausted by the long war- would not accept another period of
repression and bloodshed
- Process of Indianisation- begun by the government before the war
- By 1948- only 3000 civil servants of British nationality would remain in India
- British power and prestige had been diminished by the war
- Viceoy Wavell- in no doubt that the British had to leave India
- Announced that self-government would be granted to India
- British couldn't maintain their prewar imperial power
- Restructure an executive council- equal numbers of Congress and Muslim
League representatives
- Muslim strength= result of the Quit India campaign- Jinnah popular
with the British (helped them when war was going badlyrecruitment and against anti-British demonstrations)
- 1945 elections won by the Labour Party
- New government- committed to granting India independence
- Question of whether it should be granted one state or two?
- Sent cabinet mission to India, 1946
- To find a solution to the difficulties separating the Congress and Muslim
League
- Proposed an end to British rule in India
- Gandhi- my conviction abides that it is the best document
that the British government could have produced under the
circumstances
- Direct Action Day- Gandhi received reports of serious communal disorder in eastern
Bengal
- Mass killings of Hindus, houses burned, temples defiled, women raped
- Neighboring Bihar retaliated by slaughtering thousands of defenseless
Muslims
- Gandhi- decided that his presence was needed in Bengal to personally persuade the
people to abandon violence
- 1947, Atlee announced the British intention of leaving India by June 1948 no matter the
condition of the country
- Mountbatten sent to take over from Wavell as Viceroy- invited Gandhi to New
Delhi for a meeting
- Talked randomly of what interested Gandhi

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- Attempt to the Congress-ML deadlock- Gandhi proposed that Jinnah should

be given the responsibility for running a new India government
- MB- bold, imaginative and splendidly far-fetched
- MB more inclined to listen to Nehru, Jinnah and his own
advisers for political guidance
- Gandhis last efforts to keep the Indian people
unified had failed
- Gandhi- lost his hold over Congress and the masses
- Received hateful and abusive mail- accused of being partial to MuslimsMohammed Gandhi
- Nation not responding to Gandhis plea for peace and brotherhood
- Spent long hours in depressing discussions about the goal of his life,
independent Indias future and the impending partition
- My lifes work is over. Let it not be said that Gandhi was a
party to Indias vivisection
- Moutbatten- announced Britains intention to act more speedily
- Transfered power on 15th August 1947
- Reasons for and the Nature of Partition
Reasons
- Viceroy Linlithgow- The Hindus have made the mistake of taking Jinnah seriously about
Pakistan, and as a result they have given substance to a shadow
- Gandhi-Jinnah talks 1944
- Jinnah insisted that the division of India must precede the British departure
- Gandhi stressed that any division of India must take place by mutual agreement
after the British had left India- not before
- Jinnah was convinced that one the British left, the Hindus would never
agree to the partition of the country- foresaw a civil war
- Executive council/Interim government
- League insisted on parity with Congress and the right to nominate all Muslim members
- Congress would not accept the claim- mean they would have to abandon their own
claims to be a truly national party- not merely Hindu organisation
- The Simla Conference
- 1945- the various parties were summoned to Simla- discuss the future form of Indias
constitution
- Destruction of Hindu-Muslim unity
- Jinnah- no Muslim should be given a place on the [Congress] council
unless he was a member of the League
- Congress president Azad- a Muslim
- Jinnah claimed that Azad was merely a show case president
trundled out by Congress to lay its claim
- Conferences broke down when Jinnah refused to negotiate with a Muslim
who was representing Hindus and Sikhs
- 1946 elections
- Showed a complete polarisation had taken place
- Congress won all general sears
- League won all Muslim seats
- The Cabinet Mission

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- Chadha- Here came British Cabinet ministers, statesmen and diplomates from various
nations, senior members of Indian Civil Service and journalists from all over the world, to
hold conference with Gandhi behind his spinning wheel.
- the Congress-League deadlock remained and there could be no agreed basis for
forming a constitution
- Cabinet warned that mass partition would be a grave danger of violence, chaos and even
civil war
- Viceroy wrote to the king
- We must try leave India united and we must secure the cooperation of the
Congress which represents the great majority of India public opinion,
whatever our view on the past record of that party.
- I also have much sympathy with Jinnah, more positive and more sincere
than most of the Congress leaders; but he overcalled his hand in the end
- Chadha- Soon after the departure of the Cabinet mission, relations between
Congress and the League deteriorated further
- Nehru stated that there would be no grouping of the provinces
- The league withdrew their acceptance of the plan- declared they
would launch a direct action day to achieve Pakistan
- Solution
- An all India union on the old three-tier basis
- The provision that any province would have the powers to opt out of
a group would satisfy the Leagues demand for separate Muslim
zones
- At the same time- preserving the conception of a united India
- Impact
- Jinnah and the League withdrew their acceptance of the constitutional plan
- Insisted that Pakistan was the only solution
- Congress- scraped plan
- Direct Action Day
- Wavell invited Nehru to form an interim government- kept the door open for the League
- He stressed that no one side could bar the nominees of the other
- Jinnah= furious- we have forged a pistol and are in a position to use it
- Jinnah declared a Direct Action Day 1946
- we bid goodbye to constitutional methods.why should I sit with folded hands
- The streets of Calcutta ran with blood
- 5000 + dead, 20,000 serious injured, 100,000 residents homeless
- Chada- Hindu population hit back with parallel fury
- Nehru took office as Prime Minister
- Jinnah declared it a day of mourning
- 2 weeks later- agreed to join the interim government
- More of a tactical nature than a gesture of conciliation
- Finance minister Ali Kahn- made certain that he was able to
obstruct the effective functioning of every department by
arresting funds
- Intended to prove that a unified government was not
practical
- 3rd June- Congress accepted MBs plan for Indias independence and partition
- Punjab and Bengal- divided and parts allocated to India and Pakistan
- Compromises by both parties
- Congress- accepted parition
- League- accepted that Pakistan would not inherit all of the Punjab and
Bengal- a moth-eaten Pakistan

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- 4th June, MB announced Britains intention to act even more speedily- power transfered on the
15th August 1947- British would leave immediately afterwards
- 2 months to divide Indias joint assets between India and Pakistan
- Practical consequences of partition
- Civil service and armed forces
- Railways
- Police and revenue services divided
- Typewriters
- Rupees and pounds
- 50 committees set up to divide up the governments assets- proceeded along 50
different lines
Nature
- 15th August 1947- Britain handed authority over to the two new states
- Bharat and Pakistan
- Great rejoicing- not for Gandhi
- Uncertainty of where the partition lines lay
- Sir Radcliffe- given the task of drawing the boundaries
- Problems
- He had never been to the subcontinent
- Did not know any of its people
- Had no first had knowledge of its culture, economics or history
- Had to work with Census stats which were outdated and unreliable
- Supplied meagre information- believed that some of the information
was falsified by the communal elements on both sides
- Hardly had anytime to do a proper job of the assignment
- Given the enormous task on deciding a boundary that (one chronicle noted) would
divide more than 35 million people, thousands of villages, town and cities and a
people who despite their religious differences shared a common colure, language
and history.
- One will never know his thought process, judgements and discretions that
determine the destiny of two nations
- Insurmountable challenge of creating two homogenous countries which was
perhaps beyond human capabilities
- Religious continuity does not follow geography
- His award satisfied neither the owners of India or Pakistan
- Consequences of partition
- Horrendous for both countries- doubtful that anything Radcliff could have done would
have made a different
- Even the most well crafted border would have provoked the massive population
migrations which resulted
- As mass numbers of Muslims migrated to Pakistan and mass number of
Hindus migrated to India- violence erupted
- Chadha- when Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims all lost sight of reason
and committed atrocities
- 10,000,000 homeless
- 1,000,000 dead
- Fierce communal riots

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PERSONAL NOTES
Indian Independence 1919-47 (National Study)
Introduction- Who was Gandhi

- For most Indians

- Considered at saint, mahatma (great soul)
-Ended 200 years of British colonial rule in India
-Winston Churchill- this half-naked fakir (poor man)
India- Geography & Religion

-Geography
-Very large population- 1 billion
-Not evenly spread
-Areas with extreme populations vs. sparsely populated jungle or desert
- Great heat
- Monsoon rains
- North
- Mountain ranges
- Mount Everest
- Himalayas
-South of Himalayas
-River systems
-Large proportion of the population
-Religion
-Hinduism
-Islam
-Christianity (South)
-Sikhism (Punjab)
-Parsis
-Jews
-Hindu
- 4000 since the Aryan invasion of north India
- 600 million followers
- No single g-d or founder
- No single belief
- Caste system
- Accepted by Indian Sikhs
- Very different from British social class division
- Based in ancient scriptures
- 4 main caste groups (determined by occupation)
-Brahmans, priests
-Kshatriyas, warriors
-Vaishyas, merchants
-Shudras, farmers
-Untouchables, unclean or no caste
-Many sub-castes
-Enter caste at birth, cannot change
-Promotion can only be achieved in a later life by reincarnation
-Must faithfully forfill the duties of ones caste in the previous lifetime
-Gandhi

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-Opposed the oppression based on caste

-Opposed features that gave higher ranked castes privileges which were denied to
lower castes

-Islam
-Muslims came to India, around 1000AD
-20% of population (1881)
-Not evenly distributed across India
-Majority in north west and eastern Bengal
-Founded by the prophet Muhammad
-Must observe the five pillars of Islam
-Profession of faith which is recited at the beginning on prayers
-Worship
-Almsgiving
-Pilgrimage to Mecca
-Fasting
-Holy warfare (jihad, war against nonbelievers)
-Hindus & Muslims
- G-d vs. Many G-ds
- Single set of beliefs vs. endless array
- Get along reasonably well
- Friction on occasion
-Clashed during the end of British colonial rule
-Resulting in the partition of the country in 1947
British conquest and early nationalism

-British as traders
-1660, East India Company founded
-Purpose, trading with the east
-Spice trade
- Portuguese had a trade monopoly
- Dutch and English traders took over
-British as conquerors
-Opportunity to take over from the Dutch
-Mid 18th century
-200 yrs, India ruled by the Mughal Dynasty
-Control declined
-British fortified their trading posts
-Administration and Economy
-British objectives
- Developing an administration and territories they conquered
- Western style administration
- Train network
- Roads
- International economy
-Exploiting economic potential of India
- Increase trade, textile
-India of the Princes
-2 forms of administration
-British India
-Princely India
-Continued to rule over areas not taken over by British
-Rules their territories as Despots (Tyrants)
-Reliant on the British allowing them to keep their authority
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-On condition that they accept British authority

-Allowed British to pursue their conquest of India without having to worry about
the administration of areas left in the hands of the princes

-Indian Mutiny
-May 1857
-Mutiny of Indian troops serving in the British army
-Reasons
-Greased cartridges
-Westernisation
-Insensitive to Indian social and religious practices
-Land reform
-Indian troops to serve overseas
-Loss of caste
-Spread over north India
-British restored authority by March 1858
-E.I.C abolished
-India exclusively ruled by the British crown
-Viceroy
-Council of advisors
-Princes had loyalty to the British during the mutiny, alliance
-Post mutiny, princes were permitted to rule their states
-Beginning of Indian Nationalism
-Nationalism, belief in the unity and independence of a nation
-Slow to evolve, made organised opposition difficult
-Several distinct racial groups
-Diversity of cultures
-Many different languages and religions
-Size of the country
-Variety of landscapes & climate
-Literacy was poor
-90% lived in villages
-Indian National Congress
-Some Indians prospered post Mutiny
-Became educated business men
-Felt entitled to have a say in how their country was run
-A. O. Hume, Englishman
-Started the I.N.C
-Believed the growing Indian middle class deserved more consideration by the British
-Characteristics
-All members educated in a English style system
-Comparatively wealthy
-Engaged in business or associated with
-Concentrated in the main cities
-No Muslims
-Higher castes
-No women
-WW1
-Attempts to loosen British control
-2 Home Rule leagues founded, 1915
-Failure to work together meant their impact was negligible
-Failure of Early Congress
-4 reasons
-British perceived it to be unimportant
-Congress was a narrow movement primarily concerned with the interests of middle-class India

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-Congress members held little appeal for most Indians

-British trained
- Clothing
- Language
- Education
-Received little support from Muslims
-Viewed their activities as dangerous
-Majority rule would mean Hindu rule
-British rule was the lesser of 2 evils
-The Muslim Question
-Muslim leader, Sir Saiyid Ahmad
-India is a community of communities, a long way from seeing it as a single nation
-Saw India as divided therefore no such thing as a single nation covering the whole Indian
subcontinent

-Gandhi
-Opposed to the view of a divided nation
-He believed differences in religion were unimportant
Gandhis Early Life, 1869-1914
-Introduction
-Youngest child of fathers 4th wife
-Caste= Banias
-Trading caste
-Family history of PM of Porbandar
-Modest fortune
-Father became PM of Kathiawar
-Deeply respected and feared his father
-Regarded mother as a saint- very religious and strong common sense
-Arranged marriage at 13
-Gandhis Childhood
-Important aspects
-Banias were traditionally shopkeepers
- Regarded as mean and greedy in India
-Gandhi rose above this reputation completely
-Gandhi came from Gujarat
-Most mobile and considerable trading fortunes
-Willingness to travel overseas
- Religion was a dominant part in Gandhis life
- Roots created
- Grew up as a Hindu
-Early Educational Failure
-1887 finished secondary education
-University to study a bachelor of arts degree
- Failed and withdrew
- Unable to understand what the professors were saying
-Best way to get a head was studying law in London
-Gandhi in London
-1888
-Difficulties
-Vegetarian
-Joined vegetarian society
- English aspects
- Imitated English dress
- Dancing
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- Violin
-Bhagavad Gita
-Teaches renunciation of desire and the material things in the world
-Principals
-Person should remain free from all desire and attachment to worldly things
-Seek in acts of service the good of all humankind, no self-benefit
-Spiritual liberation
-If followed, higher rebirths until finally the human spirit merges in blissful union with g-d
-London society
-Learnt to respect the society
-Trust in British authorities
-Western civilisation
-Developed a concern for the moral and religious weakness of western society
-Enthused abut Englands rich culture
-Education
-Galleries
-Theatres
- it was not with deap regret that I left dear London, Gandhi
-Failure back in India
-Sailed for Bombay, 12 June 1891
-Seen as an outcast for having left India and crossing dark waters
-Barrister in India
-Didnt know anything about Indian law
-When rose to defend client he was unable to think of anything to ask him
-Opportunity in South Africa
-Gujaratis from Porbandar living and trading in South Africa were locked in a major legal dispute
-A case that required no knowledge of Indian law
-Generous payment offered
-Contract for 1 yr
-Train journey
-Humiliating racist experience
-Had a first class ticket
-White person objected to the presence of an Indian in the same carriage
-Expelled from the train after refusing to move
-Indian Franchise Bill
- Natal government intention to introduce a bill to deprive all eligible Indians of the right to vote
- British colony
- 250 eligible to vote
-Most illiterate labourers who had been shipped from India to work on sugar plantations or
mines
- Gandhi saw this as depriving Indians of their political rights
- Mounted a vigourous campaign to stop the bill
- Founded the Natal Indian Congress
- Collected signatures for a petition opposing the bill
- Gained admission as a barrister to the Natal supreme court
-Bill passed 1896
-Gandhi directed his campaign to the Colonial Office in London
-Had the right to veto the law
- Law vetoed on the grounds that it discriminated against another country of the British Empire
- Wording changed but had no effect in changing Indian rights
- Succeeded in arousing interest of congress back in India
- Demonstrated what courage and determination could do against a hostile government
-Fight against further regulations
- Boer War 1899-1902

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- Boers were still independent of the British living in Transvaal

- Gandhi believed it was his duty to the British to help their fight
- Raised an ambulance corps
- Argued his action was consistent with his attitude towards British rule and non-violence
?????
-1901, moved back to India
-Summoned back to SA to fight for Indian rights in the Transvaal (British had recently annexed from
the Boers)
-Set up a law practise in Johannesburg
- The Phoenix Settlement
- Community of several families living together under strict discipline which Gandhi established
- Modelled on an ancient Indian institution called an Ashram (Hindu retreat)
- Published a newspaper, Indian Opinion
-Black Ordinance
- 1906
- Colonial government of Transvaal published the Black Ordinance (regulation) which required
every Indian to carry a certificate and produce it on demand
- Gandhi called meeting at the empire theatre
- Hundreds of angry Indians
- Vowed to reject the certificated
-Might mean imprisonment and destruction of business
-Ended with cheers for King Edward and singing G-d save the queen
-Regarded the British government as an ally against the actions of Transvaals
colonial government
- Gandhi made it clear that there would be no physical violence
-Satyagraha
-The force which is born of truth and love or non-violence, Gandhi
-Method of political protest
-Technique of persuasion based on non-violence
-Development of Satyagraha
-1907, Transvaal was granted self-government by the British
- Black Ordinance regulations were passed
- Gandhi mounted a campaign against registering to receive a certificate
- General Smuts offered to withdraw the Ordinance if the Indians registered voluntarily
- Failed to keep his side of the bargain
- Gandhi burned his certificate
- Issues contested by Gandhi
- Tax levies on all indentured labourers
- Smuts broke his agreement again to repel the tax
- Marriage laws
- Law passed by SA supreme court that marriages performed according to Hindu or Muslim
rites were invalid
- Meant Indian couples were not legally married and their children were illegitimate
- Battles raged for many yrs
- Imprisonment for Gandhi and his followers
- Protest March of Indian coal miners
-Transvaal government used violence to stop them
-World opinion begun to take interest
-The Importance of the South African Phase
-Opinion divided on Gandhis character
-Gandhis stance against racism in SA was a failure
-Did not succeed in eliminating racial prejudice and discrimination
-SA provided him an opportunity to develop personal courage, powers of communication, qualities of
leadership and the principals of satyagraha
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Gandhis Early Campaigns in India, 1914-18

-Returning to India
-Activities in SA had earned him prominence
-Received the title of Mahatma (great soul)
-Joined Congress (I.N.C)
-Unknown in Indian politics
-Remained quiet
-Familiarise himself with the situation in India
-Spoke at the Hindu University College
-Regarded as a serious breach of etiquette
-He related the true state of Indias misery as he saw it
-Challenging the colonial government to do something about it
-Champaran
- District in the extreme north-western corner, border with Nepal
- Rajkumar Shukla wanted Gandhi to come see the serious troubles in this district
-The Problem
-Much of the land had been permanently leased the the British indigo planters
-Used for producing blue dye
- Peasants sub-leased their land from the planters on the tinkathia system
- 3/20ths
- Each peasant was forced to use 3/20ths of his leased land to grow indigo
- Then required to sell the indigo to the planters at a fixed price by the planter
- German invention of a synthetic substitute produce a serious decline of the price of indigo
- Land devoted to its production was cut
-Most British planters sought to maintain their income by increasing the rent for their Indian subtenants

-During WW1 there was a high demand for indigo but the British planters demanded that the peasants
grow more indigo but were keeping the extra profit

-The Satyagraha Campaign

-Gandhi toured Champaran
-Enquired into the conditions
-Meeting with the Morshead (British commissioner)
-Indicated that he was not prepared to accept assurances that peasant grievances were receiving
attention

-Morshead decided that he had an agitator on his hands

-Instructed Heycock (district magistrate) to serve a notice to Gandhi to leave the district
-Gandhi appeared before Heycock
-Acknowledged his guilt in satyagraha style
-Invited the magistrate to imprison him since he refused to leave
-Haycock was perplexed by such peculiar behaviour
-Postponed judgement until he contacted his superiors
-Provincial government (Sir Edward Gait) made it clear that he strongly disapproved of
Morsheads action
-Created conditions of which Gandhi was known to thrive
- Official Committee of enquiry
- Place reserved for Gandhi
- Hoped that while Britains attention was turned to Europe for WW1 he could push through
controversial issues without much opposition
-Champaran impact on Gandhi
-Brought him into contact with peasants of India
-Showed him that truly effective communication lay in wearing their traditional clothing, speaking
their language and sharing in their way of life
-No Indian politician had ever done this
-Allowed him to bring satyagraha to India

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-Made it clear to the Indian government that the issue in Champaran had to be dealt with via
satyagraha
-Showed weaknesses within satyagraha
-When Gandhi left no one stayed on to bring about long-term changes in the society after
victory was won

-Karia
-People uninterested in gaining home rule- more in the condition of their crops and cost of living
-By 1912 crops had been poor and cost of living rose
-Crisis
-Satyagraha campaign
- 2 stage affair
- Appeals to the government (Dec 1917- March 1918)
- Satyagraha (March- June 1918)
- Gandhi acquired new followers
- Under Gandhi
- Peasants refused to pay tax on grounds were harvest had been poor
-Government gave orders for mamlatdars (tax collectors) to seize possessions and
crops

- Government called off the mamlatdars not to force payment by the peasants
-Only provided a compromise and not a victory (according to the govt)
-Strengthened Gandhis ties with the peasants
-Only Gandhi was able to live as one of the people and use language the ordinary person
would be able to understand

-Satyagraha in Ahmedabad
-Indian cotton mill owners
-1918
-Locked out all their workers when they refused to accept the withdrawal of a bonus which had
perviously been paid to keep them on the job after a recent outbreak of the plague
-Gandhi conducted satyagraha against the mill owners
-Won the workers an increase in their wages
-Significance
-Used not only against the British but to target Indians
-Gandhi fasted, mill owners frightened he would die, gave in
-Debate weather this method was compatible to with satyagraha method
-Gandhis Recruitment Campaign
-1918, tested the loyalty of Gandhis followers
-Gandhi felt that it was his duty to help the empire in its time of need (WW1)
-Became a recruiter for the army, persuade men to enlist
-Revealed the inconsistencies in his thinking concerning non-violence
Rowlatt and Khilafat 1918-1920

-The Rowlatt Bills (Black Laws)

-During the war in the Indian government had been granted special powers
-Defence of India Act
-Prevent any possibility of terrorist violence by the enemies of British rule
-Suspended many civil liberties (including censorship of the press)
-After the war it was recommended that any area that was seen as trying to overthrow the
law, the government should be authorised to take strong action (martial law)

-Attempt by the government to prolong its wartime powers

-Gandhi offers Satyagraha
-Virtually every Indian politician was opposed to the bill
-Saw that the governments policy was repressive
-Offended his religious instincts
-Deprive people of their g-d given right of free expression
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- Congress rightfully believed that Gandhi had no national support or backing from a political party
but had no other option
- Had little assistance from Congress or the people (unknown)

-Hartal
-The closing of all shops and businesses, 6th April
-Day spent fasting and praying
-Response
-Delhi got the date wrong
-Effective in Bombay, 4/5th of businesses
-Violence
-Police fired on a procession in Delhi
-Bombay, police swung steel-tipped lathis (long batons), charged at a crowd of protesters
-Government response
-Reluctant to arrest him
-Seen as a martyr
- Gandhi arrested on April 8th
-Released on the condition he did not leave Bombay
-News of Gandhis arrest
-Had the effect the British feared
-British officer killed
-Government buildings set on fire
-Attempts to tear up railroad lines
- Violence coming from his own people upset Gandhi
- Jalliaqala Bagh, Amriter massacre
-Meeting to protest Gandhis arrest
-Meeting in the area had been forbiden by the Rawlatt acts
-Home of the sikhs
-Protest meeting held in Jalliagala Bagh
-Military commander (Dyer) forbid meetings of any kind and sent in armed troops
-Kills 379 people (disputed)
-Set up (british) the hunter commission to inquire into what happened
-Gandhi doesnt hear about the event (bad communication)
-Himalayan miscalulation
-Crawling Orders
-Law issued by the British
-All Indians passing though the lane where Miss Sherwood had been seriously assaulted by rioters
-Required to crawl along their stomachs
-Those who refused to crawl were publicly flogged
-Indians who refused to salaam (greet) British officers were also flogged
-Pulling down of official notices= flogging
-Censoring of the press
-Meant that news of these events didnt reach the rest of India for some weeks
-Failure of Campaign
-Satyagraha suspended, 18th April
-Rowlatt campaign had been a failure
-Government had not been intimidated in any way
-The violence outbreaks had opposed the fundamental principle if satyagraha
- Success of the Campaign
- Showed that Indian were concerned about other issues besides not being allowed to vote
- Showed India that there was an alternative to the kind of politics that had been practised for decades
without result

- Those who worked the land were hit by a monsoon failure, 1918-19
-Those who were less well-off were outraged by the ability of a few Indians to make large
fortunes

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-The brutality of Amritsar shooting and the humiliating British response represented a turning point
of modern India
-Destroyed any moral justification Britain might have claimed for its conquering presence in
India
-Unrest in India was widespread
-The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (govt of India act)
Change to the constitution
-1919
-Review of the administration of India
-Dyarchy
-Some aspects of government were allocated to elect provincial assemblies
-Giving the provinces limited Home Rule
-Britain held control of defence and taxation
-Right to vote in elections was very limited
-Viceroy had the power to veto the actions of any province
-Secretary of state
-Rate of change- Glacial (extremely slowly)
- The Hunter Report
- Hunter commission of inquiry
- Consider allegations of police brutality during the period of martial law in the Punjab
- The shootings at Jallianwala Bagh
-Partially condemned Dyers actions although he was heavily praised but the British
public- sword of honour
-The Khilafat Issue
-1920
-Matter of serious concern for Muslims
-Gandhi took close interest
-Propelled him to the forefront of National politics
-Pre WW1
-Turkish empire included Islams holy places
-The cities of Mecca
-Medina
-Jerusalem
- Sultan of turkey
- regarded as the Muslim Khalif (spiritual protector of the holy places)
- Bestowed by G-d
-Post WW1
-Turkey stripped of its empire and the sultan lost control of all 3 holy places
-Muslims in India demanded that the Sultan have his authority restored
- Gandhi supported the Muslims
- Many people couldnt understand why Gandhi supported this cause
-Wanted to let the Muslims handle it
-Hindu-Muslim Unity?
-For the sake of Indian unity all Indians should take up the cause, Gandhi
-Opportunity for India and Gandhi to rise above the politics of separate communities and establish a
national political movement
-All religions in India would demonstrate to the British their ability to work together in the interest of
an independent India
-Khilafat and Amristar- 2 main wrongs the British had done to India
-Primary reasons for the Non-cooperation movement of 1920-22
Non-cooperation, 1920-1922

- Non-cooperation
-If Indians refused to cooperate with their British rulers the British would be unable to rule them
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-If the vast numbers of civil servant and other workers for the Raj (British government) declined to
serve what could the Raj do?
-British would be helpless
-Very few British in India
- Believed that non-cooperation was less likely to lead to violence then direct civil disobedience
- Bring the entire British system to a halt within 12 months
-The Khilafat Rulers
- Realised that Gandhi could deliver their cause a considerable amount of Indian support
- Ali brothers embraced the use of violence
- Accepted Gandhi's non-violence with reluctance
-Gandhi= Khilafat ruler
-Great exposer
-Opportunity for him to unite Muslim and Hindu
-Gandhi met with lord Chelmsford
-Requested that he should resign if the allied powers did not withdraw their terms which had been
announced in the peace treaty with turkey
-Declined
-Khilafat satyagraha campaign merged with the Punjab agitation
-Lead up to the Non-cooperation satyagraha campaign
-Gandhi returned the medal the British government had awarded him for his services in SA
-I am not pleading for India to practise non-violence because she is weak. I want her to practise non-violence
being conscious of her strength and power- Gandhi
-Congress Attitude
-Campaign had been instigated without congress approval
-Approval was not needed but made the campaign easier
-Calcutta congress meeting
-Advantages to Gandhi
-Old leaders of congress had died
-Disadvantages to Gandhi
-The meeting had been called in Calcutta where opposition to Gandhi would be the
strongest
-Home of C. R. Das
-Wealthy lawyer
-Plenty of money to buy support
-Very doubtful about Gandhis usual methods
-Gandhi narrowly won with 144 vs. 132 votes
-Why did Gandhi win?
-3 powerful groups of supporters
-Muslims
-Delegates from areas new to congress
-Places where Gandhi carried out important work
-Extremely wealthy caste of Marwaris
-The Non-cooperation Campaign
-Three areas marked out for particular attention
-All titles and honour conferred on Indians by the British were to be given up
-There should be no participation in the changes due under the Montagu-Chelmsford
-No one should stand for election under them
-Swadeshi (boycott) of all foreign foods
-The wearing of Khadi or khaddar (home-spun cotton cloth) and Gandhi cap became a
symbol of swadeshi
-The spinning wheel came to occupy a position of immense importance
-Daily duty to spin a length of cotton
-Great symbolic importance
-Cheap cotton cloth produced in large cotton mills had produced a devastating
decline in Indian home spun cotton

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-If everyone spun then villages would become more self-sufficient

-Fire bombs were lit with people burning cloths of foreign origin
-Gandhi the Leader
- Swadeshi
- Very important to him
- Set aside half an hour for spinning
- Dressed symbolically
- Only in loincloth (dhoti) with a shawl
-Personal belongings
- Wooden staff
- Small metal pot for washing
- Pair of spectacles
- A writtin-box
- A watch
- A book a sacred songs
- The moneys figure
-One day a week he maintained complete silence, only communicating though writing
-Fasted on his day of silence
-Constantly on the move
-Urging Indian everywhere to support the non-cooperation movement
-Only travelled 3rd class, much travelling on foot
-Nehur
-Completely won over by Gandhi
-Political methods and personality
-Called him Bapu (father)
-The Effects of Non-cooperation
-Many Indian renounced their British titles and medals
-Thousands of Lawyers abandoned their legal practises and left the British court system
-Many students and teachers left the cities to teach literacy and no-cooperation in the villages
-Indians urged to stop paying taxes
-20000 Indians had been imprisoned
-Campaign Collapse
-Outbreaks of violence increased as the campaign spread
-Support of the Ali brothers and the Khilafat movement was crumbling
-Non-violence was regarded as foolish
-An Indian mob attacked a police station
-Hacked to death and burned 22 Indian policemen
-Chauri Chaura massacre
-Gandhi thought that the people had demonstrated that they were not yet ready for satyagraha
-Gandhi on Trial
- Several of the campaign leaders were appalled how a single incident could terminate the entire operation
- Gandhi believed people needed to be further educated in the theory of satyagraha
-Gandhi surrendered to the police
-Plead guilty to the charge
-Invited the severest penalty
-Got 6 yrs
-They did not want to increase his following by making him a martyr
- Serious mistake for the British
-Made him a popular hero
-Never gave Gandhi a trial/ the opportunity to embarrass them again
Social Reform and the Muslim Issue, 1922-1930

-Introduction
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-During Gandhis time in prison

- Relatively quiet
-Release from prison
-Focused more on improving living conditions in India and Hindu-Muslim relations rather then
getting rid of the British
-No-changers vs. Pro-changers
-Post collapse of non-cooperation
-Congress divided into 2 groups
-No-changers
-Led by Rajendra Prasad and Patel
-Wanted the gandhian program to continue
-Politics and Religion should not be separated
-Ultimate objective
-Ram Rajya (truth, Kingdom of G-d)
-Wanted the people to work on some of the more important aspects of Satyagraha
-Emphasis on spinning
-Emphasis on repairing the Hindu-Muslim relations
-Continuing the campaign against the existence of untouchables
-Pro-changers
-Led by C. D. Das and Nehru
-India was not ready for the full program of satyagraha
-A new political strategy was required
-The government of India act 1921 (Montagu-Chelmsford reforms)
-Provided a new opportiuntiy for Indian political development
-Frustrate the British government intentions from within
-Indians should be non-cooperative by legal, constitutional means
-The Swaraj Party
-1922 congress meeting, Pro-changers were defeated
-1923, Pro-changers formed a separate political party
- Congress Swaraj Party
-Only congress members could join
-Lacked necessary political support to make much impression on the British
-1925, C. R. Das died
-Nehru could not hold the party together
-Gandhis Activities
-Released in 1924
-Ill health
-Did not rejoin politics
-The violence in his 2 previous campaigns demonstrated that the people of India were not
ready for swaraj (self-rule, independence)
- Returned to his Sabarmati Ashram
- Devoted himself to social reform and fostering Hindi-Muslim relations
-Frequently toured the country, visiting the villages
-Preached message
-Discrimination against untouchables was wrong
-Hindu-Muslim relations must be kept
-Spinning and use of their own Khadi
-Revive village industry
-Save expense of buying cloth
-Improvements in the village
-Preached
-Cleanliness
-Swept streets
-Uncluttered drains

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-Personal hygiene
-Critics believed that village reform was a side-track from the real need for
swaraj

-Gandhi believed that village reform was necessary

-Essential means to sarvodaya
-Good of India as a whole
-Indias strength lied within her people
-Not machinery but manual labour
- Ashrams
- Group life lived in religious spirit
- Rules
-Truth at all times
-Observe ahimsa (non-violence)
-Maintain strictly the rule of self-restraint
-Ate
-Wore
-Sexual continence
-Do manual labour
-Even cleaning toilets (generally untouchable jobs)
-Open and close everyday with prayer
-Any g-d or religious system
- Undergo training in self-sacrifice
- Gandhis way
- Ahimsa (non-violence)
- Personal Swaraj (personal liberation)
- Satyagraha
- National Swaraj
- Sarvodaya (welfare of all)
- All must be achieved to gain Indias liberation from the British
- The Muslim Situation
- Hindu-Muslim relations were rapidly deteriorating
- 1924, Turkeys president (Ataturk) abolished the position of Sultan and Sultan as Khaif
- India Khilafat committee broke up
- Publication of a book offending Muslims resulted in the Murder of author and massacre of 36 Hindus
- Gandhi fasted for 3 weeks
-Muslims deliberately killed cows the public
-Hindus directed religious processions playing loud music past mosques
-Riots between Hindu and Muslim communities became more rapid
-Bardoli Tax Campaign
-Peasant dispute over high tax increase imposed by the British in Gujarat, 1928
-Gandhi persuaded Patel to lead the peasants peaceful revolt
-Peasants refused to submit to government pressure to pay the taxes
-British sent in troops to confiscate their property in return for unpaid taxes
-Patel challenged the government to try and take their land to England
-4 days later, government backed down
-Property returned to peasants
-Slashed the tax from 22% to 5.7%
-The Simon Commission
-November 1927
-Britain announced another of their proposals to advance India towards self-government
-During the failing Hindu-Muslim campaigns
-Every 10 yrs British reviewed the Indian administration
-Conservative party was afraid the Labour party would win the next elections and
allow changes in India to occur more rapidly
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-Appointed the Simon Commission to visit India

-Report on Indias readiness for further progress to self-government
-Commission consisted only of British MPs
-Indian political parties responded by calling an all-parties conference
-Aims
-Establish a committee to draft alternative proposals to whatever the Simon
commission might propose
-Nehru report

-The Nehru Report, Proposals

-Won widespread support from Indians
-Some electorates should be joint and some reserved
-Issue affecting the future rights of Muslims
-Joint electorates
-All electors(citizens) would be listed on a common roll and vote for candidates
who could be from any community
-Reserved electorates
-Only Muslims could stand as candidates in them
-Anyone (Hindu or Muslims) could vote for them
-Separate exclusively Muslim electorates
-Rejected by the Nehru report
-Caused opposition from the Muslim politicians
- Dominion Status
- Not complete independence, recommended goal
- Caused disagreement between Motilal Nehru and son (Jawaharlal)
- Have independence but remain part of the British empire
-Owing allegiance to the British crown
- Dominion v.s full independence?
- Brought Gandhi back into Indian politics
- Worked out a compromise on the dominion status
-If Britain granted dominion status during 1929 then congress would accept
-If Britain had not granted it by the end of 1929, congress would opt for complete
independence (purna swaraj)
-A win for full independence as Britain was unlikely to grant dominion
status immediately
-1929, on the advice of Viceroy (Irwin), British government declared dominion was their
objective
-Implications of Dominion for India?
-Lahore Congress, 1929-30
-Complete independence was accepted and the congress objective
The Salt Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience, 1930-32

-Introduction
-New years day, flag of Independence
-Shouts of Inqilab Zindabab (long live the revolution)
-26th Jan, Independence Day
-Gandhi involved in politics
- Congress committed to following Gandhi
-Gandhis Decision
-Prepared a set a social and economic demands
-If accepted by the British would give India independence
-Did not know what strategy to adopt for achieving British acceptance
-Came to a decision via his inner voice
-Focus on 1 of his 11 demands
-The abolishment of the salt tax

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-Personally and publicly he would break the salt laws

-Made it illegal for for individuals to manufacture salt in
India

-Encourage some of his followers to join him in

breaking the law
-Only those who had been school in the
techniques of Satyagraha
-No violence

- Salt laws in India

- Government had a monopoly on salt manufacturing
- Indians regarded salt as an absolute necessity in their diet
- British government would be seen to be defending the indefensible against the starving
millions of India

- Breaking the salt laws would not seriously threaten government finances
- Provide Gandhi with an opportunity to educated people about satyagraha
- British government resisted the salt campaign
- Accepting Gandhis demands would have looked like giving in
- Make it harder to resist his other 10 demands
- Gandhi wrote to the viceroy issuing an ultimatum
- 11th on March
- Break the Salt Laws
- Irwin refused to negotiate
- The Dandi Salt March
- March from Satyagraha Ashram (Sabar Mati) to Dandi (385kms)
- Through Gujarat
- Gandhi home town
- Most support
- Last about 1 month
- Gradually demand the attention of all of India
- 78 men
- Stopped in villages where Gandhi addressed the people
- Press became interested
- Overseas support
- Number of marchers grew with every village visited
- Reached Dandi
- Bent down and scooped up a lump of salt left by the evaporation of sea water
- Proclaimed that he had made salt an illegal act
- Anniversary of the Amritser massacre
- Gandhi Broadens the Campaign
- Urged his followers to follow prohibition
- Total abstinence from liquor
- Played a part in persuading women to join in demonstrations
- Patna
- Protesting crowd defined police order to disperse
- Lay on the ground as the horses galloped towards them
- Horses pulled up
- Arrest of Gandhi
- Viceroy (Irwin)
- At first followed the advice to do nothing
- Arrest would make Gandhi a martyr
- Government embarrassment of him fasting in Jail
- Gandhi announced that there would be a raid on the Dharasana salt works
- Gandhi was arrested
- March went on
- Protesters were beaten by British but non struggled back
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- Witnessed by reporter
- International opinion was anti British
- British said they were morally superior- loss of British morals
- Civil Disobedience Continues
- Gandhi arrest- widened the civil disobedience movement
- June
- Congress meetings were declared illegal
- Many congress leaders were arrested
- Muslim community
- Hardened against cooperation with the predominately Hindu congress
- Viceroy allowed his representatives and two congress moderates to meet with Gandhi in prison
- Other jailed congress members were allowed to join the talks
- Cased considerable embarrassment in Britain
- As if they are on the same level and negotiate
- Churchill- I did not become the first minister to see its empire disintegrate
- The Campaign Recedes
- Government of India took control
- Decline in the imported cloth trade
- Reduction of those who took part in the September elections, 1930
- First Round Table Conference
- 3 round table conferences were to be held in London to discuss ways ways of implementing its
recommendations (Simon Commission) that Indian self-rule could be granted

- Congress (most of its leaders in prison) refused to attend

- Gandhi-Irwin Pact
- Irwin realised that without the involvement of Gandhi ad congress no lasting solutions were likely to emerge
from the round table conferences
- Did not want to be seen as bargaining with congress
- Decided to release the congress leaders from jail
- Made a pact, 1931
- Congress would immediately end civil disobedience
- All future negotiations would involve congress
- The future constitution would be federal
- Government of India would retain authority over some matters
- Radicals in congress were unhappy
- The Second Round Table Conference
- Gandhi goes to London, 1931
- Represented the congress and all the Indian communities
- Made a tremendous impact on the British people
- Welcomed as a hero
- Given extensive media attention
- Dress
- Simple, traditional, Indian clothing
- Symbolised how much his political views had influenced people over the last century
- No more westernised suits unlike his early days
- Conference
- Muslim league had representative
- Did not accept
- His claim that congress fairly represented Muslims
- Reserved electorates would guarantee them just treatment
- British were now much less sympathetic to Indian ambitions than it had been at the first conference
why????
- Gandhi was isolated and frustrated
- Returned to India with nothing to show for his efforts
- End 1931, Irwin replaced by much less sympathetic Willingdon

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- Gandhi view by British as a devious politician

- Second Civil Disobedience Movement
- January 1932, declared renewal of civil disobedience
- Wasnt as effective
- Government was no longer prepared to handle it lightly
- Gandhi arrested 4th January
- 30,000 Indian convicted of political offences
- Worldwide depression was passing and Indians were finding their circumstances easing
why????

- No longer any significant local issues on which to build a powerful national movement
- Election due in 1934
- Many congressmen wanted to work for their own election
- Not for an outdated tactic like civil disobedience
- Civil disobedience became more spasmodic (sporadic)
- Gandhi demonstrated his willingness to compromise to preserve the unity of congress
- Communal Award
- Round table conference
- Muslim demand for separate electorates was accepted
- Untouchables were also granted separate electorates
- Gandhi fasted in jail
- Maintained that untouchables were a part of Hindu India
The Lull before the Storm, 1932-40

- Introduction
- Gandhi fasting
- Life was slipping away
- British not wanting to be held responsible for his death
- The award was amended to Gandhis satisfaction
- Third round table conference
- 1932
- Very few Indian representatives, none from congress
- Gandhi fasts again
- Protesting the lack on progress with his untouchability campaign
- Gandhi released from jail
- Cat and mouse
- Indian politics
- Routine lasted the rest of the 1930s
- No clear winner
- Gandhi resigned from congress, 1934
- Devoted himself to village reform
- Civil disobedience resulted in violence
- Moved to a village near Wardha
- Segaon
- Intended it to become a model village
- Which could be copied all over India
- Cleanliness
- Personal hygiene
- Nutritious diet
- Based on a crop grown locally
- Clean water
- Revival of simple village industries such as????
- Basic education
- Village crafts
- Continued to be consulted by congress leaders
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- Government of India Act, 1935

- British approved the Government of India act
- The largest act ever passed by British parliament
- Final outcome of the round table conferences and the Simon commission
- India was to become a federation (several areas united under a central government)
- Central government in New Delhi
- Responsible government granted to the provinces
- Limited emergency powers?? To each provinces governor
- Appointed by the British
- Central power
- Diarchy in theory
- Power shared between the viceroy and 2 federal assemblies
- Members from princely states???
- Elected members from the provinces of British India???
- Congress Attitude
- Would the congress agree to participate in the new constitution?
- Nerhu
- Branded the act as a charter of slavery
- Made it clear that he thought that act would never work
- Most congress politicians wanted to give it a try
- Support of Gandhi
- Wanted to unite congress
- Azard wanted to continue- Muslim
- Won 716 of the 1585 seats
- Joined in coalition (temporary political alliance of separate political parties)
- Won them the majority in most provinces
- Except bangal and punjab
- Who could vote???
- Congress now had the opportunity to govern most of the provinces in India
- Features of Congress in 1937
- Congress won the majority of Hindu votes
- Failed to gain any significant Muslim support
- Congress was an alliance of local parties
- Each with local concerns
- Dominated by local people
- 1937, the party reflected the population as a whole
- Rural membership
- Importance of the caste????
- Not as westernised
- Made Jinnah realise that there had to be a partition to keep Muslims free
- An Important Period for Congress
- Gandhis support of Nehru and his personal success clearly marked him has Gandhi successor
- Rival= conservative Patel
- 1937-39, provided India with the valuable experience in governing before it actually achieved independence
- Congress believed they had nothing to fear from the Muslim league
- Did not do well in elections
- Nahru was unwilling to accommodate Muslims in congress administration unless they abandoned
the league and joined congress
- Had implications for Indias future unity
- Viceroy Linlithgow declared India to be at war with Germany
- Without consulting the provincial governments
- Congress response
- If India was going to declare war without the consent of its people then congress
governments would be obliged to resign

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- Recovery of the Muslim League

- Jinnahs leadership
- Congress was unwilling to share power with Muslim parties
- Congress was the enemy of the Muslims
- The league only had power within the provinces Muslim majority
- Punjab and Bengal
- If it did not change the league would continue to lack widespread support, powerless
- Started to generate a widespread, unified, communal loyalty amongst Muslims
- Declared the league in favour of a separate Pakistan
- Lahore Resolution March, 1940
The Final Years of British Rule, 1940-47

- Introduction
- Congress members had all resigned
- Muslim league about to declared itself in favour of the division of India into 2 countries
- Gandhi continued to preach the necessity of national unity and non-violence
- If the people of India continued to refuse to cooperate with the dictators, victory would be theirs
- Most found this solution too simplistic
- Jinnah had scorn for all of Gandhis notions
- British Opinions
- No longer any real reason for Britain to remain in India
- No economic returns
- The rise of educated, articulate Indians to the nationalist movement made the task of staying in India
increasingly difficult

- It was the empire that made Britain so great

- The loss of empire would see their country become a second-rate nation
- Churchill shared this option (PM)
- Congress Attitude to the War
- Gandhi supported non-violence
- Subhas Chandra Bose
- Radical
- Regarded Britain difficulty as Indias opportunity
- Later joined the Japanese in hope of invasion of India
- Nehru
- Opposed to the fascists of Germany and Italy
- Proposed a middle way
- Accepted by congress
- Demanded recognition of Indian rights
- Complete independence after the war
- If British agreed to the demand, congress would assist Britains war effort
- British response
- August Offer of 1940
- Offer to expand Viceroys executive council with extra seats for Indians
- Turned to Gandhi for advice
- Suggested Individual Satyagraha
- The breaking of selected laws by trained satyagrahis
- Had no effect on the British
- Strict wartime censorship made it difficult to have an effective campaign
- 1941, Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter with Roosevelt
- Promised all peoples the right to live under governments of their choice after the war
- Gave speech that excluded India from the provisions of the charter
- The Cripps Mission
- December 1941, Japan enters the war
- Advance close to the Indian border
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- British government sent the Cripps mission to Delhi

- Sir Stafford Cripps
- Friend to Nehru and the congress party
- Confusion over what he was allowed to offer India in return for support in the war
- The Offer
- There should be no change to the way India was governed during the war
- After the war India should have dominion status
- Self-government within the British empire
- If that should prove unsatisfactory to any part of India, that part should have the right of
complete secession (withdrawal) from the commonwealth

- Congress response
- Wary of continued British control during the war
- Critical of the right to succession
- Churchill made sure the Cripps mission achieved nothing
- Served its purpose
- The Americans could be satisfied that the British had made a genuine offer
- Gandhi returned to political activity
- Britain had to leave immediately, not after the war
- India had nothing to fear from the Japanese
- With the British gone, Japan would no longer have any interest in India
- If Japanese did invade= non-violence, non-cooperation
- Nehru claimed that there was nothing in recent Japanese record to support Gandhis
optimistic view

- Quit India
- 8 August, 1942, congress passed the Quit India resolution
- Committing itself to non-violent mass struggle for freedom
- Either free India or die in the attempt, Gandhi
- Britain was not going to tolerate any trouble within India while a war was being fought
- Jailed most important congress leaders (including Gandhi)
- Without Gandhis leadership
- Flared into a violent revolt, 2 stages
- Widespread violence, largely urban
- Brutally suppressed
- 6 week campaign fought in the countryside
- Targets= roads, railways and communication lines
- Harshly suppressed
- Terrorism and guerilla warfare
- Lasted until 1943
- Creating only limited problems for the British
- Gandhi begins to fast
- Protesting the governments accusations that he was responsible for the violence of the Quit India
campaign

- Government made secret security arrangements for Gandhis possible death

- Death of Kasturbai
- Gandhi survived the 3 week fast
- Wife died
- Gandhi's health failed
- Unconditionally released
- A New Viceroy
- 1943, Lord Wavell
- Believed British should leave India
- During the war
- Maintaining food supply
- Famine

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- Wartime loss of rice imports from Burma

- 1.5- 3 million people died
- Epidemic of cholera, malaria and smallpox
- The Muslim Leagues New Power
- End of war
- Congress leaders released from prison
- British to face the question of their role in India
- Viceroy announced, June 1945, self-government would be granted to India
- Britain could not maintain its pre-war imperial power
- Viceroys Executive Council
- Reconstructed to include equal numbers of Congress and Muslim league representatives
- Jinnah had helped the British when the war was going badly
- Encouraging Muslim recruitment
- Cautioning Muslim demonstration against britain
- Talks between Gandhi and Jinnah
- Came to nothing
- Jinnah now thoroughly unyielding
- The Simla Conference
- Various parties summoned to Simla (capital up in the Himalayas)
- Summoned by British
- Discuss future form of Indias constitution
- Failed because of Jinnahs insistence that the league only spoke for Muslims was he really
that bad???
- Believed that Congress president (Azad, a Muslim) was a show-case president

- The Cabinet Mission

- 1945, labour party won election in Britain
- Committed to granting India independence
- Whether it should be granted to one state or two
- Elections held in India, 1946
- Complete polarisation
- Congress won all general seats
- Muslims league won all Muslim seats
- Labour PM, Attlee
- Cabinet mission would travel to New Delhi
- Wanted a solution, Hindu and Muslim
- Findings
- Rejected the creation of Pakistan as a separate nation state
- Favoured Britains withdrawal from India
- The formation of an interim government until a new constitution could be worked out by
Indians, for Indians
- Congress and the League could not agree on their respective roles in the interim
government
- Cabinet mission admitted defeat
- Muslim League declared 16th August, Direct Action Day
- Great Calcutta killings
- Both Hindu and Muslim mobs got out of control
- Jinnah deliberately provoked the Hindu-Muslim clash to prove their case for a separate
Pakistan
- Nehru to lead the Interim committee
- Jinnah refused to join
- Gandhi in Noakhali
- October 1946, Gandhi received reports of serious communal order in eastern Bengal
- Predominately Muslim area
- Mass killings of Hindus
- Houses burned
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- Temples defiled
- Women raped
- Hindus in neighbouring Bihar province took revenge
- Slaughtered thousands of defenceless Muslims
- Gandhi wanted to persuade the people to abandon violence
- Travelled around on foot preaching his message
- Important calming effect on the area
- Partition Finally Accepted
- 1947, Attlee announced British intention of leaving India of June 1948, regardless of the condition of the
country

- Last viceroy, Lord Louis Mountbatten

- Cousin of the king
- Invited Gandhi to New Delhi for a meeting
- Gandhi proposed that Jinnah be given the responsibility for running a new Indian
government
- Wanted to keep India unified
- Declined
- Listened to Nehru, Jinnah and own advisors for political guidance
- 3 June 1948, Congress accepted Mountbattens plan for Indias independence and partition
- Punjab and Bengal were to be divided
- Parts allocated to India and Pakistan
- Gandhi returned to peacemaking
- Independence
- Power to be transferred, 15th August 1947
- Time brought forward by Mountbatten
- Left 2 months to divide Indias assets between India and Pakistan
Migration, Massacre and Assassination, 1947-48

- Calcutta Pacified
- Muslim Premier of Bengal
- Urged Gandhi to stay to prevent further outbreaks of violence in Calcutta against the Muslim
Minority

- 15th August, Pakistan became independent

- Gandhi spent the day fasting and praying
- Supreme tragedy to him
- Renewed violence in Calcutta
- Gandhi fasted
- Ended when Gandhi was assured peace why would Muslims listen to Gandhi???
- Partition in the Punjab
- Homeland of the Sikhs
- Agitated by the thought of a Muslim state
- Traditional enemies towards the Muslims
- 1946, Muslims attacked Sikh minority in the north-west of Punjab
- Tara Singh
- Sikh leader
- Emerged from the final meeting with the Muslim League
- Drew his sword and cried Pakistan Murdabad (death to Pakistan
- Migration and Massacre
- 17th August 1947, Radcliffe Boundary Award announced
- Borders created
- Migration= massacre
- Muslims to Pakistan
- Hindus and Sikhs to India (Bharat)
- Approx 250,000 killed

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- Why did this happen???

- Gandhi Fasts
- 13th January 1947, Delhi in distress, Gandhi fasts
- Attempt to end the hatred
- Terms of the partition agreement
- Indian government to pay Pakistan a share of its pre-partitioned assets
- Withheld payments due to hostilities over Kashmir
- Unacceptable to Gandhi
- Made the payment a condition for ending his fast
- How split bengal into part of Pakistan???
- Many Hindus were frustrated by Gandhis concern for Muslims
- Gandhis Legacy
- Gandhis life can be viewed as a failure
- Can be regarded as the father of modern India
Political Profiles

- Vallabhbhai Patel
- Born to a peasant family
- Applied himself to his legal studies
- Train in Britain
- Won over by Satyagraha
- Devoted himself to Gandhian politics
- Became one of congress principal negotiators
- 1947, elected Deputy PM
- Jawaharlal Nehru
- Born into a wealthy family
- Highest of castes (Brahmans)
- Educated in England
- Won over by Gandhi and his methods in 1919
- Frequently jailed
- Lead congress in its negotiations with the British
- Indias first PM
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah
- Family converts to Islam
- Sent to England for Legal training
- Entered congress
- Dressed elegantly
- Did not have time for the popular Gandhi movement
- Leader of the Muslim League
- Inflexible in negotiations with the British
- Insisted on the creation of Pakistan
- Pakistan first Governor General

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Glossary

Word

Description

Ahimsa

Non-violence

Ashrams

Hindu retreat

Bagh

Park

Bapu

Father

Bharah

India

Brahman

Priestly caste

Civil liberties

Rights and freedom or ordinary citizens

Coalition

Temporary political alliance of separate parties

Despots

Tyrants

Dhoti

Loincloth

Diarchy

Dual rule. Elected assemblies + Viceroy

Dominions

Self-rule within the British empire

Hartal

Closing of shops and businesses as a protest

Home Rule

Right of a colonised country to govern its eternal affairs

Jihad

War fought by Muslims against non-believers

Khadi

Homespun cotton cloth

Khalif

Secular leader of the Muslims

Khilafat

The authority of the Khalif over the holy places of Islam

Mahatma

Great soul

Nationalism

Belief in unity and independence of a nation

Ordinance

Law or regulation given by an authority

Purna Swaraj

Complete independence

Raj

British rule in India

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Word

Description

Sarvodaya

Uplift of all

Satyagraha

Gandhis technique of non-violent protest

Swadeshi

Boycott

Campaigns of Gandhi

- Hartal
- Champaran
- Karia
- Non-cooperation (major)
- Chauri Chaura
- Realised that he should not let non-trained people participate
- Amtritsar Massacre
- Civil- disobedience (major)
- Salt Campaigns
- Quit India
Jinnah= constitutionalist
- only changes through the law
Communalism
- rivalry between Hindus and Muslims
Britain could no longer control the Indian population

The differing views of democracy

Proportional representation of both majority and minority groups in the aim of achieving a
governmental system based on equality.
British
No democracy, believed the Indians too politically unsophisticated to handle it. Also didnt want the
loss of the Jewel of the Empire. Democracy went throughout a transformation, ending in the
granting of Independence in 1947.
Rowlatt Bills
-Extension of wartime powers arrest without warrant, censorship

-sought t o i mpose d rastic c urbs o n b asic l iberty (Jim Masselos)

-No democracy
Government of India Act 1919
-Montague-Chelmsford report

-Dyarchy
-Very limited Home Rule, important aspects of government still in hands of British
-Minute movement towards democracy, but in name, not in action
Simon Commission 1927
-British commission to recommend measures for devolution of British power in India

-Every 10 years India would be assessed

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-No Indian members

-Didnt offer any changes no movement towards democracy
RTCs 1930-2
-Give Indians some sort of representation, but Churchill makes clear that there will be no granting of
power in India, Congress members not present until 3rd

-First: idea of All-India Federation, separate electorates for Untouchables

-Second: Communal Award granted
-Third: Pakistan, Government of India Act proposed nothing happened except Gandhi impressed the
British

-Gandhi expected nothing g ood t o c ome o f t he c onference (Wolpert)

-Little democracy
Government of India Act 1935
-Based off Simon Commission + RTCs, introduced elections

-India to become federation of Britain, limited emergency powers

-Central power dyarchy (Viceroy + 2 assemblies)
-Nehru branded Act as charter o f slavery
-Change in India democracy, element of Indian representation meant that elements of democracy
would become stronger
WWII 1939
-Britain declares Indian involved in WWII

-Congress resigns in protest

-Dominion status was t he g oal o f British p olicy i n India (Yogesh Chadha)
-No democracy
Atlantic Charter 1941
-Churchill & Roosevelt

-Promised all peoples right to live under governments of choice after War except for Indians
-No democracy
Cripps Mission 1942
-Churchill wants favour with Roosevelt

-Promised dominion status after the War, elected constitutional body for India Union
-Possibility of Pakistan
-Interim government under supervision of Viceroy
-Talks break down Jinnah

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-Congress critical, too little too late, a p ost-d ated c heque o n a failing b ank (Gandhi)
-Sort of democratic. Sort of.
Simla Conference 1944
-Indias future constitution, failure Jinnah

-Moving closer to democracy as discussing a future of India with the possibility of Pakistan and
Independence
Cabinet Mission 1946
-Viceroy Wavell says British leaving 1945 India cant do much for Britain post-War

-Some solution had to be made for constitution

-Cabinet Mission Plan seems genuine proposal
-The C ongress-L eague d eadlock remained a nd t here c ould b e n o a greed b asis for forming a
constitution (Chadha)

-All-India Union, separate Muslim zones

-Plan scrapped, Congress didnt agree
-Attempt for democracy, movement towards democracy
Independence 1947
-Sir Cyril Radcliffe draws country boundaries. Epic fail. 1 million dead

-Partition 14th August

-Power transferred 15th August
-Full democracy
Congress
Based on the idea of majority rules and that Congress represented all of India. Want for
democracy done in various movements in the earl 1920s. Idea of democracy can be seen post1937 elections and peaked at Independence.
NC, Satyagraha, Khadi, Swadeshi, Hartal
-Attempts to get democracy

-Hartal 1919 against Rowlatt Acts

-NC/Satyagraha against Amritsar Massacre, called off, degenerated into violence
-NC 1920, withdraw Indian support from t he vast, m onstrous Machine o f Empire u ntil i t g round t o a
halt (Wolpert) swadeshi, Khadi

-Khadi = unification, against British belief that Indians couldnt self-rule as they wore different clothes
(separate peoples, separate regions). Take that, British define t he wearer a s a m ember o f a
universal Indian t radition (Metcalf and Metcalf)
Nehru Report 1928
-Opposition to the Simon Commission

-Asked for dominion status

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-Hindu as major language

-the Simon C ommissions report p rovoked u niversal d iscontent (Wolpert)
-In attempts to find democracy
1937 elections
-After Government of India Act 1935

-Caused spark of communalism, as major Congress success

-Nehru, only 2 parties in India
-Congress Raj Gandhi in every classroom, forced Hinduism on children, learn Hindu, holy songs
-Not very democratic towards Muslims
Independence 1947
-After long fight for democracy, India wins well, ultimately loses
Muslims
After the British Raj, were fearful of the Hindu Raj. As a minority group, they wanted to have a way
in which their voices could be heard. This culminated in the granting of Partition and Pakistan
1947.
14 Points 1929
-Jinnahs rebuttal to Simon Commission + Nehru Report

-Separate electorates for Muslims

-Asks for unity of AIML + INC
-Protection of Muslim culture
-Rejected
-distrust which was n ever subsequently t o b e o vercome (Metcalf and Metcalf)
-Democracy? I dont think so
Communal Award 1932
-Granted after 2nd RTC

-Separate electorates for Muslims

-Can elect own leaders
-Movement towards democracy, caused rise of AIML
1937 elections
-Hindu Raj no democracy

-Forced Hinduism, Nehru unwilling to accommodate Muslims, 2 parties in India

-The elections o f 1 937 were d estined t o h ave a far-reaching effect o n t he h istory o f India. The p oor
showing b y t he Muslim L eague a nd t he a ttitude o f t he t riumphant p arty ensured t hat t he seeds o f
discord were sown a nd n urtured, c ontributing t o t he c ountrys p artition (Yogesh Chadha)

-Not democratic

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Lahore Resolution 1940

-Two nations theory

-Pakistan! (but not in name)

-Jinnahs L ahore a ddress l owered t he final c urtain o n m any o f t he p rospects for a single u nited
independent India (Wolpert)

-Movement towards Muslim ideal of democracy

Pakistan 1947
-India had to divide Civil/Armed Forces, railways, trucks, typewriters, carpets, paper, pens, rupees and
pounds

-Their idea of democracy turned out to be not very democratic 1 million died, no infrastructure etc

ESSAYS/PARAGRAPH TIMELINE
Asses the nature of Satyagraha and its impact in Indian Independence
Midnight 15th of August 1947. With shouts of Inqilab Zindabab! independence was declared in
India. After more then three centuries India, was now independent from the repressive nature of the
British Raj and was free to govern themselves. But one must question how India was able to reach
this stage. With many nations around the world still under British jurisdiction, why would Britain
give up the Jewel of the British empire? This assessment of Indias independence in 1947
throughly analyses the nature of Gandhis Satyagraha and the successful impact it had on gaining
independence.
Satyagraha is defined as truth force; the power of nonviolent resistance to oppressive social
structures through the search for truth and self-purification. Gandhis writings state that there are
two major princples of satyagraha. The first is a strict, non-violent approach to situations which
allows the opponent to realise the injustice of the situation and put forward a resolution. The second
is the creation of small communities known as Ashrams. These strictly observed principles of
satyagraha, including ahimsa (non-violence) and sarvodaya (uplifting of spirits), at all times and
performed manual labour jobs, generally executed by untouchables. Historian David Arnold
Gandhi; Profiles in power, reiterates the two principles of Satyagraha by stating that Love and
suffering were to be the essence of Satyagraha, but behind them lay Gandhis concept of nonviolent power.
Since the colonisation of India in the 1600s, under the control of the Viceroy, the British Raj had
complete power over the political, economic and social status of India. In 1919, with the outbreak
of war in Europe, the British government implemented the Rowlatt Bills. These bill granted special
powers in relation to anti-terrorism legislation, including the power to suspend civil liberties and
human rights, censor the media and imprison supposed terrorists without trial. Virtually every
Indian politician was opposed to the bill and branded the act as depriving the people of their god
given right of free expression. After much deliberation, congress turn to Gandhi and his theory of
Satyagraha. This was Gandhis opportunity to prove that the principles of Satyagraha could help to
unite the Indian people and force the British out. After listening to the voices Gandhi suggested a
principle of Satyagraha known as Hartal. This campaign of resistance meant the closing of shops
and businesses for a day of fasting and praying. On the 6th of April 1919, thousands across India
took to the streets to observe the Hartal. Although the Hartal was based on the principles of
satyagraha and non-violence, Gandhis lack of forethought and giving of guidance to local leaders
led to the outbreak of violent protests. In the city of Lahore, a peaceful protest broke out into a mass
riot with the burning down of government buildings, looting of houses and murder of British police
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sergeants. As a result of this violence, general ODyer set on a peaceful protest in Amritsar with
machine guns, murdering all participants. In spite of the overall failure of the campaign it
demonstrated many key factors that would aid later, more successful Satyagraha campaigns. It
showed India that there was another alternative to the kind of politics that had been practiced in
India for decades without result and it exhibited the brutality of the British to the international
community.
On the principles of Satyagraha, Gandhi felt that in order to gain independence he had to bring to
India more than a campaign of non-violence. While he knew that he could not defeat the British
with sheer manpower and violence, he believed that he could force the British out if he removed
their main purpose for occupation, economic gain. As the British had a monopoly on cloth
manufacturing, Gandhi insisted that every Indian set aside half an hour, each day, for the spinning
of Khadi (cotton). This would mean that the village would become self sufficient and not rely of the
British for expensive cloth. Historian David Arnold expresses that Gandhis message was intended
to reach out to other classes as well; they, too were to avoid British rule by spinning and wearing
khadi. Gandhi also realised that the British would not leave India in a state of chaos and be blamed
by the international community. He therefore made it his mission to unite the people of India behind
a common goal. In order to achieve this, Gandhi used symbols to appeal to all members of the
Indian population, whether they be educated or illiterate. He wore traditional clothing in stark
contrast to the other members of Congress, spoke the native language of India and travelled third
class.
Now that Gandhi had the support of Congress and the people, he was ready for his first major
satyagraha campaign. In response to the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi initiated a policy of noncooperation based on the principles of Satyagraha. He believed that a nation wide campaign of
non-cooperation was the most effective way to achieve independence in view of that fact that if
Indians refused to cooperate with their British rulers, the Raj would be unable to successfully rule
over them. In this campaign, Gandhi marked out areas for particular attention. All titles and honors
conferred on Indians by the British were to be given up, there was to be no participation in the
constitutional changes due under the Montagu-Chelsford reforms, Indians must refuse to work for
British employers or send children to British schools and a boycott against all British products was
imposed. Gandhi also believed that the success of this campaign hinged on the support of the
minority Muslim community for non-cooperation and his ability to unite all Indians under a
common goal. Gandhi met with the leaders of the Khilafat movement, who spoke for a large
majority of the Muslim population, and offered support for their campaign against the annexation of
the Sultan from Turkey in return for their cooperation with non-cooperation. Historian Stanley
Wolpert states in Gandhis Passion the significance of Muslim support for non-cooperation.
Gandhis commitment to the brothers of the Khilafat cause and the Muslim masses who followed
them won him greater national popularity then was enjoyed by any other Nationalist leader. With
the support of the majority of the population, Gandhi now believed that India was ready to take on
the British Raj, aided with the principles of Satyagraha.
After two years of continuous struggle, the campaign of non-cooperation collapsed. In defile of the
principles of Satyagraha, Indian protests hacked to death and burned 22 Indian policemen, an act
which demonstrated to Gandhi that India was not ready for nation wide Sayagraha. The support of
the Khilafat movement was also crumbling owning to the lack of confidence they had in a
campaign of non-violence. Although the campaign did not achieve independence from British rule,
it was highly significant for the growth of Satyagraha in India. The campaign gave many Indians
real hope that Swarji (independence) was possible after decades of suppressive British rule. Many
Indians also renounced their British titles and many teachers were inspired to leave the cities and
teach literacy and satyagraha in the villages. Gandhi also became a national hero for not only the
elite but the peasants due to his dress and respect for their needs. This allowed nationalism to

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become a prominent feature of Indian independence and electrified thousands of people to rally
behind Gandhi and cry Mahatma Gandhi ki jai!
With his international profile and national support gained from previous satyagraha campaigns,
Gandhi set out on a new campaign of civil disobedience. As the British had made it illegal for
individuals to manufacture salt, a necessity in the diet of many Indians, Gandhi proposed an attack
on these laws. This would threaten government finances and present an opportunity to educate
millions of the principles of satyagraha. Subsequently, Gandhi hoped this campaign would exhibit
to the world the absolute brutality of the British government. On the 12th of March 1930, Gandhi,
together with 78 trained Satyagrahias set off from his ashram in order to March the 385kms to
village of Dandhi and publicly break the salt laws. As Gandhi marched through villages he stopped
to address the people on the importance of satyagraha. Gradually, international press became
interested as the marchers grew with every village visited. Historian Yogesh Chadha, author of
Rediscovering Gandhi explains that the spectacle of this sixty-six year old man, staff in hand,
striding vigorously to challenge peacefully the mighty British Empire aroused the interest and
sympathy of millions all over the world. On the 5th of April, a group of several thousand strong
reached the sea at Dandi. Gandhi bent down and scooped up a lump of salt left by the evaporation
of sea water. Yogesha Chadha describes how this small symbolic act inspired millions across India.
Within a week the storm had swept across India and everyone seemed to be gathering salt.
The true significance of the Salt Satyagraha can be seen through the Dharsana salt march which
took place without the assistance of Gandhi. On the 25th of April, thousands of supporters walked
towards the salt works watched by foreign reporters. When struck by the British none of the man
raised an arm to fend off the blows. This act was to define world opinion of the British occupation
of India. Previously, British validated their presence in India by claiming that the Indians were
barbarians who could not govern themselves. But, as U.S correspondent Webb Miller reports, this
was not the case anymore. The police commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the
abdomen and testicles. It is evident that this single satyagraha campaign was a genuine catalyst to
an increase in Indian nationalism and push for independence.
Gandhis final campaign, based on the non-violent principles of satyagraha was Bharat Chhodo
Andolan (Quit India) 1942. As stated by Gandhi, this final crusade was either to free India, or die
in the attempt. Due to the impact of World War Two, the British were no longer willing to tolerate
any trouble within India. Within twenty-four hours, Gandhi and the majority of congress leaders
were jailed. Without Gandhis leadership the campaign flared into a violent revolt with widespread
violence and guerilla warfare. This act, while showing the impact satyagraha had on Indian
nationalism, brings into question the true impact that the principles of satyagraha had on the Indian
population. Although for many years Gandhi had preached non-violence and a peaceful means for
gaining independence the realities of practicing Satyagraha on a population of over five hundred
million people were becoming clear. Historian Rajmodan Gandhi Gandhi, The man his people and
the empire, puts forward a different assessment of the impact of the Quit India campaign stating that
campaign made it clear in the minds of the British that the fight for independence was not only
being fought for by the congress but the entire Indian population. It decoupled the Indian people
from their British rulers and fused them together with congress. Kathryn Tidrick takes the opposite
side of the spectrum and attributes no successes to the entire campaign. The rebellion was crushed
by the British Authorities- another miscalculation by Gandhi. By the end of September the British
had regained control.
The year of 1945 showed a very different Britain to that which the had invaded India in. The
Second World War had diminished Britains status as a superpower and forced the government to
rely heavily on loans from the United States. The coalition government headed by Churchill was
defeated by the Labour party. Headed by Atlee, this government was strongly committed to
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granting India independence as they knew that the British people would not accept another period
of bloodshed. While many point to the election of a labour government and the loss of international
status as the reason for the granting independence, one must question why the British were still able
to retain power of other colonised nations such as Northern Ireland and Zimbabwe. Here, historian
Kathryn Tidrick points to Gandhis satyagraha campaigns as the reason for independence. She
states that their ability to promote nationalism, unite the masses of India, reduce Britains economic
gains in India and prompt International criticism of British occupation, showed India to be a
structured, independent nation and a nothing more than a tedious drag of the British empire.
It is evident through the study of the nature of Gandhis Satyagraha in the period 1919-1947, that its
implementation had a profound influence on the granting of Independence by the British. The nonviolent campaigns of non-cooperation, salt March and Quit India in combination with Gandhis
work in the villages forced the British to see that their occupation was no longer needed or
economically beneficial. With the population now united behind Gandhi, the British were able to
leave India in more then capable hands.
ESSAY 2
Asses the significance of the 1920-22 campaign of non-cooperation for Indian resistance to British rule.
With the end of the First World War, India with the aid of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was
heavily campaigning for Swaraj (Home Rule). After the effective early campaigns of Champaran,
Karia, Hartal and overall satyagraha, Gandhi believed that a nation wide campaign of noncooperation was the most effective way to achieve independence from British rule. Gandhi was
convinced that if Indians refused to cooperate with their British rulers, the Raj would be unable to
successfully rule over them and come to a halt within twelve months. Although this campaign
ultimately broke out in violence and massacre, it put Gandhi at the forefront of Indian politics with
the support of the majority of the nation.
Before Gandhi could assure that his campaign could lead to significant resistance towards British
rule he needed the support of the Muslim leaders and Congress. First Gandhi met with the Khilafat
rulers (Ali brothers) for support. Although the brothers generally endorsed the use of violence they
reluctantly accepted Gandhi non-violence scheme. This resulted in in the merge of the satyagraha
campaign and the Punjab agitation. Historian Stanley Wolpert tells us in Gandhis Passion the
significance of Muslim support for the campaign. Gandhis commitment to the Khilafat cause of
the brothers and the Muslim masses who followed them, won him greater national popularity than
was enjoyed by and other nationalist leader. Gandhi went to Congress and after narrowly winning
support at the Calcutta Congress meeting, had the full support of the major Hindu leaders.
Now that Gandhi had nationwide support he marked out areas for particular attention. All titles and
honour conferred on Indians by the British were to be given up, no participation in the changes due
under the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, refusing to work for British employers or send their
children to British school, refusal to pay taxes and the Swadeshi (boycott) of all foreign foods.
Gandhi also heavily endorsed the wearing of khadi or khaddar, the Gandhi cap which became a
symbol of swadeshi and a daily duty to spin a length of cotton. This was due to the fact that cloth
produced in large cotton mills had produced a devastating decline in Indian home spun cotton
making the villages less self-sufficient.
After two years of a continuous struggle, the campaign collapsed due to a number of reasons. The
support of the Ali brothers was crumbling owing to the lack of confidence in a non-violent
campaign. The second reason was the Chauri Chaura massacre where Indian protesters hacked to
death and burned 22 Indian policemen. This act demonstrated to Gandhi that the people of India

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were not yet ready for nation wide Satyagraha. Many of the Congress leaders, particularly C. R.
Das were angered by the calling off of the non-cooperation campaign. This is clearly shown Calvin
Kytles account of Gandhis life. Nehru: why pull back when we seem to be consolidating our
position on all our fronts? To which Gandhi replied; Its a million times better to appear untrue
before the world than to be untrue to ourselves.
Although the campaign did not achieve complete independence from British rule, it was highly
significant for the growth of Indian nationalism for 1922-47. The campaign gave many Indians real
hope that Swarji was a possibility after decades of suppressive British rule. Gandhi also became a
national hero for not only the elite but the peasants due to his dress and respect for their needs. This
allowed nationalism to become a prominent feature of Indian independence and electrified
thousands of people to rally behind Gandhi and cry Mahatma Gandhi ki jai!
Gandhis arrest after the Chauri Chaura massacre allowed him to internationally preach his political
message which was imperative to his campaign of passive resistance and satyagraha. At his trial
(later known as the Great Trial) he appealed for the severest of penalties stating that I invite and
cheerfully submit to the highest penalty that can inflicted upon me. This demonstrated Gandhis
strong commitment to satyagraha and inspired others to not be afraid of jail in the quest to gaining
national independence. Gandhis declaration of passive resistance also allowed him to portray the
British tyrants for international opinion and appeal to the British conscious. Historian Geoffrey
Ashe, Gandhi, a study in revolution speaks of the significant of Gandhis tactics in the court room
and Britains resolve to never allow the Raj to be embarrassed in such a way. The authorities saw
their mistake too later. But they did learn from it. This was the last time they ever put him on trial.
After 1992 they imprisoned him without trial.
As direct result of the non-cooperation campaign, many Indian renounced their British titles and
medals, thousands of lawyers abandoned their legal practices and the British court system and many
students and teachers left the cities to teach literacy and non-cooperation in the villages. These acts
had significant impacts on the growth on Indian nationalism as Indians were now starting to
acknowledge the importance of their commitment to Swarji. Additionally the teaching of nation
wide satyagraha brought the importance independence to the most remote of villages.
The impact of non-cooperation in India although not immediate, had significant impact for Indian
resistance to British rule. Gandhis commitment to nation wide satyagraha promoted nationalism
and crucial importance to be placed on Swarji from peasants to congress leaders. Without this initial
pressure placed on the British Raj, the path to independence may have been littered with far more
obstacles.
ESSAY 3
Asses the significance of the 1930s Salt Satyagraha in the development of Indian nationalism.
With shouts of Inqilab Zindabab! the 26th of January was declared Independence Day in India.
After nearly a decade of private life, Gandhi immersed himself in Indian politics and his ultimate
goal of securing purna swarji. With his international profile and national support gained from
previous satyagraha campaigns, Gandhi set out on a new campaign of civil disobedience. During
this campaign, Gandhi aim to abolish the salt tax and arm the Indian population with the power to
gain independence. Subsequently, he hoped this campaign would exhibit to the world the absolute
brutality of the British government. It is evident from the study of Indian independence that this
single campaign was a genuine catalyst to reforms in British India policy and an increase in Indian
nationalism.
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India during the 1930s was a nation eager for Independence. Angered by the Amritser massacre and
encouraged by Nehrus success in the Bardoli tax campaign, India looked to the returned Gandhi
for a solution to brutal British rule. By means of his inner voice, Gandhi looked to the salt taxes
placed on India as a way to band the people of India together, united under a common cause. He
announced that together with 78 trained Satyagrahias from his ashram he would March to the
village of Dandhi and publicly break the salt laws that made it illegal for individuals to manufacture
salt in India. As Gandhi marched through villages he stopped to address the people on the
importance of satyagraha. Gradually, international press became interested as the marchers grew
with every village visited. Historian Yogesh Chadha, author of Rediscovering Gandhi explains
that the spectacle of this sixty-six year old man, staff in hand, striding vigorously to challenge
peacefully the mighty British Empire aroused the interest and sympathy of millions all over the
world. On the 5th of April, a band several thousand strong reached the sea at Dandi. Gandhi bent
down and scooped up a lump of salt left by the evaporation of sea water. Yogesha Chadha describes
how this small symbolic act inspired millions across India. Within a week the storm had swept
across India and everyone seemed to be gathering salt. This demonstrated the significant impact of
Gandhis campaigns on Indian nationalism.
British response to march campaign was disinclined as they wanted to avoid the embarrassment of
Gandhi emerging as a martyr or fasting in jail. At the announcement of a march on the Dharsana
salt works, Viceroy Irwin had no choice but to arrest him. The true significance of the Salt
Satyagraha on the development of Indian nationalism can be seen through the Dharsana salt march
which took place without the assistance of Gandhi. On the 25th of April, thousands of supporters
walked towards the salt works watched by foreign reporters. When struck by the British none of the
man raised an arm to fend off the blows. This act was to define world opinion of the British
occupation of India. Previously, British validated their presence in India by claiming that the
Indians were barbarians who could not govern themselves. But, as U.S correspondent Webb Miller
reports, this was not the case anymore. The police commenced savagely kicking the seated men in
the abdomen and testicles.
These historical events were to shape the development of Indian nationalism throughout the 1930s.
This was to be the beginning of a social revolution. For the first time, incidents occurring in India
were gaining strong international media coverage and with the arrest of Gandhi, the civil
disobedience movement widened to millions across India. The reaction of the British to this
growing civil disobedience in India was to establish a set of three round table conferences to discuss
the ways of implementing the recommendations made by the Simon Commission. As most of the
congress leaders were in gaol, the first round table conference was devoid of any Indian
representation. At the realisation that no lasting solutions were likely to emerge from the round
table conferences, Viceroy Irwin created a pact with Gandhi in 1931. In an embarrassing move for
the British, the pact allowed representatives of congress to meet with Gandhi in prison, all future
negotiations would involve congress, the future constitution would be federal and ensured that
congress would immediately end civil disobedience. This pact was highly significant as it displayed
the hight of Gandhis status in International politics as the leader of the Indian nationalism
movement and gave India the appearance that they were negotiating on the same level with the
British. Historian Stanley Wolpert author of Gandhis Passion speaks of how Winston Churchill,
British Prime Minister was particularly angered by the pact. who was nauseated to see the half
naked fakir striding upstairs to the residency of the viceroy.
The second round table conference, held in 1931 was a strong indication of the international support
being given to Gandhis work in India. Gandhis arrival in London was given extensive media
attention and the public welcomed him as a hero. His visit to the Cotton Mill workers in Darwen
whose jobs had been effected by campaigns in India was warmly welcomed with excited, cheering
crowds. In the midst of central London, surrounded by English values, Gandhi still wore his

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traditional Indian clothing. This symbolised how effective his campaigns in India had been over the
past fifty years. As a result of the round table conferences and continued disturbance in India, the
British government approved the Government of India Act, 1935. This was the largest act ever
passed by a British parliament. India was to become a federation with powers shared between the
viceroy and two federal assembles (diarchy). The act was given support by Gandhi as he wished to
unite congress and an election was called. Although the win by the Congress party boosted national
moral, it had major implications for the future unity of India.
The 1930s Salt Satyagraha campaign led to major developments in Indian Nationalism. Gandhis
rallying of millions across India and effective campaigning allowed for a common belief that India
had the power to one day become an independent nation. With the aid of international media
attention and salt satyagraha campaign, support for Indian nationalism grew over the 1930s. A
nations culture resides in the hearts and in the soul of its people- Mohandas Gandhi
ESSAY 4
Asses the view that communalism was more important then nationalism in India 1919-47
Based on a South Asian political theory, communalism highlights the conflicts between religious
communities and the insists on protecting the rights of a particular religious or ethnic sect. In India,
this conflict references specifically to friction between Hindu and Muslim communities. In stark
contrast, nationalism refers to a policy of asserting the interests on a nation, viewed as separate
from the interests of other nations. Although the prominent focus in India was the promotion of
nationalism and gaining independence, the advent of communalism became of a more important
nature as the rift between Hindu Muslim relations led to a major split within the Indian community
and the formation of a separate Muslim state. Dating back to the the loss of the Mughal Empire,
Muslims in India have expressed feeling of oppression by the Hindus and under representation
within political movements. With the split from the Indian National Congress in 1906, the All India
Muslim League was established and Muslims started to gain a political voice. Although the
Leagues goal was not for a separate state, as conflicts arose between Hindus and Muslims, the
Muslim League lead by Mohhamed Ali Jinnah came to the realisation that the Muslim minority
were not going to receive fair representation within India. This assessment of the importance of
communalism from 1919 to 1947 throughly analyses the nature of Hindu, Muslim relations and the
impact it had on a nation.
The nature of the Muslim religion differs dramatically from that of the Hindu government. Based
on the teachings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Islam commands obedience and the fusion of
religion and political activity. In stark contrast Hinduism ensures that society operates in such a way
that allow each person to follow his/her dharma (religious duty). The two religions also fought over
dominant language, the sacred nature of cows and Hindu Muslim intermarriage. With such
dissimilarity between the two religions, the ability for each to live side-by-side has become an
unattainable aspiration and has resulted in communalism. Prior to the 1947 partition, numerous
attempts were made to prevent communalism but attempts seemed fruitless. In 1885 the Indian
National Congress was founded. Although Congress made genuine efforts to incorporate the
Muslim community it was indisputably a Hindu dominated party. This worried many Muslims as
with the introduction of Gandhis nationalistic agenda such as satyagraha and non-cooperation
campaign, independence appeared increasingly feasible and the concept of a dominant Hindu Raj
was no more appealing then a British Raj. A decisive moment came in 1900 when the British
Administration gave into Hindu demands for the official language in India to be changed to Hindi
in
place of Persian which had been the court language under the Mughal Empire. This act appeared to
verify Muslim fears that the Hindu Congress would suppress Muslim culture in an independent
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India. British official Sir Percival Griffiths stated that the Muslim belief that their interest must be
regarded as completely separate from those of the Hindus, and that no fusion of the two
communities was possible.
Amongst the members of Congress was Muslim born Muhammed Ali Jinnah, a major advocate for
nationalism and Hindu, Muslim unity. Jinnah did not join the Muslim league when first formed as
its platform was based around support for the British Raj. To promote among the Mussalamans of
India, feelings of loyalty to the British government. In 1920 Jinnah resigned from Congress when
he felt the methods of Gandhi unleashed unconstitutional disruption and appealed to the mob.
He was also convinced that the Congress would renounce its support for separate electorates for
Muslims. Although at this stage Jinnah still supported Hindu, Muslim unity he argued that Muslims
should be guaranteed one-third of the seats in any Indian parliament. Jinnahs split from Congress
was a major advocate for communalism as his support was one of the remaining few for Congress
policies. Becoming the president of the Muslim League in 1916, Jinnah negotiated the Lucknow
pact between the Congress and Muslim League. An agreement was reached that pressure would be
placed on the British government for self-government and separate electorates for all communities.
In 1920, moves were made by both Congress and the Muslim League to prevent the advent of
communalism. With the post World War One concerns of the loss of the Sultans authority in
Turkey
and the non-cooperation campaign underway, the Ali brothers of Muslim decent came to the
realisation that Gandhi could deliver their cause a considerable amount of Indian support. Although
Gandhis ultimate goal was a united India and he ceded to the offer of a united front, many of the
League members regarded non-violence as foolish and outbreaks of violence followed. After the
ultimate failure of the non-cooperation campaign, Jinnah became disillusioned with politics and
spent most of the 1920s in London. The leadership of the league was taken over by Sir Muhammad
Iqbal. Unlike Jinnah the ambassador for Hindu Muslim unity, Iqubal had radical ideas about the
creation of a homeland for Muslims, separate from India. He called this land Pakistan, the land of
the pure. This notion was a major pivotal point for communalism as prior to this, there had been no
mention of a religious split within India. When proposed to Jinnah he was greatly angered as he
claimed the British brought Hindu Muslim unity and the League was striving to destroy it. Historian
Akbar Ahmed Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity states that at this point in time, Jinnah was
going through a mid-life crisis and was very detached form the feelings of the Muslim population
in India. Not even responding to the the most important political crisis of the decade, that of the
Khilafat, he seemed to be increasingly isolated from his community.
Congress made several more mistakes in their policies towards the Islamic culture. One such policy
was the institution of the Bande Matram, a form of national anthem which expressed anti-Muslim
sentiments. Congress insisted that this song must be sung daily in schools throughout India. In1927,
Jinnah entered into negotiations with Hindu leaders on the issue of a future constitution. The
League heavily pushed for separate electorates for provinces with a Muslim majority whereas the
Nehru report constructed by members of congress, wanted collaboration. In answer to the Nehru
report Jinnah constructed a fourteen point plan but failed to achieve his proposed three quarter
Muslim representation. Historians Metcalf and Metcalf suggest that this failure led to Jinnahs
distrust in Congress. Distrust was never subsequently to be overcome. The 1937 elections proved
to the the final straw for Jinnah and the ever expanding advent of communalism. After Congresss
refusal to allow solely Muslim lead provinces Jinnah felt alienated and became a determined
opponent of Congress and its policies. He now fervently believed that Hindu Muslim unity could
not be achieved due to the stubborn, uncompromising nature of Congress.
With Jinnahs rejection of Congress and subsequent pledge for a separate homeland, the Muslim
League started to gain crucial support from the Muslim community. In 1939 war broke out across

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Europe and Britain was called to arms and as India was still apart of the British empire its
population had a duty to back Britain in the form of military support. As Congress had banned
support for the British during the war and subsequently resigned from government, the British
turned to the Muslim community for support. This withdrawal of Congress from power had helped
the League gain authority and favour in the eyes of the British. To celebrate Jinnah called for a Day
of Deliverance for all Indian Muslims. Although at this point Jinnah was being granted concessions
by the British he still did not know wanted he wanted for the future of the Muslim community in
India. Historian .......
The Lahore conference of 1940 saw a significant change in Jinnahs attitude towards the partition of
India. Dressed in a traditional Muslim garb sherwani in contrast to his previous English style
suits, Jinnah addressed a crowd of Muslims calling for a separate homeland as Hindus and
Muslims belong to tow different religions, philosophies, social customs and literature. To yoke
together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a
majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up
for the government of such a state. It is imperative to note that at this point in time, Jinnah does not
use the word Pakistan but strives for a separate province ruled by Muslims within India.
The Direct Action Day, also known as the Great Calcutta Riots 1946 became a decisive day for the
promotion of communalism and Jinnah as an advocate of the partition of India in the form of
Pakistan. Now that Britain under the new leadership of Clement Attlee was willing to offer India
complete independence the issue of communalism was breached with dire consequences. In July
1946, Jinnah held a press conference in Bombay and declared the League had decided to boycott
the Constitute Assembly that proposed the transfer of power post independence to a combination
interim government. He stated that if Muslims were not granted Pakistan he would launch Direct
Action. We do not want war, if you want war we accept your offer unhesitatingly. We shall have
India divided or we shall have India destroyed." This statement trigged mass riots by Muslims in
Calcutta against Hindu and Sikhs and followed with retaliatory attacks on Muslims by Congress
supporters. Within seventy two hours more then 4,000 people had lost their lives and 100,000 left
homeless in the city of Calcutta. These events convey Jinnahs conclusive attitude and sow the seed
for the partition of India.
PARAGRAPH TIMELINE
Context of British India
With a population of over 1 billion people, India is made up of areas of extreme population
masses, and sparsely populated jungle or desert. Unlike Britain, India is characterised by
numerous religions including, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Christianity, each with a
different belief system and set of values. The Hindus who make up a large majority of the
population follow a caste system, broken up into 4 main caste groups determined by
occupation. Muslims on the other hand, make up 20% of the population and live in highly
populated masses in the north west and eastern Bengal. Unlike the Hindus, they follow
one g-d and observe the five pillars of Islam. Prior to British rule, these dichotomous
religions lived in relative harmony with little friction.
As the British took over India as part of their empire, they attempted to westernise the
colony. A western style administration system including a train network and international
economy was developed. In terms of a system of government, India was ruled exclusively
by the British crown, via a viceroy, council of advisory and princely India who ruled over
their territories as despots. Many Indians also felt that they were entitled to have a say in
how their country was run, Englishman Hume, founded the Indian National Congress, a
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group of well educated, wealthy and higher caste Hindus. These characteristics prevented
them from initially receiving support from the mass, poverty stricken, illiterate population
and the Muslim community.
Under this system of government, many economic and social problems erupted, creating
an atmosphere of unrest and discontent. Many Indian blamed their poverty on the British
government and landowners. No one could escapee. The middle classes were caught
between the high cost of living and fixed incomes, the merchants faced the possibility of
losing their wartime profits and the untouchables were experiencing high shortages of food
and basic necessities. Muslims also blamed the British for many of their social and
political issues. After Turkey was defeated in WWI it was stripped of its empire and the
Sultan lost control of the three holy Muslim places. Many Muslims, especially those of the
Khilafat movement, demanded of the British, that the Sultan regain his authority and
guardianship.
Hartal 1919
It was in this atmosphere of nationwide political, religious and social unrest, that the British
introduced the Rowlatt Bills, referred to by many Indians as Black Laws. During WWI, the
British Raj was granted special powers, powers that instilled internment, suspended many
civil liberties and human rights. However, after the war the government attempted to
prolong its wartime powers via the Defence of India Act 1919. Virtually every Indian was
opposed to the act viewing it as an an attempt to deprive the people of their g-d given
right to freedom of expression, thus breaking the law of g-d- Gandhi. In response to the
act, Congress member Gandhi offered Satyagraha in the form of a Hartal. Satyagraha was
a technique Gandhi developed at the Bhagava Gita in London, and in South Africa dealing
with the Black Ordinance Laws 1906. The technique was centered around Ahimsa, a
force born of truth, love and nonviolence- Gandhi. Satyagraha had first been brought to
India by Gandhis Champaran campaign 1914 and Karia 1917. Although these campaigns
had mixed results, it proved that Satyagraha was an effective way of communication with
the peasants in India (an act never attempted by an India politician), and sharing their way
of life. Now faced with the problems of British oppression, Gandhi proposed a Hartal to
Congress, a day of fasting, praying and closure of shops. The proposal was met with
opposition from many senior political figures who saw Gandhi as a naive Gujirati upstart,
playing with fire by trying to mobile the masses. However, the Hartal was schedule for the
6th May 1919.
From the outset, the campaign was characterised by mass confusion and violence. In
Delhi, the campaign started a week early and crowd clashed with police. In the Punjab,
Lieutenant Michael ODwyer, a retiring general relished at the prospect of a final
showdown with the Indians. After ordering armed police onto the streets of Lahore, he
issued an exclusion order, arresting Gandhi as he tried to enter the Punjab. At the news of
Gandhis arrest, protestors took to the streets, attacking Europeans, burning government
buildings, looting shops and graffitiing buildings with kill all Europeans. A meeting at
Jaliaqala Bagh was also called in protest of Gandhis arrest, an meeting that for forbidden
by the Rowlatt Act. General Dyer was called in to deal with the meeting, a man who made
ODywer appear a watery liberal. Entering the enclosure, Dyer machine gunned 379
participants as they were trying to flee. Dyer also implemented the crawling orders which
aimed to humiliate Indians, forcing them at bayonet to crawl on their bellies, and erected a
platform by which Indians could be publicly flogged.

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The campaign was called off on April 18th. The government had no been intimidated,
many lives and been sacrificed, and the violent outbreaks had exposed the fundamental
principles of mass satyagraha. Gandhi took the failure of the campaign upon himself,
describing it as a Himalayan miscalculation and acknowledged that much educating
needs to be done before it could be used as a mass weapon. However, the campaign had
not been a complete failure. It represented a turning point in modern india, uniting the
people behind an ideal of nationalism after years of ineffectual constitutionalism and
community divisions. Many Indians began to realise that there was an alternative to the
type of politics that had been practiced in India for decades without success. Furthermore,
the brutality of the Amritsar massacre destroyed any moral justification the British may
have claimed for their conquering presence in India.
In 1920, the Hunter Committee was set up to investigate the recent disturbances in the
Punjab, They concluded that his majesties government repudiates the doctrine of
frightfulness upon which general Dyer based his actions. However, back in Britain Dyer
for awarded with a jeweled stone, inscribed with the words to the savour on Punjab an
the Morning Post launched a fund to raise money for the man who saved India. In
response, the once sympathetic and peaceful minded Gandhi, become a determined
opponent of the British, and forthwith campaigned for self-government in India. When a
government takes up arms against its unarmed subjects, this it has for fitted its right to
govern. Nothing less then the removal of the British and complete self-government could
satisfy India.
Non-cooperation 1920-22
In 1919, the British government implemented the Montague-Chelsford reforms
(Government of India Act) which introduced a system of Diarchy to India. This system of
government aimed to allocate aspect of government to elected provincial assemblies
(limited home rule). However, many important aspects of government still remained in the
hands of the viceroy and counil, who had the power to veto the actions of any province. In
light of the upcoming elections, and the two wrongs the British had imposed on India,
Khilafat and Amritsar, Gandhi responded with a campaign of non-cooperation. Noncooperation was based on the principles of satyagraha and that idea that if any Indians
refused to cooperate with their British rulers, the British would be unable to rule and bring
the entire British system to a halt within 12 months.
After narrowly winning Congress support, Gandhi marked out areas for particular attention
in the campaign. There would be no electoral participation under the 1919 act, Swedish
would be imposed on all foreign goods, all titles and honors conferred on Indians by the
British were to be given up and all Indians must refuse to work for their British employers.
Furthermore, the wearing of Khadi and spinning because a mass symbol of Swedish. As
cheap cotton cloth produced in factories had prompted a devastating decline in Indian
spun cotton, Gandhis introduction of the daily ritual of spinning allowed the Indian villages
to become self-sufficient. On the first day of non-cooperation, millions of Indians gathered
behind Gandhi shouting Mahatma Gandhi Ki Jai!. Thousands of students and teachers
left the cities to teach literacy and satyagraha in the villages. When Gandhi told audiences
they that must not wear foreign cloth, they stripped off their clothing into a pile and burned
it. The spinning of Kahdi also opened up opportunities for women, as it allowed women to
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participate in the creation of a nation. Non-cooperation saw a new era in unity and action,
transforming India into a totally self-sufficient society of peaceful industrious people.
The khilafat movement also participated in the campaign after realizing that Gandhi could
deliver their plight for the restoration of the Sultan, considerable support. Although in
essence, the movement and its leaders, the Ali Brothers, embraced violence, they
accepted Gandhis non-violent stance and become major participants in the campaign.
Gandhi saw their involvement as a major opportunity to rise above the policies of separate
communities, and establish a national political movement. Now that Gandhi had the whole
of India working together, the Hindus, Muslims and women, he could now demonstrate to
the British, Indias ability to work together as a united movement and gain independence.
However, by 1922, Gandhi called off the campaign due to the increased outbreaks of
violence. An Indian mob had lacked and burned 22 policemen in Chari-Chuara and the
support of the Ali brothers was crumbling. India was still not ready for Gandhis
satyagraha. Like the Hartal, although the campaign had ended in failure, it had great
impacts on the growth of nationalism. Many across India were now looking to Gandhi to
guide them to Swaraj and the British were slowly, but steadily, losing their grip on the
country. Gandhis arrest and trial also had significant impacts on the growth of nationalism.
In his trial for sedition, Gandhi was allowed to read out a lengthy statement, stating that I
cheerfully submitted to the highest penalty. This in turn inspired others not to be afraid of
jail in their pursuit of their national goal and turned Gandhi into a nationally recognised
martyr.
Role, Ideas and Impact of Gandhi 1922-27
During Gandhis time in prison, Congress became divided over differing ideologies. The
no-changers, led by Patel, wanted to continue Gandhis program, emphasize the
importance of preparing Hindu-Muslim relations, and preach the importance of spinning.
On the other side, the pro-changers led by Nehru, believed India was not ready for a full
program of satyagraha, pushing for a new political strategy. At the 1922 meeting of
Congress, the pro-changers were defeated, and went on to form their own party, Congress
Swaraj Party until its collapse in 1925.
In 1924, Gandhi was released form prison due to ill health. However, he did not rejoin the
political sphere, opting to return to his ashram and devote himself to social reform. He
contended that focusing on the daily incremental socio-economic changes, could bring
nationalism and satyagraha to the life of every peasant. Gandhis ability to resonate in the
hearts of many Indians and make a huge impact in the villages was mainly due to the
popularity he gained during his previous campaign. The symbolism of traveling third class
and wearing Khadi was a visible tie that bound him with the masses- Chadha.
Furthermore, Gandhi believed that if he could make himself a complete spiritual being and
one with g-d, his world would be like magic to the Indian people, and they would unite
under a common goal of swaraj.
Over the next few years, Gandhi set out across the country, visiting the villages and
preaching his message of anti-discrimination, Hindu-Muslim unity and spinning. Gandhi
suggested that spinning was the cloth binds all the brothers and sisters of India together
and will lift them to freedom from their present lives of poverty. Gandhi focus on spinning
not only allowed the villages to become self-sufficient and united, but showed the British

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that india was not a land of separate communities with varied clothing styles, but a land fit
for self-rule. Furthermore, he believed that village reform was vital to gaining
independence as Indias strength lied within her people. Cleanliness became a major
feature of his campaign, including swept streets and personal hygiene. Lastly Gandhi
believed it was vital to promoted the rights of women, speaking on problems such as
divorce and child brides. Much of this social reform was driven by Gandhis belief that in
order to obtain Swarak, all of India, all castes, religions and gender must be involved.
Gandhi's also used ashrams (communal living) to show the people of India, the ideals and
cultural values he envisaged for the nation. Within these ashrams, first used by Gandhi in
South Africa, a strict set of rules including celibacy, manual labour that was generally
reserved for untouchables and ahimsa, was observed at all times, by all members. All
masculine traits were to be rejected, as Gandhi believed masculinity led to anger and
violence, allowing the women to participate in ashram life and the men to love ones fellow
man. This further emphasises Gandhis message of unity between all religions and castes,
in the fight for swaraj.
Although Gandhi was preaching daily, Hindu-Muslim unity, the relations between the two
religious was rapidly deteriorating. In 1924, Turkeys president abolished the position of
the Sultan and the Khilafat movement, the last link between Gandhi and the Muslim
community, fell apart. Muslim was now deliberately killing cows in public and Hindu would
direct loud religious processions past mosques. In 1925, relations hit a low when a Hindu
published a book offending Muslims. The Muslim community reacted by killing the author
and massacring 36 Hindus. Gandhi and satyagraha was still a long way from gaining a
united, independent India.
Simon Commission 1927
In 1927, the British government announced a proposal to advance India towards selfgovernment. This was a due to the upcoming British election in which the conservative
party heard the if the Labour government won, they would allow concessions to occur
within India more rapidly, and Britain could loose the jewel of the empire. The Simon
commission was appointed to visit India and report on its readiness for further progress
towards self-government. However, the commission only consisted of British MPs and was
therefore boycotted by Congress. A Congress committee was established to draft an
alternative proposal to whatever the Simon Commission proposed, commencing in the
Nehru report. The report proposed a system of joint and reserved electorates in an
independent India, not separate. This angered many of the Muslim community who
rejected the report.
The Simon Commission also provoked arguments within Congress over whether dominion
status or independence should be adopted as the parties goal. This argument brought
gandhi back into the political sphere. He offered a compromise, of the British had not
granted dominion status by 1929, Congress would opt for Swaraj. In 1929, the British
government declared that dominion status was their objective and swaraj was adopted as
Congresss goal. There political sphere was now set for a battle for independence.
Salt Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience 1930-32

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Gandhi was now ready, after years of devotion to the villages, to begin a second
satyagraha campaign. He came to the decision, via his inner voice, to personally break
the salt laws which made it illegal for individuals to manufacture salt. This campaign could
not have come at a better time as with the great depression spreading across the world,
Britain heavily relied on its foreign markets and their monopoly on salt. Furthermore, this
campaign would allow Gandhi to educate more people on satyagraha and have a powerful
emotional appeal, as all Indians regarded salt as a necessity in their diet. Unlike his
previous campaigns, which involved the Indian masses, Gandhi decided to only encourage
those who were rigorously trained in satyagraha to break the salt laws. Gandhi ensured
that this campaign would be a non-violent struggle as to not alienate those who feared a
serious struggle with the British.
On the 12th of March, dressed only in Khadi, Gandhi along with 78 trained satyagrahsias
began the long March from his ashram to the sea in Dandhi. Along the way, he stopped in
the villages preaching satyagraha, and as his passed, the number of marchers grew. On
the anniversary of the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi reached the sea, stooped down and
picked up a pie of salt declaring, I have made salt an illegal act. This symbolic act gave
Indians the conviction that they could lift the foreign yoke from their shoulders. Between
1930-32, Gandhi broadened his campaign, urging students to suspend your studies and
join the fight for freedom, and urging his followers to follow prohibition, which played a
part in persuading women to join his cause.
Although viceroy Irwin was determined not to arrest Gandhi in fear of the repercussions,
when Gandhi announced a raid on the Dharaana salt works, he was left with no choice.
However, Gandhi's followers decided to carry on Gandhis work and publicize their cause
around the world. In May, a group of satyagrahsis approached the salt works, instructed by
leader Naidu, you must no even raise a hand to ward off the blows. As the men
advanced, they sat down and the police proceeded to lash out at the men. Reporter Webb
Miller described the scene. Marchers simply walked forward until struck down. Not even
one raised their hand to fend off the blows. They went down like ten-pin bowel as the
police savagely kicked the seated men in the abdomen and testicles. This gallant act
served to be of great political significance as it showed the world, that the British who
claimed oral superiority, were without credibility. Furthermore, it symbolized Britain to be
powerful and the Indians invincible.
Round Table Conferences 1931
In 1931, the Round Table Conferences were held in London to discuss the implementation
of the recommendations made by the Simon Commission. However, as many of the
Congress leaders were in jail from civil-disobedience, no Indian representatives were
present. Viceroy Irwin realised that without the involvement on Congress, no lasting
solutions were likely to emerge. Although he did not want to be seen negotiating with
Congress, he was forced to released the leaders and subsequently made a pact with
Gandhi so that he would go to London. In this fact, it was agreed that all future
negotiations would involve Congress, Civil disobedience would ended, and that people in
coastal areas would be permitted to collect salt, thus ending Britains monopoly.
Gandhis arrival in London for the 2nd RTC was met with tremendous welcome by the
media, showing his international influence, and mass media attention. Many saw him,
especially the poorer members of English society, as an inspirational figure. However, his

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dealing with Churchill and the British were no where near as successful. The Muslim
representation refused to accept that Congress represented the entire population, and
force fiercely for separate electorates. Churchill was also much less sympathetic to Indian
ambitions, stating I did not become the first minister to see its empire disintegrate.
Gandhi left London feeling isolated and alienated, returning to India with nothing to show
for his efforts. I wanted to turn the truce settled in Delhi into a permanent settlement. But
for g-d sake, give a frail man a little bit of a change. It add insult to injury, a decision
confirming separate electorates was passed for Muslims and Untouchables, a bitter blow
for Gandhi and his fight for unity and anti-discrimination. He fasted until the decision was
overturned.
On Gandhis return to India. He announced a second civil disobedience campaign, but it
proved to be highly ineffective. The government was no longer willing to handle
disobedience lightly, jailing 30,000 Indians, and with the world wide depression over,
Indians were finding their difficult circumstances easing. No longer were there any
significant local issues on which to build a powerful national movement. For the next few
years that passed, the situation descended into a cat and mouse game between Britain
and India, with no clear winner. In 1934, gandhi once again resigned from Congress to
devote himself to building more ashrams, and civil-disobedience, like the campaign that
had proceeded it, ended in violence.
Impact of WWII
With the outbreak of war in Europe, viceroy Linithgow proclaimed without consulting any
Indians, that India was at war with germany. Spokesperson for Congress, Nehru, was
greatly angered by with proclamation and stated, India cannot associate herself with a
war said to be for democratic freedom when that very freedom is being denied to her. As
Congress members resigned leaving Jinnah and the Muslim League in charge. Faced with
the prospect of a Japanese invasion of India, the British offered an Congress an Indianised
executive council immediately after the war in return for their support, but Congress
rejected this offer. They were pessimistic that even through Britain was virtually offering
them self-rule, the power would still remain firmly under the viceroy. Indian hopes of
independence were raised when Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter with Roosevelt, as
the charter promised all peoples the right to live under a government of their choice after
the war. However, these hopes were dashed when Churchill made a speech to the British
cabinet, expressly excluding India from the provisions of the charter. This served only to
confirm Indian suspicions that regardless of what was offered, Churchill would never
concede self-rule to India.
As the war heated up in the Pacific, Roosevelt impressed on Churchill the urgency of
winning more positive support for the war effort in India. Gandhi believed that India should
remain neutral in the world conflict and Congress has expressly denied participation.
Although Churchill had no desire to transfer power to a Brahman Oligarchy, he was in no
position to resist Roosevelt's demands. He dispatched Sir Cripps to India, to negotiate with
Congress. While in India, Cripps was under no guidance as to what he was entitled to offer
the Indian. In this atmosphere of confusion, he offered India dominion status, a constitution
making body, and offered the Muslims, who the British wished to retain allegiance with, the
possibility of Pakistan. Any province in India which wishes to remain outside the union is
free to frame its own constitution and exist as an independent union. Despite Cripps
efforts, the mission proved to be long and futile. The Congress saw the offer as too little to
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late, and Gandhi as a post-date cheque of a failing bank. Churchill also ensured that the
mission achieved nothing, but still served to satisfy the American who saw that the British
had made a genuine offer.
Quit India 1942-43
By 1942, the Japanese were on Indias doorstop. Gandhi believed that the only way to
stop an invasion was an immediate declaration of independence, as given a stake in the
defence of their country, Gandhi contested that the people would rally behind its leaders
and see the country through the crisis. Furthermore, Gandhi suggested that with the British
out of India, they had nothing to fear from the Japanese. This optimist view was met with
fierce opposition from Nehru, would claimed that there was nothing in the Japanese record
to support Gandhi;s view that non-violence would be effective in this situation. However, in
a final push for independence, Congress decided to push through a resolution called Quit
India, and committed themselves to a final non-violence struggle for freedom. we shall
either free India or die in the attempt. In this zeitgeist, the British were ot going to treat any
civil-disobedience lightly. There was a war to be fought and trouble in India was not to be
tolerated.
The morning after the announcement, Gandhi and many leading Congress members, were
arrested and jailed. The campaign continued, going through various stages of widespread
violence, First was a period of widespread rioting, which was brutally expressed.
Following, the Indians tried a tactic of targeting British influences in India, roads, railways
and lines of communication with little success. Lastly, guerilla warfare was fought which
lasted well into 1943. This tactic only created limited problems for the British. By the end of
1943, 1065 Indians were killed and thousands arrested. The campaign ended as it had
stared, in mass confusion and violence, signally the failure of the non-violence to gain
independence.
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944
In 1944, Gandhi turned to brother Jinnah to discuss the future and possible unity of the
League and Congress. The war appeared to be coming to an end and Gandhi hoped that
as a united front, they could force the British to submit to independence. However, many
Muslims saw the talks as a symbol of Gandhi's acceptance of Pakistan in principle. From
thr outset, the talks were characterised with confusion and contrasting ideologies. Held at
Jinnahs home, the talks lasted 18, and by the end, both leaders left frustrated and with no
decision reached. One major reason for their failure was the position of strength Jinnah
was in going into the talks. After returning from London, Jinnah had reshaped the Muslim
League into a powerful political force, and his aid of Muslim troops to the war effort had
given him favour in the eyes of the British, especially after Quit India. Jinnah was therefore
in no mood to negotiate for unity. Chadha explains, the fact that the talks were held in
Jinnahs home and at Gandhi's initiative, indicated the advantage the League had
acquired. The talks showed a major turning point in Hindu-Muslims relations which was to
a decisive relationship in the years to come. Jinnah emerged as a powerful, unrelenting
leader in a new era of Muslim power and fight for partition.
End of the War & British Power 1945

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In 1945, the end of the war came with the dropping of the bomb on Hiroshima, and the
British had to face the question of their role in India. The British public were swimming in
waves of war weariness and Churchill knew they couldnt accept another period of
bloodshed in India. Furthermore, the British had experienced huge casualties and loss of
resources during the war making it evident that they couldnt maintain their pre-war
imperial power. A process of Indianisation was begun by the government. By 1948, it was
said that only 3000 British civil-servants would remain in India, and viceroy Wavehill
announced that self-government would be granted to India. Mass restructure of the
executive council followed, which was to include equal Congress and League
representatives, a concession given to Jinnah for his aid during the war. This meant that
after independence, the League was to be given equal status to Congress, an illustration
of how far the League had come. The various parties were summoned to Simla to discuss
a future constitution, but the meeting proved to be a failure due to deep rooted divisions
between Congress and the League.

HSC STUDY BUDDY