History of Philosophy

byWilliamTurner,S.T.D.
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HISTORYOFPHILOSOPHYINTRODUCTION
THEHistoryofPhilosophyistheexpositionofphilosophicalopinionsandofsystemsandschoolsofphilosophy.Itincludesthestudy
ofthelivesofphilosophers,theinquiryintothemutualconnectionofschoolsandsystemsofthought,andtheattempttotracethe
courseofphilosophicalprogressorretrogression.Thenatureandscopeofphilosophyfurnishreasonsforthestudyofitshistory.
Philosophydoesnotconfineitsinvestigationtooneortoseveraldepartmentsofknowledge;itisconcernedwiththeultimate
principlesandlawsofallthings.Everysciencehasforitsaimtofindthecausesofphenomena;philosophyseekstodiscover
ultimatecauses,thuscarryingtoahigherplanetheunifyingprocessbeguninthelowersciences.Thevastnessofthefieldofinquiry,
the difficulty of synthesizing the results of scientific investigation, and the constantly increasing complexity of these results
necessitatedthegradualdevelopmentofphilosophy.Toeachgenerationandtoeachindividualtheproblemsofphilosophypresent
themselvesanew,andthe influences,personal, racial, climatic,social, and religious,whichbearonthegenerationoron the
individualmustbestudiedinorderthatthemeaningandvalueofeachdoctrineandsystembeunderstoodandappreciated.Such
influencesaremorethanamatterofmereerudition;theyhavetheirplaceinthepraenotandatothesolutionofeveryimportant
questioninphilosophy;for,asColeridgesays,"theveryfactthatanydoctrinehasbeenbelievedbythoughtfulmenispartofthe
problemtobesolved,isoneofthephenomenatobeaccountedfor."Moreover,philosophicaldoctrines,whiletheyaretobe
regardedprimarilyascontributionstotruth,arealsotobestudiedasvitalforceswhichhavedeterminedtoalargeextenttheliterary,
artistic,political,andindustriallifeoftheworld.Today,morethanever,itisclearlyunderstoodthatwithoutaknowledgeofthese
forcesitisimpossibletocomprehendtheinnermovementsofthoughtwhichaloneexplaintheouteractionsofmenandnations.
ThedangerstobeavoidedinthestudyofthehistoryofphilosophyareEclecticism,whichteachesthatallsystemsareequally
true,andScepticism,whichteachesthatallsystemsareequallyfalse.Acarefulstudyofthecourseofphilosophicalspeculation
willresultintheconvictionthat,whilenosingleschoolcanlayclaimtotheentiretruth,certainschoolsofthoughthaveadoptedthat
worldconceptwhichcanbemostconsistentlyappliedtoeverydepartmentofknowledge.Falsesystemsofphilosophymaystumble
onmanyimportanttruths,butarightconceptoftheultimatemeaningofrealityandacorrectnotionofphilosophicmethodarethe
essentialsforwhichwemustlookineverysystem;theseconstitutealegitimatestandardofvaluationbywhichthestudentofthe
historyofphilosophymayjudgeeachsuccessivecontributiontophilosophicalscience.
Themethodtobefollowedinthisstudyistheempirical,oraposteriori,method,whichisemployedinallhistoricalresearch.The
speculative,orapriori,methodconsistsinlayingdownaprinciple,suchastheHegelianprinciplethatthesuccessionofschools
andsystemscorrespondstothesuccessionoflogicalcategories,anddeducingfromsuchaprincipletheactualsuccessionof
schoolsandsystems.But,apartfromthedangerofmisstatingfactsforthesakeofmethodicsymmetry,suchaproceduremustbe
judgedtobephilosophicallyunsound;forsystemsofphilosophy,likefactsofgeneralhistory,arecontingentevents.Thereare,
indeed,lawsofhistoricaldevelopment;butsuchlawsaretobeestablishedsubsequently,notanteriorly,tothestudyofthefactsof
history.
Thehistorianofphilosophy,therefore,hasforhistask:(1)Tosetforththelivesanddoctrinesofphilosophersandsystemsand
schoolsofphilosophyintheirhistoricalrelation.This,therecitativeornarrativeportionofthehistorian'stask,includesthecritical
examinationofsources.(2)Totracethegeneticconnectionbetweensystems,schools,anddoctrines,andtoestimatethevalueof

eachsuccessivecontributiontophilosophy.This,thephilosophicalportionofthehistorian'stask,isbyfarthemostimportantof
hisduties: Potiusderebusipsisjudicaredebemus,quampromagnodehominibusquidquisquesenserit
scire.{1}
Thesourcesofthehistoryofphilosophyare:(1)Primarysources,namely,theworks,completeorfragmentary,ofphilosophers.
Itispartofthehistorian'stasktoestablish,whenevernecessary,theauthenticityandintegrityoftheseworks.(2)Secondary
sources,thatis,thenarrationortestimonyofotherpersonsconcerningthelives,opinions,anddoctrinesofphilosophers.In
dealingwithsecondarysourcestherulesofhistoricalcriticismmustbeapplied,inordertodeterminethereliabilityofwitnesses.
Thedivisionofthehistoryofphilosophywillalwaysbemoreorlessarbitraryinmattersofdetail.Thisisowingtothecontinuityof
historicaldevelopment:thestreamofhumanthoughtflowscontinuouslyfromonegenerationtoanother;likeallhumaninstitutions,
systemsandschoolsofphilosophyneverbreakentirelywiththepast;theyariseandsucceedoneanotherwithoutabrupttransition
andmergeintooneanothersoimperceptiblythatitisrarelypossibletodecidewhereoneendsand anotherbegins.Themore
generaldivisions,however,aredeterminedbygreathistoricaleventsandbyobviousnationalandgeographicaldistinctions.Thus,
thecomingofChristdividestheHistoryofPhilosophyintotwoparts,eachofwhichmaybesubdividedasfollows:
PARTIANCIENTORPRECHRISTIANPHILOSOPHY

SECTIONAORIENTALORPREHELLENICPHILOSOPHY
SECTIONBGREEKANDGRECOROMANPHILOSOPHY
SECTIONCGRECOORIENTALPHILOSOPHY

PARTIIPHILOSOPHYOFTHECHRISTIANERA

SECTIONAPATRISTICPHILOsOPHY
SECTIONBSCHOLASTICPHILOSOPHY
SECTIONCMODERNPHILOSOPHY

General Bibliography. The following works treat of the History of Philosophy as a whole: Erdmann, History of
Philosophy,trans.byHough(3vols.,London,1890);Ueberweg,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byMorris(2vols.,NewYork,
1872);Weber,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byThilly(NewYork,1896);Windelband,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byTufts
(secondedition,NewYork,1901);Stckl,LehrbuchderGeschichtederPhilosophie(2Bde.,3.Aufl.,Mainz,1888),trans.in
partfromthesecondeditionbyFinlay(Dublin,1887).
Forthehistoryofpartsofphilosophy,consultPrantl, GeschichtederLogikimAbendlande (4Bde.,Leipzig,1855ff.);
Siebeck, Geschichte der Psychologie (Gotha, 18801884); Sidgwick, History of Ethics (third edition, London, 1892);
Bosanquet,HistoryofAEsthetics(London,1892).
Consult also Willmann, Geschichte des Idealismus (3 Bde., Braunschweig, 18941897), and Lange, History of
Materialism,trans.byThomas(3vols.,London,18781881).
Forcompletebibliography,cf.Weber,op.cit.,pp.13ff.

PART I
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY
SECTIONA
ORIENTALPHILOSOPHY
INthedoctrinesbymeansofwhichtheBabylonians,Chinese,Hindus,Egyptians,andotherOrientalpeoplessoughttoformulate
theirthoughtsconcerningtheoriginoftheuniverseandthenatureanddestinyofman,thereligiouselementpredominatesoverthe
naturalorrationalexplanation.Anadequateaccountofthesedoctrinesbelongs,therefore,totheHistoryofReligionsratherthanto
theHistoryofPhilosophy.While,however,thisisso,andwhilethetaskofseparatingthereligiousfromthephilosophicalelementof
thoughtintheOrientalsystemsofspeculationisbynomeanseasy,someaccountofthesesystemsmustbegivenbeforewepass
tothestudyofWesternthought.
Sources.ThemostimportantcollectionofprimarysourcesisTheSacredBooksoftheEast,editedbyMaxMller(Oxford,
1879ff.).ForacompletelistofsecondarysourcesandrecentstudiesonthereligioussystemsoftheEast,consultLehrbuchder
Religionsgeschichte,vonP.D.ChantepiedelaSaussaye,Bd.II(2.Aufl.,FreiburgimB.,1897).ConsultalsoUeberweg,
HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byMorris(NewYork,1872),Vol.I,pp.15,16.

BABYLONIAANDASSYRIA{2}
When,probablyabouttheyear3800B.C.,theSemitesconqueredBabylonia,theyfoundthereacivilizationwhichis commonly
calledthatoftheAccadiansandSumerians,andisbymanyregardedasthesourceofallthecivilizationsoftheEast.Thereligionof
theAccadianswasoriginallyShamanistic:everyobject,everyforceinnature,wasbelievedtopossessaspirit(Zi)whocouldbe
controlledbythemagicalexorcismsoftheShaman,orsorcererpriest.{3}Graduallycertainofthesespiritshadbeenelevatedtothe
dignityofgods,as,forinstance,Anu(thesky),Mulge,orEnum(theearth),andHea(thedeep).Itwasnot,however,untilthe
timeofAssurbanipal(seventhcenturyB.C.)thatthisprimitivesystemoftheogonybegantodevelopintoasystemofcosmogony
basedontheideathattheuniversearoseoutofachaosofwaters.Beforethattime,thereprevailedinAccadiaavaguetraditional
beliefthatthepresentcosmicsystemwasprecededbyananarchicalchaosinwhichthereexistedcompositecreatures,menwith
thebodiesofbirdsandthetailsoffishes,Nature'sfirstattemptsatcreation.Withthiscreationistlegendwasassociatedanequally
vaguebeliefinagloomyHades,orunderworld,wherethespiritsofthedeadhoverlikebatsandfeedondust.
FromtheearliesttimestheAccadiansdevotedattentiontotheobservationoftheheavenlybodies,anditmaybesaidthatamong
themAstronomyfounditsfirsthome.Theircrudeattemptsatastronomicalobservationswere,however,connectedwithastrological
practices,sothattheChaldaeansbecamefamousamongtheancientsasadeptsinthemagicarts:Chaldaeosneconsulito.In
likemanner,thefirsteffortsatnumericalcomputationandnotationweremadesubservienttothedemandsofthemagician.
ItwasthroughthePhoenicians,whoinauguratedthetradeofwesternAsia,thatthecivilizationoftheAssyriansinfluencedthe
religiousandartisticlifeoftheGreeksandoftheothernationsoftheMediterranean.

EGYPT{4}
UptothepresenttimeEgyptologistshavefailedtoreachanagreementastowhatwastheprimitiveformofreligiousbeliefinancient
Egypt.Inthefirstplace,thechronologicaldifficultieshavehithertoprovedtobeinsurmountable;andinthenextplace,thediversityof
religioussystemsinthedifferentnomes,provinces,intowhichancientEgyptwasdivided,rendersdifficulteveryattemptatforming
atheoryastowhat,ifany,wastheonereligionwhichprevailedthroughoutEgyptatthedawnofhistory.Historiansarecontentwith
datingtheperiodtheseventhcenturyB.C.bydynastiesratherthanbyyears,thefirstdynastybeingplacedaboutthefiftyfifth
centuryB.C.Menes,whoestablishedthefirstdynasty,foundalreadyahierarchicalsystemofdeities,toeachofwhomsomecity
wasdedicated.ButwhatwastheprimitivereligionEgypt,fromwhichthishierarchicalsystemofgodswasevolved?Monotheism,
Polytheism,Pantheism,Henotheism,Totemism,SunWorship,NatureWorship,thesearethewidelydifferent
answerswhichmodernEgyptologistshavegiventoquestion.{5}Scholarsareequallyatvarianceastotheoriginandsignificanceof
AnimalWorshipamongtheEgyptians.When,however,wecometotheperiodofthegreatgods,chiefwhomwereRa(thesun),
Nut(heaven),andSet,orTyphon(theearth),andtothelegendsofOsiris,Isis,andHorus,thereseemstobeverylittleroom
fordoubtastotheessentiallynaturalisticcharacterofthesedivinities."ThekerneloftheEgyptianstatereligionwassolar."{6}
WithregardtothespeculativeelementsofthoughtcontainedinthemythologicalconceptionsoftheEgyptians,mentionmustbe
madeofthedoctrinethateverythingliving,whetheritwasagod,aman,orananimal,possessedaKa,or"shadow,"whichwasin
eachcasemorerealandpermanentthantheobjectitself.Thisnotionwaspresentinthepracticeofanimalworship;for,although
thereisbynomeansaunanimityofopinionamongscholarsinfavorofreducinganimalworshiptomeresymbolism,thereisno
doubtthattheEgyptianmindwasdominatedbytheideathateveryKamusthaveamaterialdwellingplace.Similarly,whenthe
abstractnotionofthedivinitypresenteditselftotheEgyptianmindandwasidentifiedwitheachgodinturn,andwhen,atalatertime,
thereappearedthenotionofapantheisticdivinityinwhomallthegreatgodsweremerged,thedominantideawasalwaysthatofthe
Kaorsoul,whosedwellingplacewastheindividualgodortheuniverse.Anotherconceptionwhichmaybetracedveryfarbackin
thehistoryofEgyptiancivilizationisthatofthemagicalvirtueofnames.
Theideaof"shadow"andthebeliefinthemagicalvirtueofnamesdeterminedtheEgyptiancultofthedeadandthedoctrineof
immortality.FromthemonumentsandtherelicsofancientEgyptianliterature,especiallyfromtheBookoftheDead,{7}itis
clearthatdeepdowninthepopularmindwasthebeliefthatthecontinuedexistenceofapersonafterdeathdependedsomehowon
thepreservationofhisnameandonthepermanenceofthedwellingplacewhichwastoharborhisKa,orshadow.Hence,the
Egyptiansconsideredthatthehousesofthelivingweremerelyinns,andthatthetombsofthedeadareeternalhabitations.Inthe
philosophicaltraditionsofthepriestlycastetheregrewupamorerationaldoctrineofthefuturelife.Accordingtothisdoctrine,man
consistsofthreeparts,theKhat,orbody,theKhu,orspirit,whichisanemanationfromthedivineessence,andthesoul,whichis
sometimesrepresentedasaKadwellinginthemummyorinthestatueofthedeceased,andsometimesasaBa,ordisembodied
soul,whichultimatelyreturnstoitshomeinthelowerworld. {8}ItisthisBa,ordisembodiedsoul,whichafterdeathappearsbefore
Osirisandthefortytwojudges,andisweighedinthebalancebyHorusandAnubiswhileThothrecordstheresult.Thesoulsofthe
blessedareeventuallyadmittedtothehappyfieldsofAalu,theretobepurifiedfromallearthlystainandmademoreperfectwisdom
andgoodness.Thesoulsofthewickedarecondemnedeithertothevarioustormentsofhell,ortowanderingslongandarduous
throughtheregionsbetweenheavenandearth,ortotransmigrationintothebodiesofvariousanimals,or,finally,toannihilation.The
fateofthesoulisdeterminedpartlybythegoodandevilwhichitwroughtduringlifeandpartlybytheamulets,prayers,andgiftsby
whichitsecuredthefavorofthegods.Butwhatevermaybetheimmediatefateofthesoul,itwillultimatelyreturntoitsbody,andon
thegreatdayofresurrectionsoul,body,andspiritshallbeoncemoreunited.
FromthechapteronJudgmentintheBookoftheDeadandfromtheEthicalMaximsofKakimma(thirddynasty)andPtah
Hotep(fifthdynasty)itappearsthattheidealofconductamongtheancientEgyptianswaspractical,ofahighorderofpurity,and
essentially religious. In these documents charity, benevolence, prudence, chastity, social justice, clemency, and the love of
intellectualpursuitsarerankedamongtheforemostvirtues.Andnotonlyexternalmoralityisinculcatedbutalsobemoralityof
thoughtanddesire.

CHINA{9}
When,about2000yearsB.C.,theChinesefirstappearedinthelightofhistory,theyalreadypossessedsocial,political,andreligious
institutionsandamaterialandintellectualcivilizationofahighorder.Itwasnot,however,untilthesixthcenturyB.C.thatthesacred
bookswerecollectedandarranged,althoughsomeofthem,especiallytheYking,wereassignedbytraditiontothelearnedprinces

andkingswho,longbeforethehistoricalperiod,hadinventedtheartofwriting.Thesacredorauthoritativebookswere:
I.TheFiveClassics,namely,theYking,orBookofChanges(divination);theShuking,orBookofHistory;theShiking,or
BookofPoetry;the Leke,orRecord of Rites;and the Chuntsew,Spring and Autumn, aBook ofAnnals,composed by
Confucius.
II.TheFourBooks,namely,Lunyu,orConversationsoftheMaster;Chunyung,orDoctrineoftheMean;Taheo,orGreat
Learning;andMengtse,orTeachingsofMencius.
TheFiveClassicswerecollected,arranged,andeditedbyConfucius(withtheexceptionofthelast,whichwaswrittenbyhim),andit
isimpossibletosaytowhatextenttheeditorintroducedintothetextdoctrinesandopinionsofhisown.TheFourBookswere
composedbydisciplesofConfucius.
BeforethetimeofConfuciusthereexistedanationalorstatereligioninwhichtheprincipalobjectsofworshipwereheaven,and
spiritsofvariouskinds,especiallythespiritsofdeadancestors.Heaven(Thian)isthesupremelord(Shangti),thehighest
objectofworship.{10} Thedeitycarriesonitsworksilentlyandsimply,yetinexorably,intheorderandsuccessionofnatural
phenomena,intherainandthesunshine,theheatandthecold,etc.Withthisnaturalorderarecloselyconnectedthesocial,
political,andmoralordersoftheworld;orrather,allorderisessentiallyone,andperfectionandprosperityinmorallifeandinthe
statedependonmaintainingtheorderwhichisnotonlyheaven'sfirstlaw,butheavenitself.Withtheworshipofheavenwas
connected the worship of spirits (Shan). These are omnipresent throughout nature; they are not, however, addressed as
individuals,butasabodyoraggregationofindividuals,as,forexample,celestialspirits,terrestrialspirits,andancestralspirits.The
lastaretheobjectofprivateasdistinctfromofficialworship.TheChinese,alwaysinclinedtolooktowardsthepastratherthan
towardsthefuture,thoughtlessofpersonalimmortalityinthelifeafterdeaththanofthecontinuationofthefamilylifebywhichthe
actionsoftheindividualwerereflectedbackandmadetoennobleawholeoflineancestors.
Thequalitieswhichcharacterizedthereligiousthoughtoffromthebeginningitseminentlypracticalnature,thecompleteabsence
ofspeculation,andthealmostcompleteexclusionofmythologicalelementsreappearinthewritingsofthegreatreligiousteacher
Confucius(Kongtse,551478B.C.).Confuciuswasnoinnovator;heappeared,rather,asthecollectorofthesacredliterature
ofthepastandtherestoreroftheoldorder.Heinculcatedthestrictobservanceofthetraditionalformsofworship,discouraged
speculationinmatterstheological,andwhilehetaughtthesupremeimportanceofmoralduties,hegroundedallhismoralprecepts
onthegeneralorderoftheworldandthelongestablishedtraditionoftheChinesepeople.Heinsistedonman'spoliticaland
domesticdutiesandemphasizedespeciallytheimportanceoffilialpiety.
Laotse,aContemporaryofConfucius(bornabout604B.C.),andauthoroftheTaoteking,introducedintoChinathefirstsystem
ofspeculativethought,thephilosophyofTao(Reason,Way),whichmanyscholarsconsidertobeofHinduorigin.{11}Laotsedid
not, however, attempt to overthrow the traditional ideals of his countrymen, and, while the importance which he attaches to
speculationplaceshiminsharpcontrastwithConfucius,thedoctrinesofthetwogreatteachershavemanypointsincommon.For
Tao,thefundamentalconceptoftheTaoteking,doesnotmeanReasonintheabstract,butNature,orrather,theWay,the
orderoftheworld,theimpersonalmethodwhichallmenmustobserveiftheyaretoattaingoodnessandsuccess.Ultimately,then,
bothLaotseandConfuciusteachthatconductistobeguidedbyaknowledgeoftheunalterable,discriminating,intelligentorderof
heavenandearth;butwhileConfuciusrefershisdisciplestothestudyofthewritingsandinstitutionsofantiquity,Laotserefersthem
tothespeculativecontemplationofTao:theformerencouragesstudy,thelatteradvocatescontemplation,asameansofacquiring
aknowledgeoftheeternalorderonwhichmoralitydepends.Hence,thetendencyofTaoismtowardsquietismandselfabnegation.
"Recompense injury with kindness," said Laotse; to which Confucius is said to have answered, "Recompense kindness with
kindness,butrecompenseinjurywithjustice."
TothefifthcenturyB.C.belongYangtseandNihtse(orMak).TheformerpreachedakindofEpicureanism:manshouldenjoy
thepresentandcheerfullyacceptdeathwhenitcomes;virtueisbutaname;goodreputationisashadow;thesacrificeofselfisa
delusion.Thelattermaintainedthatoneshouldloveallmenequally,thatthepracticeofuniversalloveisagreaterbenefittothe
statethanthestudyofantiquityandthepreservationofancientcustoms.{12}
LihtseandChwangtseappearedduringthefifthandthefirsthalfofthefourthcenturiesB.C.asrepresentativesofTaoism.
TheywereopposedbythedistinguishedexponentofConfucianism,MengtseorMencius(371288).Inhisdialogues,whichwere
collectedinsevenbooksbyhisdisciples,hegivesamorecompactexpositionofConfucianismthanthatfoundintheisolated
sayingsofthemaster.Heinsistsonfilialpiety,onpoliticalvirtue,andontheproperobservanceofreligiousandotherceremonial
rites.Hereducesthecardinalvirtuestofour:Wisdom,Humanity,Justice,andPropriety.

INDIA{13}
The Veda,orcollectionofprimitivereligiousliteratureoftheHindus,consistsofbooksofsacredhymns,the RigVeda,the
SmaVeda, the YagurVeda, andthe Atharva Veda. In eachit isusualtodistinguishthe Mantras, or hymns, the
Brhmanas,orritualisticcommentaries,andtheUpanishads,orphilosophicalcommentaries.{14}
TheVedichymns,whicharetheoldestportionoftheVeda(1500B.C.beingthedatetowhichconservativescholarsassignthe
earliestofthem),consistofsongsofpraiseandprayerdirectedtoAgni(fire),Soma(thelifeawakening,intoxicatingjuiceofthe
somaplant),Indra(thegodofthewarsoftheelements,ofthunderandrain),Varuna(thegreat,serene,allembracingheaven),
andotherdeities,allofwhompossessmoreorlessdefinitelythetwofoldcharacterofgodsofnatureandgodsofsacrifice.Thegods
oftheVedichymnsarestyledDevas(shiningdivinities)andAsuras(lords).Thereis,inthepoems,noevidenceofasustained
attempttotracethegenealogyofthesedeitiesortoaccountbymeansofmythogicalconceptsfortheoriginoftheuniverse.
IntheBrhmanas,orritualisticcommentaries,appearstheconceptofagoddistinctfromtheelementaldeities,apersonification
oftheactofsacrifice,Brahmanaspati.FromthisconceptthemonotheisticandpantheisticspeculationoftheHindusmaybesaidto
havestarted,althoughitisundeniablethateveninthehymnsthereisexpressedatleast"ayearningafteronesupremedeity,who
madetheheavenandtheearth,theseaandallthatinthemis,"ayearningtowhichexpressionwasgiveninthenamePragpati
(the lord of all creatures), applied successively to Soma and other divinities. Of more importance, however, than the name
PragpatiistheexpressionTadEkam(thatOne)whichoccursinthepoemsasthenameoftheSupremeBeing,oftheFirst
Originofallthings.Itsneuterformindicates,accordingtoMaxMller,atransitionfromthemythologicaltothemetaphysicalstageof
speculation.WithregardtothewordBrahmanwhichsucceededTadEkam:asthenameoftheSupremeOne,MaxMllerrefers
ittotherootbrih(togrow)andassertsthatwhilethewordundoubtedlymeantprayer,itoriginallymeant"thatwhichbreaksforth."It
"wasusedasanameofthatuniversalforcewhichmanifestsitselfinthecreationofavisibleuniverse." {15}Theword tman,which
wasalsoanameofthedeity,isreferredbythesamedistinguishedscholartotheroottma(breath,life,soul)andistranslatedas
Self.Theregrewup,hesays,inthehymnsandBrhmanasoftheVedathethreewordsPragpati,Brahman,andtman,"eachof
whichbyitselfrepresentsinnuceawholephilosophy,oraviewoftheworld.AbeliefinPragpati,asapersonalgod,wasthe
beginningofmonotheisticreligioninIndia,whiletherecognitionofBrahmanandtman,asone,constitutedthefoundationofallthe
monisticphilosophyofthatcountry."{16}
Inthe Upanishads,orspeculativecommentaries,wefindthefirstelaborateattemptsmadebyIndiatoformulateaspeculative
systemoftheuniverseandtosolveintermsofphilosophytheproblemsoftheoriginoftheuniverseandofthenatureanddestinyof
man.Itmust,however,berememberedthatprobablyuntilthefourthcenturyB.C.theUpanishads,incommonwiththeotherportions
oftheVeda,didnotexistinwriting,beinghandeddownfromonegenerationtoanotherbyoraltradition.TheStras,oraphorisms,
therefore,whichwepossessofthesixsystemsofIndianphilosophydonotrepresentthefirstattemptsatphilosophicalspeculation.
ThemenwhosenamesareassociatedwiththeseStras,andareusedtodesignatethesixsystems,arenot,inanytruesense,the
foundersofschoolsofphilosophy:theyaremerelyfinaleditorsorredactorsoftheStrasbelongingtodifferentphilosophicalsects,
which,inthemidstofavarietyoftheories,andinamazeofspeculativeopinions,retainedtheirindividualityduringaninconceivably
longperiodoftime.
Beforewetakeuptheseparatestudyofthesixsystemsofphilosophyitwillbenecessarytooutlinethegeneralteachingofthe
Upanishads.Thisteachingbelongstonoschoolinparticular,althougheachofthesixschoolsisconnectedwithitinmorethanone
pointofdoctrine.TheUpanishadsteach:
1.TheidentityofallbeinginBrahman,theSource,or tman,theSelf,whichisidenticalwithBrahman.
2.Theexistenceofmy (illusion),towhichisreferredeverythingwhichisnotBrahman.
3.Theworthlessnessofallknowledgeofthingsintheirisolatedexistence,andtheincomparableexcellenceoftheknowledgeof
allthingsinBrahmanor tman.Thislatter,theonlytrueknowledge,isdifficultofattainment;stillitisattainableeveninthis
life.Itisthisknowledgewhichconstitutesthehappinessofmanbyunitinghimwithtman."Inthebee'shoneyonecannolonger
recognizethetasteofthesingleflowers;theriverswhichemanatefromtheoneseaandagainreturntoitlosemeanwhiletheir
separateexistences;alumpofsaltdissolvedinwatersaltsthewholewaterandcannotbegraspedagain:sothetruebeingcan
nowherebegrasped.Itisasubtleessencewhichliesatthefoundationofallphenomena,whicharemerelyillusions,andisagain
identicalwiththeego."{17}
4.Theimmortalityofthesoul."Theidea,"writesMaxMller,"ofthesoulevercomingtoanendissostrangetotheIndian
mindthatthereseemedtobenonecessityforanythinglikeproofsofimmortality,socommoninEuropeanphilosophy."{18}Equally
selfevidenttotheHindumindwasthesamsra,ortransmigrationofthesoul.Insomesystems,however,asweshallsee,itisthe

subtlebodywhichmigrates,while,duringtheprocessofmigration,thesoul,inthesenseofself,retainingitscompleteidentity,
remainsasanonlooker.
Withtheideaofimmortalityisassociatedthatoftheeternityofkarman(deed),namely,thecontinuousworkingofeverythought,
word,anddeedthroughallages.Ifamanwere,onceinathousandyears,topasshissilkenhandkerchiefacrosstheHimalayan
mountainsandthusatlastsucceedinwipingthemout,theworldwould,indeed,beolderattheendofsuchalongspaceoftime,but
eternityandrealitywouldstillbeyoungandthedeedoftodaywouldstillexistinitsresults.Atalateperiodinthedevelopmentof
VedicspeculationtheimmensityofthedurationofBrahmanwasgivenpopularexpressioninthedoctrineofkalpas (aeons),or
periodsofreabsorption(pralaya)andcreation.
5. Mysticismanddeliverancefrombondage.AlltheIndiansystemsofphilosophyrecognizetheexistenceofeviland
sufferingandconcernthemselveswiththeproblemofdeliverancebymeansofknowledge.FromtheriseofBuddhism(fifthcentury
B.C.)dateaclearerperceptionoftherealityofsufferingandamoreemphaticassertionoftheimportanceoffreeingthesoulfrom
thebondagewhichsufferingimposes.Itistoberemarkedthat,evenintheUpanishads,existenceisreferredtoasanevil,
transmigrationispresentedassomethingtobeavoided,andthefinalgoalofhumanendeavorisproclaimedtobeaunionwith
tman,inwhichallindividualexistenceismergedinthegeneralSelf,andindividualconsciousnessisquiteextinguished.
TurningnowtothesixgreathistoricalsystemsofIndianphilosophy,wemeetattheveryoutsetthevexedquestionofchronological
order.ManyoftheStras,oraphorisms,inwhichthesesystemsareformulatedareofverygreatantiquity,rankingwiththe
Upanishadsinpointofage.Besides,theathorsoftheseStrasaremoreorlessvaguelyhistoricaloraltogethermythicalpersons.It
ishopeless,therefore,toattempttoarrangethesystemsinchronologicalorder.Theorderfollowedwillrepresentratherthefidelity
withwhichthesystems(allofwhichwereconsideredorthodox)adheretothedoctrinesdescribedasthecommonteachingofthe
Upanishads.
1.TheVednta,orUttaraMmms,{19}isfirstinimportanceamongthesystematicexpositionsofthephilosophicalteachingsofthe
Upanishads.ItiscontainedinStrascomposedby Bdaryana,whoissometimesidentifiedwith Vysa,theauthorofthe
Mahbhrata(oneofthegreatepicsofIndia),andincommentariescomposedbySamkara(aboutA.D.900).
ThefundamentaldoctrinesoftheVedntaarethoseoftheUpanishads.TheVedntainsistsonthemonisticconceptofreality:"In
onehalfverseIshalltellyouwhathasbeentaughtinthousandsofvolumes:Brahmanistrue,theworldisfalse,thesoulisBrahman
andnothingelse.""Thereisnothingworthgaining,thereisnothingworthenjoying,thereisnothingworthknowingbutBrahman
alone,forhewhoknowsBrahmanisBrahman."{1}MoreemphaticallystillistheunityofallbeinginBrahmanassertedinthefamous
wordsTattvamasi(Thouartthat),whichMaxMllerstyles"theboldestandtruestsynthesisinthewholehistoryofphilosophy."
But,iftheindividualisBrahman,howarewetoaccountforthemanifold"thous"andforthevarietyofindividualsintheobjective
world? The VedntaStras answer that the view of the world as composed of manifold individuals is not knowledge but
nescience,whichtheVedntaphilosophyaimsatexpellingfromthemind.Thisnescience(avidy)isinborninhumannature,and
itisonlywhenitisexpelledthatthemindperceivesBrahmantobetheonlyreality.Samkara,thecommentator,admits,however,
thatthephenomenalworld,thewholeobjectiveworldasdistinctfromthesubject(Brahman),whileitistheresultofnescience,is
neverthelessrealforallpracticalpurposes.Moreover,itisclearthatphenomena,sincetheyareBrahman,arereal:onlythe
multiplicityanddistinctionofphenomenaareunreal(my).
Withregardtotheoriginoftheuniverse:theuniverse,sinceitisBrahman,cannotbesaidtooriginate.AndyetBrahmanis
commonlyrepresentedasthecauseoftheuniverse.TheHindus,however,regardedcauseandeffectasmerelytwoaspectsofthe
samereality:thethreads,theyobserved,arethecauseofthecloth,yetwhatistheclothbuttheaggregateofthreads?{2}
Sincethefinitenessandindividualdistinctionsofthingsareduetonescience,itisclearthattheroadtotruefreedom(moksha)
fromtheconditionsoffiniteexistenceisthewayofknowledge.TheknowledgeoftheidentityofAtmanwithBrahman,ofSelfwith
God,istruefreedomandimpliesexemptionfrombirthandtransmigration.For,whendeathcomes,hewho,althoughhehasfulfilled
allhisreligiousduties,shallhavefailedtoattainthehighestknowledge,shallbecondemnedtoanotherroundofexistence.The
subtlebody,inwhichhissoul(tman)isclothed,shallwanderthroughmistandcloudanddarknesstothemoonandthenceshall
besentbacktoearth.ButhewhoshallhaveattainedperfectknowledgeofBrahmanshallfinallybecomeidentifiedwithBrahman,
sharinginallthepowersofBrahmanexceptthoseofcreatingandrulingtheuniverse.Partialfreedomfromfiniteconditionsis,even
in this life, a reward of perfect knowledge. The Vedntists, however, did not neglect the inculcation of moral excellence; for
knowledge,theytaught,isnottobeattainedexceptbydiscipline.
II.ThePrvaMmsisasystemofpracticalphilosophyandiscontainedintwelvebooksofStrasattributedtoGaimini.Here
thecentralideaisthatofduty(Dharma),whichincludessacrificialobservancesandrestsultimatelyonthesuperhumanauthority
oftheVeda.
III. The Smkhya philosophy maybe described as a toning down of the extreme of the Vedanta. It is contained in the

SmkhyaStrasorKapilaStras.These,atleastintheirpresentform,datefromthefourteenthcenturyafterChrist,although
thesage,Kapila,towhomtheyareascribedlivedcertainlybeforethesecondcenturyB.C.OfgreaterantiquitythantheStrasare
theSmkhyaKriks,ormemorialverses,inwhichthephilosophyofKapilawasepitomizedasearlyasthefirstcenturyB.C.A
stillolderandmoreconcisecompilationTheSmkhyaphilosophyisfoundinthe TattvaSamsa,whichreducesalltruthto
twentyfivetopics.ThislattercompendiumistakenbyMaxMllerasthebasisofhisexpositionoftheteachingsofKapila.{1}
TheSamkhyaphilosophyisessentiallydualistic.Itdoesnot,liketheVednta,assumethattheobjectiveworld,asdistinctfrom
Brahman,ismereillusionorignorance;itacceptstheobjectiveworldasrealandcallsitprakriti,ornatureinthesenseofmatter
containingthepossibilitiesofallthings.Thisprincipleisofitselflifelessandunconscious,andrisesintolifeandconsciousnessonly
whencontemplatedbythesoul(purusha).Whatwecallcreationis,therefore,thetemporaryunionofnaturewithsoul,aunion
whicharisesfromalackofdiscrimination.Howthenisthesoultobefreedfromthebondageoffiniteexistence?Thisisforthe
Smkhya,asitwasfortheVedanta,thechiefproblemofpracticalphilosophy.But,whiletheVedantafounddeliveranceinthe
recognitionoftheidentityofthesoulwithBrahman,theSmkhyafindsitintherecognitionofthedifferencebetweenthesouland
nature.Thisrecognitionconfersfreedom;fornature,onceitisrecognizedbythesoulasdistinct,disappearstogetherwithall
limitationandsuffering:"Prakritri,oncerecognizedbyPurusha,withdrawsitselfsoasnottoexposeitselfforasecondtimetothe
dangerofthisglance."Theassertionoftheindividualityofthesoulasopposedtonatureimpliesthemultiplicityofsouls.Andthisis
anotherpointofcontrastbetweentheVedntaandtheSmkhya:theformerassertedtheonenessoftman;thelatteraffirmsthe
pluralityofpurushas.
IV.TheYogaphilosophyiscontainedintheStrasascribedtoPatagali,whoissupposedtohavelivedduringthesecond
centuryB.C.IntheseStraswefindpracticallyallthemetaphysicalprinciplesoftheSmkhyaand,inaddition,certaindoctrinesin
whichthetheisticelementisinsistedupon.Kapilahaddeniedthepossibilityofprovingtheexistenceofsvara,thepersonalcreator
andruler:Patagaliinsistsonthepossibilityofsuchproof.Ofcourse,svaraisnotconceivedascreatorinoursenseoftheword,
butmerelyasthehighestofthepurushas,allofwhichmaybesaidtocreateinasmuchasthey,bycontemplatingnature,cause
nature to be productive. Among the means of deliverance practised by the Yogins were the observance of certain postures,
meditation,andtherepetitionofthesacredsyllableOm.
V.TheNyyaphilosophyiscontainedintheNyyaStras.ThefounderofthesystemwasGotama,orGautama.Accordingto
thissystem,thesupremeresignation,orfreedom,inwhichman'shighesthappinessconsists,istobeattainedbyaknowledgeofthe
sixteen great topics of Nyya philosophy. These topics (padrthas)are means of knowledge, objects of knowledge, doubt,
purpose,instance,establishedtruth,premises,reasoning,conclusion,argumentation,sophistry,wrangling,fallacies,quibbles,false
analogies,andunfitnessforarguing.Takingupnowthefirstofthese,namely,themeansofknowledge,wefindthatthereare,
accordingtotheNyyaphilosophy,fourkindsofrightperception:sensuous,inferential,comparative,andauthoritative.Inorderto
arriveatinferential knowledge(anumna), wemust possess what is called vypti, orpervasion,that istoiay, aprinciple
expressinginvariableconcomitance.So,forexample,ifwewishtoinferthat"thismountainisonfire,"wemustpossesstheprinciple
thatsmokeis pervaded by,orinvariablyconnectedwith,fire.Onceinpossessionofthisprinciple,wehavemerelytofindan
instance,as,"thismountainsmokes,"whenceweimmediatelyinferthat"ithasfire."But,whilethisisthecomparativelysimple
means of acquiring inferential iowledge, we cannot impart thisknowledge to others except bythe more complicated process
including:(1)Assertion,"Themountainhasfire";(2)Reason,"Becauseitsmokes";(3)Instance,"Lookatthekitchenfire";(4)
Application,"Sotoothemountainhassmoke";and(5)Conclusion,"Thereforeithasfire."Theprocess,inbothcases,bearsa
closeresemblancetothesyllogismofAristotelianlogic;anditisbyreasonoftheprominencegiventothismeansofknowledgethat
theNyyaphilosophycametoberegardedasasystemoflogic.YettheNyyaphilosophyisfarfrombeingmerelyasystematic
treatmentofthelawsofthought;forthesyllogismisbutoneofthemanymeansbywhichthesoulorself( tman)istoattaintrue
freedom,astateinwhichallfalseknowledgeandallinferiorknowledgeshalldisappear,andallindividualdesireandpersonallove
andhatredshallbeextinguished.
VI.The Vaisheshika philosophy,foundedby Kanda,iscontainedinthe VaisheshikaStras,which,accordingtoMax
Mller,datefromthesixthcenturyoftheChristianera,althoughtheVaisheshikaphilosophywasknowninthefirstcenturyB.C.The
systemiscloselyrelatedtotheNyyaphilosophy,evenitsmostcharacteristicdoctrine,thatofatomism,beingfoundinundeveloped
forminthephilosophyofGotama.{1} Here,asintheNyya,supremehappinessistobeattainedbytheknowledgeofcertain
padrthas, or quasicategories, namely: substance, quality, action (karman), genus or community, species or particularity,
inhesionorinseparability,and(accordingtosome)privationornegation.Thesubstancesareearth,water,light,air,ether,time,
space,self( tman),andmind(manas).Thequalitiesarecolor,taste,number,etc.Thesearecalled gunas ,awordwhich
occursintheUpanishadsandisacommonterminallthesixsystems.
Thefoursubstances,earth,air,water,andlight,existeitherintheaggregatematerialstateorinthestateofatoms(anus).The
singleatomisindivisibleandindestructible;itsexistenceisprovedbytheimpossibilityofdivision adinfinitum.Singleatoms
combinefirstintwosandafterwardsingroupsofthreedoubleatoms;itisonlyinsuchcombinationsthatmatterbecomesvisibleand

liabletodestruction.
Tothesesixgreathistoricalsystems,whichwereorthodoxinsofarastheyrecognizedthesupremeauthorityoftheVeda,were
opposedtheheterodoxsystemsoftheheretics(Nstikas)who,liketheBuddhists,theJainas,andtheMaterialists,rejectedthe
divineauthorityofthesacredwritings.
Buddhism,asiswellknown,wasadistinctivelyreligioussystem:itrecognizedsufferingasthesupremerealityinlife,anddevoted
littleornoattentiontoquestionsofphilosophicinterest,exceptintheirrelationtoproblemsofconduct."Toceasefromallwrong
doing,togetvirtue,tocleanseone'sownheart,"this,accordingtothecelebratedverse,"isthereligionoftheBuddhas." {1}The
fourtruthsonwhichBuddhismisbuiltare:(1)thatsufferingisuniversal;(2)thatthecauseofsufferingisdesire;(3)thattheabolition
ofdesireistheonlydeliverancefromsuffering;and(4)thatthewayofsalvationisbymeansofcertainpracticesofmeditationand
activediscipline.Inconnectionwiththesecondandthirdofthesetruthsarisestheproblemofthemeaningofkarmaandnirvna.
IntheUpanishadspeculations karman,aswehaveseen,meantdeed,anditseternitymeantthecontinuousworkingofevery
thought,word,andworkthroughoutallages.InBuddhisticspeculationthesubstantialpermanenceandidentityofthesoulare
denied,andtheonlybondbetweentheskandhas,orsetsofqualities,whichsucceedeachotherintheindividualbodyandsoul,is
the karma,theresultofwhatmanisanddoesinoneexistenceoratonetimebeinginevitablycontinuedintoallsubsequent
existencesandtimes.Thebodyisconstantlychanging,thequalitiesorstatesofthesoulareconstantlyreplacedbyotherqualities
andstates;buttheresultofwhatamanisanddoesremains,thataloneispermanent.Withregardtonirvna,scholarsarenot
agreedastowhetheritmeanttotalannihilationorastateofpainlessnessinwhichpositiveexistenceispreserved.MaxMllerand
RhysDavidsmaybecitedfavorofthelatterinterpretation.{2}RhysDavidsdefinesnirvnaas"theextinctionofthatsinful,grasping
conditionof mindand heart,which would otherwise, accordingto themysteryof Karma, be the causeofrenewed individual
existence."
Jainism,likeBuddhism,wasareligioussystem.TheonlyimportantspeculativedoctrineinwhichitdiffersfromBuddhismisthatof
thesubstantialrealityandpermanenceofthesoul.Accordingly,theJainastaughtthatnirvnaisthefreedomofthesoul
fromtheconditionswhichcausefiniteness,suffering,andignorance.Inthisrespecttheyapproachverycloselytothespeculationof
theUpanishads.

PERSIA{1}
ThereligionofancientPersiaandthatofancientIndiasprangfromthesameorigin,namely,theideasandusageswhichwere
sharedalikebytheIranianandtheHindubranchesoftheoriginalAryanfamily.Thereare,indeed,tracesofacivilizationwhich
existedinPersiapriortotheAryaninvasion,andwhichcloselyresembledtheShamanismoftheAccadiansofancientChaldea.
Little,however,isknownofpreAryanPersia.AllthatcanbesaidwithcertaintyisthattheAryaninvadersfoundalreadyexistingin
Bactriaandtheneighboringregionsasystemofpolytheism,whichtheyreplacedbyareligionmonotheisticinitstendencyand
similarinmanyrespectstothereligionoftheHindusoftheVedicperiod.Theheavengod,knowninIndiaasVaruna,becamethe
principaldeityoftheIranians.Soma wasalsoworshipedunderthetitleHoma,andthedistinctionbetweenDevasandAsuras
("shiningones"and"lords")wasemployedinPersiaaswellasinIndiatodesignatetwoimportantclassesofdivinities.Gradually,
however,achangewasintroduced:atendencytowardsdualismbecamemoreandmorestronglymarked;theDevascametobe
recognizedasevildeities,andtheAhuras(transliterationofAsuras)cametobelookeduponasdivinitiesfriendlytoman."The
conflictbetweentheseoppositesassumedamoralforminthemindsoftheIranianwanderers;thestrugglebetweennightandday,
betweenthestormandthebluesky,ofwhichtheVedicpoetssang,wastransformedintoastrugglebetweengoodandevil.Inplace
ofthecarelessnatureworshipersofthePanjab,araceofsternandearnestPuritansgrewupamongthedesertsandrugged
mountainsofAriana."{1}
Thisdualisticconceptionoftheuniverse,thisantithesisbetweengoodandevil,wasalreadyinpossessionwhenZoroaster,or
Zarathustra,thegreatreligiousreformer,appeared,aboutthemiddleoftheseventhorthebeginningofthesixthcenturyB.C. {2}
Tohim,accordingtoParseetradition,istobeascribedtheinspiredauthorshipofaportion,atleast,ofthe Avesta,orsacred
literatureofthePersians.ThiscollectionconsistsoffiveGathas,orhymns,writteninanolderdialectthanthatoftherestofthe
collection,theVendidad,orcompilationofreligiouslawsandmythicaltales,andtheZend,orcommentary.Thefirsttwoportions
constitutetheAvestaproper,thatistosay,"law"or"knowledge."InadditiontotheAvestaZend,thereexistedtheKhordaAvesta,
orSmallAvesta,whichwasacollectionofprayers.Zoroaster'sshareinthecompositionofthesebooksisamatterwhichitis
impossible,inthepresentconditionofourknowledge,todetermine.Itis,however,beyonddisputethatthesacredliteratureofthe
PersiansreflectsthebeliefswhichexistedbeforethetimeofZoroasteraswellasthosewhichZoroasterintroduced.

ThereligiousreformeffectedbyZoroasterconsistedinreducingtotwomoreorlessvagueprinciplesthegoodandevilelementsin
theuniverse.Forhim,asforhisancestors,theworldisavastbattlefield,inwhichtheforcesofgoodandevilmeetinamighty
conflict.But,insteadofrepresentingthecontendingforcesasindependentprinciples,manifold,yetcapableofbeingclassifiedas
goodandevil,hereducesalltheconflictingpowerstotwo,thegoodandtheevil,ofwhichtheindividualforcesarederivatives.The
goodprincipleiscalledAhuramazda(Ormuzd,orOrmazd),andtheevilprincipleiscalledAnramainyu(Ahrimn).
Theformerisconceivedaslightandday,thelatterasdarknessandnight.FromtheformerproceedtheAhuras,orlivinglords
(whowereafterwardscalledYazatas,orangels),andingeneralallthatisgoodandbeneficialtoman:fromthelatterproceedthe
Devas,whoopposedtheAhurasintheoriginalconflictbetweendayandnightandwhobecamethe"demons"oflatterMazdeism,
and,ingeneral,fromAhrimncomesallthatisevilandinjurioustoman.
Itisman'sdutytoworshipOrmazd(fire,beingthesacredsymbol,isalsotobehonored)byprayer,sacrifice,andtheoblationof
Homa(thejuiceofthesacredplant).Itisalsohisdutytocultivatethesoilandinotherwaystopromotethelifeandgrowthofthe
creaturesofOrmazd,todestroytheworksofAhrimn,tokillallvenomousandnoxiousthings,andtoridtheearthofallcreatures
injurioustoman.
Attheendoftwelvethousandyearsthepresentcosmicperiodwillcometoanend.Ormazdwillfinallytriumph,for,although
AhrimnisnotinferiorinpowertoOrmazd,hefightsblindlyandwithoutadequateknowledgeoftheresultsofhisactions;therefore,
heandhisworkswillcometoanend,and,afterthefinalstruggle,stormandnightwillcease,calmandsunshinewillreign,andall
willbeabsorbedinOrmazd.InthisuniversalabsorptioninOrmazdthehumansoulwillbeincluded.
Mazdeism(thereligionofOrmazd)initslaterdevelopmentattachedgreatimportancetotheworshipofMithra,thesungod.Inthis
formitappearedinRomeandwasamongthefirstoftheOrientalreligionstogainascendencyoverthemindsoftheRomans.
ZoroastrianismwasintroducedasaheresyintotheChristianChurchbyManes,thefounderoftheManicheansect.
Retrospect.InthesystemsofthoughtwhichflourishedamongthegreathistoricalnationsoftheEast,thereis,ashasbeen
observed,analmostcompletelackoftherationalelement.Insomeofthem,however,andespeciallyintheIndiansystems,thereis
abundanceofspeculation.Livinginacountrywheretherewaspracticallynostruggleforlife,wherethemeansofsubsistencewere
producedwithoutmucheffortonthepartofthetillersofthesoil,andwhereforthousandsofyearswarwasunknownsavethewarof
exterminationwagedagainsttheoriginaldwellersintheland,theHindusgavethemselvesupunreservedlytothesolutionofthe
problems,Whencearewecome?Wherebydowelive?andWhitherdowego?
In solving these problems, however, the Hindus, while they succeeded better than other Oriental peoples in separating the
speculativefromthemythological,failedtodeveloptherationalordialecticalphaseofthought.Theirspeculativesystemsare
positiveratherthanargumentative.ItwasinGreecethatphilosophyasadialectical,argumentativesciencefounditsfirsthome.
Therecanbenodoubtthatthesystemswhichhavejustbeensketchedexercisedsome,ifonlyanindefinite,influenceonthe
speculativeeffortsofthefirstphilosophersofGreece.ThegeographicalcontiguityandthecommercialintercourseoftheHellenic
colonieswiththecountriesoftheinteriorofAsiarendersuchasuppositionprobable.Itwasnot,however,untilGreekphilosophyhad
runitspracticallyindependentcourseofnationaldevelopment,thatthereligioussystemsoftheOrientwerefinallyunitedwiththe
greatcurrentofGreekthought,EastandtheWestpouringtheirdistinctivecontributionsintothecommonstreamofGrecoOriental
theosophy.

{1}St.Augustine,DeCivitateDei,XIX,3.
{2}Forbibliography,cf.DelaSaussaye,LehrbuchderReligionsgeschichte,I,163;cf.alsoManualoftheScienceof
Religion,byDelaSaussaye,trans.byB.ColyerFerguson(London,1891),pp.458ff.Thelatterisatranslationofthefirstvolume
ofthefirsteditionoftheLehrbuch.ToDelaSaussaye'slistaddJastrow,TheReligionofAssyriaandBabylonia(Boston,
1898).
{3}Cf.Sayce,TheAncientEmpiresoftheEast(NewYork,1896),pp.145ff.
{4}Forbibliography,cf.DelaSaussaye,op.cit.,I,88,andtheManualabovereferredto,pp.374ff.
{5}Cf.DelaSaussaye,Manual,p.396.
{6}Sayce,TheAncientEmpiresoftheEast,p.58.
{7}Fortexts,date,etc.,cf.Wiedemann,ReligionoftheAncientEgyptians(NewYork,1897),p.244.
{8}MentionisalsomadeofOsiris,orthatpartofman'simmortalnaturewhichhassuchcloseresemblancetothegodOsirisastobe
calledbyhishame.Wiedemann(op.cit.,p.244)maintainsthatinthedifferentdesignations,Ka,etc.,wehavetodowithdifferent

10

conceptionsofanimmortalsoul,whichhadariseninseparateplacesinprehistorictimesandwereultimatelycombinedintoone
doctrine,"theEgyptiansnotdaringtosetanyasideforfearitshouldprovetobethetrueone."
{9} Cf. translations of Chinese Classics by Dr. Legge, in Sacred Books of the East, Vols. III, XVI, XXVII, XXVIII. For
bibliography,cf.DelaSaussaye,Lehrbuch,I,50.ConsultalsoR.K.Douglas,ConfucianismandTaouism(London,1879).
{10} AccordingtoMgr.DeHarlez,"thereiseveryreasonforaffirmingthatShangtiisnotidenticalwithHeaven,isnotHeaven
animized,butapersonalbeing,thesupremeSpiritgoverningtheworldfromtheheightoftheempyrean,"NewWorld(December,
1893),Vol.II,p.652.{11}Cf.Douglas,op.cit.,p.219.{12}Cf.DeLaSaussaye,Manual,p.367.
{13} Forbibliography,cf. DelaSaussaye, Lehrbuch,II,4,andManual,p.497.ConsultMaxMuller,TheSixSystemsof
IndianPhilosophy(London,1899),andDeussen,DasSystemdesVedanta(1883),andAllg.Gesch.derPhilosophie
(1899).
{14}Cf.Hopkins,TheReligionsofIndia(Boston,1898),pp.7ff.
{15}SixSystems,p.60.
{16}Op.cit.,pp.95,96.
{17}DelaSaussaye,Manual,p.538;cf.KhandogyaUpanishad,trans.inS.B.E.,Vol.I,pp.92ff.
{18}Op.cit.,p.143.
{19} Mmms means investigation.The UttaraMmms (laterinvestigation)calledbecauseitisregardedbythe
Hindusaslaterthanthe Prva or priorinvestigation.Thedesignationsaremaintainedevenbythosewhodonotadmitthe
posteriority of date, since the PrvaMmms refers to first, or practical, while the UttaraMmms refers to the second, or
speculativeportionoftheVeda.

SECTIONBGREEKANDGRECOROMANPHILOSOPHY
Origin.GreekphilosophyfirstappearedintheIoniccoloniesofAsiaMinor,andneverthroughoutthecourseofitsdevelopmentdid
itwhollylosethemarksofitsOrientalorigin.WhetherthisinfluencewasaspreponderantasRothandGladischcontend, {1}oras
unimportantasZellerandothersmaintain,{2}itiscertainthatthephilosophyofGreecewascharacterizedfromthebeginningbya
spiritwhichispeculiarlyHellenic.TheGreeklookedoutupontheworldthroughanatmospheresingularlyfreefromthemistof
allegoryandmyth:thecontrastbetweenthephilosophyoftheEastandthefirstattemptsoftheIonianphysicistsisasstrikingasthe
differencebetweenanIndianjungleandthesunny,breezesweptshoresoftheMediterranean.
GreekReligionexercisedhardlymorethananindirectinfluenceonGreekphilosophy.Popularbeliefsweresocrudeastotheir
speculativecontentthattheycouldnotlongretaintheirholdonthemindofthephilosopher.Consequently,suchinfluenceasthey
directlyexercisedwasantagonistictophilosophy.Yetitwasthepopularbeliefswhich,bykeepingaliveamongtheGreeksan
exquisiteappreciationofformandanabidingsenseofsymmetry,didnotpermitthephilosophertotakeapartialoranisolatedview
ofthings.InthiswayGreekreligionindirectlyfosteredthatimperativedesireforatotalityofviewwhich,inthebestdaysofGreek
speculation,enabledGreekphilosophytoattainitsmostimportantresults.InoneparticularinstanceGreekreligioncontributed
directlytoGreekphilosophybyhandingovertophilosophythedoctrineofimmortality,adoctrinewhichineverystageofits
philosophicaldevelopmenthasretainedthemarkofitstheologicalorigin.Plato,forexample,distinctlyrefersittothe(Bacchicand
Orphic)mysteries.{3}
Poetry.ThephilosophyaswellasthereligionoftheGreeksfounditsfirstexpressioninpoetry,philosophicalspeculation,properly
socalled,beingprecededbytheeffortoftheimaginationtopicturetoitselftheoriginandtheevolutionoftheuniverse.Homer
presents,withoutanalyzing,typesofethicalcharacter:Achilles,theindomitable;Hector,thechivalrous;Agamemnon,ofkingly
presence;Nestor,thewise;Ulysses,thewary;Penelope,thefaithful.Hesiodgivesusthefirstcrudeattemptsatconstructinga
worldsystem.Hiscosmogony,however,ispresentedintheformofatheogony;thereisasyetnoquestionofaccountingforthe
originofthingsbynaturalcauses.ThesocalledOrphicCosmogonieshadtheHesiodictheogonyfortheirbasis.Theydidnot
advancemuchfartherintheirinquirythanHesiodhimselfhadgone,unlessweincludeasOrphicthosesystemsofcosmologyto
whichallscholarsnowagreeinassigningapostAristoteliandate. PherecydesofSyros (about540B.C.)moreclosely
approachesthescientificmethod.HedescribesZeus,Chronos,andChthonasthefirstbeginningsofallthings.Thereisherea
basicthoughtthattheuniversesprangfromtheelementsofairandearth,throughtheagencyoftime.Thisthought,however,the

11

poetconcealsunderenigmaticalsymbols,referringthephenomenaofnaturenottonaturalagencies,buttotheincomprehensible
actionofthegods.
ThebeginningsofmoralphilosophyarefoundintheethicalportrayalsoftheHomericpoems,inthewritingsoftheGnomicPoetsof
thesixthcenturyB.C.,andespeciallyinthesayingsattributedtotheSevenWiseMen.Thesesayingsarecharacterizedbya
toneofcynicism,andexhibitaknowledgeoftheworld'swayswhichiscertainlyremarkableifitbelongstotheagetowhichitis
generallyassigned.{4}
The Division ofGreekphilosophyintoperiodsandschoolsispartlychronologicalandpartlydependentonthedevelopmentof
philosophicthought.Thefollowingseemstobethemostconvenientarrangement:

I.PreSocraticPhilosophy.
II.PhilosophyofSocratesandtheSocraticSchools.
III.PostAristotelianPhilosophy.

Inthefirstperiod,theeraofbeginnings,philosophicalspeculationwaslargelyobjective;itbusieditselfwiththestudyofnatureand
theoriginoftheworld.InthesecondperiodSocratesbroughtphilosophydowntothecontemplationofman'sinnerself;itwasa
period in which the objective and subjective methods were blended. In the third period the subjective element was made
preponderant;theStoicsandEpicureansconcernedthemselveswithmanandhisdestiny,tothealmostcompleteexclusionof
cosmologicalandmetaphysicalproblems.
Sources.ThesourcesofGreekphilosophyare:
Primarysources.BesidesthecompleteworksofPlatoandAristotle,wehaveseveralcollectionsoffragmentsofphilosophical
writings; for instance, Mullach's Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, Ritter and Preller's Historia Philosophiae
Graecae,Diels' DoxographiGraeci,Fairbanks' TheFirstPhilosophersofGreece,Adams, Texts,etc.(NewYork,
1903).
Secondarysources.(1)Ancientwriters,suchasPlato,Aristotle,Xenophon,andTheopbrastus,{5}inreferencetopreSocratic
andSocraticphilosophy;(2)Alexandrianauthorities,suchasDemetriusofPhalerus(thirdcenturyB.C.),PtolemyPhiladelphus
(thirdcenturyB.C.),Callimachus(thirdcenturyB.C.),authorofthe pinakes or"tablets";(3) Laterwriters:Cicero,Seneca,
Plutarch, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Diogenes Laertius (about A.D. 220); (4) Modern critics and historians.
Tiedemann,RitterandPreller,Zeller,Windelband,Diels,Tannery,Burnet,etc.Diels'DoxographiGraeci(Berlin,1879)isofgreat
valueindeterminingtheaffiliationofsources.{6}

FIRSTPERIODPRESOCRATICPHILOSOPHY
Thisperiodcomprises:(1)theIonianSchoolthephilosophersofthisschoolconfinedtheirattentiontothestudyofNatureand
soughtoutthematerialprincipleofnaturalphenomena;(2)thePythagoreans,whomadeNumberthebasisoftheirphilosophical
system;(3)theEleatics,whosespeculationscenteredinthedoctrineoftheonenessandimmutabilityofBeing;(4)theSophists,
who,negatively,showedtheunsatisfactorynatureofallKnowledge,while,positively,theyoccasionedtheinquiryintotheconditions
andlimitationsofknowledge.

CHAPTERI
EARLIERIONIANSCHOOL
TheIonianschoolincludestheEarlierIonians,Thales,Anaximander,andAnaximenes,andtheLaterIonians,whose
properhistoricalplaceisaftertheEleaticschool.
THALES
Life.Thales,thefirstphilosopherofGreece,wasofPhoeniciandescent.HewasbornatMiletus,abouttheyear620B.C. {7}Hewas
acontemporaryofCroesusandSolon,andwascountedamongtheSevenWiseMen.Heissaidtohavediedintheyear546B.C.
Sources.OurknowledgeofthedoctrinesofThalesisbasedentirelyonsecondarysources,especiallyontheaccountgivenby

12

AristotleinMet.,I,3,983.cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,pp.911.
DOCTRINES
AccordingtoAristotle,Thalestaughtthatoutofwaterallthingsaremade. {8}Historicaltraditionissilentastothereasonsbywhich
Thaleswasledtothisconclusion.Itispossible,asAristotleconjectures,thatthefounderoftheIonianschoolwasinfluencedbythe
considerationofthemoistureofnutriment,etc.;hemayhavebasedhisconclusiononarationalisticinterpretationofthemythof
Oceanus,orhemayhaveobservedthealluvialdepositsoftheriversofhisnativecountry,andconcludedthat,asearth,soallthings
elsecomefromwater.Thesayingthat"Themagnethasasoulbecauseitattractsiron"isattributedtoThalesontheauthorityof
Aristotle, who, however, speaks conditionally, "if, indeed, he said," etc. We must not attach importance to Cicero's Stoical
interpretationofThales:"ThalesMilesiusaquamdixitesseinitiumrerum,Deum,autem,eammentemquaeexaquacunctafingeret."
SuchadualismbelongstothetimeofAnaxagoras.Similarly,thesayingthat"Allthingsarefullofgods"(pantaplrathe n)is
buttheexpression,inAristotle'sownphraseology,ofthegeneraldoctrineofanimism,orhylozoism,whichisatenetcommontoall
theEarlierIonians.Theymaintainedthatmatterisinstinctwithlife;or,asanAristotelianwouldsay,theydidnotdistinguishbetween
thematerialprincipleandtheformalprincipleoflife.
ANAXIMANDER
Life.Anaximander,whowasalsoanativeofMiletus,wasbornabouttheyear610B.C.Theophrastusdescribeshimasadisciple,
orassociate,ofThales.Thedateofhisdeathisunknown.
Sources.Primarysources.Anaximandercomposedatreatise,orratherapoeticalprosecomposition,periphusi s,which
wasextantwhenTheophrastuswrote.Ofthisworktwosentencesonlyhavecomedowntous:
1."Allthingsmustinequityagaindeclineintothatwhencetheyhavetheirorigin,fortheymustgivesatisfactionandatonementfor
injustice,eachinorderoftime."{9}
2.Theinfinite"surroundsallthingsanddirectsallthings."{10}
Secondarysources.OurchiefsecondarysourcesareTheophrastus(inthework phusik ndoxai,ofwhichtheexisting
fragments are published by Diels, op. cit., p.476) and Aristotle (especially in Met., XII, 2, 1069 b; Phys.. III, 4 203 b).
DOCTRINES
Fromoursecondarysourcesitisevidentthat,accordingtoAnaximander,theoriginatingprinciple(arch){11}ofallthingsisthe
Infinite,orrathertheUnlimited(apeiron).Thereasons,however,whichledtothisconclusionaremerelyamatterofconjecture,
asinthecaseofThales'generalization.AccordingtoAristotle,Anaximander,supposingthatchangedestroysmatter,arguedthat,
unlessthesubstratumofchangeislimitless,changemustsometimecease.Thus,whilemodernphysicsholdsthatmatteris
indestructible,Anaximandermaintainedthatitisinfinite;fortherecanbenoquestionastothecorporealnatureoftheapeironitis
aninfinitematerialsubstance.Critics,however,donotagreeastohowAnaximanderwouldhaveansweredthequestions,Isthe
unlimitedanelementoramixtureofelements?Isitqualitativelysimpleorcomplex?Hecertainlymaintainedthattheprimitive
substanceisinfinite,butdidnot,sofarasweknow,concernhimselfwiththequestionofitsqualitativedeterminations.
The apeiron hasbeenlikenedtothemodernnotionofspaceandtothemythologicalconceptofchaos.Itisdescribedby
Anaximanderhimselfassurroundinganddirectingallthings,andbyAristotleitisdescribedastotheion.Wemustnot,however,
attachtotheseexpressionsadualisticorpantheisticmeaning.
FromtheBoundlessallthingscame,byaprocesswhichthePlacita{12}describesasseparation(apokrithnai).Livingthingssprang
fromtheoriginalmoistureoftheearth(throughtheagencyofheat).Thefirstanimalswerethereforefishes,whichaftertheycameon
shorethrewofftheirscalesandassumednewshapes.Man,too,wasgeneratedfromotherkindsofanimals. {13}Anaximanderis
generallybelievedtohavetaughtaninfinityofworlds.
HistoricalPosition.ComparingthedoctrinesofAnaximanderwithwhatweknowoftheteachingsofThales,wefindthatthe
formerarefarricherintheircontentsandbetokenahigherdevelopmentofspeculativethought.Theyrepresentahighergradeof
abstraction,asisevidentinthesubstitutionoftheBoundlessfortheconcretesubstance,water.
ANAXIMENES
Life.AnaximenesofMiletus,whowasan"associate"ofAnaximander,composedatreatisethetitleofwhichisunknown.Hedied
about528B.C.
Sources. Primarysources.TheonlyfragmentoftheworkofAnaximeneswhichhassurvivedisasentencequotedinthe
Placita."Justasoursoul,beingair,holdsustogether,sodobreathandairencompasstheworld."{14}

13

Secondary sources. Our principal secondary source is Theophrastus, whom pseudoPlutarch, Eusebius (Praepratio
Evangelica),Hippolytus(RefutatioOmniumHeresium),etc.,follow.cf.Diels,op.cit.,p.476.
DOCTRINES
Accordingtoalloursecondarysources,Anaximenestaughtthattheprinciple,orground,ofallmaterialexistenceisair.(armust,
however,betakenintheHomericsenseofvapor,ormist.)Thissubstance,towhichisascribedinfinitequantity,isendowedwithlife.
Fromit,bythinning(arai sis)andthickening(puke sis),wereformedfire,winds,clouds,water,andearth.Theworldisan
animal,whosebreathingiskeptupbymassesofair,whichitinhalesfromtheinfinitespacebeyondtheheavens.
CiceroincorrectlyrepresentsAnaximenesasidentifyingthedivinitywiththeprimitiveAir.St.Augustineismorecorrectwhenhe
says,"Necdeosnegavitauttacuit,nontamenabipsisaeremfactum,sedipsosexaereortoscredidit."{15}
Historical Position. Anaximenes was evidently influenced by his predecessors. From Thales he derived the qualitative
determinatenessoftheprimitivesubstanceandfromAnaximanderitsinfinity.Thedoctrineof"thickening"and"thinning"isfarmore
intelligiblethanthedoctrineof"separating"whichAnaximandertaught.
Retrospect.TheEarlyIonianphilosopherswerestudentsofnature(physiologoi)whodevotedthemselvestotheinquiryinto
theoriginofthings.Theyagreed(1)inpositingtheexistenceofasingleoriginalsubstance;(2)inregardingthissubstanceas
endowedwithforceandlife(hylozoism).Theyweredynamists.Heraclitus,aLaterIonian,whowasinfinalanalysisadynamistalso,
marksthetransitionfromtheearlyhylozoismtothemechanismoftheLaterIonianschool.

{1}Cf.Zeller,PreSocraticPhilosophy,Vol.I,pp.35ff.
{2}Cf.ibid.
{3}Cf.Phaedo,69,70.
{4}Plato'sstory(Protagoras,343A)ofthemeetingoftheSevenWiseMenatDelphiistotallydevoidofhistoricalfoundation.Even
thenamesofthesevenarenotagreedupon.Theenumerationwhichmostfrequentlyoccursisthefollowing:Thales,Bias,Pittacus,
Solon,Cleobulus,Chilo,andPeriander.Cf.RitterandPreller,Hist.Phil.Graecae(ed.1888),p.2,noted.
{5}OnPlato,Aristotle,Plutarch,DiogenesLaertius,etc.,assourcesforthehistoryofGreekphilosophy,cf.Fairbanks,TheFirst
PhilosophersofGreece(NewYork,1898),pp.263ff.;alsoBurnet,EarlyGreekPhilosophy(London,1892),pp.370ff.
{6} Tiedemann, Griechenlands erste Phiosophen (Leipzig, 1781); Ritter, History of Ancient Philosophy, trans. by
Morrison(4vols.,Oxford,1838);RitterandPreller,Hist.Phil.Graecae(Ed.VII,Gothae,1888);Zeller,DiePhilosophieder
Griechen(fnfteAufl.,Leipzig,1892ff.).(ReferenceswillbemadetotheEnglishtranslationsbyAlleyneandothersunderthetitles
PreSocratic.Philosophy,etc.)Tannery,Pourl'histoiredelasciencehellne (Paris,1887);Windelband,Historyof
AncientPhilosophy,trans.byCushman(NewYork,1899);HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byTufts(secondedition,NewYork
andLondon,1901).
TotheseaddErdmann,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byHough(3vols.,London,1890);Benn,TheGreekPhilosophers(2
vols.,London,1883);ThePhilosophyofGreece(London,1898);Gomperz,TheGreekThinkers,Vol.I,trans.byMagnus
(London,1901);Ueberweg,op.cit.;Schwegler,Gesch.dergriech.Phil.(dritteAufl.,Tbingen,1886).
Foramorecompletebibliography,cf.Weber,HistoryofPhilosophy,trans.byThilly(NewYork,1896),p.8;Ueberweg,op.
cit.,Vol.I,pp.19ff.;Erdmann,op.cit.,pp.14ff.
{7}OnthemannerofcomputingthedateofThales,cf.Burnet,op.cit.,pp.36ff.
{8}Met.,I,3,983b.
{9}Theophr.,frag.2,apudDiels,Doxographi,p.476.
{10}Arist.,Phys.,III,4,203b.
{11}"ThatAnaximandercalledthissomethingbythenameofphusisisclearfromthedoxographers;thecurrentstatementthatthe
word arche, inthe senseof a'first principle,'wasintroduced byhim, is probablydue to amere misunderstanding of what
Theophrastossays."Burnet,op.cit.,p.52.
OnthemeaningofphusisinthewritingsoftheearlyGreekphilosophers,cf.PhilosophicalReview(July,1901),Vol.X,pp.
366ff.

14

{12}Cf.Burnet,op.cit.,pp.372ff.
{13}Plut.,Strom.,2,apudDiels,op.cit.,p.579.
{14}Placita,I,3,4,apudDiels,op.cit.,p.278.ThePlacita,orPlacitaPhilosophorum,isacollectionofthe"opinions"of
philosophersascribedtoPlutarch.Likethe Eclogae ofStobaeus,itisbasedonanearliercollectionofopinionscalled AEtii
Placita,asthisisinturnbasedontheVetustaPlacita,ofwhichtracesarefoundinCicero.(cf.Burnet,op.cit.,p.372.)
{15}DeCiv.Dei,VIII,2.

CHAPTERIITHEPYTHAGOREANSCHOOL
AboutthetimetheIonicphilosophyattaineditshighestdevelopmentinAsiaMinor,anotherphaseofphilosophicalthoughtappeared
intheGreekcoloniesofItaly.AsweturntothePythagoreanphilosophy,thefirstphilosophyoftheWest,wearestruckwiththe
importancewhichtheethicoreligiousaspectassumesfromtheoutset;philosophynowisnotsomuchaninquiryintothecausesof
thingsasaruleoflife,awayofsalvation.Itisremarkable,too,thatthisnotionofphilosophyneverwhollydiedoutinthesubsequent
developmentofGreekthought.Plato,Aristotle,andtheStoicsconstantlyreferredphilosophytolifeaswellastoknowledge.
ThePythagoreansystemofspeculationissometimescontrastedwiththeIonianasbeinganembodimentoftheDoricspirit,which
wasartistic,conservative,ethical,whiletheGreeksoftheIoniancolonieswerecharacterizedbyworldlysense,versatility,curiosity,
andcommercialenterprise.Bothphilosophies,however,arewhollyGreek.
LifeofPythagoras.SamoswasthehomeandprobablythebirthplaceofPythagoras.ItiscertainthathejourneyedtoItalyabout
theyear530B.C.,andthathefoundedinCrotonaaphilosophicoreligioussociety.ThestoryofhisjourneythroughEgypt,Persia,
India,andGaulispartoftheNeoPythagoreanlegend,thoughthereisgoodreasonforbelievingthattheaccountofhisdeathat
Metapontumistrue.
Sources.Primarysources.TheNeoPythagoreansmentionanextensivePythagoreanliteratureasdatingfromthedaysofthe
founder.Modernscholarshiphas,however,shownthat(1)thereputedwritingsofPythagorasarecertainlyspurious;(2)the
fragmentsofPhilolaus (periphusi s)areforthemostpartgenuine:itwasprobablyfromthesethatAristotlederivedhis
knowledgeofthePythagoreandoctrines;Philolauslivedtowardstheendofthefifthcentury;(3)thefragmentsofArchytasof
Tarentumarespurious,withtheexceptionofafew,whichdonotaddtoourknowledgeofthePythagoreandoctrines,astheybear
tooevidentmarksofPlatonicinfluence.
Secondary sources.{1} There is no schoolthe history of which is so overgrown with legend as the Pythagorean. Indeed,
PythagorasandhisdisciplesareseldommentionedbywritersanteriortoPlatoandAristotle,andeventhelatterdoesnotmention
Pythagorasmorethanonceortwice;hespeaksratherofthePythagoreans.Thus,thenearerweapproachthetimeofPythagoras
themorescantydoourdatabecome,whilethefartherthetraditionisremovedfromPythagorasthefullertheygrow.Obviously,
therefore,theNeoPythagoreansofthefirstcenturyB.C.arenottobereliedonwhentheyspeakofPythagorasandhisdoctrines.
ThePythagoreanSchool wasasocietyformedforanethicoreligiouspurpose.Itwasgovernedbyasetofrules(ho
tropostoubiou).Themembersrecognizedoneanotherbymeansofsecretsigns;simplicityofpersonalattireandcertain
restrictionsinmatterofdietwererequired.Celibacyandthestrictobservanceofsecrecyinmattersofdoctrinewerealsoinsisted
upon.ThepoliticaltendencyoftheschoolwastowardsthearistocraticpartyinMagnaGraecia,atendencywhichledtothe
persecutionandfinaldispersionofthesociety.
PYTHAGOREANDOCTRINES
AllthatcanwithcertaintybetracedtoPythagorasisthedoctrineofmetempsychosis,theinstitutionofcertainethicalrules,andthe
germideaofthemathematicotheologicalspeculation,whichwasafterwardscarriedtoahighdegreeofdevelopment.Consequently,
byPythagoreandoctrineswemustunderstandthedoctrinesofthedisciplesofPythagoras,thoughthesereferrednearlyalltheir
doctrinestothefounder.(Indeed,theycarriedthispracticesofarthattheyconstantlyintroducedaquestionbyquotingtheautos
epha,theipsedixitoftheMaster.)
TheNumberTheory.ThemostdistinctiveofthePythagoreandoctrinesistheprinciplethatnumberistheessenceandbasis
(arch)ofallthings.TothisconclusionthePythagoreanswereled"bycontemplatingwithmindstrainedtomathematicalconcepts"
theorderofnatureandtheregularityofnaturalchanges.{2}

15

Tothequestion,DidthePythagoreansregardnumbersasthephysicalsubstanceofthings,ormerelyassymbolsorprototypes?the
answerseemstobethattheymeantnumbertostandtothingsinthedoublerelationofprototypeandsubstance.Andifthe
assertion,"Allisnumber,"soundsstrangetous,wemustconsiderhowprofoundwastheimpressionproducedonthemindsofthese
earlystudentsofnaturebythefirstperceptionoftheunalterableuniversalorderofnaturalchanges.Thenweshallceasetowonder
atthereadinesswithwhichnumberthe formulaofthe orderandregularityof those changes washypostatized intothe
substanceandbasisofallthingsthatchange.
Philolaus(frag.3)distinguishesthreenaturalkindsofnumber:odd,even,andtheoddeven.Aristotle {3}saysthatthePythagoreans
consideredoddandeventobetheelements(stoicheia){4}ofnumber."Ofthese,"hecontinues,"theoneisdefiniteandtheother
isunlimited,andtheunitistheproductofboth,foritisbothoddandeven,andnumberarisesfromtheunit,andthewholeheavenis
number."{5}Fromthedualismwhichisthusinherentintheunit,andconsequentlyinnumber,comesthedoctrineofopposites,finite
andinfinite,oddandeven,leftandright,maleandfemale,andsoforth.Fromthedoctrineofoppositesproceedsthenotionof
harmony,whichplayssuchanimportantpartinthePythagoreanphilosophy,forharmonyistheunionofopposites.
Application of the Doctrine of Number: 1. To physics. True to their mathematical concept of the world, the
Pythagoreansanalyzedbodiesintosurfaces,surfacesintolines,andlinesintopoints.Fromthis,however,wemustnotconclude
thattheyconceivedthenumericalunitofallthingsasmaterial;theyapparentlyusednumbersandgeometricalquantitiesmerelyas
quantities,abstractingfromtheircontents,thatis,withoutdeterminingwhetherthecontentswerematerialorimmaterial,adistinction
whichbelongstoalaterdate.
Everybodyisanexpressionofthenumberfour;thesurfaceisthree,becausethetriangleisthesimplestoffigures;thelineistwo,
becauseofitsterminations;andthepointisone.Tenistheperfectnumber,becauseitisthesumofthenumbersfromonetofour.
2.Tothetheoryofmusic.Theapplicationofthenumbertheorytothearrangementoftonesisobvious.Thestory,{6}however,of
thediscoveryofthemusicalscalebyPythagoras,astoldbyIamblichusandothers,isoneofmanyinstancesinwhichdiscoveries
madebythesuccessorsofPythagoraswereattributedtoPythagorashimself.
3.Tocosmology.Notonlyiseachbodyanumber,buttheentireuniverseisanarrangementofnumbers,thebasisofwhichisthe
perfectnumber,ten.Fortheuniverseconsistsoftenbodies,thefiveplanets,thesun,themoon,theheavenofthefixedstars,the
earth,andthecounterearth(antichth n).Theearthisasphere;thecounterearth,whichispostulatedinordertofillupthe
numberten,isalsoasphere,andmovesparalleltotheearth.Inthecenteroftheuniverseisthecentralfire,aroundwhichthe
heavenlybodies,fixedintheirspheres,revolvefromwesttoeast,whilearoundallistheperipheralfire.Thismotionoftheheavenly
bodiesisregulatedastovelocity,andisthereforeaharmony.Wedonot,however,perceivethisharmonyofthespheres,either
becauseweareaccustomedtoit,orbecausethesoundistoointensetoaffectourorgansofhearing.
4. Topsychology.ItwouldseemthattheearlyPythagoreanstaughtnothingdefiniteregardingthenatureofthesoul.Inthe
Phaedo,{7}PlatointroducesintothedialogueadiscipleofPhilolaus,whoteachesthatthesoulisaharmony,whileAristotle{8}says:
"Someofthem(thePythagoreans)saythatthesoulisidentifiedwiththecorpusclesintheair,andotherssaythatitisthatwhich
moves(tokinoun)thecorpuscles."Theidea,however,thatthesoulisaharmonyseemstobepartofthedoctrineofthe
Pythagoreans.Thetransmigrationofsoulsis,ashasbeensaid,traceabletothefounderoftheschool,thoughitwasprobably
heldasatradition,beingderivedfromthemysterieswithoutbeingscientificallyconnectedwiththeideaofthesoulorwiththe
numbertheory.
5. Totheology.ThePythagoreansdidnotmakeextensiveapplicationoftheirnumbertheorytotheirtheologicalbeliefs.They
seemtohaveconformed,externallyatleast,tothepopularreligiousnotions,thoughthereareindicationsofasystemofpurer
religiousconceptswhichweremaintainedesoterically.
6.Toethics.TheethicalsystemofthePythagoreanswasthoroughlyreligious.Thesupremegoodofmanistobecomegodlike.
Thisassimilationistobeaccomplishedbyvirtue.Nowvirtueisaharmony:itessentiallyconsistsinaharmoniousequilibriumofthe
faculties,bywhichwhatislowerinman'snatureissubordinatedtowhatishigher.Knowledge,thepracticeofasceticism,music,and
gymnasticsarethemeansbywhichthisharmonyisattained.Finally,thePythagoreansusednumberstodefineethicalnotions.
Thus,theysaid,jusliceisanumbersquared,arithmosisakisisos.
HistoricalPosition.ThechiefimportanceofthePythagoreanmovementliesinthis,thatitmarksadeepeningofthemoral
consciousnessinGreece.TheoldtimebuoyancyofreligiousfeelingasseenintheHomericpoemshasgivenwaytoacalmerand
morereflectivemood,inwhichthesenseofguiltandtheconsequentneedofatonementandpurificationassertthemselves.
Asasystemofphilosophy,thebodyofPythagoreandoctrinemust,likeallthepreSocraticsystems,beregardedasprimarily
intendedtobeaphilosophyofnature,andthisishowAristotledescribesit.{9}Itisnotconcernedwiththeconditionsofknowledge,
andalthoughthesocietywhichPythagorasfoundedwasethical,thephilosophywhichisassociatedwiththatsocietytreatsofethical

16

problemsonlyincidentallyandinasuperficialmanner.
AsaninvestigationofnaturethePythagoreanphilosophymustbepronouncedaverydecidedadvanceonthespeculativeattempts
oftheIonians.ThePythagoreansleavetheconcrete,senseperceivedbasisofexistence,andsubstituteforittheabstractnotionof
number,thuspreparingthewayforastillhighernotionthatofBeing.

{1}Cf.Burnet,op.cit.,pp.301ff.
{2}Arist.,Met.,I,5,986a,23.
{3}Met.,I,5,985b,24.
{4}ThetermwasfirstusedinthetechnicalscientificsensebyPlato.
{5}OnthePythagoreanconceptoftheInfinite,cf.Archivf.Gesch.derPhil.(April,1901),Bd.VII,Heft3.
{6}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,I,431,n.
{7}Phaedo,85E.
{8}DeAn.,I,2,404,a,26.
{9}Met.,I,8,989b,29.

CHAPTERIIITHEELEATICSCHOOL
Themembersofthisschoolwereconcernednotsomuchwiththeoriginofthingsaswiththeprinciplesoftheworldofthingsasit
nowis.Theirinquiriescenteredroundtheproblemofchange,andintheirsolutionofthisproblemtheyintroducedthenotionsof
Being andBecoming,thuscarrying speculationintoregionsstrictlymetaphysical. Thechiefrepresentatives of the schoolare
Xenophanesthetheologian,Parmenidesthemetaphysician,Zenothedialectician,andMelissus,whoshowsatendency
toreturntotheviewsoftheEarlierIonianstudentsofnature.
Sources. The work entitled Concerning the Opinions, or Concerning Xenphanes, Zeno, and Gorgias, which
containsanaccountofthedoctrinesofXenophanes,Zeno,andothers,andwhichwasatonetimeincludedamongAristotle'sworks,
isnowknowntohavebeenwrittenneitherbyAristotlenorbyTheophrastus,butbyalaterwriteroftheAristotelianschool.{1}Our
knowledgeoftheEleaticphilosophyisderivedfromsomefragmentsofthewritingsoftheEleaticsthemselves,fromAristotle's
accountoftheminhisMetaphysics,andfromtheworksofSimplicius,whohadaccesstoamorecompleteEleaticliteraturethan
wenowpossess.
XENOPHANES
Life.XenophaneswasbornatColophon,inAsiaMinor,abouttheyear570B.C.AccordingtoTheophrastus,hewasadiscipleof
Anaximander.AfterwanderingthroughGreeceasarhapsodist,hesettledatEleainsouthernItaly;fromthiscityisderivedthename
oftheschoolwhichhefounded.Thedateofhisdeathisunknown.
Sources.Itisimportanttodistinguishhere(1)thefragmentsofXenophanes'didacticpoem,and(2)theaccountsgivenbyour
secondaryauthorities.Intheformerwefindmerelyasetoftheologicalopinions;inthelatterXenophanesisrepresentedasholding
certainviewsongeneralmetaphysicalproblems.
DOCTRINES
InhisDidacticPoemXenophanesopposestothepolytheisticbeliefofthetimethedoctrineoftheunity,eternity,unchangeableness,
sublimity,andspiritualityofGod.Withtheenthusiasmandfinefrenzyofaprophet,heinveighsagainstthenotionscommonlyheld
concerningthegods."Eachman,"hesays,"representsthegodsashehimselfis:thenegroasblackandflatnosed,theThracianas
redhairedandblueeyed;andifhorsesandoxencouldpaint,they,nodoubt,woulddepictthegodsashorsesandoxen"(frag.6).
So,also,hecontinues,menascribetothegodsmentalcharacteristicswhicharehuman;theydonotunderstandthatGodis"alleye,
allear,allintellect."
AccordingtoourAuthorities,andwehavenorighttochallengetheirunanimousverdictinthismatter,allthatissaidinthe
sacredpoemofXenophanesistobereferredtotheunityandeternityofthetotalityofbeing.Plato {2} andAristotle{3} describe

17

Xenophanesasteachingtheunityofallthings.Ifthispantheismappearstoustobeirreconcilablewiththemonotheismofthepoem,
wemustnotconcludethatthecontradictionwasapparenttoXenophanes,who,thoughhecouldriseabovethepopularconceptof
thegods,couldnotwhollyfreehimselffromthenotion,sodeeplyrootedintheGreekmind,thatnatureisimbuedwiththedivine.
1.InhismetaphysicalinquiryXenophanesseems,accordingtothepseudoAristoteliantreatiseabovementioned,tohavestarted
withtheprinciplethat"Nothingcomesfromnothing,"whenceheconcludedthatthereisnoBecoming.Now,pluralitydependson
Becoming;if,then,thereisnoBecoming,thereisnoplurality:"Allisone,andoneisall."Theauthority,however,ofthisportionofthe
treatiseisdoubtful,thoughitmaywithsafetybesaidthatifXenophanesdidnotdevelopthislineofreasoningasParmenideshis
discipleafterwardsdid,thepremisesoftheseconclusionsareimplicitlycontainedinthetheologicalpoem.Forthesamereason,itis
uncertainwhetherXenophanesmaintainedtheinfinityorthefinitenatureoftheDeity,orwhetherheendowedtheDeitywitha
certainsphericalshape.
2.Inphysics,Xenophanes,incommonwithothersofhisschool,forgetstheunityofbeingwhich,asametaphysician,hehad
established,andproceedstoaninvestigationofthepluralitywhichhehaddenied.Headvocatesempiricalknowledge,thoughhe
holdsittobeunworthyofentireconfidence,teaching(frag.16)thattruthistobediscoveredbydegrees.Accordingtosomeofour
authoritiesheheldthattheprimitivesubstancewasearth;accordingtoothersheheldthatitwaswaterandearth.Afewattribute
tohimthedoctrineoffourprimitiveelements.Thereisbetterfoundationfortheopinionthathesupposedtheearthtohavepassed
fromafluidtoitspresentsolidcondition,{4}basinghisbelief,accordingtoHippolytus,onthefactthatpetrifiedmarineanimalsare
foundonlandandevenonmountains.Thus,althoughtheonetotaliseternal,theworldinitspresentformisnoteternal.
HistoricalPosition.Xenophanes'systemis,sofar,theboldestattempttosynthesizethephenomenaoftheuniverse.Infact,it
isoneinstanceamongmanyinwhichthedesiretofindtheoneinthemanifoldadesirewhichistheinspirationofallphilosophical
speculationiscarriedtotheexcessofmonism.For,ifwearetoacceptanytheorythatwillreconcileXenophanes'metaphysics
withhistheology,wemustholdthatheidentifiednature,theone,immutable,eternal,withGod,wholikewisepossessesthese
attributes.
PARMENIDES
Life.Parmenides,whowas,perhaps,thegreatestofallthepreSocraticphilosophers,wasbornatEleaabout540B.C.According
toAristotle,hewasadiscipleofXenophanes,whosedoctrineshetookupandcarriedtotheiridealisticconsequences.Hehada
moredefinitegraspofprinciplesthanXenophaneshad,anddevelopedthemwithgreaterthoroughnessthanhismasterhaddone.
Sources.Thedidacticpoemperiphuse s,composedbyParmenidesandpreservedbySextus,Proclus,andothers,consists
ofthreeparts.Thefirstisasublimelyconceivedintroduction,inwhichthegoddessoftruthpointsouttothephilosophertwopathsof
knowledge,theoneleadingtoaknowledgeoftruth,theothertoaknowledgeoftheopinionsofmen.Thesecondpartofthepoem
describesthejourneytotruth,andcontainsthemetaphysicaldoctrinesoftheauthor.Thethirdpart,dealingwiththeopinionsofmen,
containsahypotheticalphysics,acosmologyoftheapparent.
DOCTRINES
MetaphysicalDoctrines.TruthconsistsintheknowledgethatBeingis,andthatnotBeingcanneitherexistnorbeconceived
toexist.ThegreatesterrorliesintreatingBeingandnotBeingasthesame. {5}Fromthisfundamentalerrorarisetheopinionsof
men.Truthliesinthought,for"nothingcanbebutwhatcanbethought."Thesensesleadtoerror.Being,therefore,is,andsincenot
Beingisnot,Beingisone.Itisconsequentlyunchangeableandunproduced,despitethetestimonyofthesensestothecontrary.For
howcouldBeingbeproduced?EitherfromnotBeing,whichdoesnotexist,orfromBeing,inwhichcaseitwasbeforeitbegantobe.
Thereforeitisunproduced,unchangeable,undivided,whole,homogeneous,equallybalancedonallsides,likeaperfectsphere.{6}
FromthecomparisonofBeingtoasphereitappearsthatBeingisnotincorporeal.{7} Ideasdonotappearinphilosophy ex
abrupto.Theyaregraduallydevelopedinthecourseofspeculation.Thus,Parmenides'ideaofrealityisnotthatoftheIonians,who
spokeofacrudematerialsubstratumofexistence.NeitherisitthehighlyabstractnotionofBeingwhichwefindinthephilosophyof
PlatoandAristotle.Itisasomethingintermediatebetweentheseextremes,andisbysomelikenedtoournotionofspace.
PhysicalDoctrines.Thoughrightreason(logos)maintainsthatBeingisoneandimmutable,thesensesandcommonopinion
(doxa)areconvincedofthepluralityandchangewhichapparentlyexistaroundus.Placinghimself,therefore,atthispointofview,
Parmenidesproceeds{8}togiveus
1.Acosmologyoftheapparent.HereheisevidentlyinfluencedbythePythagoreandoctrineofopposites.Hemaintainsthat
allthingsarecomposedoflight,orwarmth,anddarkness,orcold;ofthese,theformer,accordingtoAristotle,{9} correspondsto
Being,thelattertonotBeing.TheyareunitedbyaDeity(daimn,hepantakuberna).Theyaresymbolicallydescribedas
maleandfemale,andtheirunionissaidtobeeffectedbyEros,thefirstcreationoftheDeity.{10}

18

2.Ananthropologyoftheapparent.Thelifeofthesoul,perceptionandreflection,dependontheblendingofthelightwarm
andthedarkcoldprinciples,eachprinciplestanding,asweshouldsay,inpsychicalrelationtoacorrespondingprincipleinthe
physicalworld.
Inhiscosmology,aswellasinhisanthropology,ParmenidesdidnotabandonthemetaphysicaldoctrinethatBeingisoneandthat
changeisanillusion.TheviewsjustdescribedarethosewhichParmenideswouldhaveheldhadhebelievedinpluralityand
change.
HistoricalPosition.ParmenidesisthefirstGreekphilosophertoplacereasoninoppositiontoopinion.Thoughhemakesno
attemptatdeterminingtheconditionsofknowledge,hepreparesthewayforsubsequentthinkersandformulatestheproblemwhich
Socrateswastosolvebyhisdoctrineofconcepts.
ThedoctrineoftheunityofBeingcouldnotbefurtherdeveloped.ItwasleftforZeno,thediscipleofParmenides,togiveamore
thoroughdialecticaldemonstrationofthemonisticidea.
ZENOOFELEA
Life.ZenoofElea,bornabout490B.C.,was,accordingtoPlato,{11}thefavoritepupilofParmenides.Hedefendedthedoctrinesof
hismaster,andshowed,bytheuseofdialectics,theabsurdityofcommonopinion.
Sources.Platospeaksofawork(apparentlytheonlywork)ofZeno,whichwasapolemicagainstthecommonviewthatplurality
andchangearerealities.Itconsistedofseveraldiscourses(logoi),ineachofwhichwerehupotheseisorsuppositions,made
withtheintentionofreducingthemadabsurdum.Themethodis,therefore,indirect,anditisbecauseoftheskillwithwhichZeno
appliedthismethodthatAristotle,ifwearetobelieveDiogenesandSextus,regardedhimasthefounderofdialectic.
Thework,withtheexceptionofafewextractspreservedbySimplicius,islost.Weareobliged,consequently,torelyalmostentirely
onsecondarysources.Chiefamongtheseisthe Physics ofAristotle,inwhichwefindZeno'sargumentsagainsttherealityof
motion.{12}
DOCTRINES
TheArgumentsagainstMotionareasfollows.Firstargument:Abody,inordertomovefromonepointtoanother,must
movetbroughaninfinitenumberofspaces;formagnitudeisdivisibleadinfinitum.Buttheinfinitecannotbetraversed;therefore
motionisimpossible.Secondargument:TheproblemofAchillesandthetortoise.Thirdargument:Abodywhichisinone
placeiscertainlyatrest.Now,thearrowinitsflightisateachsuccessivemomentinoneplace;thereforeitisatrest. Fourth
argument:Thisisbasedonthefactthattwobodiesofequalsizemovepasteachothertwiceasfast(iftheymovewithequal
velocitiesinoppositedirections)asonewouldmovepasttheotherifthislatterwerestationary.Motion,therefore,isanillusion,
becauseoneofitsfundamentallawsthatbodieswithequalvelocitiestraverseacertainspaceinequaltimesisnottrue.
Aristotle{13} meetstheseargumentsbydefiningthetruenatureoftime,andbypointingoutthedifferencebetweenactualand
potentialinfinity.
Similarly,Zeno,accordingtooursecondarysources,arguedagainstPluralityandSpace.(1)Zenoargueddirectlyagainst
the testimonyofthesenses:Ifameasureofcornproducesasound,eachgrainoughttoproduceasound. {14} (2)Against
space:ifBeingexistsinspace,spaceitselfmustexistinspace,andsoadinfinitum.Thisargumentiscontainedinoneofthe
extractspreservedbySimplicius.(3)Ifthemanifoldexists,itmustbeatonceinfinitelygreatandinfinitesimallysmall,becauseit
hasaninfinitudeofpartswhichareindivisible.Thereforetheexistenceofthemanifoldinvolvesacontradiction.{15}
HistoricalPosition.Zeno'scontributiontothephilosophyoftheEleaticschoolconsistsinwhatmusthavebeenconsideredan
irrefutableindirectproofofthetwofoldprincipleonwhichtheschoolwasfounded,namely,thatBeingisoneandthatchangeisan
illusion.
MELISSUS
Life.Melissuswas,accordingtoDiogenesLaertius,anativeofSamos.Wehavenoreasonfordoubtingthathewas,asPlutarch
says,thecommanderoftheSamianfleetwhichdefeatedtheAtheniansoffthecoastofSamosintheyear442B.C. {16}Hewas,
therefore,ayoungercontemporaryofZeno,anditispossiblethat,likeZeno,hewasapupilofParmenides.Hewroteawork,peri
touontosorperiphuse s.
Sources.Oftheworkjustmentioned,Simpliciushaspreservedsomefragments.Thesefragmentsagreewiththeaccountsgiven
ofthedoctrinesofMelissusinthefirstpartofthepseudoAristoteliantreatiseConcerningXenophanes,etc.
DOCTRINES

19

Method. Melissus undertook, as Zeno had done, to defend the doctrines of Parmenides. But while Zeno's method of
argumentationwasindirect,Melissusemployedthedirectmethod.HetookuptheprinciplesoftheIoniansandtriedtoshowpoints
ofunionbetweentheIonianandEleaticschools.
MetaphysicalDoctrine.AllthatweknowofMelissus'doctrineconcerningBeingmaybesummedupinthefourpropositions:
(1)Beingiseternal;(2)Beingisinfinite;(3)Beingisone;(4)Beingisunchangeable.Hismetaphysicaldoctrineis,therefore,identical
withthatofParmenides,saveinonerespect.ParmenidesdidnotpronounceBeinginfinite,whileaccordingtoMelissusinfinityisone
oftheattributesofBeing.But,asappearsfromfrag.5,MelissusmustnotbeunderstoodtomaintainthetrueinfinityofBeing.
Evidentlyhehadinmindinfinitemagnitude.Again,whenhesays{17}s mam echei,wemustnotimaginethatMelissushad
attainedaprecisenotionoftheincorporeal.HismetaphysicswasablendingoftheIonianwiththeEleaticdoctrines,andwemay
supposethatthereweremanypointsofcontradiction.
ThePhysicalDoctrinesattributedtoMelissusbyStobaeusandPhiloponuscannotsafelybesaidtohavebeenheldbyhim.
HistoricalPosition.MelissusdoesnotrepresentadevelopmentofEleaticphilosophy.Histaskwasoneofsynthesis,or
reconciliation,andinaccomplishingthistaskhedidnotwhollyescapethedangertowhichsuchanundertakingisalwaysexposed:
headmittedintoEleaticdoctrinesnotionsanddefinitionswhichwereantagonistictoEleaticprinciples.
Retrospect.WithMelissustheEleaticschoolends.WhatwasleftofEleaticismdriftedintoSophism,forwhichZenohadprepared
thewaybyhisabuseofdialecticalreasoning.But,thoughtheschooldisappeared,itsinfluencecontinued,andmaybetraced
throughHeraclitus,Anaxagoras,andtheAtomistsdowntoPlatoandAristotle.TheEleaticswerethefirsttoformulatetheproblems
ofBeingandBecomingproblemswhicharealwaysthecenterofmetaphysicalspeculation.TheseweretheproblemsthatPlato
andAristotleweretosolvebythetheoryofIdeasandthedoctrineofmatterandform.
PreSocraticphilosophyisthroughoutobjectiveinspiritandaim;itisaphilosophyofnature.Tothis,Eleaticphilosophyformsno
exception.ItistruethattheEleaticsgivetophysicsmerelyahynotheticalvalue,andthattheydecrysensereceivedknowledge,
contrastingitwithreason.Yetoncloserexaminationitwillbeseenthatalltheirinquiryisconcernedwiththeoriginandexplanation
ofnature,andthattheBeingwhichtheymaintaintobetheonlyrealityisasomethingextendedinspace,or,asAristotle {18}
describesit,thesubstrateofsensiblethings.Zeno,indeed,introduceddialecticintophilosophy,buthetreateditmerelyasan
instrumentofproof,unaccompaniedbyanyinquiryintothenatureandconditionsofknowledge.Thefounderofthephilosophyofthe
conceptisSocrates,andAristotle{19}isrightwhenhelooksforthegermofSocraticphilosophy,notintheEleaticdoctrine,butinthe
teachingsofDemocritusandthePythagoreans.

{1}Cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.81.
{2}Sophis.,242D.
{3}Met.,I,5,986b,21.
{4}Cf.frags.9and10.
{5}Poem,lines43ff.
{6}Lines97ff.
{7}Cf.Burnet,of.cit.,p.594.
{8}Lines110ff.
{9}Met.,I,5,986b,31.{10}Line130.
{11}Parm.,127B.
{12}Phys.,VI,9,239b,9ff.
{13}Loc.cit.,241a.
{14}Simpl.,Phys.,255r;Arist.,Phys.,VII,5,250a,20.
{15}Cf.Fairbanks,op.cit.,p.113.
{16}Percl.,Chap.26.
{17}Frag.16.

20

{18}Cf.Met.,IV,5,1010a,andDeCoelo,III,298b,21.
{19}Met.,XIII,4,1078.

CHAPTERIVLATERIONIANPHILOSOPHERS
TheseareseparatedfromtheEarlierIonianphilosophersnotmerelyinpointoftimebutalsoinrespecttodoctrine.Thedifference
consistschieflyinthetendencywhichtheLaterIoniansmanifesttodepartfromthemonisticdynamismoftheearlyphysicistsand
adoptadualisticmechanicalconceptoftheuniverse.Heraclitus,whois,inultimateanalysis,adynamist,marksthebeginningofthe
changewhich,afterthemoreorlesshesitatingutterancesofEmpedocles,appearssuccessivelyinthemechanismoftheAtomists
andintheopenlypronounceddualismofAnaxagoras.Heraclitusis,therefore,theconnectinglinkbetweenearlierandlaterIonian
philosophy.
HERACLITUS
Life.Heraclitus,surnamedtheObscure(hoskoteinos)onaccountofthemistoforacularexpressionsinwhich(purposely,
accordingtosomewriters)heveiledhisteachings,wasbornatEphesusabouttheyear530B.C.Hecomposedawork peri
phuses,consistingofthreeparts,{1}thefirstofwhichwasperitoupantosthesecond,(logos)politikosandthethird,
(logos)theologikos.Ofthefragmentswhichhavecomedowntous,veryfewcanbeassignedtothesecondoftheseparts,
andfewerstilltothethird.Theexistingfragmentsofferconsiderabledifficultyinthematterofarrangementandinterpretation,a
difficulty which isincreasedby thefact thatmany ofoursecondaryauthoritiesareuntrustworthy. ThedoctrinesofHeraclitus
resemble the fundamental tenets of the Stoics, and here as elsewhere the stoic historians are inclined to exaggerate such
resemblances.Onthisaccount,evenformodernscholars,HeraclitusisstilltheObscure.
Sources.Besidesthefragmentsabovementioned,wehaveassourcesofinformationthewritingsofPlatoandAristotle,whogive
atolerablycompleteaccountoftheteachingsofHeraclitus.
DOCTRINES
DoctrineofUniversalChange.HeraclitusplaceshimselfindirectoppositiontotheEleaticteachingandtothedataof
common,unreflectingconsciousness.ThemassofmenandhereheincludesnotmerelyPythagorasandXenophanesbutalso
HomerandHesiod,associatingthemwiththecommonherdseenothingbutsenseforms;theyfailtocomprehendtheall
discerningreason.{2}Weshouldfollowreasonalone."Muchlearningdoesnotteachthemind."{3}
Now,thefirstlessonwhichreasonteachesusisthat thereisnothingpermanentintheworldaroundus.Thesenses,
whentheyattributetothingsapermanencewhichthingsdonotpossess,aredeceivedandthusgiverisetothegreatestofallerrors,
thebeliefinimmobility.Thetruthisthatallthingschange,pantach rei.Everythingisinvolvedinthestreamofchange:fromlife
comesdeath,fromdeathcomeslife;oldagesucceedsyouth;sleepchangesintowakefulnessandwakefulnessintosleep.Ina
word,nothingis,allisBecoming.
BothPlato{4}andAristotle{5}setdownthedoctrineoftheuniversalityofchangeasbeingthemostcharacteristicoftheteachingsof
Heraclitus.Plato,moreover,expresslymentionstheHeracliteancomparisonofthestreaminwhichwavesucceedswave.Butitis
remarkablethattheexpression,"Allthingsareflowing,"whichsoconvenientlysumsupthedoctrineofuniversalchange,cannotbe
provedtobeaquotationfromtheworkofHeraclitus.
DoctrineofFire.Anothersourceoferroristhis:thatthepoetsandsagesknewnomorethanthecommonherddoesaboutthe
divine, allcontrolling fire. By fire, however, Heraclitus meant invisible warm matter rather than the fire which is the result of
combustion.Itisendowedwithlife,oratleastwiththepowerofBecoming"Allthingsareexchangedforfireandfireforallthings,
justaswaresareexchangedforgoldandgoldforwares."{6} Itis,therefore,whatAristotlewouldcallthematerialaswellasthe
efficientcauseofallthings,andhereHeraclitusshowshimselfthelinealdescendantoftheEarlierIonians.Moreover,sinceall
thingsproceedfromfireaccordingtofixedlaw,fireisstyledZeus,Deity,Logos,Justice.
Thisaccountwould,however,beincompletewithoutsomementionoftheforcewhichispostulatedbyHeraclitusascoeternalwith
fire."Strifeisthefatherofall,andkingofall,andsomehemadegods,andsome,men." {7}Opposedtostrife,whichgaveriseto
thingsbyseparation,isharmony,whichguidesthembacktothefirewhencetheycame.Theseexpressions,however,whilethey
speakthelanguageofdualism,arenottobeunderstoodasmorethanmerefiguresofspeech,forfire,andfirealone,isthecauseof

21

allchange.
OriginoftheWorld.Theworldwasproducedbythetransformationsoftheprimitivefire.Thereisacycleofchangesbywhich
firethroughaprocessofcondensation,orratherofquenching(sbennusthai),becomeswaterandearth.Thisisthedownward
way.Andthereisacycleofchangesbywhichthroughaprocessofrarefaction,orkindling(haptesthai),earthgoesbackto
waterandwatertofire.Thisistheupwardway.Now,theoneispreciselytheinverseoftheother:hodosan kat mia.{8}
Thusdidtheworldoriginateandthusdoesitconstantlytendtoreturnwhenceitcame.Concordiseverundoingtheworkofstrife,
andonedaystrifewillbeovercome;butthentheDeity,asitwereinsport, {9}willconstructanewworldinwhichstrifeandconcord
willoncemorebeatplay.
DoctrineofOpposites.Fromthiscontinualchangecomesthedoctrineofopposites.Thereisaconstantswaying(likethe
bendingandrelaxingofabow{10}),inwhichallthingspasssuccessivelythroughtheiropposites:heatbecomescold,dryness
becomesmoisture,etc.Toproducethenew,likemustbecoupledwithunlike;highandlow,theaccordantwiththediscordant,are
joined,thatoutofonemaycomeall,andoutofall,one.OnaccountofthisdoctrineHeraclitusiscensuredbyAristotle {11}andhis
commentatorsfordenyingtheprincipleofcontradiction.Hegelians,ontheotherhand,creditHeraclituswithbeingthefirstto
recognizetheunityofopposites,theidentityofBeingandnotBeing. {12}ThetruthisthatHeraclitusdeservesneithertheblameofthe
AristoteliansnorthepraiseoftheHegelians.Hedoesnotaffirmoppositepredicatesofthesamesubjectatthesametimeandsub
eodemrespectu.Moreover,hisisaphysical,notalogical,theory,andtomaintaintheunityofoppositesintheconcreteisnotthe
sameastoholdtheidentityofBeingandnotBeingintheabstract.
AnthropologicalDoctrines.Man,bodyandsoul,originatedfromfire.Thebodyisofitselfrigidandlifeless,anobjectof
aversionwhenthesoulhasdepartedfromit.Thesoul,ontheotherhand,isdivinefirepreservedinitspurestform."Thedriestsoul
iswisestandbest."{13}Ifthesoulfireisquenchedbymoisture,reasonislost.Likeeverythingelseinnature,thesoulisconstantly
changing.Itisfedbyfire,orwarmmatter,whichentersasbreathorisreceivedthroughthesenses.Not.withstandingthisview,
HeraclitusinseveralofthefragmentsspeaksoffuturerewardandofthefateofthesoulinHades.{14}
Heraclitus distrusted senseknowledge: "Eyes and ears," he said, "are bad witnesses to men, if they have souls that
understandnottheirlanguage."{15}Rationalknowledgeisalonetrustworthy.Heraclitus,however,didnot,nordidanyofthepre
Socraticphilosophers,attempttodeterminetheconditionsofrationalknowledge.ThattaskwasfirstundertakenbySocrates.
EthicalDoctrines.Heraclitusdidnotundertakeasystematictreatmentofethicalquestions.Nevertheless,hepreparedtheway
forStoicismbyteachingthatImmutableReasonisthelawofthemoralaswellasofthephysicalworld."Menshoulddefendlawas
theywouldafortress."{16}Wemustsubjectourselvestouniversalorderifwewishtobetrulyhappy:"thecharacterofamanishis
guardian divinity."{17} This is the doctrine of contentment, or equanimity (euarestsis), in which, according to the
Heracliteans,Heraclitusplacedthesupremehappinessofman.
HistoricalPosition.EveninancienttimesHeraclituswasregardedasoneofthegreatest physicists.Hewasdeservedly
styledhophusikosfor,whileothersamongthephilosophersofnatureexcelledhiminparticularpointsofdoctrine,hehadthe
peculiarmeritofhavingestablishedauniversalpointofviewforthestudyofnatureasawhole.Hewasthefirsttocallattentionto
thetransitorinessoftheindividualandthepermanenceofthelawwhichgovernsindividualchanges,thusformulatingtheproblemto
whichPlatoandAristotleafterwardsaddressedthemselvesastotheparamountquestionofmetaphysics.Thenaveconceptionof
theuniverseasevolved,accordingtotheEarlierIonians,fromonesubstance,byaprocesswhichmaybewitnessedinawatertank,
nowgivesplacetothenotionofaworldruledinitsoriginandinallitsprocessesbyanallpervadingLogos.Moreover,though
Heraclitusformulatednosystemofepistemology,hisdistrustofthesensesandhisadvocacyofrationalknowledgeshowthat
philosophyhadbeguntoemergefromthestateofprimitiveinnocence.Itwasthisgermofcriticismwhichwasdevelopedintofull
grownScepticismbyCratylus,whilealonganotherlineofdevelopmentitledtothecriticalphilosophyoftheSophistsandtothe
Socraticdoctrineoftheconcept.
HeraclitusandtheEleaticswere,sotospeak,atoppositepolesofthought.InthedoctrinesofEmpedoclesandtheAtomistswecan
perceivethedirectinfluenceoftheEleaticschool.
EMPEDOCLES
Life.Empedocles,whoisthemosttypicalrepresentativeoftheLaterIonianschool,holdsamiddlecoursebetweenthemonismof
ParmenidesandtheextremepanmetabolismofHeraclitus.HewasbornatAgrigentum,inSicily,abouttheyear490B.C.According
toAristotle,helivedsixtyyears.ThetraditionwhichrepresentsEmpedoclesastravelingthroughSicilyandsouthernItalyand
claimingdivinehonorswhereverhewentisonlytooabundantlyprovedbyfragmentsofhissacredpoems.Thestory,however,that
hecommittedsuicidebyleapingintothecraterofEtnaisamaliciousinvention;itisalwaysmentionedwithahostilepurpose,and

22

usuallyinordertocounteractsometaletoldbyhisadherentsandadmirers.
Sources. Empedocles, who was a poet as well as a philosopher, composed two poeticophilosophical treatises, the one
metaphysical (peri phuse s), and the other theological (katharmoi). Of the five thousand verses which these poems
contained,onlyaboutfourhundredandfiftyhavecomedowntous.OnaccountofthelanguageandimagerywhichEmpedocles
employs,heisstyledbyAristotlethefirstrhetorician.{18}
DOCTRINES
Metaphysics.Empedocles,likeParmenides,beginswithadenialofBecoming.Becoming,inthestrictsenseofqualitative
changeofanoriginalsubstance,isunthinkable.Yet,withHeraclitus,heholdsthatparticularthingsarise,change,decay,andperish.
Hereconcilesthetwopositionsbyteachingthatgenerationisbutthecommingling,whiledecayistheseparationofprimitive
substanceswhichthemselvesremainunchanged.{19}
Theprimitivesubstancesarefour: fire,air,earth, and water;theseafterwardscameto beknownasthe Four Elements.
Empedoclescallsthemroots(tessarat npant nhriz mata).Thewordelements(stoicheia)wasfirstusedbyPlato.
ThemythologicalnameswhichEmpedoclesappliedtotheseradicalprinciplesofBeinghavenoparticularphilosophicalvalue;they
mayberegardedastheaccidentsofpoeticalcomposition.Theelementsareunderived,imperishable,homogeneous.Definite
substancesareproducedwhentheelementsarecombinedincertainproportions.Now,themovingcause,theforce,whichproduces
thesecombinationsisnotinherentintheelementsthemselves;itisdistinctfromthem.Herewehavethefirstwordofmechanismin
Greekphilosophy.Itistrue,Empedoclesspeaksofthisforceasloveandhatred,{20}butthephraseologymerelyprovesthatthe
ideaofforceisnotyetcleartotheGreekmind:Empedoclesdoesnotdefinethedifferencebetweenforceandmatterontheone
hand,andbetweenforceandpersonontheother.Moreover,todenythatEmpedocleswasadualist,toexplainthatbyloveand
hatredhe meantmerelyapoeticaldescription ofthe conditionsofmixtureandseparation,andnot thetrue causes ofthese
processes,wouldimplythatAristotleandallourotherauthoritiesmisunderstoodthewholedoctrineofEmpedocles.
CosmologicalDoctrines.Thefourelementswereoriginallycombinedinasphere(eudaimonestatostheos)where
lovereignedsupreme.{21}Graduallyhatredbegantoexertitscentrifugalinfluence;love,however,unitedtheelementsoncemoreto
formthosethingswhichweremade.Andsotheworldisgivenovertoloveandhatred,andtotheendlesspulsationofperiodic
changes.
BiologicalDoctrines.Empedoclesseemstohavedevotedspecialattentiontothestudyoflivingorganisms.Plantsfirstsprang
fromtheearthbeforeitwasilluminedbythesun;and thencameanimals,whichwereevolvedoutofallsortsofmonstrous
combinationsoforganismsbyakindofsurvivalofthefit;forthoseonlysurvivedwhichwerecapableofsubsisting.{22}Inthistheory
Empedoclesexpresslyincludesman.
Thecauseofgrowthinanimalsandplantsisfirestrivingupwardsimpelledbythedesiretoreachitslike,thefirewhichisinthe
sky.Bloodistheseatofthesoul,becauseinbloodtheelementsarebestunited.{23}Itisbyreasonofthemovementofthebloodthat
inspirationandrespirationtakeplacethroughtheporeswhicharecloselypackedtogetheralloverthebody.{24}
PsychologicalDoctrines.Senseknowledgeisexplainedbythedoctrineofemanationsandpores. {25}Likeisknownbylike,
thatis,thingsareknowntousbymeansoflikeelementsinus,"earthbyearth,waterbywater,"etc.{26}Inthecaseofsight,thereis
anemanationfromtheeyeitself,whichgoesouttomeettheemanationfromtheobject.{27}Thoughtandintelligenceareascribedto
allthings,nodistinctionbeingmadebetweencorporealandincorporeal.Thought,therefore,likeallothervitalactivities,dependson
themixtureofthefourelements.{28}YetEmpedoclesseemstocontrasttheuntrustworthinessofsenseknowledgewithknowledge
acquiredbyreflection, orrather with knowledgeacquired by all thepowers ofthe mind. {29} Hedidnotconceivethesoulas
composedofelements;hedidnotconsideritasanentityapartfromthebody;hemerelyexplaineditsactivitiesbytheconstitutionof
thebody.Inhissacredpoem,however,headoptedthedoctrineoftransmigration,borrowingitfromPythagoreanandOrphic
tradition,withoutmakingitpartofhisscientifictheories."OnceerenowIwasayouth,andamaiden,ashrub,abird,andafishthat
swimsinsilenceinthesea."{30}
ConcerningtheGods.Empedoclessometimesspeaksasifheheldthecommonpolytheisticbelief.Sometimes,onthe
contrary,asinverses345to350,hedescribestheDeityalmostinthewordsofXenophanes:"Heissacredandunutterablemind,
flashingthroughthewholeworldwithrapidthoughts."Still,Empedoclesapparentlyfoundnomeansofintroducingthisconceptofthe
Deityintohisaccountoftheoriginoftheuniverse.
HistoricalPosition.WhileEmpedoclesholdsarecognizedplaceamongtheGreekpoets,andwhilePlatoandAristotleappear
torankhimhighlyasaphilosopher,yetscholarsarenotagreedastohispreciseplaceinthehistoryofpreSocraticspeculation.

23

RitterclasseshimwiththeEleatics,otherscounthimamongthedisciplesofPythagoras,whileothersagainplacehimamongthe
IoniansonaccountofthesimilarityofhisdoctrinestothoseofHeraclitusandtheearlyPhysicists.Thetruth,asZellersays,seemsto
be that there is in the philosophy of Empedocles an admixture of all these influences, Eleatic (denial of Becoming,
untrustworthinessofthesenses),Pythagorean(doctrineoftransmigration),andIonic(thefourelementsandloveandhatred,
thesebeinganadaptationofHeracliteanideas).Itwouldbeamistake,however,tounderestimatetheoriginalityofEmpedoclesasa
philosopher.Itwashewhointroducedthenotionofelement,fixedthenumberofelements,andpreparedthewayfortheatomistic
mechanismofLeucippus.Thedefects,however,ofhismetaphysicalsystemaremany,chiefamongthembeing,asAristotle {31}
remarked, theomissionof theideaofanintelligentRulerunderwhoseaction natural processes wouldberegularinstead of
fortuitous.
ANAXAGORAS
Life.AnaxagoraswasbornatClazomenaeabout500B.C.Aristotle{32}saysthathewas"priortoEmpedoclesinpointofage,but
subsequenttohiminrespecttodoctrine."FromhisnativecityhewenttoAthens,where hewasformanyyearsthefriendof
Pericles, and where he counted among his disciples the dramatist Euripides. When, shortly before the outbreak of the
PeloponnesianWar,Pericleswasattacked,Anaxagoraswastriedonthechargeofimpiety,butescapedfromprisonand,returning
tohisnativeIonia,settledinLampsacus,wherehediedabouttheyear430B.C.
Sources.DiogenesLaertiussaysthatAnaxagoraswroteaworkwhich,likemostoftheancientphilosophicaltreatises,was
entitledperiphyse s.OfthisworkPlatospeaksintheApology;inthesixthcenturyofoureraSimpliciuscouldstillprocurea
copy,anditistohimthatweowesuchfragmentsashavecomedowntous.ThesefragmentswereeditedbySchaubachin1827,
andbySchornin1829.TheyareprintedbyMullach.{33}
DOCTRINES
StartingPoint.LikeEmpedocles,AnaxagorasstartswiththedenialofBecoming,and,likeEmpedoclesalso,heischiefly
concernedtoexplain,inaccordancewiththisdenial,thepluralityandchangewhichexist.Hediffers,however,fromEmpedocles,
bothinhisdoctrineofprimitivesubstancesandinhisdoctrineofthecosmicforcewhichformedtheuniverse.
DoctrineofPrimitiveSubstances.Anaxagorasmaintainedthatallthingswereformedoutofanagglomerateofsubstances
inwhichbodiesofdeterminatequalitygold,flesh,bones,etc.werecommingledininfinitelysmallparticlestoformthegermsof
allthings.{34}ThisagglomeratewascalledbyAristotletahomoiomeritwascalledbyAnaxagorasseeds(strmata)and
things(chrmata).Socompletewasthemixture,andsosmallweretheparticlesofindividualsubstancescomposingit,thatatthe
beginningnosubstancecouldbeperceivedinitsindividualnatureandqualities,andaccordinglythemixtureasawholemightbe
saidtobequalitativelyindeterminate,thoughdefinitequalitieswerereallypresentinit.Yet,minuteasweretheprimitiveparticles,
theyweredivisible.Thustheagglomerateontheonehandremindsusoftheapeiron ofAnaximander,and ontheotherhand
bearsacertainanalogytotheatomisticconceptofmatter.
Mind(Nous)isthemovingpowerwhichformedtheworldfromtheprimitivemassof"seeds."Anaxagorasisthefirsttointroduce
intophilosophytheideaofthesupersensible,forwhichreasonAristotledescribeshim{35}asstandingout"likeasobermanfromthe
crowdofrandomtalkerswhoprecededhim."Mindisdistinguishedfromotherthingsbecause(1)itissimpleeverythingelseis
mingledofallthings;mindaloneisunmixed.Itis"thethinnestofallthingsandthepurest."(2)Itisselfruled(autokrats).(3)It
hasallknowledgeabouteverything.(4)Ithassupremepoweroverallthings.{36}
However,asPlatoandAristotlepointout,Anaxagorasdidnotworkouthistheoryofmindinthedetailsofthecosmicprocesses.He
didnotformulatetheideaofdesign,nordidheapplytheprincipleofdesigntoparticularcases.Mindwasforhimmerelyaworld
formingforce.Thereis,moreover,acertainvaguenessattachingtotheideaof Nous.Withoutenteringintothedetailsofthe
questionofinterpretation,{37}wemayconcludethatalthoughAnaxagorascertainlymeantbytheNoussomethingincorporeal,he
couldnotavoidspeakingofitintermswhich,takenliterally,implycorporealnature;foritisthefateofnewideastosufferfrom
imperfectexpressionuntilphilosophicalterminologyhasadjusteditselftothenewconditionswhichtheycreate.
Cosmology.Mind,therefore,firstimpartedtomatteracircularmotion{38} separatingAir(fromwhichcamewater,earth,and
stone,andwhateveriscold,dark,anddense)andEther(fromwhichcamewhateveriswarm,light,andrare).Throughoutthis
accountoftheprocessesofthingsAnaxagorasconsidersthematerialcauseonly,therebydeservingAristotle'sreproach,thathe
usedtheNousmerelyasaDeusexmachina.
Psychology.Likeisnotknownbylike,butratherbyunlike,{39}andinthisAnaxagorasisdirectlyopposedtoEmpedocles.The
sensesare"weakbutnotdeceitful";thefacultyoftrueknowledgeis Nous,theprincipleofunderstanding,whichisalso{40} an
intrinsicpsychicprinciplethesoul.Plutarch'sstatement{41}thatAnaxagorasrepresentedthesoulasperishingafteritsseparation

24

fromthebodyis,tosaytheleast,unreliable.
FromtheforegoingitisevidentthatAnaxagoraswasnotaSceptic.Thereasonwhichheallegesfortheuntrustworthinessofthe
sensesisthattheyseeonlypartofwhatisintheobject.{42} Theintellect,whichisunmixed,iscapableofseeingtheeverything
whichisineverything.
HistoricalPosition.ThespecialimportanceofthephilosophyofAnaxagorasisduetohisdoctrineofimmaterialmind.This
doctrineimpliesthemostpronounceddualism;itcontainsingermtheteleologicalconceptwhichwasevolvedbySocratesand
perfectedbyPlatoandAristotle.Itwasonlynaturalthatthesephilosophers,whoapproachedmetaphysicalproblemswithminds
alreadyaccustomedtotheideaoftheimmaterial,shouldblameAnaxagorasfornothavingmadebetteruseofthatidea.Butwe
mustnotunderratetheservicewhichAnaxagorasrenderedtoGreekphilosophybyhisdoctrineofimmaterialintellect.
DiogenesofApolloniaandArchelausofAthens,whoaresometimesincludedamongtheLaterIonianphilosophers,exhibita
tendencytowardsareturntothehylozoismofthefirstphilosophers.

{1} Cf. Diog. Laer., IX, 7. References are to the work peri ton bin, dogmatikn kai apophthegmatn tn en philosophia
eudokimsantn(ed.Cobet,Paris,1850),whichisattributedtoDiogenesLaertius.
{2}Frag.18.ThenumbersusedarethoseusedbyBurnet,followingBywater,Her.Eph.Reliquiae(Oxford,1877).
{3}Frag.16.
{4}Theaet.,160D,andCratyl..401D.
{5}Met.,IV,5,1010a,13,andDeAn.,I,2,405a,25.
{6}Frag.22.
{7}Frag.44.
{8}Frag.69.
{9}Frag.79;cf.noteapudFairbanks,op.cit.,p.42.
{10}Frag.45.
{11}Met.,IV,3,1005b.
{12}Cf.Hegel,Gesch.desPhil.,I,305;Werke,XIII,305;trans.byHaldane,I,283.
{13}Frag.74.
{14}Cf.Zeller,PreSocraticPhil.,II,85.
{15}Frag.4.
{16}Frag.100.
{17}Frag.121.
{18}Cf.Zeller,PreSocraticPhil.,II,119,n.
{19}Verses98ff.
{20}Verse80.
{21}Arist.,Met.,I,4,985a.
{22}Verses245270.
{23}Theophr.,DeSensu,10;cf.Diels,op.cit.,p.502.
{24}Verses288ff.
{25}Verse281.
{26}Verse333.
{27}Verses316ff.

25

{28}Zeller,PreSocraticPhil.,II,167.
{29}Verse19.
{30}Verse383.Forvariousreadingsofthisline,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.150.
{31}DeGen.etCorr.,II,6,333b.
{32}Met.,I,3,984a,II.
{33}Fragmenta,Vol.I,pp.249ff.
{34}Frag.1.
{35}Met.,I,3,984b,17.
{36}Frag.6.
{37}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,II,342ff.;Archivf.Gesch.derPhil.,Ed.VIII(1895),pp.151,461465;alsoPhilosophicalReview,
Vol.IV(September,1895),p.565,andMind,N.S.,Vol.V(1896),p.210.
{38}Frags.7and8.
{39}Theophr.,DeSensu,frag.27;cf.Diels,Doxographi,p.507.
{40}Arist.,DeAn.,I,2,405a,13.
{41}Placita,V,25,3;cf.Diels,op.cit.,p.437.
{42}Frag.6.

CHAPTERVTHEATOMISTS
TheAtomistsrepresentthelastphaseofIonianspeculationconcerningnature.Theyacceptthedualisticideaswhichcharacterize
theLaterIonianphilosophy,butbytheirsubstitutionofnecessityforintelligentforcetheyabandonallthatdualisticphilosophyhadto
bequeathtothem,andfalllowerthanthelevelwhichtheearlyhylozoistshadreached.
ItwasatMiletusthattheIonianphilosophyfirstappeared,anditwasMiletusthatproducedLeucippus,thefounderofAtomism,who
virtuallybringsthefirstperiodofGreekphilosophytoaclose.SolittleisknownofLeucippusthathisveryexistencehasbeen
questioned.{1}Hisopinions,too,havebeensoimperfectlytransmittedtousthatitisusualtospeakofthetenetsoftheAtomists
withoutdistinguishinghowmuchweowetoLeucippus,whobyAristotleandTheophrastusisregardedasthefounderofthesystem,
andhowmuchweowetoDemocritus,whowastheablestandbestknownexpounderofatomisticphilosophy.
DEMOCRITUS
Life.DemocritusofAbderawasbornabouttheyear460B.C.Itissaidthoughitisbynomeanscertainthathereceived
instructionfromtheMagiandotherOrientalteachers.Itisundoubtedlytruethat,atalatertime,hewasregardedasasorcererand
magician,afactwhichmayaccountforthelegendofhisearlytraining.HewasprobablyadiscipleofLeucippus.Thereisno
historicalfoundationforthewidespreadbeliefthathelaughedateverything.{2}
Sources.If,asisprobable,Leucippuscommittedhisdoctrinestowriting,notrustworthyfragmentofhisworkshasreachedus.
FromthetitlesandthefragmentsoftheworksofDemocritusitisevidentthatthelattercoveredinhiswrittentreatisesalargevariety
ofsubjects.Themostcelebratedofthesetreatiseswasentitledmegasdiakosmos.Mullach(Fragmenta,I,340ff.)publishes
fragmentsofthisandotherDemocriteanwritings.
AristotleintheMetaphysicsandelsewheregivesanadequateaccountofthedoctrinesofLeucippusandDemocritus.
DOCTRINES
General Standpoint. One of the reasons which led the Eleatics to deny plurality and Becoming was that these are
inconceivablewithoutvoid,andvoidisunthinkable.Now,theAtomistsconcedethatwithoutvoidthereisnomotion,butthey
maintainthatvoidexists,andthatinitexistsaninfinitenumberofindivisiblebodies(atomoi)whichconstitutetheplenum.Aristotle

26

isthereforejustifiedinsaying{3} thataccordingtoLeucippusandDemocritustheelementsarethefull(plres)andthevoid
(kenon). Thefullcorrespondsto EleaticBeingandthevoidto notBeing.Butthe latteris as real as theformer. {4} Onthe
combinationandseparationofatomsdependBecominganddecay.
TheAtoms.Theatoms,infiniteinnumberandindivisible,differinshape,order,andposition.{5}Theydiffer,moreover,inquantity,
ormagnitude,{6}fortheyarenotmeremathematicalpoints,theirindivisibilitybeingduetothefactthattheycontainnovoid.They
have,aswewouldsay,thesamespecificgravity,butbecauseoftheirdifferentsizestheydifferinweight.{7}
TheMotionbywhichtheatomsarebroughttogetherisnotcausedbyavitalprincipleinherentinthem(hylozoism),norbylove
andhatred,norbyanyincorporealagency,butbynaturalnecessity,byvirtueofwhichatomsofequalweightcometogether.It
is,therefore,incorrecttosaythattheAtomistsexplainedthemotionoftheatomsbyattributingittochance.Aristotlegaveoccasion
to this misunderstanding by identifying automaton and tuch though it is Cicero{8} who is accountable for giving the
misapprehensionthewidecirculationwhichitobtained.
Theatomisticexplanationwas,therefore,thatatomsofdifferentweightsfellwithunequalvelocitiesintheprimitivevoid.Theheavier
atoms,consequently,impingedonthelighterones,impartingtothema whirlingmotion (din).TheAtomists,asAristotle
remarks,{9}didnotadverttothefactthatinvacuoallbodiesfallwithequalvelocity.Nowhereinthecosmologicalschemeofthe
Atomistsisthereplaceformindordesign;itisuttermaterialismandcasualism,ifbycasualismismeanttheexclusionofintelligent
purpose.
Anthropology.Plantsandanimalssprangfrommoistearth.Democritus,accordingtoourauthorities,devotedspecialattention
tothestudyofMan,who,hebelieves,is,evenonaccountofhisbodilystructurealone,deservingofadmiration.Henotonly
describesasminutelyashecanthebodilyorganizationofman,but,departingfromhismechanicalconceptofnature,takespainsto
showtheutilityandadaptationofeverypartofthehumanbody.Butoverallandpermeatingallisthesoul.Nowthesoul,forthe
Atomists,couldbenothingbutcorporeal.Itiscomposedofthefinestatoms,perfectlysmoothandround,liketheatomsoffire. {10}
Democritus,accordingly,doesnotdenyadistinctionbetweensoulandbody.Heteachesthatthesoulisthenoblestpartofman;
man'scrowninggloryismoralexcellence.Heissaidtohavereckonedthehumansoulamongthedivinities.{11} Andyet,for
Democritus,asforeverymaterialist,thesoulisbutafinerkindofmatter.Indeed,accordingtoAristotle, {12}theAtomistsidentified
soulatomswiththeatomsoffirewhicharefloatingintheair.
TheAtomists'theoryofcognitionwas,ofcourse,determinedbytheirviewofthenatureofthesoul.Theywereobligedtostart
outwiththepostulatethatallcognitiveprocessesarecorporealprocesses,andsincetheactionofbodyuponbodyisconditionedby
contact,theywereobligedtoconcludethatallthesensesaremeremodificationsofthesenseoftouch.{13}
Thecontactwhichisanecessaryconditionofallsenseknowledgeiseffectedbymeansofemanations(aporroai,thetermis
Aristotle's),or images (eid la,deikela).Thesearematerialcasts,orshells,givenofffromthesurfaceoftheobject;they
produceinthemediumtheimpressionswhichentertheporesofthesenses.TheyarepracticallythesameastheEpicurean
effluxes,whichLucretiusdescribes:

Quae,quasimembranae,summodecorporererum
Dereptae,volitantultrocitroqueperauras.
Thought cannot differ essentially from senseknowledge. They are both changes (heteroi seis) of the soulsubstance
occasionedbymaterialimpressions.Logically,therefore,Democritusshouldhaveattachedthesamevaluetothoughtastosense
knowledge,andsincesenseknowledgeisobscure(skoti),heshouldhaveconcludedthatnoknowledgeissatisfactory.Hesaves
himself,however,fromabsoluteScepticism,althoughattheexpenseoflogicalconsistency;forhemaintainsthatthought,by
revealing the existence of invisible atoms, shows us the true nature of things. The doctrine which Aristotle {14} attributes to
DemocritusishisopinionastowhatDemocritusshouldhavetaught,ratherthananaccountofwhatheactuallydidteach.{15}
Ethics.AlthoughmostoftheextantfragmentswhichcontainDemocritus'ethicalteachingsaremerelyisolatedaxiomswithoutany
scientificconnection,yetoursecondaryauthoritiesattributetohimatheoryofhappiness whichisreallythebeginningofthe
scienceofethicsamongtheGreeks.FromwhatDemocritussaysofthesuperiorityofthesouloverthebody,ofthoughtoversense,
itisnaturaltoexpectthatheshouldplaceman'ssupremehappinessinarightdispositionofmindandnotinthegoodsofthe
externalworld."Happiness,"hesays,{16}"andunhappinessdonotdwellinherdsnoringold;thesoulistheabodeoftheDivinity."
Happinessisinnoexternalthing,butin"cheerfulnessandwellbeing,arightdispositionandunalterablepeaceofmind."Theword
which is here rendered cheerfulness (euthumia)isinterpretedby Seneca andotherStoicsas tranquillity. Democritus,
however,wasmoreakintotheEpicureansthantotheStoics,anditisprobablethatbyeuthumiahemeant"delight"or"good

27

cheer."{17}ThereisinthemoralmaximsofDemocritusanoteofpessimism.Happiness,hebelieves,isdifficultofattainment,while
miseryseeksmanunsought.
HistoricalPosition.TheatomisticmovementisrecognizedasanattempttoreconciletheconclusionsoftheEleaticswiththe
factsofexperience.Itisnoteasy,however,todeterminewithaccuracyhowfartheAtomistswereinfluencedbytheirpredecessors
andcontemporaries.EvenifthedatesofHeraclitus,Anaxagoras,Empedocles,andLeucippuswereknownmoredefinitelythanthey
are,itwouldstillbeamatterofnosmalldifficultytoshowinwhatdegreeeachphilosopherdependedonandinturninfluencedthe
thoughtandwritingsoftheothers.Onethingiscertain:itwasAtomismwhichmorethananyoftheotherpreSocraticsystems
preparedthewayforSophismandtheconsequentcontemptofallknowledge.
Inthefirstplace,atomisticphilosophywasmaterialistic,and"Materialismendswherethehighestproblemsofphilosophybegin."
Moreover,thearmoroftheAtomistofferedseveralvulnerablepointstotheshaftsofSophism.Hefallaciouslyconcludedthatatoms
areuncausedbecausetheyareeternal;and,whatisworse,heinconsistentlymaintainedthedifferenceinvaluebetweensense
knowledgeandthought.TheSophistsmightwellargue,asindeedsomeofthemdidargue,thatifthesensesarenottobetrusted,
reasonalsoisuntrustworthy,forthesoul,accordingtotheAtomists,is,likethesenses,corporeal.Thusdidatomisticphilosophy
preparethewayforSophism.

{1}Cf.Burnet,op.cit.,p.350.
{2}Cf.Zeller,PreSocraticPhil.,II,213,n.
{3}Met.,I,4,985b,4.
{4}Cf.Arist.,Phys.,IV,6,213a,31,forargumentsbywhichtheAtomistsprovedtheexistenceofthevoid.
{5}Arist.,Met.,I,4,985b,14.
{6}Arist.,Phys.,III,4,203a,33.
{7}Arist.,DeGenerationeetCorruptione,I,8,324band325a.
{8}DeNat.Deorum,I,24,66.
{9}Phys.,IV,8,225a.
{10}Arist.,DeAn.,I,2,403b,28.
{11}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,II,p.262.
{12}DeRespiratione,4,472a,30.
{13}Arist.,Met.,IV,5,1009b,andDeSensu,4,442a,29.
{14}Met.,IV,5,1009a,38.
{15}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,II,272.
{16}Frag.1.
{17}Cf.Sidgwick,Hist.ofEthics,p.15.

CHAPTERVITHESOPHISTS
Sophisticphilosophy,whichconstitutessoimportantacrisisinthehistoryofGreekthoughtandcivilization,wasgerminallycontained
intheprecedingsystems.AtomisticmaterialismculminatedintheSophismofProtagoras;thedoctrinesofHeraclituspavedtheway
toScepticism,aswasdemonstratedbyCratylus,theteacherofPlato;andGorgiastheSophistmerelycarriedtoexcessthedialectic
methodintroducedbyZenotheEleatic.AlltheseschoolsAtomistic,Heraclitean,Eleatichad,ashasbeensaid,attackedbythe
aidofspeciousfallaciesthetrustworthinessofcommonconsciousness,sothatuntilSocratesappearedonthescenetodetermine
theconditionsofscientificknowledgenopositivedevelopmentofphilosophywaspossible.Meantimetherewasnothingleftbutto
denythepossibilityofattainingknowledge.AndthatiswhattheSophistsdid:theyarethefirstScepticsofGreece.

28

Therewas,then,aninevitabletendencyonthepartoftheprevalentphilosophytoculminateinScepticism.Besides,thesocialand
politicalconditionsofthetimecontributedtothesameresultbyunsettlingthemoralandreligiousidealswhichtheAthenianhad
hithertoheldasmattersoftradition.ThePersianwarsandthemilitaryachievementsofsubsequentyearsbroughtaboutanupheaval
inthesocialandpoliticalconditionofAthens.Oldideaswerebeingadjustedtonewcircumstances,thescopeofeducationwas
beingwidened;inaword,"thewholeepochwaspenetratedwithaspiritofrevolutionandprogress,"andnoneoftheexistingforces
couldholdthatspiritinchecksWemusttakeintoaccountalsothedevelopmentofpoetryandespeciallyofthedrama."Thewhole
actionofthedrama,"saysZeller,"comicaswellastragic,isbased(atthistime)onthecollisionofdutiesandrightsonadialectic
ofmoralrelationsandduties."{1}Theperiodwasoneofrevolutionandreadjustment.
HistoryoftheSophists.ThewordSophist,etymologicallyconsidered,denotesawiseman.IntheearlierpreSocraticperiod
itmeantonewhomadewisdomortheteachingofwisdomhisprofession.Lateron,theabuseofdialecticdisputationofwhichthe
Sophistswereguiltycausedthenamesophismtobecomesynonymouswithfallacy.
TheSophistsflourishedfromabout450B.C.to400B.C.;notthatSophismasaprofessiondisappearedaltogetheratthelatterdate,
but,aftertheappearanceofSocratesasateacher,theimportanceoftheSophistdwindledintoinsignificance.
ThefirstSophistsarerepresentedasgoingaboutfromcitytocity,gatheringaroundthemtheyoungmenandimpartingtothemin
considerationofcertainfeestheinstructionrequisitefortheconductofpublicaffairs.Intheinstructionwhichtheygavetheysetno
valueuponobjectivetruth;indeed,theidealatwhichtheyaimedwastheartofmakingtheworseseemthebettercause,andvice
versa.Readinessofexpositionandpresentationofargumentsinaspeciousmannerwereallthattheypretendedtoteach.
Suchisthehistoryoftheschoolingeneral.ThechiefSophistsareProtagorasofAbdera,theindividualist;GorgiasofLeontini,the
nihilist;HippiasofElis,thepolymathist;andProdicusofCeos,themoralist.
Sources.Itisdifficult,asPlato{2}pointsout,todefineaccuratelythenatureoftheSophist.TheSophistsleftnofixedtheorems
equallyacknowledgedbyalltheschool.Theywerecharacterizedmorebytheirmodeofthoughtthanbyanyfixedcontentof
thought.Besides,Plato,Aristotle,andallourotherauthoritiesaresoavowedlyhostiletotheSophists,andraisesounreasonable
objectionstoSophism(aswhentheyaccusetheSophistsofbarteringthemeresemblanceofknowledgeforgold),thatwemust
weighandexaminetheireverystatementbeforewecanadmititasevidence.DOCTRINES
ProtagorasofAbdera(bornabout480B.C.)Composedmanyworks,ofwhich,however,onlyafewfragmentshavesurvived.
Plato{3} tracestheopinionsofProtagorastotheinfluenceofHeraclitus.Nothingis,allisBecoming;but,eventhisBecomingis
relative.Astheeyedoesnotsee,exceptwhileitisbeingactedupon,sotheobjectisnotcoloredexceptwhileitactsupontheeye.{4}
Nothing,therefore,becomesinandforitselfbutonlyforthepercipientsubject.
Hence,astheobjectpresentsitselfdifferentlytodifferentsubjects,thereisnoobjectivetruth:Manisthemeasureofallthings.Plato
apparentlyreportstheseastheverywordsofProtagoras{5}: phsigarpoupant nchrmat nmetronanthr pon
einait nmenont nh sesti,t ndemont nh soukestin.
Grote{6} andothersdoubtwhethertheaboveisreallythelineofthoughtfollowedoutbyProtagorashimself.InbothPlatoand
AristotlewefindallusionstotheemploymentbyProtagorasofthedialecticintroducedbyZeno.Moreover,ifwearetomakethe
argumentvalid,wemust,beforeweconcludethatallknowledgeisrelative,introducetheatomisticprinciplethatallknowledge
isconditionedbyphysicalalterations.
Therelativityofknowledge,asitwasprofessedbyProtagoras,isadenialofallobjectivetruthandareductionofknowledgeto
individualopinion.Itfollowsfromthisthatapropositionanditsoppositeareequallytrueiftheyappeartodifferentpersonstobetrue.
InthiswaydidProtagoraslaythefoundationoftheeristicmethod,themethodofdispute,whichisassociatedwiththename
Sophist,andwhichwascarriedtosuchextremesbytheSophistsoflatertimes.
"Ofthegods,"saidProtagoras,"Icanknownothing,neitherthattheyarenorthattheyarenot.Thereismuchtopreventour
attainingthisknowledgetheobscurityofthesubjectandtheshortnessofhumanlife."Thesearethefamouswordswithwhich,
accordingtoDiogenes,{7}Protagorasbeganthetreatisethatwasmadethebasisofachargeofimpiety,andledultimatelytohis
expulsionfromAthens.Theycontainaprofessionofagnosticism.Perhapsthecontext,ifwepossessedit,wouldshowwhether
Protagoraswentfurtherandreallyprofessedatheism,thecrimeofwhichhewasaccused.
Gorgias of Leontini, a contemporary of Protagoras, composed a treatise, On Nature, or the NonExisting, which is
preservedbySextusEmpiricus.Wepossess,assecondaryauthority,aportionofthepseudoAristoteliantreatise Concerning
Xenophanes,etc.
AsitwastheaimofProtagorastoshowthateverythingisequallytrue,itmaybesaidthatGorgiasstrovetoshowthateverythingis

29

equallyfalse.Thelatterprovesbytheuseofdialecticalreasoningthat(1)Nothingexists;(2)Evenifitexisted,itcouldnotbeknown;
and(3)Evenifknowledgewerepossible,itcouldnotbecommunicated.{8}
Hippias ofElis,ayoungercontemporaryofProtagoras,waspreeminentevenamongtheSophistsforthevanitywithwhichhe
paradedhisproficiencyinrhetoric,mathematics,astronomy,andarchaeology.Heboastedthathecouldsaysomethingnewonany
topic,howeveroftenitmighthavebeendiscussed.Plato{9}attributestohimthesayingthatlawisatyrantofmen,sinceitprescribes
manythingscontrarytonature.Thiswasprobablymeantasaboldparadox,oneofthemanydevicesbywhichtheSophists
attractedtheadmirationoftheAthenians.
ProdicusofCeoswasalsoacontemporaryofProtagoras.SuchwastheesteeminwhichhewasheldbySocratesthatthelatter
oftencalledhimselfhispupil,anddidnothesitatetodirectyoungmentohimforinstruction.
Prodicusisbestknownbyhismoraldiscourses,inwhichheshowstheexcellenceofvirtueandthemiseryofalifegivenoverto
pleasure.Themostcelebratedofthesediscoursesisentitled HerculesattheCrossRoads.Thechoiceofacareer,the
employmentofwealth,theunreasonablenessofthefearofdeath,aresomeofthesubjectsonwhichhedeliveredexhortations.
Inspiteofallthis,Prodicus,asaSophist,couldnotconsistentlyavoidmoralscepticism.Ifthereisnotruth,thereisnolaw.Ifthatis
truewhichseemstobetrue,thenthatisgoodwhichseemstobegood.Hedidnot,accordingly,attempttodefinevirtueormoral
good:hemerelydrewpicturesoftheethicalideals,exhortingratherthanteaching.Thefirsttoattemptasystematictreatmentof
ethicalproblemswashewhofirststrovetofixtheconditionsofscientificknowledgethroughconcepts,Socrates,withwhomthe
secondperiodofGreekphilosophybegins.
Historical Position. Sophistic philosbphy was the outcome of the complex influences which shaped the social, political,
philosophical,andreligiousconditionsofAthensduringthelatterhalfofthefifthcenturybeforeChrist.Itwasthephilosophywhich
suitedthatage.PericlesfoundpleasureinthesocietyofSophists,Euripidesesteemedthem,Thucydidessoughtinstructionfrom
them,andSocratessentthempupils.
YetSophismdidnotconstituteanadvanceinphilosophicthought.Itistruethatitdirectedattentiontothesubjectiveelementin
humanknowledge.Infact,itmadethesubjectiveelementeverythinginknowledge;itreducedtruthtothelevelofopinion,andmade
manthemeasureofallthings.AndhereinlaytheessentialerrorofSophism,vitiatingthewholesystem.Sophismwasnotthe
beginningofanerainphilosophy:itwasmoreproperlytheendingoftheerawhichprecededSocrates.Theonwardmovementof
thoughtwasnotresumeduntilSocratesshowedthatknowledgeisasfarfrombeingwhollysubjectiveasitisfrombeingwholly
objective.ItisSocrates,therefore,whoinauguratesthenewera.
Retrospect.Greekphilosophyexhibitsinitshistoricaldevelopmentarhythmofmovementwhichisperfectinthesimplicityofthe
formulabywhichitisexpressedobjective,subjectiveobjective,subjective.PreSocraticphilosophywasobjective;the
philosophyofSocratesandtheSocraticschoolswaspartlyobjective,partlysubjective,whilethephilosophyoflatertimeswas
almostentirelysubjective.BytheobjectivityofpreSocraticphilosophyismeantthat:
1.Itconcerneditselfalmostexclusivelywiththeproblemsofthephysicalworld,payinglittleattentiontothestudyofman,hisorigin,
dignity,anddestiny.
2.Itdidnotbusyitselfwiththeproblemsofepistemology.Atfirstallsensepresentationsweretakenwithoutquestionorcriticismas
truepresentationsofreality,andevenwhentheEleaticsdistinguishedbetweenreasonandsensetheydidnotgoanyfarther
towardsdeterminingtheconditionsofrationalknowledge.
3.Ethicswasnotstudiedscientifically;comparedwithcosmogony,cosmology,andmetaphysics,itdidnotreceiveproportionate
attention.
Briefly,thephilosophyofGreecebeforethetimeofSocratespossessedallthe navet thatwastobeexpectedinthefirst
speculativeattemptsofapeoplewhonevertiredofnatureandneverlookedbeyondnaturefortheirideals.

{1}Op.cit.,II,403.
{2}Sophis.,218C.
{3}Theaet.,160B.
{4}Arist.,Met.,IX,3,1047a,
{5}Theaet.,152A.

30

{6}Plato,II,322.
{7}IX,51.
{8}Cf.Sext.,Mathem.,andthetreatiseConcerningXenophanes,etc.,apudRitterandPreller,op.cit.,pp.189ff.
{9}Protag.,337C.

SECONDPERIODSOCRATESANDTHESOCRATICSCHOOLS
InthissecondperiodofitshistoryGreekphilosophyreachesitshighestdevelopment.Itisacomparativelyshortperiod,being
comprisedwithinthelifespansofthethreemenwhosodominatedthephilosophicthoughtoftheiragethattheirnames,ratherthan
thenamesofschoolsorcities,areusedtomarkoffthethreesubdivisionsintowhichthestudyoftheperiodnaturallyfalls.Weshall,
therefore,consider

I.SocratesandtheimperfectlySocraticSchools.
II.PlatoandtheAcademics.
III.AristotleandthePeripatetics.

TheproblemwithwhichthisperiodhadtodealhadalreadybeenformulatedbytheSophists,howtosavetheintellectualand
morallifeofthenation,whichwasthreatenedbymaterialismandscepticism.Socratesansweredbydeterminingtheconditionsof
intellectualknowledge,andbylayingdeepthescientificfoundationofethics.Plato,withkeenerinsightandmorecomprehensive
understanding,developedtheSocraticdoctrineofconceptsintoasystemofmetaphysics,giganticinitsproportions,butlackingin
thatsolidityoffoundationwhichcharacterizedtheAristotelianstructure.AristotlecarriedtheSocraticideatoitshighestperfection,
and,byprosecutingavigorousandsystematicstudyofnature,suppliedwhatwasdefectiveinPlato'smetaphysicalscheme.The
centralproblemwasalwaysthesame;theanswerwasalsothesame,thoughindifferentdegreesoforganicdevelopment,
concept,Idea,essence.Theviewadoptedwasneitherentirelysubjectivenorentirelyobjective,theconceptdoctrine,which
wasthefirstandsimplestanswer,beingthetypicalformulafortheunionofsubjectandobject,ofselfandnotself.

CHAPTERVII
SOCRATES
Life.ThestoryofSocrates'life,asfarasitisknown,issoontold.HewasbornatAthensintheyear469B.C.Hewasthesonof
Sophroniscus,asculptor,andofPhaenarete,amidwife.Ofhisearlyyearslittleisrecorded.Wearetoldthathewastrainedinthe
professionofhisfather.Foreducation,wemustsupposethathereceivedmerelytheusualcourseofinstructioninmusic,geometry,
andgymnastics,sothat,whenhecallshimselfapupilofProdicusandAspasia,heistobeunderstoodasspeakingoffriendsfrom
whom he learned by personal intercourse rather than of teachers in the stricter sense of the word. Indeed, in Xenophon's
Symposium hestyleshimselfaselftaughtphilosopher, autourgostsphilosophias.Itis,therefore,impossibletosay
fromwhatsourcehederivedhisknowledgeofthedoctrinesofParmenides,Heraclitus,Anaxagoras,andtheAtomists.
Thegods{1}hadrevealedtoSocratesthatAthenswastobethesceneofhislaborsandthathisspecialmissioninlifewasthemoral
andintellectualimprovementofhimselfandothers.Accordingly,aftersomeyearsspentinhisfather'sworkshop,hedevotedhimself
tothismissionwithalltheenthusiasmofanunusuallyardentnature:fromasculptorofstatueshebecameateacherwhostroveto
shapethesoulsofmen.SodevotedwashetothistaskofteachingtheAtheniansthatheneverbecameacandidateforpublic
office,{2}and,withtheexceptionofthemilitarycampaigns,whichledhimasfarasPotidaeaandDelium,andapublicfestivalwhich
requiredhispresenceoutsidethecity,nothingcouldinducehimtogobeyondthewallsofAthens.
Infulfillinghistaskasteacher,hedidnotimitatetheSophists,whowereatthattimetherecognizedpublicteachersinGreece.He
wouldneitheracceptremunerationforhislessonsnorwouldhegiveasystematiccourseofinstruction,preferringtoholdfamiliar
conversewithhispupilsandprofessingawillingnesstolearnaswellastoteach.Hetaughtinthemarketplace,inthegymnasium,
in the workshop, wherever he found men willing to listen, and once he had secured an audience, he held it with that
extraordinaryeloquencewhichissographicallydescribedintheSymposiumofPlato.{3} Hediscardedalltheartsandairsofthe

31

Sophists;inappearance,manners,anddress,aswellasinthestudiedplainnessofhislanguage,hestoodinsharpcontrasttothe
eleganceandfoppishnessofhisrivals.Yet,bywhatseemstousasingularinstanceofvindictivemisrepresentation,hewasheldup
toscornbyAristophanesintheCloudsasaSophist,ateacherofwhatwasmerelyasemblanceofwisdom,andasavain,pompous,
andoverbearingman.Socrates'privatemeansmusthavebeenscanty,andthemerementionofhiswife,Xanthippe,recallsthe
miseryanddegradationwhichmusthavebeenhislotindomesticlife.
Thenarrativeofhistrial,condemnation,anddeathisoneofthemostdramaticinallliterature.Theclosingsceneasdescribedinthe
PhaedoisunequaledforpathosandsublimitybyanyotherpagethatevenPlatowrote.Hisdeathoccurredintheyear399B.C.
Character.ThepersonalityofSocrateshasimpresseditselfmoredeeplyonthehistoryofphilosophythanhasthatofanyother
philosopher.ThepicturewhichXenophondrawsofhimisalmostideallyperfect."Nooneeverheardorsawanythingwrongin
Socrates;sopiouswashethatheneverdidanythingwithoutfirstconsultingthegods;sojustthatheneverinjuredanyoneinthe
least;somasterofhimselfthatheneverpreferredpleasuretogoodness;sosensiblethathenevererredinhischoicebetweenwhat
wasbetterandwhatwasworse.Inaword,hewasofallmenthebestandthehappiest." {4} Plato'saccountagreeswiththis.
Socrates,however,"Saint"Socratesasheissometimescalled,wasnotwithouthistraducers.Therewasinhischaractera
certainincongruity(anatopiahisadmirerscalledit),aninconsistencybetweentheexternalandtheinternalman,togetherwitha
certainuncouthnessofspeechandmanner,whichwasentirelyunGreek.Thesepeculiarities,whiletheyendearedhimtohis
friends,madehimmanyenemies,andestablishedatraditionthatinlatertimesdevelopedintoatissueofaccusations,ofwhich
coarseness,arrogance,profligacy,andimpietyarebutafew.Althoughitistruethatthesechargesaredevoidofeventheslightest
foundation,wemustrememberthatintheageofPericlestheAthenianswerebynomeansaraceofsuperiorbeings,andeven
Socratesdespitehishighermoralidealsdidnotrisefarabovehiscontemporariesinpointofmoralconduct.
TheSocraticDivinity.Socrates,asiswellknown,oftenspokeofadivinesign,oraheavenlyvoice,whichinthegreatcrisesof
hislifecommunicatedtohimadviceandguidancefromabove.Manyarethesuggestionsastowhathemeantbysuchallusions.
Lewes{5}remindsusthatwhileSocrates,Plato,andXenophonneverspeakofageniusorademon,theyfrequentlymakementionof
ademonicsomething, daimonionti,whichCicerotranslates divinumquoddam.{6} Socrateswasaprofoundlyreligious
man,anditisquitenaturalthatheshoulddesignateas"divine"thevoiceofconscience,or,asHermann {7}suggests,theinnervoice
ofindividualtact,whichrestrainedhimnotmerelyfromwhatwasmorallywrong,butalso(asinthecaseofhisrefusaltodefend
himself)fromwhateverwasunwiseorimprudent.Thisvoicewasprobablynothingmorethanavaguefeelingforwhichhehimself
couldnotaccount,awarningcomingfromtheunexploreddepthsofhisowninnerconsciousness.
Sources.Socrates,sofarasweknow,neverwroteanything;itiscertainthathecommittednoneofhisdoctrinestowriting.We
areobliged,therefore,torelyforourknowledgeofhisteachingontheaccountsgivenbyPlatoandXenophon.Aristotle,also,speaks
ofthedoctrinesofSocrates;buthetellsusnothingwhichmaynotbefoundinthewritingsofthetwodiscipleswhostoodinsoclose
personalrelationwiththeirmaster.IthasbeensaidthatPlatoandXenophonpresentdifferentviewsofSocrates,andtoacertain
extentthestatementiscorrect;buttheviewswhichtheypresentarepictureswhichsupplementratherthancontradicteachother.
XenophonwrotehisMemorabiliaasadefenseofSocrates.Beingofapracticalturnofmind,andwhollyunabletoappreciatethe
speculativesideofSocrates'teaching,heattachedundueimportancetotheethicaldoctrinesofhismaster.Plato,withdeeper
insightintothephilosophicalphaseofSocrates'mind,drawsapictureofthesagewhichfillsinandperfectsthesketchleftusby
Xenophon.Itiswelltoremember,moreover,thatthedoctrinesofSocrateswere,ofnecessity,difficulttodescribe.Theteachingof
onewhoneverwroteevenanessayonphilosophymustnecessarilybelackinginthecompactnessandconcisenesswhichare
possibleonlyinthewrittenword.{8}
SOCRATES'PHILOSOPHY
GeneralCharacterofSocrates'Teaching.TheIoniansandtheEleaticshadshown,bytheirfailuretoaccountforthings
astheyare,thatnovalueis.tobeattachedeithertosenseperceptionortometaphysicalknowledgearisingfromthenotionsof
Being,Becoming,theOne,theMany,etc.ThiswasascleartoSocratesasithadbeentotheSophists.But,whereastheSophists
hadforthwithgivenupthesearchaftertruth,Socratesinsistedthatbyreflectingonourownmentalconstitutionwemaylearnto
determinetheconditionsofknowledge,toformconceptsastheyoughttobeformed,andbythismeansplacetheprinciplesof
conductaswellastheprinciplesofknowledgeonasolidscientificfoundation.Knowthyself(gn thiseauton):thisisthesum
ofallphilosophy.Fromtheconsiderationoftheobjectiveworld(nature)wemustturntothestudyofthesubjective(self).Thus,
philosophy"fromheavendescendedtothelowroofedhouse"ofman.
SocraticMethod.Thefirstlessonwhichselfknowledgeteachesisourownignorance.If,therefore,wearetoarriveata
knowledgethroughconcepts,thatis,ataknowledgeofthings,notintheirsurfacequalities,butintheirunalterablenatures,wemust
haverecoursetothedialogue;inotherwords,wemustconverseinordertolearn.Thus,loveofknowledgeandtheimpulseto
friendshiparethesame,andtheblendingofthesetwoiswhatconstitutesthepeculiarityoftheSocraticEros.{9}

32

TheSocraticdialogueinvolvestwoprocesses,theonenegativeandtheotherpositive.
1.Thenegativestage.Socratesapproachedhisinterlocutorasifseekingforknowledge.Assumingahumbleattitude,heasked
aquestionaboutsomecommonplacething;fromtheanswerhedrewmaterialforanotherquestion,untilatlastbydintofquestioning
he extorted from his victim a confession of ignorance. By reason of the pretended deference which, during the process of
interrogation,Socratespaidtothesuperiorintelligenceofhispupil,theprocesscametobeknownasSocraticirony.
2.Thepositivestage.Socratesnowproceeded,byanotherseriesofquestions,toaddtogether,aswesay,particularinstances,
untilfinallythepupilwasmadetoarriveinductivelyataconcept,thatis,atanideaoftheunalterablenatureofthesubjectdiscussed.
Inthe Memorabilia{10} wefindexamplesoftheuseofthisinductiveprocess,whichSocrateshimselfnamed maieutic in
referencetotheprofessionofhismotherbecauseitsobjectwastobringintolifethetruthalreadyexistinginthemindofthe
pupil.{11}
Thewholemethodis heuristic,oramethodoffinding.Itisaninductiveprocessresultinginadefinition."Twothings,"says
Aristotle,{12} "arejustlyascribedtoSocrates,inductionanddefinition,"andtheimportanceoftheintroductionoftheseprocesses
cannotbeoverestimated.{13} FortheknowledgeofthingsintheirchangeablequalitiesSocrateswouldhaveussubstitutethe
knowledgeofthingsintheirunalterablenatures,oressences.PreSocraticphilosophershad,indeed,hintedatadistinctionbetween
senseknowledgeandrationalknowledge,orhadevengonesofarastoinsistthatsuchadistinctionmustberecognizedasthe
beginningofphilosophy.Nevertheless,mencontinuedtoappealtothesenses,torelyonsenseimpressions,or,atmost,togroup
senseimpressionsincompositeimagessuchasthepoetandtherhetoricianemploy.ItwasSocrateswho,byhisheuristicmethod,
firstshowedthatsenseimpressionsandalluncriticalgeneralizationsneedtobetestedandcontrolledbycriticism,becausetheyare
incompleteandexhibitmerelywhatisaccidentalintheobject.Itwashetoowho,bythesamemethod,firstshowedthat,ifour
senseimpressionsaregrouped,notaccordingtotheexigenciesofpoetryandrhetoric,butaccordingtotherequirementsoflogic,if
theyarearticulatedintoaconceptrepresentingtheunalterablenatureoftheobject,humanknowledgewillbebuiltonalasting
foundation.
ContentsofSocraticTeaching.Socratesappliedhisheuristicmethodtothequestionsofman'sdignityanddestiny.
1. Physicalquestions werenotdiscussedbySocrates.ForthisstatementwehavetheexplicittestimonyofXenophonand
Aristotle.Andyet,asweshallsee,Socratesstudiedadaptationinnature.Thetruthseemstobethathewasopposednotsomuchto
physicalstudiesastothewayinwhichphysicalquestionswerebeingandhadbeendiscussed.Itmust,however,beaddedthat
whateverinterestSocratestookinsuchmatterswasalwayssubservienttohisinterestinman.
2.Theology.Asfaraswecangatherfromourauthorities,SocratesseemstohaveadoptedfromAnaxagorasthenotionofan
IntelligentCause(Nous),but,goingfartherthanAnaxagorashadgone,heprovedtheexistenceofGodfromthefactthatthereis
adaptationinlivingorganisms.Inthecourseofhisargumentheformulatedaprinciplewhichhasservedasmajorpremiseinevery
teleologicalargumentsincehistime:"Whateverexistsforausefulpurposemustbetheworkofanintelligence."{14}Wefind,
moreover,tracesoftheargumentfromefficientcause.Ifmanpossessesintelligence,Hefromwhomtheuniverseproceedsmust
also possess intelligence.{15} Nevertheless, Socrates accepted the current mythology, at least so far as external worship is
concerned,advisinginawellknownpassage{16}thatinthismattereachoneshouldconformtothecustomofhisowncity.
3.Immortality.AlthoughPlatorepresentsSocratesasconsideringdilemmatically"eitherdeathendsallthings,oritdoesnot,"{17}
therecanbenodoubtastoSocrates'beliefintheimmortalityofthehumansoul.Itmaybethathethoughtthedialecticalproofof
thedoctrinetobebeyondthepowerofthehumanmind;butthedepthofhispersonalconvictioncannotforamomentbequestioned.
4.Ethics.IfSocratestaughtmenhowtothink,itwaswiththeultimateintentionofteachingthemhowtolive.Allhisphilosophy
culminatesinhisethicaldoctrine.Infact,hewasthefirstnotonlytoestablishascientificconnectionbetweenspeculationandethical
philosophy,butalsotogiveananalysisofhappinessandvirtuewhichwascapableoffurthersystematicdevelopment.
Thesupremegoodofmanishappiness,andbyhappinessSocratesmeantnotamereeutuchia,whichdependsonexternal
conditionsandaccidentsoffortune,butaneupraxia,awellbeingwhichisconditionedbygoodaction.Toattainthis,manmust
becomegodlikeinhisindependenceofallexternalneeds:hemustbecomeabstemious,formoderationisthecornerstoneofall
virtue.{18} Yet Socrates, asisevidentfromthedialogues of Plato, did not carry thisdoctrine of moderation tothe degreeof
asceticism.Moreimportanteventhanmoderationisthecultivationofthemind.Tobehappy,onemustbuildhishappinessnoton
theperishablethingsoftheexternalworld,butontheenduringgoodswhicharewithinus,onamindfreefromcareanddevotedto
theacquisitionofknowledge.
For knowledge isvirtue. This is, perhaps, the most characteristic of all Socrates' ethicaldoctrines, the identification of
speculative insight with moral excellence. (ho S krats) epistmas et einai pasas tas aretas.{19} No man

33

intentionallydoeswrong,hesays,forthatwouldbeintentionallytomakehimselfunhappy.Knowledgeis,therefore,theonlyvirtue
andignoranceistheonlyvice.YetwhenSocratescomestospeakofparticularinstancesofvirtue,heleavesthehighlevelofvirtue
knowledgeanddescendstocommonplaceutilitarianismorcustomarymorality.InthedialoguesofXenophonhealmostalways
baseshismoralpreceptsonthemotiveofutility:weshouldendureprivationsbecausethehardymanismorehealthy;weshouldbe
modestbecausethepunishmentoftheboastfulisswiftandsure;andsowiththeothervirtues.Thisinconsistencyisadefectwhich
marsallthebeautyoftheSocraticsystemofethics.
HistoricalPosition.ThephilosophyofSocratesisbestjudgedinthelightoftheinfluencewhichitexercisedonthePlatonicand
Aristoteliansystemsofthought.Hispupils,PlatoandAristotle,arethebestproofsofSocrates'titletoaplaceamongtheworld's
greatestteachers.Lookingathisphilosophyasabodyofdoctrine,wefindthatitcontains(1)areforminphilosophicmethodthe
foundationofinduction;(2)thefirstsystematicinquirytheconditionsofknowledgethefoundationofepistemology;(3)thefirst
systemofethicsthefoundationofmoralscience.
Importantaswerethesecontributionstophilosophy,moreimportantwastheinfluencewhichSocratesexertedbyhislifeand
character.Heappearedinanagethatwastiredofvainspeculationandpretendedwisdom,amongapeoplethenasalwaysmore
apttobeimpressedwithconcretepresentationthanwithabstractreasoning,and,byhismanyvirtues,aswellasbyhiswhole
souleddevotiontotruth,heconvincedhiscontemporariesthatknowledgeisattainable,andthatahigherandnoblerlifemaybe
reachedthroughasystematicstudyofthehumanmind.Bylivingthelifeofanidealphilosopherhetaughthiscountrymentorespect
philosophyandtodevotethemselvestothepursuitofwisdom.

{1}Cf.Plato,Apologia,33C.
{2}Cf.Zeller,SocratesandtheSocraticSchool,p.67.
{3}Symposium,215.
{4}Mem.,I,1.
{5}BiographicalHistoryofPhilosophy,I,166,
{6}Cf.DeDivinatione,I,54,122.
{7}Cf.Zeller,Socrates,p.95.
{8}AnexcellenttreatiseonSocratesandhisphilosophyisM.Piat'sSocrate(GrandsPhilosophesseries,Paris,1900).
{9}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,p.127,note2.
{10}III,9,10,andIV,2,11.
{11}Cf.Plato,Theaet.,149A.
{12}Met.,XIII,4,1078b,27.
{13}Cf.Grote,Hist.ofGreece,VIII,578.
{14}Mem.,I,4,2.
{15}Mem.,ibid.
{16}Mem.,I,4,3.
{17}Apol.,40.
{18}Mem.,1,5,4.
{19}EudemianEthics,I,5,1216b,6.

34

CHAPTERVIIITHEIMPERFECTLYSOCRATICSCHOOLS
AmongthosewhofelttheinfluenceofSocraticteaching,thereweresomewhofailedtoappreciatethefullmeaningofthedoctrineof
themaster,andmerelyappliedhismoralpreceptstopracticalquestions;ofthese,thebestknownisXenophon.Thereweretwo,
PlatoandAristotle,whopenetratedthespeculativedepthsofSocrates'thoughtanddevelopedhisteachingintoabroaderandmore
comprehensiveSocraticphilosophy.Therewerestillotherswho,addressingthemselvestooneorotherpointoftheteachingof
Socrates,developedthatpointinconjunctionwithsomeelementsborrowedfromthepreSocraticschools.Theselatterareknown
asthe imperfectlySocraticphilosophers.ThefollowingisaconspectusoftheimperfectlySocraticschools,showingtheir
derivation:
Socraticdialectics

MegarianorEristicSchool(Euclid)Eleaticelement.
EleanSchool(Phaedo)Eleaticelement.

Socraticethics

Cynics(Antisthenes)borrowedfromGorgias.
Hedonists(Aristippus)borrowedfromProtagoras.

Megarian School. The Megarian school, to which Euclid and Stilpo belonged, made Eleatic metaphysics the basis of a
developmentofSocraticethics.
EUCLID
Life.EuclidofMegara,thefounderofthisschool,wasadiscipleofSocrates,andifthestorytoldbyGellius{1} betrue,wasso
devotedtohisteacherthat,atatimewhenallMegarianswereforbiddenunderpainofdeathtoenterAthens,hewouldoftensteal
intothatcityintheobscurityofeveninginordertositforanhourandlistento"theoldmaneloquent."
Sources.WehavenoprimarysourcesofinformationconcerningtheMegaricschool,andoursecondarysourcesarefewand
unsatisfactory.Schleiermacher,however,hasshown{2}thatthephilosophersalludedtoinPlato'sSophistes{3}aretheMegarians.
IfwemakeuseofthispassageofPlato,wehavethefollowingpointsofdoctrine.
DOCTRINES
TheStarting Point.The Megarians started with theSocratic doctrine ofconcepts. If intellectualknowledgeisknowledge
throughconcepts,thentheconceptrepresentsthatpartofathingwhichneverchanges.
TheDevelopment.Grantednowthat,asParmenidestaught,changeandBecomingareinconceivable,itfollowsthatthe
unchangeableessenceswhichconceptsrepresent,thebodilessforms(asomataeid),aretheonlyreality,andthattheworldof
senseformsisanillusion.ConnectedwiththisdenialofBecomingistheassertionthattheactualaloneispossible.Forthiswe
havetheexpresstestimonyofAristotle.{4}
TheDoctrineoftheGood.TheunionofSocraticandEleaticelementsisfurtherapparentintheMegaricdoctrineofthegood.
Thegood,accordingtoSocrates,isthehighestobjectofknowledge.Being,too,astheEleaticstaught,isthehighestobjectof
knowledge.Euclid,therefore,consideredhimselfjustifiedintransferringtothegoodallthatParmenideshadsaidaboutBeing:the
goodisone,knowledgeofthegoodistheonlyvirtue,thoughcalledbyvariousnames,prudence,justice,etc.Thegoodis
immutable;itisinsight,reason,God.Italoneexists.{5}
EristicMethod.InordertodefendtheirviewstheMegariansavailedthemselvesoftheindirectmethodofprooffollowinginthis
the example of Zeno. This method consists in refuting the arguments or hypotheses of one's opponent and thus, indirectly,
establishingone'sownthesis.Later,however,thefollowersofEuclidexceededallprecedentintheiruseofthismethodofstrife,and
viedwiththeworstoftheSophistsincaptiousquibbling.
HistoricalPosition.ThisonesidedSocraticismtakesforitsstartingpointtheSocraticdialecticofconcepts,whichitdevelopsin
unionwithEleaticdoctrinesbymeansofthemethodintroducedbyZenoofElea.
TheEleanSchool.Thisschool,foundedbyPhaedo,thediscipleofSocratessooftenmentionedinthePlatonicdialogues,is
virtuallyabranchoftheMegarianschool.ItwasremovedfromElistoEretriabyMenedemus(diedabout270B.C.)andwas
henceforthknownastheEretrianschool.ItsdoctrinesarepracticallyidenticalwiththoseofEuclid.
TheCynics.ThedoctrinesoftheCynicsweredevelopedfromSocraticethicswhichwerecombinedwithcertaindialecticaland

35

rhetoricalelementsderivedfromtheEleaticsandfromGorgiastheSophist.
ANTISTHENES
Life.Antisthenes,thefirstoftheCynics,wasbornatAthensabouttheyear436B.C.Earlyinlifeheassociatedhimselfwiththe
Sophists,becoming,accordingtoDiogenesLaertius,{6}adiscipleofGorgias.When,therefore,afterthedeathofSocrates,forwhose
teachinghehadabandonedthecompanyoftheSophists,Antisthenessetupaschoolofhisown,hewasmerelyreturningtohisold
profession.TheschoolwhichheestablishedmetinthegymnasiumofCynosarges,whence,accordingtosomewriters,comesthe
nameoftheschool,althoughitisnotlessprobablethatthenamewasoriginallyanickname(Kunes)givento.theCynicsbecause
oftheirwellknowndisregardforsocialconventionalities.Indeed,itissaidthatAntisthenes,whohappenedtoresembleSocratesin
personal appearance, imagined that he heightened the resemblance by perverting the Socratic doctrine of moderation and
abstemiousnessintosomethingborderingonasavageindifferencetoeverythingdecent.Hemustnot,however,beheldaccountable
fortheextravagancesofthelaterCynics.Ofthesethebestknownare Diogenes ofSinope, Crates, Menedemus,and
Menippus.
Sources.OurknowledgeofthedoctrinesoftheCynicsisderivedentirelyfromsecondarysources.Chiefamongtheseare
DiogenesLaertius,Stobaeus,SextusEmpiricus,andsomeoftheChurchFathers,suchasClementofAlexandria.
DOCTRINES
TheCynicswereopposedtoallcultureexceptinsofarasculturemaybemadetofostervirtue.Theywerelikewiseopposedto
logicalandphysicalinquiries,thoughtheythemselvescouldnotwhollyavoidsuchquestions.Theystrove,however,tomaketheir
logic and physics subservient to the investigation concerning virtue, which they considered to be the paramount problem of
philosophy.
Logic. According toAntisthenes, definitionisthe expressionoftheessenceof athing.The only definition,however, which
Antisthenesadmits,isthesettingforthofthecomponentpartsofathing.Thesimplecannotbedefined. {7}HeopposedthePlatonic
theoryofideas,using,itissaid,thefollowingargument: Plat n,hipponmenhop ,hippottadeouchhor ; to
whichPlatoissaidtohaveanswered,"Whatyousayistrue,foryoupossesstheeyeofthebodywithwhichyouseethehorse,but
youlackthementaleyebywhichtheconceptofhorseisperceived."{8}Antisthenes,then,believedthattheindividualaloneisreal.
Fromwhichitfollowsthatidenticaljudgmentsalonearevalid:everythingshouldreceiveitsownnameandnoother:wemaysay
manishuman,orthegoodisgood;butwemaynotsaythatmanisgood,whence,asAristotle{9}andPlato{10}expresslytellus,the
Cynicsconcludedthatcontradictionisimpossible,andthat allpropositionsareequallytrue.Thepracticalimportofthis
nominalismisseenintheusewhichtheCynicsmadeofthedialecticalmethodoftheSophists.
Ethics.AccordingtoSocrates,virtueisthehighestgood:accordingtoAntisthenes,virtueistheonlygood,andviceistheonly
evil.Everythingelseriches,honors,freedom,health,life,poverty,shame,slavery,sickness,anddeathisindifferent.The
greatestofallerrorsistosupposethatpleasureisgood:"Ihadratherbemad,"Antisthenessaid,"thanbeglad." {11} Now,the
essenceofvirtueisselfcontrol,thatis,independenceofallmaterialandaccidentalneeds.Againstalltheneedsofbodyandmind
theCynicsstrovetohardenthemselvesbyrenouncingnotonlypleasureandcomfort,butalsofamily,society,andreligion.The
virtuousmanistrulywise.Healoneisgodlike.Wisdomisanarmorwhichnotemptationcanpierce,afortressthatcannotbe
assailed.Consequently,hewhohasonceattainedwisdomcanneverceasetobevirtuous.
HistoricalPosition.ThephilosophyoftheCynicsisaonesideddevelopmentofSocraticteaching.Thedirectionwhichthis
developmenttookwasduelesstothelogicalexigenciesoftheSocraticpremisesfromwhichitwasdeducedthantothepeculiar
characterofthefounderoftheschool.Antistheneswasbytemperamentnarrowmindedandobstinate,impervioustoculture,aman
ofstrongwillbutofmediocreintellectualability.Hewas,wearetold,rebukedbyPlatoforhislackofpolish.Theostentatious
asceticismwhichheintroduceddegenerated,astimewenton,intopositiveindecency,anditwasnotuntilStoicismappearedand
absorbedwhatwasleftoftheCynicschoolthatmentalculturewasrestoredtoitsplaceinpracticalphilosophy.
CyrenaicSchool.ThisschooliscalledHedonistic,fromtheprominencewhichitgavetothedoctrinethatpleasureistheonly
good;itisalsocalledCyrenaic,fromthecityofCyrenewhereitfirstappeared.
ARISTIPPUS
Life.Aristippus,towhomthefundamentaldoctrinesoftheschoolaretraced,wasbornatCyreneabouttheyear435B.C.Thisdate,
however,isbynomeanscertain.AttractedbythepersonalcharacterofSocrates,hewenttoAthensinordertobecomeamember
oftheSocraticschool;hehadpreviouslymadeacquaintancewiththedoctrinesoftheSophiststhroughthewritingsofProtagoras.
AfterthedeathofSocrates,hetaughtinseveralcities;indeed,heseemstohavespentagreatpartofhislifewanderingabout
withoutanyfixedabode,althoughitisprobablethatinhisoldagehereturnedtohisnativecityandthereestablishedhisschool.

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AmongthedisciplesofAristippus,thebestknownarehisdaughterAreteandhisgrandsonAristippustheYounger,orthe
mothertaught.
Sources.ThehistoryoftheCyrenaicphilosophy,likethatoftheteachingoftheCynics,isbasedonsecondaryauthorities,chiefly
ontheworksofDiogenes,Cicero,SextusEmpiricus,andClementofAlexandria.Wepossessnoneofthewritingsofthe
earlierCyrenaics.Indeed,itissometimesevenquestionedwhetheritwasAristippus,thefounderoftheschool,orhisgrandson,the
mothertaught,whofirstreducedtheCyrenaicdoctrinestoasystem.{12}
DOCTRINES
TheattitudeoftheCyrenaicstowardsthestudyoflogicandphysicswasoneofhostility.TheyagreedwiththeCynicsinregardingall
speculationasidle,unlessithadreferencetothestudyofethics,bywhichthehappinessofmanissecured,buttheydifferedfrom
themintheirattempttodefinethenatureofhappiness.FortheCynic,virtueistheonlyhappiness;fortheCyrenaic,pleasureisa
goodinitself,andvirtueisgoodonlyasameanstoenjoyment.
ThecentraldoctrineofHedonismis,therefore,thatpleasureandpleasurealoneconstitutesthehappinessofman.For,
theCyrenaicargued,afterthemannerofProtagoras,"thatistruewhichseemstobetrue:wecanknowonlythefeelingsor
impressionswhichthingsproduceuponus;ofthingsinthemselveswecanknownothing."Theproduction,therefore,ofcertain
feelingsisallthatwecanaccomplishbyaction.Consequently,thatisgoodwhichcanproduceinusthemostpleasantfeelings.{13}
PleasurewasdefinedbytheCyrenaicsasgentlemotion.Itis,however,atleastaninaccuracyonCicero'spartwhenhesaysthat
by pleasure the Cyrenaics understood mere bodily pleasure. Aristippus explained his pleasure doctrine in terms which are
descriptiveofmentalemotionaswellasofbodilyenjoyment.ItistruethattheCyrenaicsspokeofpleasureasconsistingingentle
motion.Ourwordemotionwould,perhaps,conveytheirmeaningmuchbetterthanthewordcommonlyemployed.Ontheother
hand,itmustbeadmittedthat,accordingtoCyrenaicprinciples,allpleasureisconditionedbybodilypleasure,oratleastbyorganic
states.ThisisimpliedinthetheoryofknowledgewhichtheCyrenaicsderivedfromtheteachingofProtagoras.Wemustbecareful,
moreover,todistinguishbetweentheHedonismofAristippus,whoby"pleasure"denotedapassingemotion,andtheHedonismof
hislaterfollowers,whounderstoodby"pleasure"somethingakintotheEpicureannotionofastate,orpermanentcondition,of
painlessness.
Pleasure,then,istheonlygood.Knowledge,culture,andevenvirtuearedesirableonlyasmeansbywhichpleasureisattained.
Virtuerestrainsusfromthatexcessofemotionwhichispassion:passion,beingviolent,ispainfuland,onthataccount,tobe
avoided.{14}Weshouldpossessourpleasureswithoutbeingpossessedbythem:ech oukechomaiasAristippussaid.So,
too,amanofsensewillobeythelawsofthecountryandconformtotheusagesofsocietybecausehejudgesthathisfailuretodo
sowouldresultinapreponderanceofpainoverpleasure.
DiogenesLaertius{15}givesanaccountofthelaterCyrenaicswho,likeTheodorusandHegesias,deemeditnecessarytotonedown
thecruditiesofHedonismastaughtbyAristippus.Theodorusmaintainedthatman'shighesthappinessisastateofcheerfulness
(chara),whileHegesias,calledthe DeathPersuader,taughtthattheaimofman'sactionsshouldbetoattainastateof
indifferencetoallexternalthings.InthisfinalformitwaseasyforHedonismtopassoverintotheStoicschool.
HistoricalPosition.ThedevelopmentoftheCyrenaicphilosophy,likethatoftheCynicdoctrine,wasduemoretothepersonal
character of the founder of the school and to the social atmosphere of the city where the school was founded than to the
requirements of the Socratic system from which it arose. Socrates, it is true, taught that happiness is the aim of action
(eudaemonism),butthedoctrinethathappinessconsistsinmomentarypleasureisSocraticismwoefullyperverted."Knowthyself"
wasthegistofSocraticteaching."Yes,knowthyself,"taughtAristippus,"inorderthatthoumayestknowtowhatextentthoucanst
indulgeinthepleasuresoflifewithoutexceedingthelimitwherepleasurebecomespain."Theapplicationis,surely,moreinaccord
withthematerialisticsubjectivismoftheSophiststhanwiththeSocraticprinciplesfromwhichtheCyrenaicphilosophyclaimedtobe
derived.
Retrospect.TheimperfectlySocraticschoolsgrewupsidebyside,withoutanyaffiliationtooneanother.Theyarethusrelatively
independent,eachcarryingoutalongitsownlineofdevelopmentsomepointofSocraticteaching.Theyareessentiallyincomplete,
becausetheyarebasedonanimperfectunderstandingofthespiritofSocraticphilosophy.Still,theirinfluence,immediateand
mediate,onsubsequentthoughtmustnotbeunderestimated.TheMegarians,intheirdoctrineofbodilessforms,foreshadowedthe
PlatonictheoryofIdeas,andbothAntisthenesandAristippusinfluencedthePlatonicdoctrineofthehighestgood.Butimportantas
wastheirimmediateinfluence,themediateinfluenceoftheseschoolswasstillmoreimportant.TheageofSocrateswasonethat
calledforgreatconstructiveefforts;itwasanagethatcouldappreciatePlatoandAristotle,ratherthanAristippusandAntisthenes.
Later,however,therecameatimewhenthepoliticalconditionofGreecewassuchthatmencouldwellbepersuadedtowithdraw
fromtheworldofsense,fromtheproblemsofBeingandBecoming,inordertoadoptaselfcentralizedcultureastheonlymeansof

37

happiness.ItwasthenthattheinfluenceoftheimperfectlySocraticschoolswasfelt.TheStoaadoptedsubstantiallythemoral
teachingsoftheCynics,theScepticismofPyrrhoandtheAcademiessprangfromthedoctrinesoftheMegarians,whiletheschoolof
EpicurusrenewedhedonisticethicsbyteachingasystemidenticalinitsprincipaltenetswiththephilosophyoftheCyrenaics.
ThereisthusnocontinuityofdevelopmentthroughtheseintercalaryschoolstoPlatoandAristotle.Plato,enteringintothespiritof
Socraticphilosophymorefullythantheimperfectdiscipleshaddone,expandedtheSocraticdoctrineofconceptsintothetheoryof
Ideas,andgavetoSocraticethicsabroaderfoundationandamoreenduringconsistency.

{1}NoctesAtticae,VI,10.
{2}Cf.Zeller,Socrates,p.257.
{3}242B.
{4}Met.,IX,3,1046b,29.
{5}Diog.Laer.,II,106.
{6}Diog.Laer.,VI,1.
{7}Diog.Laer.,VI,3.
{8}Cf.Simplicius,quotedbyZeller,Socrates,p.300.
{9}Met.,V,29,1024b,32.
{10}Cratyl.,37.
{11}Diog.Laer.,VI,104.
{12}Cf.Zeller,Socrates,p.345,n.
{13}Cicero,Academica,II,46,andSext.,Mathem.,VII,191.
{14}Cicero,DeOfficiis,III,33andDiog.Laer.,II,91.
{15}II,93and98.

CHAPTERIXPLATO
Life.PlatowasbornatAthenssomeyearsafterthebeginningofthePeloponnesianWar.Theexactyearofhisbirthisunknown,
but427or428B.C.isthemostprobabledate.Hisfather'snamewasAristo;hismother,Perictione,wasdescendedfromDropides,
anearrelativeofSolon.PlatowasoriginallycalledAristocles, Plat n beinganicknamegivenbyhismasteringymnasticson
accountofhisbroadbuild.
Concerninghisearlylifewedonotpossessmuchreliableinformation.Wemay,however,presumethatheprofitedbyallthe
educational advantages that were within the reach of a noble and wealthy Athenian youth. Zeller{1} calls attention to three
circumstanceswhichhadadetermininginfluenceonthedevelopmentofPlato'smind.Thefirstofthesewasthepoliticalconditionof
Athens.Thecitywasjustthenexperiencingthefulleffectsofdemagogicrule,andtheconditionsathomeandabroadweresuchthat
themindofthearistocraticyoungstudentnaturallyturnedtowardsidealisticschemesofstateorganization,schemeswhichwere
latertofindexpressioninTheRepublic.ThesecondcircumstanceisthefactthatinearlylifePlatodevotedmuchattentionto
poetry,composingpoemsofnomeanartisticvalue.Theseearlystudieswerenotwithouteffectonhisphilosophy;theyinfluenced
theentirespiritofhissystemaswellasthelanguage,soremarkableforitsgraceandbeauty,inwhichthatsystemwassetforth.
Indeed,itistrue,inasense,thatPlatobecameaphilosopherwithoutceasingtobeapoet.Thecircumstance,however,whichwas
mostdecisiveindeterminingthelifeandphilosophyofPlatowasthepersonalinfluenceofSocrates;forthoughhehadstudiedthe
doctrinesofHeraclitusunderCratylus,hisphilosophicaltrainingmaybesaidtodatefromhisfirstmeetingwithSocrates.
AfterthedeathofSocrates,Plato,whohadspentabouteightyearsasdisciple,beganhistravelspreparatorytoestablishinga
schoolofhisown.HefirstrepairedtoMegara,{2}wheresomeofthedisciplesofSocratesweregatheredundertheleadershipof

38

Euclid.ThencehewenttoItalytoobtainamoreintimateacquaintancewiththedoctrinesofthePythagoreans.Theexactorderofhis
subsequentjourneysisnotcertainstill,thereisnoreasontodoubtthathevisitedEgypt,althoughthetalesthataretoldofthevast
storesoflearningwhichheacquiredinthatcountryarefarfromreliable.WemayacceptastruethestoryofhisjourneystoSicily,
andofhisrelationswiththeelderDionysius,whosoldhimintoslavery,aswellaswithDionysiustheyounger,whomhetriedto
converttohisUtopianschemeofstategovernment.
ItwasafterhisfirstjourneytoSicilythatPlatobeganhiscareeratAthensasateacher.Imitatinghismaster,Socrates,hegathered
roundhimtheyoungmenofthecity,but,unlikeSocrates,herefusedtoteachinthepublicsquares,preferringtheretirementofthe
grovesnearthegymnasiumofAcademus.Therehemethisdisciples,conversingwiththemafterthemannerofSocrates,thoughit
isnaturaltosupposethatinhisstyleaswellasinhischoiceofillustrationshedepartedfromtheSocraticexampleofstudied
plainness.OnhisreturnfromhisthirdjourneytoSicily,PlatotookuphisresidencepermanentlyinAthens,andthenceforthdevoted
himselfunremittinglytoteachingandwriting.Helivedtotheageofeighty,dyinginthemidstofhisintellectuallabors.IfCicero's
storybetrue,{3}hediedintheactofwriting;accordingtoanothertraditionprevalentinancienttimes,hediedataweddingfeast.
Plato'sCharacter.Eveninantiquity,thecharacterofPlatowasviolentlyassailed.HisdealingswithSocratesandafterwards
withhisowndisciples,hisvisitstoSicily,hisreferencestothephilosophicalsystemsofhispredecessors,wereallmadethepretext
foraccusationsofselfassertion,tyranny,flatteryoftyrants,plagiarism,andwillfulmisrepresentation.Hisaristocraticwaysandhis
disdainoftheostentatiousasceticismoftheCynicsservedasthebasisforchargesofloveofpleasureandimmorality.Theevidence
onwhichalltheseaccusationsrestsisoftheflimsiestnature,while,onthecontrary,everythingthatPlatowrotebearstestimonyto
the lofty nobility of the man. The truth is that Plato's character was not easily understood. When the idealism and poetic
temperamentwhichwerehisbyinstinctandearlytrainingbrokeloosefromtherestraintofSocraticinfluence,hewasmerely
realizinginhispersonalcharactertheidealofGreeklifeanidealwhich,byreasonofitsmanysidedness,wasacontradictionand
ascandaltothenarrowmindedadvocatesofasceticismandabstemiousness.TheimportancewhichPlatoattachedtoalarger
culturewastakenbytheCynicsandhisotheradversariesasasignthathehadabandoned,whereashewasinrealitybutrounding
outandperfecting,theSocraticideaofwhataphilosopheroughttobe.
Plato'sWritings.{4}WearefortunateinpossessingallthegenuineworksofPlato.ThesocalledPlatonicdialogueswhicharespoken
of as lost are certainly spurious. The Divisions mentioned by Aristotle is neither a Platonic nor an Aristotelian treatise; the
agraphadogmata,ofwhichAristotlealsomakesmention,ismostlikelyacollectionoftheviewswhichPlatohimsellhadnot
committedtowriting,butwhichsomedisciplecollectedfortheuseoftheschool.
WhilenothingthatPlatowrotehasbeenlost,itisbynomeanseasytodeterminehowmanyofthethirtysixdialoguesthathave
come down to us are undoubtedly authentic. With respect to Phaedrus, Protagoras, The Banquet, Gorgias, The
Republic,Timaeus,Thaetetus,and Phaedo ,therecanbenoreasonabledoubt.Others,like Parmenides,Cratylus,
TheSophist,arenotsocertainlygenuine;whileinthecaseofMinos,Hipparchus,etc.,thebalanceofevidenceisagainst
theirauthenticity.{5}
NextcomesthequestionoftheorderorplanofthePlatonicdialogues.Ueberwegmentionsthethreeprincipaltheoriesheldby
scholars. They are (1) that Plato wrote according to a definite plan, composing first the elementary dialogues, then the
mediatory,andfinallytheconstructivediscourses;(2)thathehadnodefiniteplan,butthatthedialoguesrepresentthedifferent
stagesinthedevelopmentofhismind;(3)thathedeliberatelyportrayedinhisdialoguestheseveralstagesinthelifeofSocrates,
theidealphilosopher.Zeller,however,verysensiblyremarks{6}thatthequestionhasbeenarguedtoomuchonapriorigrounds,
andsuggeststhatthefirstthingtodoistodeterminetheorderinwhichthedialogueswerewrittenataskthatisbynomeans
easy.
TheformofthePlatonicwritingsis,asiswellknown,thedialogue;thereasonswhyPlatoadoptedthisliteraryformarenotfarto
seek.Inthefirstplace,hewasinfluencedbytheSocraticmethod;secondly,hewaspoetenoughtorecognizethedramaticeffectof
whichthedialogueiscapable,andtheroomwhichitaffordsforlocalcoloringandportrayalofcharacter.Finally,hemusthave
recognizedthatthedialogueaffordedhimtheamplestopportunityofpresentingthelifeofthemodelphilosopherinthewordsand
actsoftheidealizedSocrates.PhilosophywasforPlatoamatteroflifeaswellasofthought;"truephilosophy,therefore,couldonly
berepresentedintheperfectphilosopher,inthepersonality,words,anddemeanorofSocrates."
ThePlatonicdialoguehasbeenwelldescribedasoccupyingamiddlepositionbetweenthepersonalconverseofSocratesandthe
purelyscientificcontinuousexpositionofAristotle.{7}Plato,adoptingastricterideaofmethodthanSocratesadopted,excludesthe
personalandcontingentelementswhichmadethediscourseofSocratessopicturesque;whileattimes,whenheexplainsthemore
difficultpointsofdoctrine,heabandonsalmostaltogethertheinductivemethodforthedeductive,thedialoguewellnighdisappears
andgiveswaytounbrokendiscourse.ThisisespeciallytrueoftheTimaeus.
Inhisuseofthedialogue,Platoconstantlyhasrecoursetothemythasaformofexpression.Thepoeticalandartisticvalueofthe

39

mythisconcededbyall,butitoffersnosmalldifficultywhenthereisquestionofthephilosophicaldoctrinewhichitwasmeantto
convey.WhatevermayhavebeenPlato'spurposeinintroducingthemyth,whetheritwastoelucidatebyconcreteimagerysome
abstractprinciple,ortomisleadtheunthinkingpopulaceastohisreligiousconvictions,ortoconcealthecontradictionsofhis
thought,strivingto"escapephilosophicalcriticismbyseekingrefugeinthelicenseofthepoet,"therecanbenodoubtthatthe
mythwasintendedtobeamereallegory,andPlatohimselfwarnsusagainsttakingsuchallegoriesfortruth,theshadowforthe
substance.
PLATO'SPHILOSOPHY
DefinitionofPhilosophy.Plato'sphilosophyisessentiallyacompletionandextensionofthephilosophyofSocrates.What
Socrates laid down as a principle of knowledge, Plato enunciates as a principle of Being; the Socratic concept, which was
epistemological, is succeeded by the Platonic Idea, which is a metaphysical notion. Socrates taught that knowledge through
conceptsistheonlytrueknowledge;therefore,concludesPlato,theconcept,ortheIdea,istheonlytruereality.Thus,forPlato,
philosophyisthescienceoftheIdea,or,asweshouldsay,oftheunconditionedbasisofphenomena.
InthePhaedrus{8}Platodescribeshowthesoul,atsightofsingularphenomena,ismovedtoaremembranceofitsheavenlyhome
andofthearchetypeswhichitcontemplatedinapreviousexistence,andofwhichitnowbeholdstheimperfectcopies.Thereupon,
thesoul,fallingintoanecstasyofdelight,wondersatthecontrastbetweentheIdea(archetype)andthephenomenon(copy),and
fromthiswonderproceedstheimpulsetophilosophize,whichisidenticalwiththeimpulsetolove.For,whileitistruethatthereisa
contrastbetweeneveryIdeaanditsphenomenon,thecontrastismorestrikinginthecaseoftheIdeaofthebeautiful,thisIdea
shiningthroughitsvisiblecopiesmoreperfectlythananyotherIdea.Philosophy,then,istheeffortofthehumanmindtorisefrom
thecontemplationofvisiblecopiesofIdeastotheknowledgeofIdeasthemselves.
Tothequestion,HowisthisknowledgeofIdeastobeattained?Platoanswers,Bymeansofdialectictothisallothertrainingis
preliminary.Plato,moreover,iscarefultodistinguishbetweenknowledge(epistm)andopinion(doxa),sothat,whenhe
definesphilosophyasknowledge,wemustunderstandhimtospeakofknowledgeinthestrictersenseoftheterm.{9}
DivisionofPlato'sPhilosophy.Plato,unlikeAristotle,neitherdistinguishedbetweenthedifferentpartsofphilosophy,nor
madeeachpartthesubjectofaseparatetreatise.Still,thedoctrinesfoundinthedialoguesmaybeclassedunderthethreeheadsof
Dialectic,Physics,andEthicsadivisionwhich,accordingtoCicero,wasmadebyPlatohimself,althoughitismoreprobable
thatitwasfirstformulatedbyXenocrates,asSextus{10}says.UnderthetitleDialecticitiscustomarytoincludenotonlylogic,but
alsothedoctrineofIdeas.Underthedivision Physics arecomprisedPlato'sdoctrineconcerningtheworldofphenomenain
general,histeachingregardingtherelationbetweenIdeaandphenomenon,hiscosmogenetictheories,hisnotionsofmatter,space,
andsoforth.Finally,under Ethics areincludednotonlyquestionswhichbelongtothescienceofmorals,butalsothepolitical
doctrineswhichplaysoimportantapartinthePlatonicsystem.
Dialectic.{11}ItwouldbeidletolooktoPlatoforasystemoflogic.Wefind,indeed,thathementionscertainlawsofthought,but
heenunciatesthemaslawsofbeing,makingthemserveametaphysicalratherthanalogicalpurpose.{12}Itisowing,perhaps,to
thistendencyofPlato'smindtowardsthemetaphysicalviewthatdefinitionanddivisionreceivemoreofhisattentionthandothe
otherproblemsoflogic;dialectic,heteaches,isconcerned(asiseverypartofphilosophy)withtheIdea,or,moreexplicitly,dialectic
hasforitsobjecttoreducewhatismanifoldandmultipleinourexperienceofphenomenatothatunityofconceptwhichbelongstoa
knowledgeofIdeas,and,furthermore,toestablishanorganicorderamongtheconceptsthusacquired.Dialectichas,therefore,the
doubletaskofdefininguniversalconceptsbyinduction(sunag g)andclassifyingthembydivision(diairesis).{13}
Definitionanddivisiontogetherwithsomeremarksontheproblemoflanguagearetheonlylogicaldoctrinestobefoundinthe
dialogues.Dialectic,however,includes,besideslogicaldoctrines,thetheoryofIdeas,whichisthecenterofallPlatonicthought;for
dialecticisthedoctrineoftheIdeainitself,justasphysicsisthedoctrineoftheIdeaimitatedinnature,orasethicsisthedoctrineof
theIdeaimitatedinhumanaction.Underthetitleof Dialectic,therefore,thetheoryofIdeasisstudied;itincludesthefollowing
questions:(1)originofthetheoryofIdeas;(2)natureandobjectiveexistenceoftheIdeas;(3)theirexpansion
intoplurality:formationoftheworldofIdeas.
1.OriginofthetheoryofIdeas.ThetheoryofIdeas,ashasbeenremarkedabove,isanaturaldevelopmentoftheSocratic
doctrineofconcepts.Knowledge,asdistinctfromopinion,istheknowledgeofreality.Now,Socratestaughtthatinordertoknowa
thingitisnecessaryandsufficienttohaveaconceptofthatthing.Therefore,theconcept,orIdea,istheonlyreality.{14}Todenythat
theIdeaisarealityistodenythepossibilityofscientificknowledge.
SuchisthefirstandmostimmediatederivationofthetheoryofIdeas.StartingfromSocraticpremises,Platoarguesthatthetheory
ofIdeasistheonlyexplanationoftheobjectivevalueofscientificknowledge.Elsewhere,however,asinthe Philebus,{15} he
derivesthedoctrineofIdeasfromthefailureofHeraclitusandtheEleaticstoexplainBeingandBecoming.Heraclituswasrightin

40

teachingthatBecomingexists;hewaswronginteachingthatBeingdoesnotexist.TheEleatics,onthecontrary,wererightin
teachingthatBeingis,buttheywerewronginteachingthatBecomingisnot.ThetruthisthatbothBeingandBecomingexist.When,
however,wecometoanalyzeBecomingwefindthatitismadeupofBeingandnotBeing.Consequently,inthechangingworld
aroundus,thataloneisrealwhichisunchangeable,absolute,one,namelytheIdea.Forexample,theconcrete,changeablejustis
madeuppartlyofwhatwewouldcallthecontingentelement,theelementofimperfection,ofnotBeing,andpartlyoftheone
immutableIdea,justice,whichalonepossessesrealbeing.Tosay,then,thattheIdeaofjusticedoesnotexististosaythatthe
just(ajustmanorajustaction)isallnotBeingandhasnoreality.AndwhatissaidofjusticemaybesaidofanyotherIdea.The
Ideaisthecoreofrealityunderlyingthesurfacequalitieswhichareimperfections,i.e.,unrealities.
ThustherealityofBeingandtherealityofscientificknowledgedemandtheexistenceoftheIdea,andthisdoubleaspectofthe
IdeaisneverabsentfromPlato'sthought:theIdeaisanecessarypostulateifwemaintain,aswemustmaintain,therealityof
scientificknowledgeandtherealityofBeing.ThesearethetworoadsthatleadtotheIdea,theSocraticdoctrineofconceptsand
theproblemofBeingandBecoming,aproblemthatwasstated,thoughnotsatisfactorilysolved,byHeraclitusandtheEleatics.{16}
BesidesthesephilosophicalprincipleswhichledtothetheoryofIdeas,thereexistedinthemindofPlatowhatmaybecalleda
temperamentalpredispositiontoadoptsomesuchtheoryasthedoctrineofIdeasandbymeansofittoexplainknowledgeand
reality;forPlatowasapoetandinhimtheartisticsensewasalwayspredominant.HewasaGreekoftheGreeks,andtheGreek
eveninhismythologylovedclearlycut,firmlyoutlinedforms,definite,visibleshapes.Itwasnatural,therefore,forPlatonotmerelyto
distinguishinthingsthepermanentelementwhichistheirBeingandtheobjectofourknowledge,butalsotoextract,asitwere,this
elementfromthemanifoldandchangeableinwhichitwasembedded,andtohypostatizeit,causingittostandoutinaworldofits
own,inallitsonenessanddefinitenessandimmutability.
2.ThenatureandobjectiveexistenceoftheIdeas.Fromwhathasbeensaid,itisclearthattheIdeaistheelementof
realityinthingstheoneuniform,immutableelement,unaffectedbymultiplicity,change,andpartialnotBeing.Theexpressions
whichPlatousestodescribetheIdeaalwaysimplyoneorseveraloftheseattributes.Forinstance,hecallsit ousia,aidios
ousia,ont son,pantel son,katatautaon,aeikatatautaechonakint s,etc.Thename,however,bywhich
theIdeaismostcommonlydesignatedis eidos,or idea,whichprimarilydenotessomethingobjective,thoughinasecondary
sensethePlatonicIdeaisalsoanideainourmeaningoftheword,aconceptbywhichtheobjectisknown.ButwhethertheIdeabe
consideredsubjectivelyorobjectively,andtheobjectiveaspectisalwaystobeconsideredfirst,itisessentiallyuniversal,or,to
useAristotle'sphrase,henepipoll n.Wemaycallittheuniversalessenceifwearecarefultodissociatefromtheword
essence themeaningofsomethingexistinginthings;fornothingisclearerthanthatPlatounderstoodbytheIdeasomething
existingapartfrom(ch ris)thephenomenawhichmakeuptheworldofsense.TheIdeatranscendstheworldofconcrete
existence;itabidesintheheavenlysphere,thetoposnoetos,wherethegodsandthesoulsoftheblessedcontemplateit.Itis
describedinthePhaedrus{17}asfollows:"Nowoftheheavenwhichisabovetheheavensnoearthlypoethaseversungorever
willsinginaworthymanner.Imusttell,forIamboundtospeaktrulywhenspeakingoftruth.Thecolorlessandformlessand
intangibleessenceisvisibletothemind,whichistheonlylordofthesoul.Circlingthisintheregionabovetheheavensistheplace
of true knowledge." In The Banquet{18} the Idea of beauty is described "beauty only, absolute, separate, simple, and
everlasting."Therecanbenodoubt,therefore,thatPlatoseparatedtheworldofIdeasfromtheworldofconcreteexistence.He
hypostatized,sotospeak,theIdea,anditwasagainstthisseparation(ch rizein)oftheIdeathatAristotledirectedhiscriticismof
Plato'stheory.AccordingtoAristotle,thePlatonicworldofIdeasisaworldbyitself,aprototypeoftheworldwhichwesee,andin
thisinterpretationAristotleissupportedandsustainedbyallthelaterScholastics.Itisnolongerseriouslymaintainedthatthe
PlatonicIdeasexistmerelyinthehumanmind.MoreworthyofconsiderationistheviewofSt.Augustine,who,followingtheexample
ofearlyChristianPlatonists,identifiestheworldofPlatonicIdeaswith themindofGod.Thisview,supportedasitisbythe
authorityofsomeofthegreatestofChristianphilosophersaswellasbythatofthelaterPlatonistsandofalltheNeoPlatonists,is
notlightlytobesetaside.Ontheotherhand,thestatementsofAristotle{19}areexplicit,andwemustrememberthatAristotlewasan
immediatediscipleofPlato;wehavenoreasontosupposethathewillfullymisrepresentedhismasterinthismostimportantpoint,
andwehaveeveryreasontobelievethathewasfullycapableofunderstandinghismaster'steaching.{20}
SofartheIdeahasbeendescribedastheobjectivecorrelativeofouruniversalconcept;butwhiletheuniversalityofourconceptsis
aproductofdialecticalthought,theuniversalityoftheIdeaisobjective,thatis,independentofthehumanmind.Thisobjective
universalityisexplainedintheSophist,{21}inwhichPlatoattackstheEleaticdoctrineoftheonenessofBeing,maintainingthatthe
Ideaisatthesametimeoneandmany.ButhowaretheunityandmultiplicityoftheIdeatobereconciled?Platoanswersthatthey
are reconciled by the community (koin nia) of concepts. As a concept, for example Being, is differentiated into its
determinations,suchasmotionandrest,sointheobjectiveorder(asPlatoshowsinthe Parmenides{22} byamorecogent
processofdirectargument)theIdeaisidenticalwithanotherthing(tauton)andatthesametimeisdifferentfromotherthings
(thateron).Inthisway,wehaveunityinpluralityandpluralityinunity.AScholasticwouldsaythatthefundamentalunityof

41

thesubjectisnotincompatiblewiththeformalmultiplicityofitsqualities,andwhilethisisnotpreciselywhatPlatomeant,itis
certainlyabetterillustrationofPlato'smeaningthanistheNeoPlatonicinterpretation,accordingtowhichbyIdeasPlatomeant
numbers.Itis,however,verylikelythatPlatodidnotclearlyunderstandhowunityandmultiplicitycouldbelongtotheIdea.
JustasPlatoattackedtheEleaticdoctrineoftheonenessofBeingsodidhe{23}attacktheEleaticdoctrineofimmobility.TheIdea
isactive,for,ifitwereinert,itwouldbecapableneitherofbeingknownbyusnorofconstitutingreality;andtocausethingstobe
knownandtoconstitutetheirrealityare,sotospeak,thetwofunctionsoftheIdea.NotonlyistheIdeadescribedasactive, {24}but
evenastheonlytruecause.Inaremarkablepassage,{25} Socratesisrepresentedassayingthathewasdissatisfiedwiththe
speculationsofthePhysicists,thathewasdisappointedinhishopethatAnaxagoraswouldexplaintheoriginofthings,andthathe
finallydiscoveredthatIdeasaretheonlyadequatecausesofphenomena.Aristotle,therefore,isrightinsaying{26}thatheknewofno
efficientcausesinthedoctrineofPlatoexceptIdeas,andthusweareforcedtoacceptwithoutattemptingtoexplainthePlatonic
doctrinethatIdeas,withoutbeingcaused,arecauses;thatalthoughtheyarenotsubjecttoBecoming,theyarethepowerbywhose
agencyallphenomenabecome.Still,injusticetoPlato,itshouldberememberedthatwhilehemaintainsthedynamicfunctionofthe
Ideas,holdingthemtobelivingpowers,heisprimarilyconcernedwiththeirstatic,orplastic,function,inasmuchastheyarethe
forms,ortypes,ofexistingthings.
3.TheworldofIdeas.PlatohardlyeverspeaksoftheIdea,butalwaysofIdeasintheplural,forthereisaworldofIdeas.Indeed,
wemaysaythatforPlatotherearethreeworlds:worldofconcretephenomena,theworldofourconcepts,andtheworldofIdeas
(kosmos,ortoposnotos).Therelationbetweenthefirstandthirdoftheseworldswillbediscussedlaterundertheheadof
Physics.TherelationbetweentheworldofconceptsandtheworldofIdeasliesinthefactthattheformeristhefaintreflectionofthe
latter.ThisishowPlatowoulddescribeit;inmodernterminologyweshouldsaytheworldofIdeasisthelogicalandontological
priusoftheworldofconcepts.But,howeverweviewtherelationbetweenthetwoworlds,itcannotbedeniedthatthereisatleasta
parallelismbetweenthem.ToeveryconceptcorrespondsanIdea,andtothelawsofthoughtwhichruletheworldofconcepts
correspondthelawsofBeingwhichruletheworldofIdeas.
Inthefirstplace,justasourconceptsaremany,theIdeasaremany.EverythinghasitsIdea,whatissmallandworthlessaswell
aswhatisgreatandperfect.Productsofartaswellasobjectsofnature;substances,qualities,relations,mathematicalfigures,and
grammaticalforms,allthesehavetheirIdeas.{27}ThatalonehasnoIdeawhichismereBecoming.ThenumberofIdeas,then,is
indefinite.
Inthesecondplace,ourconceptspossessalogicalunity,andsoinallthemultiplicityofIdeasthereisaunitywhichmaybe
calledorganic.TheIdeasformaseriesdescendinginwellordereddivisionandsubdivisionfromthehighestgeneratothe
individual,anditisthetaskofsciencetorepresentthisseries,todescendinthoughtfromtheonetothemultiple.Platohimself{28}
attemptedtoperformthistask,naming,asthemostuniversalIdeas, BeingandnotBeing,likeandunlike,unityand
number,thestraightandthecrooked,anattemptwhichsuggestsontheonehandthetenoppositesofthePythagoreans
andontheotherhandthetenAristoteliancategories.Theclassificationisofcourseincomplete.
OfgreaterimportancethanthisincompleteenumerationofthehighestkindsofIdeasisPlato'sdoctrineofthesupremacyofthe
Ideaofgood.Asinthematerialuniversethesunisthesourceoflightandlife,illuminingtheearthandfillingeverypartofitwith
lifeproducingwarmth,sointhesupersensibleworldofIdeastheIdeaofgoodisthelightandlifeofalltheotherIdeascausingthem
bothtobeandtobeknown.{29}ButwhatdoesPlatomeanbythisIdeaofgood?Isitmerelytheabsolutegood,actingasfinalcause,
thegoalofhumanactivity,theultimateendofallthings?IfthiswerePlato'smeaning,thegoodmightbedefinedasafinalcause;it
couldnotbedefinedasefficientcause,anditcertainlyissodescribed. {30}Moreover,inthePhilebus{31}thegoodisidentifiedwith
divinereason.Theonlyrationalinterpretation,therefore,ofPlato'sdoctrineofthegoodisthatbytheIdeaofgoodPlatomeantGod
Himself.ItistruethatforuswhoareaccustomedtorepresenttheDeityasaperson,itisnoteasytorealizehowPlatocould
hypostatizeauniversalconceptandcallitGod,orhowhecouldconceivethesourceoflifeandenergytobeintelligent,andyet
describeitintermsinconsistentwithselfconsciousness.Thecorrectexplanationseemstobethattherelationbetweenpersonality
andintelligencedidnotsuggestitselftoPlato.(Notonlyhe,buttheancientphilosophersingeneral,lackedadefinitenotionofwhat
personalityis.Plato,itmustbeunderstood,didnotdenythepersonalityofGod.Indeed,heoftenspeaksofGodasaperson.He
wassimplyunconsciousoftheproblemwhichsuggestsitselfsonaturallytous,Howtoreconcilethenotionofpersonalitywiththe
IdeaofgoodwhichheidentifiedwithGod?
FromtheconsiderationoftheIdeaofgoodweareledtothenextdivisionofPlato'sphilosophy,namely,physics;itwasbecauseof
hisgoodnessthatGodcreatedphenomena.Wepasstherefore,asitwere,throughtheIdeaofgood,fromtheworldofIdeastothe
worldofphenomena.
Physics.UnderthisheadareincludedallthemanifestationsoftheIdeaintheworldofphenomena.Nowtheworldofphenomena
istheworldofsensepresentation,theregionofchangeandmultiplicityandimperfectionand,therefore,ofpartialnotBeing.It

42

presentsastrikingcontrasttotheworldofIdeas,whichstands"inviewlessmajesty"aboveit,andwherethereisnochange,no
imperfection,nonotBeing.Yetthesetwoworldshavesomethingincommon:thereisacontact(koin nia)ofthelowerwiththe
higher,forthephenomenonpartakes(metechei)oftheIdea.{32}Thustheconcretegood(goodmen,goodactions)partakesof
theabsolutegood:ahorseorafireintheconcreteworldpartakesofthehorseinitselforofthefireinitselfwhichexistsinthe
worldofIdeas.IntheParmenides{33}theparticipationisexplainedtobeanimitation(mimsis),theIdeasbeingprototypes
(paradeigmata)ofwhichthephenomenaareectypes,orcopies(eid la).Thisparticipationis,however,soimperfectthatin
beautyandlusterandgrandeurtheworldofphenomenafallsfarshortoftheworldofIdeas.
1.Whence,weareforcedtoask,comesthisimperfection,thispartialnotBeing?Foranswer,Platoisobligedtoassumeaprinciple
directlyantitheticaltotheIdea.Hedoesnotcallthisprinciplematter,thewordhulbeingfirstusedinthissensebyAristotle;and
itisamistaketointerpretPlato'sthoughtasifbytheprincipleofimperfectionhemeantamaterialsubstratumofexistence.The
phrasebywhichitisdesignatedvariesinthedifferentdialogues;itiscalled,forexample,space(ch ra),mass(ekmageion),
receptacle(pandeches),theunlimited(apeiron),and,accordingtosomeinterpreters,itisnotBeing(m on),andthe
greatandsmall.ItisdescribedintheTimeaus{34}asthatinwhichallthingsappear,growup,anddecay.Consequently,itisa
negativeprincipleoflimitation,moreakintospacethantomatter,andAristotleisrightincontrasting {35}hisownideaofthelimiting
principlewiththatofPlato.ThesocalledPlatonicmatterisessentiallyanegation,whereasinAristotle'sphilosophynegation
(steresis)isbutaqualityofmatter.
TheconceptofPlatonicmatterisnoteasytograsp.Itisamereform,yetitisnotaformofthemindinanyKantiansense.Itisa
formobjectivelyexisting,andyetitisnotareality.Platohimselfrecognizedthedifficultywhichtheconceptoftheprincipleof
limitationinvolved.IntheTimaeus{36}hetellsusthatitisknownbyakindofspuriousreason(logism noth )andishardly
amatterofbelief.Theconfessiondoesnotsurpriseus,forinthisattempttodesignatealimitingprincipleliesthefatalflawofthe
wholePlatonictheory.Toderivethelimitedfromtheunlimited,thepartialnotBeingfromBeing,isataskwhichneitherPlatonor
Spinozacouldfulfillconsistentlywithhisfirstassumptions.AristotledetectedthisweaknessintheidealisticmonismofPlato,aswell
asinthematerialisticmonismoftheearlyPhysicists,anditwasinordertosupplythedefectsofboththatheintroducedthedualistic
conceptofaworldwhichistheoutcomeofthepotentialandtheactual.
Plato,therefore,failedtoaccountsatisfactorilyforthederivationofthesensuousfromthesupersensuousworld.Hehadrecourse,as
Aristotleremarks,{37}tosuchwidelydifferentexpressionsasparticipation,community(koin nia),imitation;buthemust
havebeenawarethatbythesephrasesheevadedratherthansolvedtherealproblem.Onepoint,however,isbeyonddispute:Plato
assumedthatalimitingprinciple,thesourceofallevil,andimperfection,exists.Heassumedit,illogically,indefianceofhisdoctrine
thattheIdeaistheonlyreality.Heis,therefore,asonewhowouldbeadualistdidhispremisesallowhimtodepartfromthemonism
whichisthestartingpointofallhisspeculation.
2.Inordertoexplaintheworldofphenomena,Platowasobligedtopostulate,besidestheIdeaandtheprincipleoflimitation,the
existenceofaworldsoul(Nous),whichmediatesbetweentheIdeaandmatterandistheproximatecauseofalllifeandorder
andmotionandknowledgeintheuniverse.Theuniverse,hetaught,isalivinganimal(z onennoun),endowedwiththemost
perfectandmostintelligentofsouls,because,ashearguesintheTimaeus,{38}ifGodmadetheworldasperfectasthenatureof
matter(theprincipleoflimitation)wouldallow,Hemusthaveendoweditwithasoulthatisperfect.Thissoulisaperfectharmony:it
containsallmathematicalproportions.Diffusedthroughouttheuniverse,ceaselesslyselfmovingaccordingtoregularlaw,itisthe
causeofallchangeandallBecoming.ItisnotanIdea,fortheIdeaisuncaused,universal,allBeing,whiletheworldsoulisderived
andparticularandispartlymadeupofnotBeing.Althoughitisconceivedbyakindofanalogywiththehumansoul,thequestion
whetheritispersonalorimpersonalneversuggesteditselftoPlato.{39}
Afterthegeneralproblemofthederivationofthesensuousfromthesupersensuousworldcometheparticularquestionswhich
belongtowhatwecallcosmology.Platohimselfinformsus{40}thatsincenatureisBecomingratherthanBeing,thestudyofnature
leadsnottotruescientificknowledge(epistme),butto belief only(pistis).Cosmology,therefore,andphysicalsciencein
generalhaveavaluefarinferiortodialectic,whichisthescienceofthepureIdea.
3.Astotheoriginoftheuniverse:ThesocalledPlatonicmatteriseternal.Theuniverse,however,asitexistshaditsoriginin
time.ThisseemstobethenaturalandobvioussenseofTimeus,28,althoughXenocrates,animmediatediscipleofPlato,wasof
opinionthatPlatotaughtthetemporaloriginoftheworldmerelyforthesakeofclearnesstoemphasizethefactthatithadan
origin.Now,sincematterexistedfrometernity,theuniversewasnotcreated.Fromoutthechaoswhichwasruledbynecessity
(anagke),God,theDemiurgos,orCreator,broughtorder,fashioningthephenomenainmatteraccordingtotheeternalprototypes,
theIdeas,andmakingthephenomenaforHewasfreefromjealousyasperfectastheimperfectionofmatterwouldallow.First,
Heproducedtheworldsoul;then,asthesphereisthemostperfectfigure,Heformedforthissoulasphericalbodycomposedoffire,
air,earth,andwatersubstanceswhichEmpedocleshaddesignatedastherootprinciplesoftheworld,andwhicharenow,forthe

43

firsttimeinthehistoryofphilosophy,called elements.Thequestion,Whyaretheelementsfourinnumber?Platoanswersby
assigningateleologicalaswellasaphysicalreason,{41}thusexhibitingthetwoinfluences,SocraticandPythagorean,whichmore
thananyothercausescontributedtodeterminehisphysicaltheories.Thefourelementsdifferfromoneanotherbythepossessionof
definitequalities;alldifferencesofthingsareaccountedforbydifferentcombinationsoftheelementsthemselvesbodiesarelight
orheavyaccordingastheelementoffire,whichislight,ortheelementofearth,whichisheavy,prevails.
4.Inhisexplanationoftheworldsystem asitnowis,PlatoshowsstillmoreevidentlytheinfluenceofthePythagoreans,and
especiallyofPhilolaus.{42} AddtothisinfluencethenaturaltendencyofPlato'smindtowardstheidealisticandartisticconceptof
everything,andthedoctrinethattheheavenlybodiesarecreatedgodsthemostperfectofGod'screatures,fromwhose
fidelitytotheirpathsinthefirmamentmanmaylearntorulethelawlessmovementsofhisownsoul{43}willceasetoappearoutof
keepingwiththeseriousnessofPlato'sattempttosolvetheproblemsofhumanknowledgeandhumandestiny.
5.InPlato'santhropologicaldoctrinesthemixtureofmythandscienceismorefrequentandmoremisleadingthaninanyother
portionofhisphilosophy.Astotheoriginofthesoul,heteaches{44}thatwhentheCreatorhadformedtheuniverseandthestars
Hecommandedthecreatedgodstofashionthehumanbody,whileHeHimselfproceededtoformthehumansoul(oratleastthe
rationalpartofit),takingforthispurposethesamematerialswhichHehadusedtoformtheworldsoul,mixingtheminthesame
cup,thoughthemixturewasofinferiorpurity.
Platorejects{45}thedoctrinethatthesoulisaharmonyofthebody,onthegroundthatthesoulhasstrivingswhicharecontraryto
theinclinationsofsense,andwhichproveittobeofanaturedifferentfromthatofthebody.Thesoulisexpresslydefined{46}asa
selfmovingprinciple.Itisrelatedtothebodymerelyasacausamovens.How,then,diditcometobeunitedtothebody?
Plato{47}answersbythe"figure,"orallegory,inwhichisconveyedthedoctrineofprexistence.IntheTimaeus,however,the
mythicalformofexpressionislaidaside,aswhen,forexample,{48}thesoulissaidtohavebeenunitedtothebodybyvirtueofa
cosmiclaw.
Thedoctrineofprexistencegaverisetothedoctrineof recollection,althoughsometimes,asinthe Meno,{49} theprevious
existenceofthesoulisprovedfromthepossibilityoflearning.Thedoctrineofrecollectionimpliesthatinoursupercelestialhomethe
soulenjoyedaclearanduncloudedvisionoftheIdeas,andthat,althoughitfellfromthathappystateandwassteepedintheriverof
forgetfulness,itstillretainsanindistinctmemoryofthoseheavenlyintuitionsofthetruth;sothatthesightofthephenomenamere
shadowsoftheIdeasarousesinthesoulaclearerandfullerrecollectionofwhatitcontemplatedinitspreviousexistence.The
processoflearningconsists,therefore,inrecallingwhatwehaveforgotten:tolearnistoremember.
Ifprexistenceisonepoleintheidealcircleofthesoul'sexistence,immortalityistheother.Thesojournofthesoulintheworldof
everchangingphenomenaisbutaperiodofpunishmentwhichendswiththedeathofthebody.Underlyingthemythicallanguagein
whichPlatoconveyedhispsychologicaldoctrines,thereisadeepseatedconvictionoftherealityofthefuturelife,agenuinebeliefin
theimmortalityofthesoul.Indeed,PlatoisthefirstGreekphilosophertoformulateinscientificlanguageandtoestablishwith
scientificproofananswertothequestion,Doesdeathendallthings?Hitherto,theimmortalityofthesoulhadbeenpartofthe
religioussystemsofAsiaandofGreece;nowitappearsforthefirsttimeasascientificthesis,aspartofapurelyrationalsystemof
philosophy.
ThedialoguewhichdealsexpresslywiththeproblemofimmortalityisthePhaedo;thereSocratesisrepresentedbythenarratoras
discoursingonthefutureexistence,whilethejailerstandsatthedooroftheprisonwiththefataldraughtinhishand.Thearguments
whichSocratesusesmaybesummedupasfollows:
1.Oppositesgenerateopposites.Outoflifecomesdeath:therefore,outofdeathcomeslife.{50}
2.Thesoul,beingwithoutcomposition,isakintotheabsolutelyimmutableIdea.Thebody,onthecontrary,is,byitscomposition,
akintothingswhichchange.Whenthebodyisdestroyed,thesoul,byvirtueofitsaffinitytotheindestructible,isenabledtoresistall
decayanddestruction.{51}
3.Ifthesoulexistedbeforethebody,itisnaturaltoexpectthatitwillexistafterthebody.Thatitexistedbeforethebodyisprovedby
thedoctrineofrecollection.{52}
4.Besidesthesearguments,thefollowingproofisusedbyPlato. {53}Thedissolutionofanythingisaccomplishedbytheevilwhichis
opposedtoit.Now,moralevilistheonlyevilwhichisopposedtothenatureofthesoul;if,then,sindoesnotdestroythesoul,asit
certainlydoesnot,thereasonmustbethatthesoulisindestructible.
UnderlyingalltheforegoingargumentsistheonepivotalthoughtofPlato'spsychology,thatlifenecessarilybelongstothe
Ideaofthesoul.ThisthoughtisbroughtoutinthelastoftheSocraticarguments.

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5.AnIdeacannotpassintoitsopposite,aScholasticwouldsayessencesareimmutable.AnIdea,therefore,whichhasadefinite
conceptattachedtoitexcludestheoppositeofthatconcept.Now,lifebelongstotheIdeaofthesoul.Consequently,thesoul
excludesdeath,whichistheoppositeoflife.Adeadsoulisacontradictioninterms.{54}
Thesame ontologicalargument occursin Phaedrus,245,anditisevidentlythechiefargumentonwhichPlatobaseshis
convictionthatthesoulisimmortal.YetinthePhaedo,aftereachofSocrates'listenershassignifiedhisacceptanceoftheproof,
SocratesismadetoagreewithSimmiasthatthereisnolongerroomforanyuncertaintyexceptthatwhicharisesfromthe
greatnessofthesubjectandthefeeblenessofthehumanmind.{55}
Closelyalliedwiththedoctrineofimmortalityisthedoctrineof transmigrationofsouls andof futureretribution.Plato
recognizedthatimmortalityinvolvestheideaoffutureretributionofsomesort,justasthenecessityofafutureretributioninvolves
immortality.Hedidnotdeterminescientificallytheprecisenatureofretributioninthenextlife.Hewascontentwithadoptingthe
transmigrationmythswhichhederivedfromthemysteries.Yet,forPlato,thesemythscontainedagermoftruth,althoughthemost
thatcanbesafelysaidisthatheseriouslymaintainedthedoctrineoftransmigrationinagenericsense:thedetailssocarefullyset
forthintheTimaeusandinthePhaedoarenottobetakenaspartofPlato'sscientificthought.
WhenwespeakofimmortalitywemustnotimaginethatPlatoheldeverypartofthesoultobeimmortal.Heenumeratesthreeparts
ofthesoul,therational(logos),theirascible(thumos),andtheappetitive(epithumia)parts.Thesearenotfaculties
orpowersofonesubstance,butparts(mer)thedistinctionofwhichisprovedbythefactthatappetitestrivesagainstreason,and
angeragainstreasonandappetite.{56} Reasonresidesinthehead;theirasciblesoul,theseatofcourage,isintheheart;and
appetite,theseatofdesire,isintheabdomen.{57}
Ofthesethree,therationalpartaloneisimmortal.ItaloneisproducedbyGod.BymaintainingthatthesoulhaspartsPlatoweakens
hisdoctrineofimmortalityandexposesittomanyobjections.
Plato in his theory of knowledge bases his distinction of kinds of knowledge on the distinction of objects. Objects of
knowledge{58}aredividedasfollows:

Supersensibleobjects(Notongenos)
Ideas(Ideai)
Mathematicalentities(Mathmatika)
Sensibleobjects(Horatongenos)
Realbodies(S mata)
Semblancesofbodies(Eikones)

Tothiscorrespondsthedivisionofknowledge:

Supersensibleknowledge(Nosis)
Intellect(Nous)
Reason(Dianoia)
Opinion:senseknowledge(Doxa)
Senseperception(Pistis)
Imagination(Eikasia)

Knowledgebeginswithsenseperception.Thesenses,however,cannotattainaknowledgeoftruth.Theycontemplatetheimperfect
copiesoftheIdeas;aslongaswelookupontheobjectsofsensewearemerelygazingattheshadowsofthingswhich,accordingto
thecelebratedAllegoryoftheCave,{59}aremovingwherewecannotseethem,namely,intheworldofIdeasfromwhichthesoul
hasfallen.(YetthoughthesenseperceivedworldcannotleadustoaknowledgeofIdeas,itcananddoesremindusoftheIdeas
whichwesawinapreviousexistence.Itisbythedoctrineofrecollection,therefore,thatPlatobridgesoverthechasmbetween
senseknowledge and a knowledge of reality. Phenomena are not the causes, but merely the occasions of our intellectual
knowledge;forinknowledge,asinexistence,theuniversal,accordingtoPlato,isthepriusoftheindividual.
ThedoctrineofthefreedomofthewillassumesanovelphaseinthephilosophyofPlato.Platounequivocallyassertsthatthewill
isfree.{60} Notonlyisfreedomofchoiceaqualityofadulthumanactivity,butitisfreechoicealsothatdecidesourparentage,
hereditarytendencies,physicalconstitution,andearlyeducation,forallthesearetheresultofactionsfreelyperformedduringthe
previous existence of the soul. Notwithstanding this doctrine of freedom, Plato{61} holdsthe Socratic principle that no one is
voluntarilybad.

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Plato'sphysiologicaldoctrinesareofinterestasservingtoshowthefutilityofattemptingtoexplainthecomplicatedphenomena
oflifewithsuchinadequateexperimentaldataashehadathiscommand.Hewasforcedbyhisphilosophicalprinciplestoneglect
observationandtounderestimatesenseknowledge.Aristotle,whoattachedgreatervaluetoempiricalknowledge,wasfarmore
successfulinhisinvestigationofnaturalphenomena.
Ethics.UnderthisheadareincludedPlato'sethicalandpoliticaldoctrines.IfPlato'sphysicswasstyledthestudyoftheIdeainthe
worldofphenomena,thisportionofhisphilosophymaybecalledthestudyoftheIdeainhumanactionandhumansociety.Ethics,
however,isvastlymoreimportantthanphysicsinthePlatonicsystemofthought;forphysicsistreatedasifitwerescarcelymore
thanascienceoftheapparent,whilesuchistheimportanceattachedtoethicsthatPlato'sphilosophyasawholehasbeen
describedasprimarilyethical.Andthedescriptionistruetoacertainextent.AllPlatonic,aswellasSocratic,speculationstartswith
aninquiryaboutthegoodandthebeautiful,andproceeds,inthecaseofPlato,throughthedoctrineofconceptstothetheoryof
Ideas.Nevertheless,whileSocraticinfluenceismoreapparentinPlato'sethicsthaninanyotherportionofhisphilosophy,itistrue
thatthesystemofethicsinitscompletedformispartofthePlatonicstructure,andisconditionedbythemetaphysics,anthropology,
andphysicsofPlato,aswellasbytheSocraticinquiriesconcerningvirtue.
1.Thehighestgood,subjectivelyconsidered,ishappiness{62};objectively,itistheIdeaofgood,which,ashasbeenseen,is
identifiedwithGod.{63} Consequently,theaimofman'sactionsshouldbetofreehimselffromthebondsoftheflesh,fromthe
trammelsofthebodyinwhichthesoulisconfined,andbymeansofvirtueandwisdomtobecomeliketoGod,eveninthislife.{64}
Here,however,PlatoshowsamoderationwhichpresentsastrikingcontrasttothenarrowmindednessandintoleranceoftheCynics
aswellastothesensualismoftheHedonists;forthoughvirtueandwisdomarethechiefconstituentsofhappiness,thereisplace
alsoforrightopinion,art,andforsuchpleasuresasaregenuineandfreefrompassion.{65}
2.Virtuediffersfromtheotherconstituentsofhappinessinthis,thatitaloneisessential.Itisdefined{66}astheorder,harmony,and
healthofthesoul,whileviceisthecontrarycondition.Socrateshadidentifiedallvirtuewithwisdom;Platomerelyassignstowisdom
thehighestplaceamongvirtues,reducingallvirtuestofoursupremekinds,wisdom,fortitude,temperance,andjustice.{67}
HediffersalsofromSocratesinhisattempttoreducetheideaofvirtuetoitspracticalapplications.Socrates,ashasbeenpointed
out,basedallpracticalvirtueonexpediency;Plato,onthecontrary,abandonedtheutilitarianview,andbyattachingtovirtuean
independentvalueinculcatedgreaterpurityofintention.
3.ItisintheStatethatwefindthemostimportantapplicationsofPlato'sdoctrineofvirtue.Manshouldaimatbeingvirtuous,and
could,eveninhissavagecondition,attainvirtue.Withouteducation,however,virtuewouldbeamatterofmerechance,andwithout
theStateeducationwouldbeimpossible.While,therefore,theStateisnottheaimandendofhumanaction,itistheindispensable
conditionofknowledgeandVirtue.{68}
Accordingly, theStateshouldhaveforitsobjectvirtue,or,asweshouldsay,theestablishmentandmaintenanceof
morality.Now,theonlypowerthatcanremovefromvirtuewhatiscontingentandcasualandcanplacemoralityonafirmfoundation
isphilosophy.Consequently,inthePlatonicState,philosophyisthedominantpower,andPlatoteachesexpresslythat"unless
philosophersbecomerulersorrulersbecometrueandthoroughstudentsofphilosophy,therewillbenoendtothetroublesofstates
andofhumanity."{69}TheidealStateismodeledontheindividualsoul,fortheStateisthelargerman.Now,inthesoulthere
arethreeparts;intheState,therefore,therearethreeorders,rulers,warriors,andproducers.{70}
InthedetailsofhisschemeforthegovernmentoftheidealState,Platoisledbyhisaristocratictendenciestoadvocateasystemof
stateabsolutism.Heabolishesprivateinterestsandprivatepossessions.Hesacrificestheindividualandthefamilytothe
community.HesubordinatesmarriageandeducationtotheinterestsoftheState.Heacknowledges,however,thathisschemesare
difficultofrealization,anditisforthisreasonthatintheLawshesketchestheschemewhich,thoughinferiortotheschemeoutlined
inTheRepublic,isnearertothelevelofwhattheaverageStatecanattain.
ReligionandAEsthetics.Thistitledoesnot,likephysicsandethics,designateaportionofPlato'sphilosophy.Itismerelya
convenientheadingunderwhicharegroupedthedoctrinesofPlatoconcerningtheexistenceofGodandthenatureofthebeautiful.
1.Religion.Plato,aswehaveseen,identifiestruereligionwithphilosophy.Thehighestobjectofphilosophicalspeculationandthe
objectofreligiousworshipareoneandthesame,forphilosophyisamatteroflifeandloveaswellasoftheoeticalthought.Atheism,
therefore,isasirrationalasitisimpious.TheexistenceofGodisevidentfromtheorderanddesignwhichPlatorecognizesas
existingnotonlyinanimalorganismsbutalsointhelargerworldofastronomy,inthecosmoswhosesoulissomuchsuperiortothe
soulsofanimalsandofmen.{71}BesidesthisteleologicalargumentPlatomakesuseoftheargumentfromefficientcause.{72}He
combatstheprinciplesoftheearlyPhysicists,accordingtowhomallthings,includingreasonitself,cameoriginallyfrommatter.This
heconsiderstobeaninversionofthetruesequence;forreasonprecedesmatterandisthecauseofallmaterialmotionandofall
theprocessesofmatter.

46

TheDivinityistheAbsoluteGood,theIdeaofGoodness.PlatoextolsHispower,Hiswisdom,andHisallincludingknowledgeand
freely criticises the prevailing anthropomorphic notionsof God. God is supremely perfect: He will never show Himelf to man
otherwisethanHereallyis;foralllyingisalienHisnature.HeexercisesoverallthingsaProvidencewhichordersandgoverns
everythingforthebest;{73}sometimes{74}PlatospeaksofGodasapersonalBeing.BesidesthissovereignDivinity,Platoadmitsthe
existenceofsubordinatecreatedgods.{75}ItistheywhomediatebetweenGodandmatter,andfashionthebodyofmanas
wellastheirrationalpartsofhissoul.Chiefamongthecreatedgodsaretheworldsoul,thesoulsofthestars,andthedemonsof
ether,air,andwater.
Withregardtopopularmythology,Platoemploysthenamesofthegods;hespeaksofZeus,Apollo,andtheotherdivinities.But"the
existenceofthesedivinities,asheldbytheGreeks,heneverbelieved,nordoesheintheleastconcealit."{76}
2.AEsthetics.WhenweconsidertheimportanceofartinthethoughtandcivilizationofGreece,wearesurprisedatthescant
attentionwhichaestheticsreceivedfromGreekphilosophersbeforePlato.AndevenPlato,thoughheconcernedhimselfwiththe
analysisofthebeautifulintoitsmetaphysicalconstituents,seemstohaveoverlookedthenecessityofapsychologicalstudyofthe
sentimentofthebeautiful.
AlthoughthegoodisthehighestoftheIdeas,thebeautifulisofgreatestinterestinphilosophy,becauseitshinesmoreclearly
throughtheveilofphenomenathandoesanyoftheotherIdeas.Fortheessenceofthebeautifulisharmony,symmetry,andorder,
qualitieswhichstrikethemindoftheintelligentobserveroftheworldofphenomena,eventhoughhefailtopenetratetothedepths
ofthephenomenonwherethegoodlieshidden.
Byaconvenientphrase(kalokagathon)theGreeksidentifiedthebeautifulwiththegood.Thephrase,however,iscapableoftwo
interpretations.Itwascommonlyunderstoodtomeanthatthebeautifulisgood.Plato,followingSocrates,interpretedittomean
that thegoodisbeautiful.Corporealbeauty,hetaught,islowestinthescaleofbeautifulthings;nextcomefairsouls,fair
sciences,andfairvirtues;highestofallisthepureandabsolutebeautytowhichnoneofthegrossnessofthephenomenoncleaves.
Now,thegoodisharmoniousandsymmetricalBeing.Thegood,therefore,isbeautiful,andthephenomenonwhichpartakesofthe
goodpartakesinlikemannerofthebeautiful.{77}
Arthasforitsobjecttherealizationofthebeautiful.Allhumanproductsareimitations;butwhile,forexample,goodactionsare
imitationsof theIdeaof good,andbeautifulactions areimitationsof theIdeaof thebeautiful,works ofartareimitations of
phenomena,imitationsofimitations.Consequently,artisnottobecomparedwithdialectic,norwithindustry,norwiththescience
ofgovernment;itismerelyapastimeintendedtoaffordpleasureandrecreation,strangedoctrine,surely,foronewhowashimself
apoet!Likeotherpastimes,itmustbecontrolled,forarttoooftenflattersthevulgartasteofthewickedandthebase.Plato,
accordingly,taughtthatallartisticproductions,theworksofsculptorsandpaintersaswellasthoseofpoetsandrhetoricians,should
besubmittedtocompetentjudges,towhomshouldbedelegatedtheauthorityoftheState; {78} forrhetoricandalltheotherarts
shouldbeplacedattheserviceofGod,andshouldbesoexercisedastoassistthestatesmaninestablishingtheruleofmorality.{79}
HistoricalPosition.Thereisscarcely,aportionofPlato'sphilosophywhichdoesnotbetraytheinfluenceofhispredecessors.
TheSocraticprinciplewashisstartingpoint.ThePythagoreanschooldeterminedtoalargeextenthiscosmologicaldoctrinesaswell
ashisspeculationsaboutthefuturelife.Empedocles,Anaxagoras,andtheEarlierIoniansinfluencedhiscosmogenetictheoriesand
hisdoctrineofelements,whileHeraclitus,ZenotheEleatic,andProtagorastheSophistcontributedeachinhisownwaytothe
Platonictheoryofknowledge.YetitgoeswithoutsayingthatPlatowasnomerecompiler.HemodifiedeventheSocraticteaching
beforemakingitpartofhisphilosophicalsystem,andwhateverhederivedfromthosewhowentbeforehimhemoldedandwrought
soastofititforitsplaceinthevastphilosophicaledificethefoundationofwhichisthetheoryofIdeas.ThisdistinctivelyPlatonic
theoryisthebasisonwhichreststhewholesuperstructureofphysics,dialectic,ethics,theology,andaesthetics.Itisalsothe
unifyingprincipleinPlato'ssystemofthought.Whethertheproblemhediscussesbetheimmortalityofthesoul,thenatureof
knowledge,theconditionsofthelifeafterdeath,themissionoftheState,orthenatureofthebeautiful,hisstartingpointisalways
theIdea.Itis,therefore,noexaggerationtosaythatwiththedoctrineofIdeastheentiresystemofPlatonicphilosophystandsor
falls.Consequently,ourjudgmentofthevalueofthecontentsofPlato'sphilosophymustbepostponeduntilwecanenterwith
AristotleintoacriticalexaminationofthevalueofthetheoryofIdeas.Butwhatevermaybeourjudgmentastothevalueofhis
philosophy,noadversecriticismcandetractfromhispreeminentclaimtothefirstplaceamongthemastersofphilosophicalstyle.
Eventhoughwerefusetocallhim"profound,"wecannotbutsubscribetotheverdictbywhichallageshaveagreedtogivetohim
thetitlesdivineandsublime.Subsequentspeculation,subsequentdiscovery,andsubsequentincreaseinthefacilitiesforacquiring
knowledgehavecorrectedmuchthatPlatotaughtandaddedmuchtowhathesaid,andyetnotasinglemasterhasappearedwho
coulddreamofrivaling,nottosayexcelling,theliteraryperfectionofhisphilosophicaldialogues.Thisliteraryperfectiongoesdeeper
thanwords.Itincludesapeculiarcharmofmanner,bywhichPlatoliftsusfromthesordidworldofmaterialthingstoaworldof
exaltedtypesandennoblingideals.Hisaimasaphilosopheristodemonstratethattrueknowledgeandtruerealityshouldbe
sought,notinthethingsofearth,butinthoseofthatotherworldbeyondtheheavens,wherethereisnoimperfection,change,or

47

decay.ItisthischarmofmannerthatJouberthadinmindwhenhewrote:"Platoshowsusnothing,buthebringsbrightnesswith
him;heputslightintooureyes,andfillsuswithaclearnessbywhichallobjectsafterwardsbecomeilluminated.Heteachesus
nothing;buthepreparesus,fashionsus,andmakesusreadytoknowall.Thehabitofreadinghimaugmentsinusthecapacityfor
discerningandentertainingwhateverfinetruthsmayafterwardspresentthemselves.Likemountainair,itsharpensourorgansand
givesusanappetiteforwholesomefood."

{1}Plato,etc.,pp.7ff
{2}Somehistoriansdoubttheaccuracyofthisstatement,whichrestsontheauthorityofHermodorus,adiscipleofPlato.cf.Zeller,
op.cit.,p.14,note26.
{3}Cf.Cicero,DeSenectute,V,13.
{4}Cf.Ueberweg,HistoryofPhilosophy,Englishtrans.,pp.108ff.
{5}ThepagingemployedincitationsfromPlato'sWorksisthatoftheStephanusedition(Paris,1578).Thispagingispreservedin
themorerecenteditions,forexample,Bekker's(Berlin,18161823),Didot's(Paris,1846ff.),andalsoinJowett'stranslation(The
DialoguesofPlato,Oxford,1871;thirdedition,NewYorkandLondon,1892).Forgeneralbibliography,cf.Weber,op.cit.,p.
77,n.;Ueberweg,op.cit.,p.x7;totheselistsaddRitchie,Plato(NewYork,1902).{6}Plato,pp.118ff.
{7}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,p.153.
{8}Phaedrus,250.
{9}Cf.Gorgias,454D;Meno,97E.
{10}Mathem.,VII,16.
{11}Cf.Lutoslawski,OriginandGrowthofPlato'sLogic,etc.(London,1897).
{12}Cf.Phaedo,100A;Tim.,28A.
{13}Cf.Phaedrus,265E.
{14}Cf.Tim.,51.
{15}Phileb.,54B.
{16}Cf.Arist.,Met.,I,6,987a,29.
{17}Phaedrus,247.
{18}Ibid.,210.
{19}Met.,1,9,990b;XIII,4,1078;Phys.,IV,2,209b,etalibi.
{20}Forbibliography,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.244,noted.
{21}Cf.especially256.
{22}Parm.,137.
{23}Sophis.,248.
{24}Phaedo,96ff.
{25}Phaedo,loc.cit.
{26}Met.,I,9,991,992;DeGen.etCorr.,II,9,335b.
{27}Cf.Parm.,130.
{28}Thaet.,184,186.
{29}Cf.Rep.,VI,508.
{30}Cf.Rep.,loc.cit.
{31}Phileb.,22C.

48

{32}Cf.Arist.,Met.,I,6,987b,9.
{33}Parm.,132D.
{34}Tim.,48ff.
{35}Phys.,IV,2,209b;ibid.,210a.
{36}Tim.,52.
{37}Met.,I,6,987b.
{38}Tim.,30,35.
{39}Cf.Zeller,Plato,p.358.
{40}Tim.,59C.
{41}Cf.Tim.,31B.
{42}Cf.ibid.,33B.
{43}Cf.ibid.,38E.
{44}Ibid.,41A,
{45}Phaedo,93,95.
{46}Phaedrus,245C.
{47}Ibid.,246ff.
{48}Timaeus,41D.
{49}Meno,81.
{50}Phaedo,70E.
{51}Op.cit.,7881.
{52}Op.cit.,7279.
{53}Rep.,X,609.
{54}Phaedo,103ff.
{55}Op.cit.,107.
{56}Rep.,IV,436A.
{57}Cf.Cicero,TusculanaeDisputationes,I,20.
{58}Cf.Rep.,VI,509;Ueberweg,op.cit.,p.122
{59}Rep.,VII,514.
{60}Cf.Rep.,X,617;Tim.,42.
{61}Tim.,86D.
{62}Symp.,204E.
{63}Cf.Thaet.,176A.
{64}Phaedo,64ff.
{65}Cf.Phileb.,28,60,62.
{66}Rep.,IV,443.
{67}Cf.ibid.,IV,441.
{68}Cf.Rep.,VI,490ff.

49

{69}Ibid.,V,473.
{70}Ibid.,III,415.
{71}Cf.Phileb.,30.
{72}Laws,X,893.
{73}Tim.,30.
{74}AsinTim.,37.
{75}Tim.,41.
{76}Zeller,Plato,p.500.
{77}Cf.Symp.,208;Phileb.,64E.
{78}Cf.Rep.,II,377;Gorgias,501ff.
{79}Phaedrus,273.

CHAPTERXTHEPLATONICSCHOOLS
TheLaws,which,accordingtothemostprobableopinion,waswrittenbyPlato,thoughitwasnotmadepublicuntilafterhisdeath,
bearsevidenceoftheinfluencewhich,inthelateryearsofhislife,thephilosophyofthePythagoreansexercisedonhismind,
inclininghimtoattachmoreandmoreimportancetothemysticelementinphilosophyandtothenumbertheory.Itwasthis
phaseofPlatonicthoughtthatwastakenupanddevelopedbythePlatonicAcademies,whileinthebandsofAristotletheteachings
oftheearlierdialogueswerecarriedtoahigherdevelopment.DuringthelifetimeofPlatotherewaslittle,ifany,dissensionamong
themembersoftheschoolwhichassembledinthegroveofAcademus;afterPlato'sdeath,however,Aristotlesetupaschoolofhis
own,inoppositiontothemembersoftheAcademy,whoclaimedtopossessintheirscholarchtheauthorizedheadofthePlatonic
school.
ThefirstscholarchwasSpeusippus,thenephewofPlato,who,accordingtoDiogenesLaertius,{1} receivedhisappointmentfrom
Platohimself.HeinturnwassucceededbyXenocrates,{2}andinthismannerthesuccessionofscholarchscontinueddowntothe
sixthcenturyoftheChristianera.{3}
ItiscustomarytodistinguishinthehistoryofthePlatonicschoolthreeperiods,knownasthe Old,the Middle,andthe New
Academy.TotheOldAcademybelongedSpeusippus,Xenoerates,HeraclidesofPontus,PhilipofOpus,Crates,and
Crantor;ArcesilausandCarneadesaretheprincipalrepresentativesoftheMiddleAcademy,whilePhiloofLarissaand
AntiochusofAscalonarethebestknownmembersoftheNewAcademy.
Sources. Our sourcesof information concerningthe history of the doctrines of the three Academies are for the most part
secondary;theyarescantyandcannotberelieduponinmattersofdetail.Asfar,however,asageneralcharacterizationofeach
schoolisconcerned,ourmaterialsaresufficientlyampleandtrustworthy.
OldAcademy.TheOldAcademyflourishedfromthedeathofPlato(347B.C.)untiltheappearanceofArcesilausasscholarch
(about250B.C.).ItisdistinguishedbyitsinterpretationofthePlatonictheoryofIdeasinaccordancewiththenumbertheoryof
thePythagoreans.
Speusippus seems to have substituted numbers for Ideas, assigning to them all the attributes, including separate
existence,whichPlatoinhisearlierdialogueshadattributedtotheIdeas. {4} Although,accordingtoTheophrastus,Speusippus
devotedbutlittleattentiontothestudyofthenaturalsciences,ononeimportantpointofphysicaldoctrinehedifferedfromPlato,
maintaining,ifwearetobelieveourNeoPythagoreanauthorities,thattheelementsarefive,notfour,andderivingthesefive,after
themannerofPhilolaus,fromthefiveregularfigures.{5}If,asisprobable,Aristotle,inAnalyticaPosteriora,II,13,97a,6,is
speakingofSpeusippus,thelattermaintainedthatinordertoknowanythingwemustknoweverything.
Xenocrates continuedtocombine,asSpeusippushaddone,thenumbertheoryofthePythagoreanswithPlato'sdoctrineof
Ideas.Hewentfarther,however,thanSpeusippusinhisapplicationofnumbertotheologicalnotions,developingasystemof

50

demonologywhichsuggestsinitselaboratenessthedoctrinesoftheNeoPlatonists.
HeraclidesofPontusisremarkableforhavingtaughtthediurnalrevolutionoftheearthonitsaxis,andtheimmobilityofthe
fixedstars.TheseviewswerefirstproposedbyHicetasofSicilyandbyEcphantus,whowasalsoaSicilian.Ourauthoritiesare
Theophrastus{6}andPlutarch.{7}
Philip ofOpusisgenerallybelievedtobetheauthorof Epinomis andtheeditorofthe Laws,ofwhichthe Epinomis isa
continuation.
CratesandCrantordevotedthemselvesmainlytothestudyofethicalproblems.
MiddleAcademy.TheMiddleAcademywas"characterizedbyaneverincreasingtendencytoscepticism."Chronologically,it
belongstothethirdperiodofGreekphilosophy,andinitsspiritandcontentsitismoreinkeepingwiththepostAristotelianagethan
withthetimeofPlatoandAristotle.
Arcesilaus,whowasbornabout315B.C.,isregardedasthefounderoftheMiddleAcademy.Hecombatedthedogmatismofthe
Stoics,maintainingthatas,accordingtotheStoics,thecriterionoftruthisperception,andasafalseperceptionmaybeas
irresistibleasatrueone,allscientificknowledgeisimpossible.Itis,therefore,heconcluded,thedutyofawisemantorefrainfrom
givinghisassenttoanyproposition,anattitudeofmindwhichtheAcademicianscalledforbearance(apoche).Still,Arcesilaus
wouldgrantthatadegreeofprobabilitysufficientforintelligentactionispossible.{8}
Carneadeslivedfromabout210to129B.C.Consequently,hewasnottheimmediatesuccessorofArcesilaus,whoseprinciples
hedevelopedintoamorepronouncedsystemofScepticism.Heheldthatthereisnocriterionoftruth;thatwhatwetaketobetrueis
onlytheappearanceoftruth,phainomenonaltheswhichCicerorendersprobabilevisum.{9}
NewAcademy.AfterthedeathofCarneades,theAcademyabandonedScepticismandreturnedtothedogmatismofitsfounder.
PhiloofLarissaandAntiochusofAscalonintroducedintotheAcademyelementsofStoicismandNeoPlatonismwhichbelong
tothethirdperiodofGreekphilosophy.
HistoricalPosition.TheAcademics,althoughtheyweretheofficialrepresentativesofPlatonicphilosophy,failedtograspthe
truemeaningofthetheoryofIdeas.ByintroducingPythagoreanandotherelementstheyturnedthetraditionofthePlatonicschool
outofthelineofitsnaturaldevelopment,andendedinadoptingascepticismoradogmaticeclecticism,eitherofwhichisfarfrom
whatshouldhavebeenthelogicaloutcomeofPlato'steaching.TheyaretoPlatowhattheimperfectlySocraticschoolsareto
Socrates.Thecontinuity,therefore,ofPlatonicthoughtisnottobelookedforintheseschoolsbutratherintheschoolfoundedby
Aristotle.

{1}IV,1.
{2}Ibid.,IV,14.
{3}Cf.Ueberweg,op.cit.,I,485ff.
{4}Arist.,Met.,VII,2,1028b,19.
{5}Cf.Zeller,Plato,p.578,n.
{6}apudCicero,Acad.,II,39.
{7}Placita,III,13.
{8}Cf.Cicero,DeOrat.,III,13.
{9}Cf.Stckl,Lehrbuch,I,173;Englishtrans.,Vol.1,p.95;Zeller,Stoics,etc.,p.538.

51

CHAPTERXIARISTOTLE
The Socratic doctrine of concepts introduced into philosophy the notion of the universal. No sooner, however, had Socrates
formulatedthedoctrineofuniversalconceptsthantheCynicsarosedenyingthatanythingexistsexcepttheindividual.Thusitat
oncebecamenecessarytodefinethetruerelationbetweentheuniversalandtheindividual.ThiswastheaimofPlato'stheoryof
Ideas,inwhichtherelationwasexplainedby derivingtheindividual (inrealityandinknowledge) fromtheuniversal.
Aristotle,judgingthatPlato'sexplanationwasafailure,openeduptheproblemoncemore,andendeavoredtosolveitbyderiving
theuniversal(inrealityandinknowledge)fromtheindividual.Thecontinuityofphilosophicthoughtis,therefore,tobetracedfrom
Socrates,throughPlato,toAristotle,asiftheimperfectSocraticandPlatonicschoolshadnotexisted.
Life.{1} AristotlewasbornatStagira,aseaporttownofthecolonyofChalcidiceinMacedonia,intheyear384B.C.Hisfather,
Nicomachus,wasphysiciantoKingAmyntasofMacedon,andif,asisprobable,theprofessionofmedicinewaslonghereditaryin
thefamily,wemaysupposethatthiscircumstancewasnotwithoutitsinfluenceindeterminingAristotle'spredilectionfornatural
science.Whenhewaseighteenyearsold,AristotlewenttoAthens,wherefortwentyyearshefollowedthelecturesofPlato.Many
storiesaretoldconcerningthestrainedrelationsbetweentheagedteacherandhisillustriousscholar,storieswhich,however,are
withoutanyfoundation.Theremayindeedhavebeendifferencesofopinionbetweenmasterandpupil,buttherewasevidentlyno
openbreachoffriendship,forinlateryearsAristotlecontinuedtocounthimselfamongthePlatonicdisciples,{2} associatedwith
Xenocratesontermsofintimatefriendship,andshowedineverywaythathisrespectforhisteacherwasnotlessenedbythe
divergenceoftheirphilosophicalopinions.ManyofthetalestoldtoAristotle'sdiscreditaretracedtoEpicurusandtheEpicureans,
calumniatorsbyprofession(grubbersofgossip,asZellercallsthem),anditistoberegrettedthatwriterslikeSt.Gregory
NazianzenandJustinMartyrweremisledbystatementswhichweremanifestlymadewithhostilepurpose.Wearesafe,therefore,in
supposingthatAristotlewasdiligentandattentivepupil,andthathedidnotgiveexpressiontohiscriticismofPlato'stheoriesuntil
afterhehadlistenedtoeverythingthatPlatohadtosayinexplanationanddefenseofhisviews.
AfterPlato'sdeathAristotlerepaired,incompanywithXenocrates,tothecourtofHermias,lordofAtarneus,whosesisterorniece,
Pythias,hemarried.In343hewassummonedbyPhilipofMacedontobecomethetutorofAlexander,whowastheninhisthirteenth
year.TheinfluencewhichheexercisedonthemindofthefutureconquerorisdescribedinPlutarch'sAlexander.WhenAlexander
departedonhisAsiaticcampaignAristotlereturnedtoAthens.Thiswasabouttheyear335.Itispossiblethat,asGellius{3}says,
Aristotlehad,duringhisformerresidenceatAthens,givenlessonsinrhetoric;itiscertainthatnowforthefirsttimeheopeneda
schoolofphilosophy.HetaughtinagymnasiumcalledtheLyceum,discoursingwithhisfavoritepupilswhilestrollingupanddown
theshadedwalksaroundthegymnasiumofApollo,whencethenamePeripatetics(fromperipate ).{4}
Through the generosity of his royal pupil, Aristotle was enabled to purchase a large collection of books, and to pursue his
investigationsofnatureunderthemostfavorablecircumstances.Hiswritingsprovehowfullyheavailedhimselfoftheseadvantages:
hebecamethoroughlyacquaintedwiththespeculationsofhispredecessorsandneglectednoopportunityofconducting,either
personallyorthroughtheobservationsofothers,asystematicstudyofnaturalphenomena.TowardstheendofAlexander'slifethe
relationsbetweenthephilosopherandthegreatcommanderbecamesomewhatstrained.Still,socompletelywasAristotleidentified
inthemindsoftheAthenianswiththeMacedonianpartythatafterAlexander'sdeathhewasobligedtofleefromAthens.Thecharge
whichwasmadethepretenseofhisexpulsionfromthecitywasthestereotypedoneofimpiety,towhichchargeAristotledisdained
toanswer,saying(asthetraditionis)thathewouldnotgivetheAtheniansanopportunityofoffendingasecondtimeagainst
philosophy.Accordingly,heleftthecity(in323),repairingtoChalcisinEuboea.Therehediedintheyear322,afewmonthsbefore
thedeathofDemosthenes.Thereisabsolutelynofoundationforthefablesnarratedbysomanyancientwritersandcopiedbysome
oftheearlyFathers,thathediedbypoisonorthathecommittedsuicidebythrowinghimselfintotheEuboeanSea"becausehe
couldnotexplainthetides."
Aristotle'sCharacter.Eusebius,inhis PraeparatioEvangelica,XV,2,enumeratesandrefutestheaccusationswhich
werebroughtagainstAristotle'spersonalcharacter,quotingfromAristocles,aPeripateticofthefirstcenturyB.C.Theseaccusations
arepracticallythesameasthosewhichgainedcurrencyamongtheenemiesanddetractorsofPlato,andareequallydevoidof
foundation.FromAristotle'swritings,fromfragmentsofhisletters,fromhiswill,aswellasfromthereliableaccountsofhislife,we
areenabledtoformatolerablycompletepictureofhispersonalcharacter.Noble,highminded,thoroughlyearnest,devotedtotruth,
courteoustohisopponents,faithfultohisfriends,kindtowardshisslaves,hedidnotfallfarshortoftheidealmorallifewhichhe
sketchedinhisethicaltreatise.ComparedwithPlato,heexhibitedgreateruniversalityoftaste;hewasnotanAthenian;inacertain
sense,hewasnotaGreekatall.Heexhibitedinhischaractersomeofthatcosmopolitanismwhichafterwardsbecameatraitofthe
idealphilosopher.
Aristotle'sWritings.{5}ItisquitebeyonddisputethatsomeoftheworkswhichAristotlecompiledorcomposedhavebeenlost.
Thus,forexample,the anatomai (containinganatomicalcharts),the periphit n (theexistingtreatise DePlantis isby

52

Theophrastus),thepoliteiai(acollectionofconstitutionsofstates;theportionwhichtreatsoftheConstitutionofAthenshasbeen
discoveredinrecentyears),andtheDialoguesareamongthelostworks.Itisequallycertainthatmanyportionsofthecollected
worksofAristotleaswenowpossessthemareofdoubtfulauthenticity,whileitispossiblethatastilllargernumberofbooksor
portionsofbooksarelittlemorethanlecturenotesamplifiedbythepupilswhoeditedthem.Itiswell,forexample,forthestudentof
the Metaphysics toknowthat,ofthefourteenbookswhichcomposeit,thefirst,third,fourth,sixth,seventh,eighth,andninth
constitutetheworkasbegunbutnotfinishedbyAristotle.Oftheremainingbooks,thesecondandonehalfoftheeleventhare
pronouncedspurious,whiletherestareindependenttreatiseswhichwerenotintendedtoformpartoftheworkonfirstphilosophy.
Withoutenteringintothemoreminutequestionsofauthenticity,wemayacceptthefollowingarrangementofAristotle'sworks,with
theirLatintitles.{6}LOGICALTREATISES
ConstitutingtheOrganon:(1)Categoriae,(2)DeInterpretatione,(3)AnalyticaPriora,(4)AnalyticaPosteriora,(5)
Topica,(6)DeSophisticesElenchis.ThesewerefirstincludedunderthetitleofOrganoninByzantinetimes.
METAPHYSICALTREATISE
Theworkentitledmetataphusika(oratleastaportionofit)wasstyledbyAristotlepr t philosophia.Itspresenttitleis
probablyduetotheplacewhichitoccupied(afterthephysicaltreatises)inthecollectioneditedbyAndronicusofRhodes(about70
B.C.).
PHYSICALTREATISES
(1) PhysicaAuscultatio,or Physica,(2) DeCaelo,(3) DeGenerationeetCorruptione,(4) Meteorologica,(5)
HistoriaeAnimalium,(6)DeGenerationeAnimalium,(7)DePartibusAnimalium.
PSYCHOLOGICALTREATISES
(1) De Anima, (2) De Sensu et Sensibili, (3) De Memoria et Reminiscentia, (4) De Vita et Morte, (5) De
LongitudineetBrevitateVitae,andotherminorworks.
ETHICALTREATISES
(1)EthicaNicomachea,(2)Politica.TheEudemianEthicsistheworkofEudemus,althoughitisprobablethatitwasintended
asarecensionofanAristoteliantreatise.
RHETORICALANDPOETICALTREATISES
(1)DePoetica,(2)DeRhetorica.Thesearespuriousinparts.
Gellius{7} speaksofatwofoldclassofAristotelianwritings,the exoteric,whichwereintendedforthegeneralpublic,{8} andthe
acroatic,whichwereintendedforthoseonlywhowereversedinthephraseologyandmodesofthoughtoftheschool.Alltheextant
worksbelongtothelatterclass.ThestoryofthefateofAristotle'sworksasnarratedbyStrabo{9}andrepeatedwiththeadditionofa
fewdetailsbyPlutarch,{10}isregardedasreliable.IttellshowthelibraryofAristotlefellintothehandsofTheophrastus,bywhomit
wasbequeathedtoNeleusofScepsis.AfterthedeathofNeleusthemanuscriptswerehiddeninacellar,wheretheyremainedfor
almosttwocenturies.WhenAthenswascapturedbytheRomansin84B.C.,thelibrarywascarriedtoRomebySulla.AtRomea
grammariannamedTyrannionsecuredseveralcopies,thusenablingAndronicusofRhodestocollectthetreatisesandpublishthem.
Itmustnot,however,beinferredthatthemanuscriptshiddeninthecellarfortwohundredyearsweretheonlyexistingcopyof
Aristotle'sworks,orthatduringallthoseyearsthePeripateticphilosopherswerewithoutacopyoftheworksofAristotle. The
subsequenthistoryoftheCorpusAristotelicumandthestoryoftheSyriac,Arabian,andLatintranslationsbelongtothehistory
ofmediaevalilosophy.
ARISTOTLE'SPHILOSOPHY
GeneralCharacterandDivision.Aristotle'sconceptofphilosophyagrees,inthemain,withthatofPlato.Philosophyisthe
scienceoftheuniversalessenceothatwhichisactual.{11}Aristotleis,however,moreinclinedthanPlatowastoattacha
theoreticalvaluetophilosophy.Thedifferencebetweenthetwophilosophersisstillgreaterintheirrespectivenotionsofphilosophic
method.Aristotledoesnotbeginwiththeuniversalandreasondowntotheparticular;onthecontrary,heStartswithparticulardata
ofexperienceandreasonsuptotheuniversalessence.Hismethodisinductiveaswellasdeductive.Consequently,heismore
consistentthanPlatoinincludingthenaturalsciencesinphilosophyandconsideringthempartofthebodyofphilosophicdoctrine.In
fact,Aristotlemakesphilosophytobecoextensivewithscientificknowledge."Allscience(dianoia)iseitherpractical,poietical,
ortheoretical."{12}Bypracticalsciencehemeanspoliticsandethics;undertheheadpoietic(poitike)heincludesnotonlythe
philosophyofpoetrybut the knowledgeof theotherimitative arts, while bytheoreticalphilosophy he understands Physics,
Mathematics, and Metaphysics. Metaphysics is philosophy in the stricter sense the word: it is the knowledge of

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immaterialBeingorofBeinginthehighestdegreeofabstraction(perich ristakaiakinta);itisthepinnacleof
all knowledge, the theological science. In this classification logic has no place, being apparently regarded as a science
preparatorytophilosophy.
OurstudyofAristotle'sphilosophywill,therefore,include:(A)logic;(B)theoreticalphilosophy,including(a)metaphysics,(b)
physics.(c)mathematics;(C)practicalPhilosophy;(D)poieticalphilosophy.
A.Logic,includingTheoryofKnowledge.Aristotledoesnotemploythewordlogicinthemodernmeaningoftheterm.
Thesciencewhichwecalllogic,andofwhichheisrightlyconsideredthefounder,wasknowntohimasanalytic.TheOrganon,
asthebodyoflogicaldoctrinewasstyledbythelaterPeripatetics,consistsofsixparts,ortreatises
1.The Categoriae.InthefirstofhislogicaltreatisesAristotlegiveshisclassification,orenumeration,ofthehighestclasses
(categories)intowhichallconcepts,andconsequentlyallrealthings,aredivided;theyare substance,quantity,quality,
relation,action,passion,place,time,situation,and habitus.Heintimatesthattheseareintendedasclassesofthings
expressedbyisolatedwords,taaneusumplokslegomena,thatistosay,bywordswhichdonotformpartofaproposition.
Theyaretobedistinguished,therefore,fromthepredicables,orclassesofthepossiblerelationsinwhichthepredicateofa
propositionmaystandtothesubject.Thepredicablesaredefinition(hopos),genus,difference,property,andaccident.
TherecanbenoreasonabledoubtastotheoriginalityoftheAristotelianarrangementofcategories.Itistruethatthereisaremote
analogybetweenthecategoriesandthedistinctionsofthegrammarian;buttheanalogycanbeexplainedwithoutsupposingthat
Aristotleexpresslyintendedtoconformhiscategoriestothegrammaticaldivisionsofwords.ItisalsotruethatAristotledoesnot
alwaysenumeratethecategoriesinthesamemanner.{13}
2.The DeInterpretatione.Inthesecondofthelogicaltreatises,Aristotletakesupthestudyofthe proposition andthe
judgment.Hedistinguishesthedifferentkindsofpropositions,andtreatsoftheiroppositionandconversion.Thisportionofhis
workformsthecoreofmodernlogicalteaching.
3.TheAnalyticaPrioracontainsthetreatiseonreasoning,deductiveandinductive.InhisdoctrineofthesyllogismAristotle
admitsonlythreefigures.(Thesyllogism,heteaches,isbasedonthe LawofContradiction andthe LawofExcluded
Middle.)Hementionsthreerulesofthesyllogism. Induction (epag g)hedefinesasreasoningfromtheparticulartothe
general,andthoughthesyllogism,whichproceedsfromthegeneraltotheparticular,ismorecogent,initself,inductionis,forus,
easiertounderstand.TheonlykindofinductionadmittedbyAristotleiscompleteinduction.
4.IntheAnalyticaPosterioraAristotletakesupthestudyofdemonstration(apodeixis).Truedemonstration,asindeedalltrue
scientificknowledge,dealswiththeuniversalandnecessarycausesofthings.Consequently,alltruedemonstrationconsistsin
showingcauses,andthemiddleterminademonstrationmust,therefore,expressacause.Notalltruths,however,arecapableof
demonstration.Thefirstprinciplesofasciencecannotbedemonstratedinthatscience,andprincipleswhicharefirst,absolutely,
areindemonstrable:theybelongnottoreason,buttointellect(Nous).Totheclassofindemonstrabletruthsbelongalsotruthsof
immediateexperience.{14}
5.TheTopicahasforsubjectmatterthedialecticalorproblematicsyllogism,whichdiffersfromdemonstrationinthis,thatits
conclusionsarenotcertainbutmerelyprobable;theybelongtoopinionratherthantoscientificknowledge.TheTopicaalsotreats
ofthepredicables.
6.ThetreatiseDeSophisticisElenchiscontainsAristotle'satudyoffallacies,orsophisms.Itcontainsalsoanattackonthe
Sophistsandtheirmethods.BeforeweproceedtoexplainAristotle'smetaphysicaldoctrinesitisnecessarytotakeuptheprinciples
ofhistheoryofknowledgeaswefindthemintheAnalyticaPosterioraandelsewhereinhislogicalandmetaphysicaltreatises.
TheoryofKnowledge.NowheredoesthecontrastbetweenthephilosophyofPlatoandthatofAristotleappearsoclearlyasin
theirtheoriesofknowledge.
1.Platomakesexperiencetobemerelytheoccasionofscientificknowledge.Aristotleregardsexperienceasthetruesourceand
truecauseofallourknowledgeintellectualaswellassensible.{15}
2.Platobeginswiththeuniversal(Idea)andattemptstodescendtotheparticular(Phenomenon);Aristotle,whileherecognizesthat
there is no science of the individual as such (h d' epistm t n katholou),{16} maintains, nevertheless, that our
knowledge of the individual precedes our knowledge of the universal: ek t n kath hekasta gar tou
katholou.{17}
3.Platohypostatizedtheuniversal,attributingtoitaseparateexistence.This,accordingtoAristotle,istoreducetheuniversal
toauselessform;for,iftheuniversalexistsapartfromtheindividual,therecanbenotransitionfromaknowledgeoftheonetoa

54

knowledgeoftheother.Theuniversal,Aristotleteaches,isnotapartfromindividualthings.{18}
4.Finally,accordingtoPlato,theuniversal,asitexistsapartfromphenomena,isafullblownuniveral,endowedwiththeformal
characterofuniversality;accordingtoAristotle,theformalaspectofuniversalityisconferredbythemind,and,therefore, the
universal,assuch,doesnotexistinindividualthings,butinthemindalone.Thisistheonlyintelligibleinterpretationofsuch
passagesasMetaphysics,III,4,999andDeAnima,II,5,417,inwhichAristotlemaintainsthattheindividualaloneexistsand
thattheuniversalissomehow(p s)inthemind.{19}
Aristotle'stheoryofknowledge,asisevidentfromthefourprinciplesjustexplained,recognizestwofundamentalattributesof
intellectual knowledge: its essential dependence on senseknowledge and its equally essential superiority to sense
knowledge.Aristotleisascarefultoavoidsensismontheonehandasheistoescapeidealismontheother;for,thoughheadmits
thatallknowledgebeginswithexperience,hecontendsthatintellectualthought(nosis)isconcernedwiththeuniversal,or
intelligible(noton),whilesenseknowledgehasforitsobjecttheindividual,thesenseperceived(aisthton).Thedistinctionof
objectsismadethebasisandgroundofadistinctionoffacultiesandofkindsofknowledge.{20}
If,then,thereisadistinctionbetweensenseknowledgeandthought,andifallknowledgebeginswithsenseknowledge,howdo
werisefromtheregionofsensetothatofintellect?Aristotleanswersbydistinguishingfirstandsecondsubstance.The
firstsubstance (ousiapr t )istheindividual,whichcanneitherexistinanothernorbepredicatedofanother. Second
substanceistheuniversal,which,assuch,doesnotexistinanother,butmaybepredicatedofanother.Intheindividualsubstance
we distinguish, on closer examination, two elements, the hupokeimenon or undetermined, determinable substratum, the
matter(hul),andthedeterminingprinciple,orform(eidos),bywhichthesubstanceismadetobewhatitis. {21}Theessential
nature,therefore,theunalterableessencecorrespondingtotheconncepttheobject,consequently,ofintellectualknowledgeis
theform.Matter,itistrue,ispartoftheessentialnature,{22}butitis,asitwere,theconstantfactor,alwaysthesame,andofitself
undifferentiated;itentersintoadefinitionas materiacommunis,andwhenwedesignatetheformofanobject,implyingthe
presenceofmatterinitsgeneralconcept,wehaveansweredthequestion,Whatisthatobject?Theform,then,consideredapart
fromthematter,istheessenceoftheobjectasfarasintellectualknowledgeisconcerned;forintellectualknowledgehasforits
objecttheuniversal,andsincematteristheprincipleofindividuation,andformtheprincipleofspecification,theconclusionofthe
inquiryastotheobjectofintellectualknowledgeisthatmatterandtheindividualqualitiesarisingfrommatterbelongtosense
knowledge,whiletheformalone,whichistheuniversal,belongstointellectualknowledge. {23}Returningnowtothequestion,How
dowerisefromtheregionofsensetotheregionofintellect?theobjectofsenseknowledge,werepeat,isthewhole,theconcrete
individualsubstance.Thought,penetrating throughthesense qualities,reachesthe form,orquiddity,lying atthe core ofthe
substance,andthisform,consideredapartfromthematerialconditionsinwhichitisimmersed,istheproperobjectofintellectual
knowledge.Thus,theacquisitionofscientificknowledgeisatruedevelopmentofsenseknowledgeintointellectualknowledge,if
bydevelopmentisunderstoodtheprocessbywhich,undertheagencyoftheintellect,thepotentiallyintelligibleelementsofsense
knowledgearebroughtoutintoactualintelligibility.Aristotlehimselfdescribestheprocessasoneof induction (epag g)or
abstraction(aphairesis).{24}
B.TheoreticalPhilosophy,a.Metaphysics.IntheforegoingaccountofAristotle'stheoryofknowledgeithasbeenfound
necessarytomentionform,matter,andsubstance,notionswhichproperlybelongtothisdivisionofhisphilosophy.
I.Definitionofmetaphysics.Metaphysics,orfirstphilosophy,isthescienceofBeingasBeing.{25}Otherscienceshaveto
dowiththeproximatecausesandprinciplesofBeing,and,therefore,withBeinginitslowerdeterminationsMetaphysicsconsiders
Beingassuch,initshighestormostgeneraldeterminations,andconsequentlyitisconcernedwiththehighest,orultimate,causes.
Accordingly,onmetaphysicsdevolvesthetaskofconsideringtheaxiomsofallsciencesinsofarastheseaxiomsarelawsofall
existence. For this reason it is that in the Metaphysics Aristotle takes up the explanation and defense of the Law of
Contradiction.
2. Negativeteaching.Beforeproceedingtoanswertheproblemofmetaphysics,WhataretheprinciplesofBeing?Aristotle
passesinreviewtheanswersgivenbyhispredecessors.HenotonlyrecountsthedoctrinesandopinionsofthepreSocratic
philosophers,therebyaddingtohismanytitlesthatofFounderoftheHistoryofPhilosophy,buthealsopointsoutwhat
seemtohimtobetheshortcomingsandimperfectionsofeachschoolorsystem.HiscriticismofPlato'stheoryofIdeasis
deservingofcarefulstudy,becauseitisanunprejudicedexaminationofagreatsystemofthoughtbyonewhowasunusuallywell
equippedforthetask,andalsobecauseitisthemostnaturalandintelligibleintroductiontothepositiveportionofAristotle's
Metaphysicsinwhichheexpoundshisownviews.
BothPlatoandAristotlemaintainthatscientificknowledgeisconcernedwiththeuniversal(compareSocraticdoctrineofconcepts).
Theyagreeinteachingthattheworldofsenseissubjecttochangeandthatwemustgobeyondittofindtheworldofideas.Here,
however,theypartcompany.PlatoplacestheworldofIdeas,theregionofscientificknowledge,outsidephenomena;Aristotleplaces

55

itinthesensibleobjectsthemselves.itis,therefore,againstthedoctrineofaseparateworldofIdeasthatallAristotle'scriticismof
Plato'stheoryisdirected.
(a)Inthefirstplace,Aristotlecontends{26}thatthePlatonictheoryofIdeasiswhollybarren.TheIdeaswereintendedtoexplain
howthingscametobeandhowtheycametobeknown;buttheycannotbeprinciplesofBeing,sincetheyarenotexistentin
things,andtheycannotbeprinciplesofknowledge,sincetheyexistapartfromandhavenointelligiblerelationtothethingstobe
known.TosupposethatweknowthingsbetterbyaddingtotheworldofourexperiencetheworldofIdeas,isasabsurdasto
imaginethatwecancountbetterbymultiplyingthenumberstobecounted.Inaword,theIdeasareameaninglessduplicationof
sensibleobjects.
(b)Inthenextplace,Aristotle{27}recognizesinthetheoryofIdeasanattemptatsolvingtheproblemofmotionandchange.
Indeed,sincetheIdeasaretheonlyreality,theymustcontaintheprincipleofchange,forchangeisareality;butPlato,byseparating
theIdeasfromtheworldofphenomena,andbyinsistingonthestaticratherthanonthedynamicphaseoftheIdeas,precludedall
possibilityofaccountingforchangebymeansoftheIdeas.{28}
(c)Moreover,Aristotlefindsseveral contradictionsinthePlatonictheory.HeisnotsatisfiedwiththePlatonicdoctrineof
communitybetweentheIdeaandthephenomenon;for,iftheparticipationoftheIdeabythephenomenonisanythingmorethana
merefigureofspeech,ifthereisreallypartoftheIdeainthephenomenon,theremustbeaprototypeonwhichthisparticipationis
modeled.Ifsuchaprototypeexists,thereis,forexample,atritosanthrposinadditiontotheabsoluteIdeaofmanandthemanwho
existsintheworldofphenomena.ThesignificantfactisthatPlatoatonetimedescribestheparticipationasmethexisatanother
asmimsisandendsbyleavingitunexplained.{29}
(d)Finally, thereasonwhyPlatointroduced thedoctrineof Ideas was becausescientific knowledge must haveforitsobject
somethingotherthan thephenomenon. Now,scientificknowledgehasanobject,ifIdeas exist. The validityofscientific
knowledgedoesnotrequirethattheIdeashouldexistapartfromthephenomenonitself{30}
3.Positiveteaching.Metaphysics,ashasbeensaid,istheinquiryintothehighestprinciplesofBeing.Aprinciple(arch)isthat
bywhichathingisorisknown.{31}Thefirstproblemofmetaphysicsis,therefore,todeterminetherelationbetweenactualityand
potentiality,thefirstprinciplesofBeingintheorderofdetermination,ordifferentiation.Actuality(entelecheiaenergeia)is
perfection,potentiality(dunamis)isthecapabilityofperfection.Theformeristhedeterminingprincipleofbeing,thelatterisof
itselfindeterminate.Actualityandpotentialityareaboveallcategories;theyarefoundinallbeingswiththeexceptionofOne,whose
beingisallactuality.Increatedbeing,then,asweshouldsay,thereisamixtureofpotencyandactuality.Thismixtureis,soto
speak,thehighestmetaphysicalformula,underwhichareincludedthecompositionsofmatterandform,substanceandaccident,the
soulanditsfaculties,activeandpassiveintellect,etc.Thedualismofactualandpotentialpervadesthemetaphysics,physics,
psychology,andeventhelogicofAristotle.
Still,potencyandactualityareprinciplesofBeinginitsmetaphysicaldeterminations.Inthephysicalorder,thereenterintothe
constitutionofconcretebeingfourotherprinciplescalled causes (aitiai).Acauseisdefinedas thatwhichinanyway
influencestheproductionofsomething:itis,therefore,aprincipleintheorderofphysicaldetermination.Theclassesof
causesare_four, matter (hul), form (eidos or morph), efficientcause (tokintikon),andfinalcause(tohou
heneka).{32}Ofthese,matterandformareintrinsicconstituentsofbeing,whileefficientandfinalcausesareextrinsicprinciples.
Nevertheless,theselatteraretruecausesinasmuchastheeffectdependsonthem.
Matter,ormaterialcause,isthatoutofwhichbeingismade;bronze,forexample,isthematerialcauseofthestatue.Matter
isthesubstratum(hupokeimenon),indeterminatebutcapableofdetermination.Itisthereceptacle(dektikon)ofBecoming
anddecay.{33}Itcanneitherexistnorbeknownwithoutform.Inaword,itispotency.Matterintheconditionofabsolutepotentiality
iscalled firstmatter (hulepr t),thatis,matterwithoutanyform. Secondmatter ismatterintheconditionofrelative
potentiality.Secondmatterpossessesaform,butbecauseofitscapabilityoffurtherdeterminationitisinpotencytoreceiveother
forms.
Form,orformalcause,isthatintowhichathingismade.Itistheprincipleofdeterminationovercomingtheindeterminatenessof
matter.Withoutitmattercannotexist:itisactuality.TheAristoteliannotionofform,likethePlatonicnotionofIdea,wasintendedasa
protest against the scepticism of the Sophists and the panmetabolism of the Heracliteans. Form is the object of intellectual
knowledge,theunalterableessenceofthings,whichremainsunchangedamidthefluctuationsofaccidentalqualities.LiketheIdea,
theformistheplentitudeofactualbeing,forwhilematterisareality,itisrealmerelyasapotency.Thereis,however,aradical
differencebetweentheformandtheIdea;theformexistsinindividualbeings,theIdeaexistsapartfromthem:Aristotlemerely
distinguishedmatterandform;PlatonotonlydistinguishedbutalsoseparatedtheIdeafromthephenomenon.
Theunionofmatterandformconstitutestheindividualorconcrete,substance(tosunolon,ousiapr t ).Frommatterarise

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theimperfections,limitations,andindividuatingqualities;fromformcometheessential,unalterableattributes,thespecificnatureof
thesubstance.Matter,then,beingpresupposedasthecommonsubstratumofmaterialexistence,asubstanceisconstitutedinits
essentialnaturebytheform.HenceitisthatAristotleidentifiestheformwiththeessence,thequiddity(totieneinai),{34}the
universalnatureofasubstance.Formisasecondsubstance(ousiadeutera)which,whileitcannotinhereinanotherasina
subject,may,onaccountofitsuniversality,bepredicatedofmany.Itwould,however,beaseriousmistaketorepresentAristotleas
reducingallrealitytoform,andendingasPlatohadbegun,withthedoctrineofmonism.Formatter,initsgenericconcept,enters
intothedefinitionofthespecificnature,andwhileitisnotanactual,itisarealprincipleofbeing.{35}
Aristotlefurtherdevelopshistheoryoftherelationbetweenmatterandformbyteachingthatmatterisdestinedtoreceiveform.It
tendstowardsitsformwithsomethingakintodesire:fortheabsenceofformisnotmerenegation;itis privation (atersis).
Aristotle,however,explains{36}thatmatterisnotpureprivation.Itisapositivesomethingwhich,ofitsnature,isdisposedtobecome
determinedbymeansofform.
Efficientcause isthethirdprincipleofbeing.Itisdefinedasthat bywhich (thatis,bytheagencyofwhich)theeffectis
produced.Ultimately,itisformconsideredasoperative,fornoagentcanactexceptbyvirtueoftheform,whichistheprincipleofits
actionaswellasofitsbeing.{37}HencetheScholasticadage,Ageresequituresse.Moreover,allactionismotion(kinsis),and
motionisdefinedasthepassingfrompotencytoactuality: hetoudunameontosentelecheiahetoiouton.{38} This
identificationofactionwithmotion,andthedefinitionofmotionintermsoftheactualandpotential,leadatoncetoaconclusion
whichis,atfirstsight,startlinginitsuniversality,thatallnaturalprocessesareprocessesofdevelopment,andthatactionmerely
bringsoutlatentpossibilitiesbybringingintoactualitythoseperfectionswhichwerealreadycontainedaspotenciesinthematter.
Thisgeneralization,itmayberemarked,isinperfectharmonywithmodernphysicalprinciples,as,forexample,withtheLawofthe
ConservationofEnergy.Aristotle,itistrue,doesnotenterintothequestionofquantitativerelationsbetweenthepotentialandthe
actual.Butthehigherthehumanmindrisesinitsinquiries,thelessattentionitpaystoquestionsofquantitativeequivalence,andthe
moreimportanceitattachestothegeneralnotionofinternaldevelopment.
Finalcause,thefourthprincipleofbeing,thatonaccountofwhichtheeffectisproduced,is,inacertainsense,themostimportant
ofallthecauses.{39}Itnotonlydetermineswhethertheagentshallact,butitalsodeterminesthemodeandmanneroftheaction
andthemeasureoftheeffectproduced,sothatifwecouldknowthemotiveorendofanaction,weshouldbeinpossessionofa
mostfruitfulsourceofknowledgeconcerningtheresultofthataction.Thefinalcause,liketheefficient,is,inultimateanalysis,
identicalwithform;itistheformoftheeffect,presentedinintentionandconsideredasamotive,inasmuchasbyitsdesirabilityit
impelstheagenttoact.
Bythereductionofefficientandfinalcausestoformalcausetheultimateprinciplesof(finite)beingarereducedtotwo,matterand
form. These are the two intrinsic, essential constituents of the individual, concrete object, matter being the source of
indeterminateness,potency,andimperfection,whileformisthesourceofspecificdetermination,actuality,andperfection.
TheAristoteliandoctrineofcausesisasynthesisofallprecedingsystemsofphilosophy.TheEarlierIoniansspokegenericallyof
cause;theLaterIoniansdistinguishedmaterialandefficientcauses;Socrates,developingthedoctrineofAnaxagoras,introducedthe
notionoffinalcause;PlatowasthefirsttospeakofformalcausesunlessthePythagoreannotionofnumbermayberegardedas
anattempttofindaformalprincipleofbeing.Thusdidthegenericnotionofcausegraduallyundergodifferentiationintothefour
kindsofcause.Aristotlewasthefirsttoadverttothishistoricaldialecticoftheideaofcause,andtogivethedifferentkindsofcause
aplaceinhisdoctrineoftheprinciplesofbeing.Consequently,theAristoteliandoctrineofcauseisatruedevelopment,atransition
fromtheundifferentiatedtothedifferentiated,andnowheredowerealizemoreclearlythaninthisdoctrineofcausethatAristotle's
philosophyistheculminationofallthephilosophieswhichprecededit.
AccordingtoAristotle,metaphysicsisrightlycalledthetheologicalscience,becauseGodisthehighestobjectofmetaphysical
inquiry.For,althoughwemayinouranalysisoftheprinciplesofbeingdescendtothelowestdetermination,or,rather,tothelack
ofalldetermination,materiaprima,wemayturnintheoppositedirection,andbyfollowingtheascendingscaleofdifferentiation
arriveatthenotionofpureactuality,orBeinginthehighestgradeofdeterminateness.Aristotle,inhisproofsoftheexistenceofGod,
didnotsetasidetheteleologicalargumentofSocrates.{40}Devotedashewastotheinvestigationofnature,andespeciallytothe
studyoflivingorganisms,hecouldnotfailtobestruckbytheadaptationeverywheremanifestinnaturalphenomena,andparticularly
inthephenomenaoflife.Herecognized,however,thattheteleologicalisnotthestrongestargumentfortheexistenceofaSupreme
Being.Accordingly,wefindhimestablishingtheexistenceofGodbymeansofproofsmoreproperlymetaphysicalthanwasthe
argumentfromdesign.Heargues,forexample,{41}that,althoughmotioniseternal,therecannotbeaninfiniteseriesofmoversand
moved;theremust,therefore,beone,thefirstintheseries,whichisunmoved,thepr tonkinounakinton.Again,{42} he
arguesthat theactualis,ofitsnature,antecedenttothepotential.Consequently,beforeallmatter,andbeforeall
compositionofactualandpotential,pureactualitymusthaveexisted.Actualityis,therefore,thecauseofallthingsthatare,and,

57

sinceitispureactuality,itslifeisessentiallyfreefromallmaterialconditions;itisthethoughtofthought(nosisnoses).
Tothequestion,WhatdoesAristotleunderstandbytheprimummovensimmobileandtheactuspurus?theanswerseems
tobethatbytheformeroftheseexpressionshemeantsomethingotherthantheSupremeBeing.InthePhysics,wherehespeaks
of primummobile,orratherofthe primamoventianonmota,{43} hedescribesthefirstbeingasthefirstintheorderof
efficientcauses,anintelligence,theprimumcoelum.This,whichismovedbythesightofthesupremeintelligenceofGod,not,
therefore,byanyefficientcause,butbyafinalcauseonly,setsinmotionthewholemachineryofefficientcausesbeneathit.Inthe
Metaphysics,however,ourphilosopherpursueshisinvestigationintotherealmsbeyondthefirstheaven,andfindsthatthe
intelligencewhichmovesbyitsdesirabilitythesoulofthefirstheavenistheintelligenceofintelligence,pureactuality,God. {44}This
istheinterpretationofSt.Thomas,{45}who,whileheregardsGodastheimmediateefficientcauseofthefirstmotionoftheuniverse,
interpretsAristotletomeanthattheFirstIntelligencemovesmerelybythedesirewhichHeinspires,drawingtowardsHimthesoulof
thefirstheaven.AnditisnaturaltoexpectthatinthephilosophyofAristotlethereshouldbeasupremeinthephysicalorderaswell
asasupremeinthemetaphysicalorder;thatthemetaphysicalconceptofFirstIntelligenceshouldcompleteandroundoutthe
physicalconceptofafirstmover.{46}
Godisone,formatteristheprincipleofplurality,andtheFirstIntelligenceisentirelyfreefrommaterialconditions.Hislifeis
contemplativethought;neitherprovidencenorwilliscompatiblewiththeeternalreposeinwhichHedwells.{47}Nevertheless,
AristotlesometimesspeaksofGodastakinganinterestinhumanaffairs. {48}ThetruthisthatAristotle'sideaofGodwas,likePlato's,
farfrombeingaclearorevenacoherentconcept.Aristotlewascontentwithdeducingfromhisphilosophicalprinciplestheideaofa
Supreme SelfConscious Intelligence, but he had no adequate conception of the relation between selfconsciousness and
personality.ItwasleftforChristianphilosophytodetermineanddevelopthenotionofdivineperson.
WefindthesameindefinitenessinAristotle'saccountoftheoriginoftheWorld.Theworld,hetaught,iseternal;formatter,motion,
andtimeareeternal.Yettheworldiscaused. {49}Buthow,accordingtoAristotle,istheworldcaused?Brentano {50}believesthat
Aristotletaughtthedoctrineofcreation exnihilo,andtherecanbenodoubtthatSt.AugustineandSt.Thomas{51} sawno
contradictioninmaintainingthatabeingmaybeeternalandyetcreated.ThemostconservativecriticsmustgrantthatwhileAristotle
doesnotmaintaintheoriginoftheworldbycreation,heteachesthepriorityofactwithrespecttopotency,thusimplyingthatsince
thefirstpotencywascaused,itmusthavebeencausedexnihilo.Hispremises,ifcarriedtotheirlogicalconclusion,wouldleadto
thedoctrineofcreation.{52}
b. Physics.Physics,thestudyofnature,considersexistence,notasitisinitself,butsofarasitparticipatesinmovement
(kinse smetechei).{53}Natureincludeseverythingwhichhasinitselftheprincipleofmotionandrest.Theworksofnature
differfromtheproductsofartbecause,whilethelatterhavenotendencytochange(theiroriginatingprinciplebeingexternalto
them),natureisessentiallyspontaneous,thatis,selfdeterminingfromwithin.{54} Naturedoesnot,however,developthisinternal
activityexceptaccordingtodefinitelaw.Thereisnosuchthingasaccidentorhazard:"Naturedoesnothinginvain." {55}"Natureis
alwaysstrivingforthebest."{56}Thus,althoughAristotleexpresslyrejectsthePlatonicideaofaworldsoul,herecognizesinnaturea
definiteteleologicalconcept,aplanofdevelopment,towhichtheonlyobstacleismatter;formatteritis,that,byresisting
theform,forcesnature,asitwere,tobecontentwiththebetterinlieuofthebest.Thestrivingofnatureis,therefore,throughthe
lessperfecttothemoreperfect.{57}
Space(topos)isneithermatternorform;itisnottheintervalbetweenbodies.Itis"thefirstandunmovedlimitoftheenclosing,as
againsttheenclosed,"totouperiechontosperasakintonpr ton,{58}thatistosay,thesurface(ofthesurroundingair,
water,orsolidsubstance)whichisimmediatelycontiguoustothebodysaidtobeinspace,andwhich,thoughitmaychange,is
considered as unmoved, because the circumscribed limits remain the same. Particular space is, therefore, coterminous with
extendedbody,andspaceingeneraliscoterminouswiththelimitsoftheworld.Spaceisactuallyfinite,yetpotentiallyinfinite,
inasmuchasextensioniscapableofindefiniteincrease.{59}
Time(chronos),which,likespace,istheuniversalconcomitantofsensibleexistence,isthemeasureofthesuccessionofmotion,
arithmoskinse skatatoproteronkaihusteron.{60}Theonlyrealityintimeisthepresentmoment;inordertojointhe
pastandthefuturewiththepresent,thatis,inordertomeasuremotion,mindisrequired.Iftherewerenomind,therewouldbeno
time.{61}movement(kinsis)isthemodeofexistenceofapotentialbeingbecomingactualized,htoudunameiontosentelecheia
htoiouton.{62}Motionnotrequire,nordoesitpostulate,avacuum,sincewemayimaginethatanotherbodyleavesthespacewhich
themovingbodyenters.{63}Besidessubstantialchange,ofwhichmatteristhesubstratum,threekindsofmotionarerecognizedby
Aristotle,quantitative,qualitative,andspatial(phora).
InhisstoichiologyAristotleadoptsthefourelements,orradicalprinciples,whichEmpedoclesintroduced.Heteaches,however,

58

thatthecelestialspaceisfilledwithabodydifferentfromthefourelements.Thisseemstobethepartassignedbyhimtoether.{64}
Ether,then,isneitherafifthelemententeringwiththeotherfourintotheconstitutionoftheterrestrialworld,nor,asissometimes
maintained,anundifferentiatedsubstratum,likethe apeiron ofAnaximander,fromwhichthefourelementsoriginated.Itisthe
constituentofcelestialbodies.Thenaturalmotionofetheriscircular;thatoftheotherelementsisupwardordownward,according
astheyarenaturallyendowedwithlightnessorwithheaviness.ItishardlynecessarytoremarkthatuntilNewton'stimethereexisted
thebeliefthateachparticularbodymovedtowardsitsownplace,upwardordownward,invirtueofthelightorheavyelementswhich
itcontained.
Aristotle'sastronomicaldoctrineswerenotinadvanceofthenotionsoftheagetowhichhebelonged.Theearth,thecenterof
thecosmicsystem,issphericalandstationary.Itissurroundedbyasphereofairandasphereoffire.Inthesespheresarefixedthe
heavenlybodies,whichdailyrevolveroundtheearthfromeasttowest,thoughsevenofthemrevolveinlongerperiodsfromwestto
east.Outsideallistheheavenoffixedstars,the pr tosuranos.ItisnexttotheDeity,whoimpartedtoitscircumferencea
circularmotion,thusmediatelyputtinginmotiontherestofthecosmicmachinery.AristotleagreeswithPlatointeachingthatthefirst
heaven,likealltheotherheavenlybodies,isanimated.
Itisinhis biologicaldoctrines thatAristotleshowshowfarheexcelsallhispredecessorsasastudentofnature.Whenwe
considerthedifficultieswithwhichhehadtocontend,heneverdissectedahumanbody,andprobablyneverexaminedahuman
skull;hedidnotinanyadequatesensedissectthebodiesofanimals,althoughheobservedtheirentrails,whenwerememberthat
hewasobligedtoreckontimewithouttheaidofawatch,andtoobservedegreesoftemperatureandatmosphericchangeswithout
theaidofathermometerorabarometer,werealizethatthewordsofsuperlativepraiseinwhichCuvier,Buffon,andothersspeakof
himasanaturalistarefarfrombeingundeserved.Hismistakes {65} areduetoconditionswhichlimitedhispowerofpersonal
observation.Despitetheselimitationshedidobserveagreatdeal,andobservedaccurately,discussing,classifying,comparinghis
factsbeforedrawinghisconclusions.HisHistoriesofAnimals,forexample,isavastrecordofinvestigationsmadebyhimself
andothersontheappearance,habits,andmentalpeculiaritiesofthedifferentclassesofanimals.
Lifeisdefinedasthepowerofselfmovement {66}Theprinciplethatallactionisdevelopmentapplieshereaselsewhereinnature.
Everywhereintheworldofnaturalphenomenathereiscontinuity;lifeanditsmanifestationsoffernoexception.Nonlivingmatter
gives rise to living things: the sponge is intermediate between plants and animals;{67} the monkey (pithkoi kboi,
kunokephaloi)isintermediatebetweenquadrupedsandman.{68} Theloweranimalsaredividedintonineclasses:viviparous
quadrupeds,oviparousquadrupeds,birds,fishes,whales,mollusks,Malacostraca,Testacea,andinsects;ofthesethefirst five
classesarebloodpossessing,thelatterfourbeingbloodless.Inhisanatomicalstudieshedividedorgansintohomoiomer
(madeupofpartswhicharelikethewholeorgan)andanomoiomer(madeupofpartswhichareunlikethewhole,asthehand
ismadeupofthepalmandfingers).{69}Digestionandsecretionaretheresultsofacookingprocess.{70}
Thesoulistheprincipleofthatmovementfromwithinwhichlifehasbeendefinedtobe.Itistheformofthebody,psuch estin
entelecheiahepr tes matosphusikoudunameiz enechontos,{71}anditsrelationtothebodyisgenericallythe
sameasthatofformtomatter.Soul,then,isnotsynonymouswithmind:itisnotmerelytheprincipleofthought;itisthe
principleoflife,andpsychologyisthescienceofallvitalmanifestations,butmoreparticularlyofsensationandthought.Thought
ispeculiartoman;but,sinceinthehierarchyofexistencethemoreperfectcontainsthelessperfect,thestudyofthehumansoul
includesalltheproblemsofpsychology.
What,then,isthehumansoul?Itisnotamereharmonyofthebody,assomeoftheolderphilosopherstaught. {72}Itisnotoneof
thefourelements,norisitacompoundofthefour,becauseexhibitspowers(ofthought)whichtranscendalltheconditions
ofmaterialexistence.{73}Innosense,therefore,canitbesaidtobecorporeal.Andyetitisunitedwiththebody,being,accordingto
itsdefinition,theformofthebody.Forthebodyhasmerepotencyoflife;alltheactualityofthebodycomesfromthesoul.Thesoul
istherealizationoftheendforwhichthebodyexists,thetotouhenekaofitsbeing:Soulandbody,although
distinct, areonesubstance,justasthewaxandtheImpressionstampeduponitareone. {74} Itisworthyofnotethat,asin
metaphysicsAristotledistinguishes,withoutseparating,theuniversalfromtheindividual,soinpsychologyhemaintainsontheone
handthedistinction,andontheotherthesubstantialunityofsoulandbodyinman.
Thesoul,theradicalprincipleofallvitalphenomena,isone;stillwemaydistinguishintheindividualsoulseveral faculties
(dunameis)whicharenotpartsofthesoulbutmerelydifferentphasesofitaccordingasitperformsdifferentvitalfunctions.The
soulanditsfacultiesare,touseAristotle'sfavoritecomparison,liketheconcaveandtheconvexofacurve,differentviewsofone
and the same thing. The faculties of the human soul are: (1) nutritive (threptikon), (2) sensitive (aisthtikon), (3)
appetitive (orektikon),(4) locomotive (kintikon),and(5) rational (logikon).Ofthese,thesensitiveandtherational
facultiesclaimspecialattention.{75}

59

Sensationisthefaculty"bywhichwereceivetheformsofsensiblethingswithoutthematter,asthewaxreceivesthefigureofthe
sealwithoutthemetal,ofwhichthesealiscomposed."{76}Thisformwithoutthematter(eidosaisthton)iswhattheschoolmen
calledthespeciessensibilis;itdiffersessentiallyfromthe"effluxes"ofwhichEmpedoclesspoke,fortheselatterareforms"with
matter."Besides,theAristoteliantuposisnot,likethe"efflux,"adiminishedobject,butamediumofcommunicationbetweenobject
andsubject.Sensationisamovementofthesoul,{77}and,likeeveryothermovement,ithasitsactiveanditspassivephase.The
activephaseiswhatwecallthestimulus;thepassivephaseisthespecies.Now,theactiveandpassivephasesofamovement
areoneandthesamemotion.Thespecies,therefore,ismerelythepassivephaseofthestimulus,ortheoperationoftheobject,as
Aristotlecallsit.ThisistheexplicitteachingofthetreatiseDeAnima.Forexample,hdetouaisthtouenergeiakaits
aisthse shautemenestikaimia,tod'einaioutautonautais.{78}
Aristotledistinguishedfiveexternalsenses,toeachofwhichcorrespondsitsproperobject(aisthtonidion).Besidesobjects
propertoeachsense,thereareobjectscommon(koina)toseveralsenses,suchasmovement,andthereisthesensibileper
accidens,orinferentialobject(katasumbebkos),suchassubstance.{79}
Amongtheinternalsensesthemostimportantisthecommonorcentral,sense(aisthtrionkoinon).Byitwedistinguish
theseparatecommunicationsoftheexternalsenses,andbyitalsoweperceivethatweperceive.Ithasitsseatnotinthebrain,but
in the heart. Having no idea of the function of the nerves, Aristotle naturally regarded the veins as the great channels of
communication,andtheheartasthecenteroffunctionalactivityinthebody.{80}Moreover,heobservedthatthebrainsubstanceis
itselfincapableofrespondingtosensationstimulus.{81}
Inadditiontothecentralsense, memory and imagination arementionedbyAristotleasinternalsenses.Imagination,asa
process (phantasia), is the movement resulting from the act of sensation; as a faculty, it is the locus of the pictures
(phantasmata),whicharethematerialsoutefwhichreasongeneratestheidea. {82} Withoutthephantasmitisimpossibleto
reason(noeinoukestinanenphantasmatos).{83}
Intellect.(nous)isthefacultybywhichmanacquiresintellectualknowledge.ItdiffersfromallthesensefacultiesinThis,that
whilethelatterareconcernedwiththeconcreteandindividual,ithasforitsobjecttheabstractanduniversal. {84}"Itiswellcalledthe
locusofideas,"saysAristotle,{85}"ifweunderstandthatitisthepotentialsourceofideas,forinthebeginningitiswithoutideas,itis
likeasmoothtabletonwhichnothingiswritten."Wemustalwaysbearinmindthistwofoldrelationofintellecttosense,namely,
distinctionanddependence.
Theprocessbywhichtheintellectrisesfromtheindividualtotheuniversalhasalreadybeendescribedinpart.Itisaprocessof
development.Thematerialonwhichtheintellectworksistheindividualimage(phantasm),ortheindividualobject;theresultof
theprocessistheintelligibleform,oridea,andtheprocessitselfisoneofunfoldingtheindividualsoastorevealtheuniversal
containedinit.Theintellectdoesnotcreatetheidea;itmerely causestheobjectwhichwaspotentiallyintelligibleto
becomeactuallyintelligible,"inthesamewayaslightcausesthepotentiallycoloredtobecomeactuallycolored." {86} The
expressions"developing,""unfolding,""illuminating,"are,ofcourse,metaphorical:whatreallytakesplaceisaprocessofabstraction,
aseparationoftheindividuatingqualitiesfromtheuniversal,oraninduction,thatistosay,abringingtogetherofindividualsundera
universalimage,"justasintheroutedarmyonemanmuststandsoastobecomethecenterroundwhichothersmaygroup
themselves."{87}
Itisevident,therefore,thatwhiletheintellectdoesnotcreatetheconcept,itisactiveincausingtheobjecttobecomeactually
intelligible.Thereis,however,asubsequentstageintheprocess.Oncetheobjectisrenderedintelligible,itimpressesitselfonthe
intellectinpreciselythesamewayasthesensibleobjectimpressesitsspeciesonthesenses.Theintellectinthissecondstageof
theprocessiscalledthepassiveintellect(nouspathtikos),whileinthefirststageoftheprocessitiscalledtopoioun.It
isworthyofremarkthatalthoughitisusualtospeakoftheactiveandpassiveintellect,Aristotleneverspeaksofanous
poitikos,alwaysdesignatingtheactiveintellectbymeansofthepresentparticiple.
FromthisitisclearthatinAristotle'spsychologythereisnoroomforthedoctrineofinnateideas,Allknowledgecomesthrough
thesenses,nothingbeinginnateinthemindexceptthenativepoweroftheactiveintellectbywhichitdiscoversintheconcreteand
individualtheabstractanduniversalelementsofthoughtcontainedtherein.Butwhatisthisactiveintellect?Whatisitsrelationtothe
psuch,thevita]principleinman?ThesearequestionswhichhavevexedthecommentatorsandinterpretersofAristotlefromthe
daysofTheophrastusdowntoourowntime.ThereisevengreaterdifficultyindeterminingwhatAristotlemeantbythepassive
intellect.Wherethereissocomplexadiversityofopinionitisperhapshazardoustoclassifyinterpretations;still,itseemsthatthe
commentators and interpreters may be included under the heads Transcendentalists and Anthropologists. Eudemus,
AlexanderofAphrodisias,theArabiansoftheMiddleAges,andmostmoderncommentatorssincethetimeofHegelunderstandthe
activeintellecttomeansomethingapartfrom,ortranscendinginsomeway,theindividualsoul,whileastothenatureofthepassive

60

intellecttheyareinastateofhopelessconfusion.Theophrastus,Philoponus,Themistius,Simplicius,Boethius,andthegreater
numberoftheschoolmen,understandtheactiveintellecttomeanafacultyoftheindividualsoul;whilemanyoftheschoolmen
identifythepassiveintellectwiththeactive,makingthedifferencebetweenthetwopowerstoconsistmerelyinadifferencebetween
twophasesofthesamefaculty.ItwillbesufficientheretogivethewordsinwhichAristotledescribestheactiveintellect,without
enteringintothequestionofinterpretation.Hespeaks,inDeAnima,III,4,429a,oftheintellectasseparateandunmixed;in
thefollowingchapter{88}hedescribesheactiveintellectasbeing"aloneseparate,eternal,andimmortal"(430a),andinDe
GenerationeAnimalium II,3,736b,28,hedescribesitascomingfromwithout(thurathen),andasdivine (theion).It
must,however,beborneinmindthatthechaptersinwhichAristotleenunciateshistheoryofknowledgeareofafragmentarynature,
and,moreover,thatthisportionofAristotle'spsychologicaltreatisedealswithaquestionwhichnomodernschoolwiththeexception
ofthetranscendentalistschoolhasattemptedtosolve.Itis,therefore,notamatterforsurprisethatinexpoundingAristotlesomany
modernwritershavefallenintotheerrorofinterpretinghimintheterminologyoftranscendentalism,thusillustratingtheadage,
"AristotelemnonnisiexipsoAristoteleintelliges."{89}
By reason of itsintellectual function, which it performswithout intrinsic dependence on the bodilyorganism, and by which it
transcendstheconditionsofmatter,thesoulisimmaterial{90} and immortal.{91} Aristotle'sdoctrineofimmortalityis,however,
conditionedbyhisdoctrineoftheactiveintellect.Iftheactiveintellectissomethingseparatefromtheindividualsoul,animpersonal
intellect,commontoallmen,andthisistheinterpretationfollowedbyAlexander,bytheArabians,andbymanymodernscholars,
itdoesnotappearhowAristotlecouldholdthatthesoulisinanytruesenseofthewordendowedwithpersonalimmortality.
Withregardtowill,inplaceofPlato'svague,unsatisfactorynotionofthumos,wefindthedefiniteconceptofboulsiswhich
maybedescribedasaconsilienceofreasonanddesire.Willisrationalappetite;itisthedesireofgoodasapprehendedby
reason,{92} and because it is preceded by a rational apprehension of good, it is free. This view of freedom of choice
(proairesis)issupportedbytherecognizedvoluntarinessofvirtue,andbytheequallywellrecognizedfactthatmanisheld
accountableforhisactions.{93} Reasoninitsfunctionofsuggestingthebestmeansbywhichanendistobeattainediscalled
practical.
Beforeproceeding,however,totreatofethics,whichisthescienceofhumanconductaccordingtotheprinciplesofpracticalreason,
itisnecessarytomentionthelastdivisionoftheoreticalphilosophy,namely,mathematics.
c.Mathematicsdealswithimmovablebeing,thusdifferingfromphysics,whichhasforobjectbeingsubjecttomotion. {94}Itdiffers
frommetaphysicsinthis,thatitdealswithcorporealbeingunderthedeterminationofquantity,whilemetaphysicshasforitsobject
beingingeneral,underitshighestdeterminations,suchasactandpotency,causeandeffect.{95}
CPracticalPhilosophyincludesthescienceofpoliticalgovernmentandorganizationaswellasthegeneralquestionsofmoral
science.
1.Thesupremegoodofmanishappiness.OfthisnoGreekhadtheleastdoubt.Thewordeudaimoniahas,however,more
ofanobjectivemeaningthanourwordhappiness:Itismoreakintowellbeing orwelfare.Buthowisthiswellbeingtobe
attained?Whatisitthatconstituteshappiness?happinessisdeterminedbytheendforwhichmanwasmade,mdtheendofhuman
existenceisthatformofgoodwhichispeculiartoman,thegoodwhichispropertoarationalbeing.Now,reasonistheprerogative
ofman.Itshould,therefore,betheaimofman'sexistencetoliveconformablytoreason,tolivealifeofvirtue.{96}Nevertheless,
Aristotle would not include wealth and pleasure from the idea of human happiness; for wealth is necessary for the external
manifestationofvirtue,andpleasureisthenaturalrewardofavirtuouslife.Happinessalsoincludesfriendship,health,inaword,
allthegiftsoffortune.{97}
2.Virtue,whileitisnottheonlyconstituentofhappiness,istheindispensablemeansofattaininghappiness.Itisnotamerefeeling,
butratherafixedqualityorhabitofmind(hexis).Now,mindmustfirstofallholdthelowerfunctions,andespeciallythepassions,
insubjection,andthenitmustdevelopitsownpowers.Thus,wehavemoralvirtueandintellectualvirtue.
(a) Moralvirtueisacertainhabitofthefacultyofchoice,consistinginamean (mesots) suitabletoour
natureandfixedbyreasoninthemannerinwhichaprudentmanwouldfixit.{98} Itisahabit,thatis,afixed
quality.Itconsistsinameanbetweenexcessanddefect.Courage,forexample,preservesthemeanbetweencowardiceand
recklessdaring.Virtue,itistrue,isimpossiblewithoutmoralinsight.Still,wemustnotidentifythesetwoasSocratesdidwhenhe
reducedallvirtuetoknowledge.Therearemanykindsofvirtue,forvirtueisaqualityofthewill,andthedefectsandexcessesto
whichthewillmayleadusaremany,aswillbeseenbythefollowingschema:

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Defect

Mean

Excess

Cowardice
Insensibility
Illiberality
Pettiness
Humblemindedness
WantofAmbition
Spiritlessness
Surliness
IronicalDepreciation
Boorishness
Shamelessness
Callousness

Courage
Temperance
Liberality
Munificence
Highmindedness
RightAmbition
GoodTemper
FriendlyCivility
Sincerity
Wittiness
Modesty
JustResentment

Rashness
Intemperance
Prodigality
Vulgarity
Vaingloriousness
Overambition
Irascibility
Obsequiousness
Boastfulness
Buffoonery
Bashfulness
Spitefulness.{99}

Justice (dikaiosun )initsgenericmeaningsignifiestheobservanceoftherightorderofallthefacultiesofman,andinthis

senseitissynonymouswithvirtue.Inamorerestrictedsense,justiceisthevirtuewhichregulatesman'sdealingswithhisfellow
man.Itisdividedintodistributive,corrective,andcommutativejustice.{100}
(b)Theintellectualvirtuesareperfectionsoftheintellectitself,withoutrelationtotheotherfaculties.Wehave(i)theperfections
ofthescientificreason,namely,understanding(nous)science(epistm),andwisdom(sophia),whicharerespectively
concernedwithfirstprinciples,demonstration,andthesearchforhighestcauses;and(2)theperfectionsofthepracticalreason,
namely,art,whichisreferredtoexternalactions(poiein),andpracticalwisdom,whichisreferredtoactionstheexcellenceof
whichdependsonnoexternalresult(prattein).{101}
ThemostcharacteristicofAristotle'sethicalteachingsisthesuperioritywhichheassignstointellectualoverethicalvirtue,andthe
mostseriousdefectinhisethicalsystemishisfailuretoreferhumanactiontofuturerewardandpunishment.
3.Inhis politicaldoctrines Aristotlestartswiththeprinciplethatmanisbynatureasocialbeing(politikonz on),andis
forcedtodependonthesocialorganizationfortheattainmentofhappiness.Man'ssociallifebeginsinthefamily;forthefamilyis
priortothestate.Thestateisconsequentlyboundtokeepthefamilyintact,and,ingeneral,itsmissionistheadvancementand
developmentofitssubjects,theliftingupofthepeoplebythejustadministrationoflawtoahigherplaneofmoralconduct.{102}
AristotlecombatsthestateabsolutismofPlato.
Therearethreeultimateformsofgovernment,monarchy,aristocracy,andtherepublic.Thebestformofgovernmentisthat
whichisbestsuitedtothecharacterofthepeople(Politica,III,17).Thus,althoughmonarchyistheideal,thebestattainableform
seemstobeanaristocracy,notofwealthnorofbirthbutofintellect,atruearistocracy,agovernmentofthebest.{103}
D.PoieticalPhilosophy.UnderthisheadAristotletreatsthetheoryofart.Art,heteaches,istraceabletothespiritofimitation,
andconsistsintherealizationinexternalformofthetrueidea,arealizationwhichisnotlimitedtomerecopying,butextendsalso
totheperfectingofthedeficienciesofnaturebygroupingtheindividualphenomenaundertheuniversaltype. {104} Historymerely
copies;poetryidealizesandcompletestheworkofhistory:Poetryismorephilosophicalandmoreelevatedthanhistory.{105}
Aristotle'sanalysisofthebeautifulis,likePlato's,confinedtoastudyoftheobjectiveconstituentsofbeauty.Thesehereducesto
orderandgrandeur,whicharefoundespeciallyinmoralbeauty.SovagueandindefiniteisthisanalysisthatAristotlewasobliged,as
wehaveseen,tobasehistheoryofartontherealizationoftheessence,withoutreferringartatalltothenotionofthebeautiful.The
aimofartisthecalming,purifying,andennoblingoftheaffections.{106}
HistoricalPosition.ItisdifficulttoformatrueestimateofAristotle'sphilosophy,andthedifficultyarises,strangeasthismay
seem,fromourtoogreatfamiliaritywithmanyofthenotionswhichAristotleintroducedintohumanscience.Thebasicideasofhis
philosophicalsystemhavebecomethecommonplacesofelementaryeducation;theyhavefoundtheirwayintothevocabularyofour
everydaylife,andhaveimpressedthemselvesindeliblyontheliteratureofWesterncivilization.Theterminology,theinventionof
whichisoneofAristotle'schieftitlestopreeminence,hasbecomeindissolublyassociatedwiththeexpositionofChristiantheology,
andforms,sotospeak,thealphabetofourcatecheticalinstructions.Allthishasmadeitdifficultforthemodernreadertoappreciate

62

theimportanceofAristotle'scontributionstophilosophy. Consuetavilescunt! Itisnecessary,therefore,toforgethowfamiliar

manyofAristotle'sdiscoverieshavebecome,togobackinimaginationtothetimewhentheywerefirstenunciated,andinthisway
torealize,ifwecan,thebreadthanddepthofamindthatcouldsucceedinaccomplishingsuchavastamountoriginalworkasto
entitlehimtobeconsideredthefounderoflogic,theauthorofthefirsttreatiseonscientificpsychology,thefirstnaturalhistorian,and
thefatherofthebiologicalsciences.Placingourselvesatthispointofview,weshallbelessinclinedtosingleouttheundeniable
defectsofAristotle'sphilosophy,findingitamorenaturalaswellasamorecongenialtocompareAristotlewithhispredecessorsin
thehistoryofGreekspeculation.
Aristotle'sphilosophyisthesynthesisandculminationofthespeculationsofpreSocraticandSocraticschools.Hisdoctrineof
causesisanepitomeofallthatGreekphilosophyhaduptotimeaccomplished.ButitisespeciallywithPlato,hismasr,thatAristotle
istobecompared,anditisbyhisadditionsPlatonicteachingthatheistobejudged.PlatobuiltoutoftheruinsofpreSocratic
speculationacompletemetaphysicalstructureaccordingtoadefiniteplan,astructurebeautifulinoutlines,perfectinitssymmetry,
butinsecureandunstable,likeoneofthosegoldenpalacesoffairyland,whichwefeartoapproachandexaminelestitvanishinto
airynothingness.Aristotle,onthecontrary,drewhisplanwithafirmerhand;helaidthefoundationofhisphilosophydeeponthe
rockbottomexperience,andalthoughallthejointsinthefabricarenotequallysecure,thecareandconsistencywithwhichthe
designisexecutedareapparenttoeveryobserver.ItwasleftforScholasticphilosophytoaddthepinnacletothestructurewhich
Aristotlehadcarriedasfartowardscompletionashumanthoughtcouldbuildunaided.IfPlatohasbeencalledtheSublime,Aristotle
mustbecalledtheProfound,atitlewhich,whenappliedtoaphilosopher,shouldbetheexpressionofhigherpraise;forWisdomis
ofttimesnearerwhenwestoopThanwhenwesoar.

{1}Forsources,cf.Zeller,AristotleandtheEarlierPeripatetics,Vol.I,p.2,n.;Wallace,OutlinesofthePhilosophyof
Aristotle,p.17.
{2}AsinMet.I,9,992a.
{3}Noct.Att.,XX.
{4}Onthederivationofthisword,cf.Zeller,op.cit.,p.27,n.
{5}Cf.Wallace,op.cit.,pp.18ff.
{6}RecenteditionsofAristotle'sWorks:theBerlinedition(5vols.,18311870),whichismadethebasisofcitations;theDidotedition
(5vols.,Paris,18481870).Forlistoftranslationsandsecondarysources,cf.Weber,op.cit.,p.104,n.,andUeberweg,op.cit.,I,
pp.140and152.
{7}Noct.Alt.,XX,5.
{8}ItisthesethatCicerohadinmindwhenhealludedto"thegoldenstreamofAristotle'seloquence"(Top.,1,3).
{9}XIII,1,54.
{10}Sulla,26.
{11}Met.,VI,1,1028.
{12}Met.,VI,1,1025b,25.
{13}Cf.Met.,VI,2,1026a,36;V,8,1017a,24;Phys.,V,I,223b,5.
{14}Cf.Stckl,op.cit.,I,115;Englishtrans.,p.105.
{15}Cf.Anal.Post.,II,19,99b.
{16}Met.,XIII,10,1086b,33.
{17}Eth.Nic.,VI,ii,1143b,5.
{18}InAnal.Post.,I,11init.,Aristotlesubstitutesthephrasehenkatapoll nforthePlatonichenparatapolla.
{19}Cf.Met.,I,9,991a,12,991b,1;XIII,9,1085a,23,etc.;Prantl,Gesch.des.Logik,I,210ff.
{20}Cf.DeAn.,II,4,415b.
{21}Cf.Met..VIII,6,1045a,12;X,1,1052a,22.

63

{22}Cf.infra,p.138.
{23}Phys.,1,5,189a,7.
{24}Cf.Anal.Post.,I,13,81.
{25}Met.,IV,1,1003a,21.
{26}Met.,I,9,991b.
{27}Cf.Met.,I,9,991b.
{28}Cf.Wallace,op.cit.,p.64.
{29}Cf.Met.,XIII,5,1079a,13.
{30}Op.cit.,I,9,999a,12;VII,1031a,20ff.
{31}Met.,V,1,1013a,18.
{32}Cf.Phys.,II,3,194b,16.
{33}DeGen.etCorr.,I,4,320a,2.
{34}Fortheoriginandmeaningofthisexpression,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.314,notef;alsoUeberweg,op.cit.,Vol.I,p.
161.
{35}Cf.Met.,VII,7,1032b;VIII,6,1045a,33;X,I,1052a,22.
{36}Phys.,I,7,191a,10.
{37}Cf.op.cit.,II,7,198a,24.
{38}Op.cit.,III,1,201a,10.
{39}DePartibusAnimalium,I,1,639b,11.
{40}Cf.Phys.,VIII,I,252a.
{41}Cf.op.cit.,VIII,5,2562..
{42}Cf.Met.,XII,6,1071b,20.
{43}Phys.,VIII,6,258b,12.
{44}Met.,XII,7,1072.
{45}Cf.InXIIumMet.lect.7.
{46}Cf.DeVorgesinRevueNoscholastique,1894,pp.304ff.
{47}Cf.Eth.Nic.,X,8,1178b,20.
{48}Op.cit.,X(8),9,1179.
{49}Cf.Phys.,VIII,I,251.
{50}DiePsychologiedesAristoteles(1862)andUeberdenKreatismusdesAristoteles(1882).
{51}St.Augustine,DeCiv.Dei,II,4;St.Thomas,SummaTheologica,Ia,XLVI,1.
{52}Cf.Met.,IX,8,1049b,10;Phys.,VIII,91265a,11.
{53}Met.,XI,3,1061b,6.
{54}Phys.,II,1,192b,14.
{55}DeCoelo,1,4,271a,33.
{56}Cf.DePart.An.,IV,2,677a,15.
{57}Phys.,II,8,199;DeGenerationeAnimalium,IV,4,770b,9.
{58}Phys.,IV,4,212a,20.

64

{59}Cf.Met.,XI,10,1067.
{60}Phys.,IV,11,219b,1.
{61}Op.cit.,IV,14,223a,25.
{63}Phys.,III,1,201a,10.
{63}Cf.op.cit.,IV,7,8,214,215.
{64}DeMeteoris,I,3,339;Phys.,VIII,6,259.
{65}Cf.HistoriaAnimalium,I,8,491,wherehesaysthatthehinderpartoftheskullisempty.
{66}DeAn.,II,1,412.3
{67}DePart.An.,IV,5,681a,12.
{68}Hist.An.,II,502,8.ItisunnecessarytoremarkthatAristotlehasreferencemerelytotheexternalappearanceandthemeansof
locomotion.
{69}Hist.An.,I,6,491.
{70}DePart.An.,IV,3,677b,14.
{71}DeAn.,II,1,412a,28.
{72}Op.cit.,1,4,408a,1.
{73}Op.cit.,III,4,429a,18.
{74}Op.cit.,II,1,422b,8.
{75}DeAn.,II,2,413b,12;11,3,414a,31.
{76}Op.cit.,II,22,424a,18.
{77}DeSomno,2,454a,7.
{78}III,2,425b,26;fordifferentreadings,cf.Rodier,Traitdel' me,I,152.
{79}DeAn.,11,6,418a,8.
{80}DeJuventuteetSenectute,3,469a,10.
{81}Cf.DePart.An.,II,10.
{82}DeAn.,III,7,432a,14.
{83}DeMemoriaetReminiscentia,449b,31.
{84}DeAn.,II,5,417b,22.
{85}Op.cit.,111,4,429a,27,and429b,31.
{86}DeAn.,III,5,430a,20.
{87}Anal.Post.,II,15,100.
{88}Wallace(Aristotle'sPsychology,p.cvi)saysthat"thestumb]ingblockwhichhaspreventedstudentsfromunderstanding
Aristotle'spositionliesperhapschieflyinseparatingthefourthandfifthchaptersofthethirdbook(DeAnima)fromeachother,asif
Aristotlewerespeakingofonereasoninonechapterandofanotherintheother."cf.alsoibid.,pp.cviiff.;Brentano,Psych.des
Arist.,p.180;Rodier,Traitdel' me,2vols.,Paris,1900;PhilosophicalReview(May,1902),Vol.XI,pp.238ff.
{89}Forsummaryoftheliteratureonthisquestion,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.543,notef.SeealsoWallace,Aristotle's
Psychology(Introd.,pp.xcviicxvi).ForscholasticcommentaryonAristotle'sdoctrine,efSylvesterMaurus,AristotelisOpera
(Rome,1668),Vol.IV,pp.303ff.
{90}Cf.DeAn.,III,4.Thechapterisdevotedtothestudyof"thatpartofthesoulwherebyitknowsandunderstands."Theword
ch ristos,whichthereoccursisevidentlyusedinthesenseof"freefrommatter."
{91}DeAn.,I,4,408b,18.

65

{92}Op.cit.,III,10,433a,23.
{93}Eth.Nic.,III,7,1113b,21.
{94}Phys.,II,193b,22.
{95}Cf.Met.,VI,1,1025b.
{96}Eth.Nic.,I,6,1097.
{97}Eth.Nic.,I,9,1099a,31;V,2,1129b.
{98}Op.cit.,II,6,iio6b,36.
{99}Cf.Wallace,Outlines,p.100.
{100}Eth.Nic.,V,1,1129a,26;V,2,1130b,39.
{101}Fordistinctionbetweenpoisisandpraxis,cf.Zeller,Aristotle,etc.,VolI,p.182.
{102}Politica,III,9,1280b,30.
{103}Pol.,IV,7,1293b,3.Aristotle(Pol.,III,15,1286b,20)admitsthatapolityinwhichthecollectivevoiceofthepeopleshall
holdsovereignpowermay,owingtothespreadofpopulation,becomethegeneralformofgovernment.
{104}Eth.Nic.,VI,4,1140a,10.
{105}DePoetica,9,1451a,44.
{106}Cf.op.cit.,6,1449b,24.

CHAPTERXIITHEPERIPATETICSCHOOL
Sources.Besidesourprimarysources,consistingoftreatisesandcommentariesofthephilosophersofAristotle'sschool,we
have,assecondarysources,theworksofDiogenesLaertiusandthereferencesmadebyCicero,who,itshouldbesaid,ismore
trustworthywhenhementionsthePeripateticsthanwhenhespeaksofthepreSocraticphilosophers.
TheophrastusofLesbos wasbornaboutthesameyearasAristotle.HeseemstohavebecomeAristotle'sdiscipleeven
beforethedeathofPlato.AfterAristotle'sdeathheruledthePeripateticschoolasscholarchforaboutthirtyfiveyears.Hewrote
manyworks,ofwhichthebestknownaretwotreatisesonbotanyandhis EthicalCharacters,thelatterconsistingoflifelike
delineationsoftypesofhumancharacter.HeextendedandcompletedAristotle'sphilosophyofnature,devotingspecialattentionto
the scienceofbotany.Inhisethicaldoctrinesheinsistedonthe choregia securedtovirtuebythepossessionofexternal
goods.{1}
OfthelifeofEudemusofRhodeslittleisknownexceptthatheandTheophrastusweredisciplesofAristotleatthesametime.
ItisprobablethathecontinuedtobelongtotheschoolwhenTheophrastusbecamescholarch.HeistheauthoroftheEudemian
Ethics, which, however, is merely a redaction of Aristotle's notes, or at most a treatise intended to supplement Aristotle's
Nicomachean Ethics.{2} In his writings and doctrines Eudemus shows far less originality and independence than does
Theophrastus.
AritoxenusofTarentum,knownasthe Musician,introducedintothePeripateticphilosophymanyoftheideasofthe
Pythagoreans,attachingespecialimportancetothenotionofharmony.
StratoofLampsacus,thePhysicist,succeededTheophrastusasscholarchip288B.C.,andcontinuedtopresideoverthe
school for eighteenyears.Like hispredecessor,he devoted hisattention to the studyof nature,manifesting,however,a
tendencytodiscardfromnaturalphilosophytheteleologicalconceptandtheideaoftheincorporeal.
DemetriusofPhalerusandothersoftheearlierPeripateticsconfinedtheirliterarylaborstogeneralhistoryandthehistory
ofopinions.
AmongthelaterPeripateticsmentionmustbemadeofAndronicusofRhodes,whoeditedtheworksofAristotle(about70
B.C.).TothesecondcenturyofourerabelongAlexanderofAphrodisiae,theExegete,andAristoclesofMessene.

66

TothethirdcenturybelongsPorphyry,andtothesixthcenturyPhiloponusandSimpliclus.Allthese,thoughtheybelonged
toNeoPlatonicorEclecticschools,enrichedtheliteratureofthePeripateticschoolbytheircommentariesonAristotle.Thephysician
Galen,bornabout131A.D.,isalsoreckonedamongtheinterpretersofAristotle.
Retrospect.ThesecondperiodofGreekphilosophyhasbeencharacterizedas subjectivoobjective.Comparedwiththe
precedingperiod,itissubjective,thatis,itdivertsthemindoftheinquirerfromtheproblemsofnaturetothoseofthought.
Comparedwiththeperiodimmediatelyfollowing,itisobjective,thatis,itisnotconcernedsolelywithethicalproblemsandthe
problemsofthevalueofknowledge;itisnotwhollysubjective.Historicallytheperiodisshort,notextendingovermorethanthree
generations.Yetinthatbriefspaceoftimemuchwasaccomplished.Itis,perhaps,becausetheperiodwassoshort,andbecauseit
wasdominatedbythreemen,eachofwhomstoodtohispredecessorintherelationofpersonaldisciple,thatthereexistssoperfect
anorganicunityamongthephilosophiesofSocrates,Plato,andAristotle.ThephilosophyofSocrateswasthephilosophyofthe
concept,itwasconcernedwiththeinquiryintotheconditionsofscientificknowledgeandthebasisofethics.Thephilosophyof
PlatowasthephilosophyoftheIdea,itclaimedtobeascientificstudyofreality,asystemofmetaphysics.Thephilosophyof
Aristotlewascenteredaroundthenotionofessence,andessenceimpliesthefundamentaldualismofmatterandform.Itisin
Aristotle'sphilosophy,therefore,thattheobjectiveandsubjectiveareunitedinthehighestandmostperfectsynthesis;fororganic
unityiscompatiblewithgrowthinorganiccomplexity.Theconceptisthesimplestexpressionoftheunionofsubjectandobject;next
incomplexityistheIdea,whichisaformofbeingandknowingexistingapartfromwhatisandwhatisknown,whilehighestin
complexityistheessence,whichisinpartthematterandinparttheformexistingintherealityandalsointheobjectofknowledge.
FromSocratestoAristotlethereis,therefore,atruedevelopment,thehistoricalformulaofwhichisideallycompact,concept,
Idea,andessence.

{1}Cf.Cic.,TusculanaeDisputationes,V,8.
{2}Cf.Zeller'sArist.,etc.,Vol.I,p.97,n.

THIRDPERIOD.POSTARISTOTELIANPHILOSOPHY
ThedeathofAristotlemarkstheendoftheGoldenAgeofGreekphilosophy.FromThalestoSocrateswastheperiodofbeginnings;
fromSocratestoAristotle,theperiodofhighestperfection;withtheopeningofthepostAristotelianperiodbeginstheageofdecay
anddissolution.TothisthirdperiodbelongthepantheismoftheStoics,thematerialismoftheEpicureans,andthefinal
relaxationofallearnestphilosophicalthought,culminatingintheabsolutescepticismofthePyrrhonists.Theperiodofhighest
perfectioninphilosophywasalsotheperiodofthepoliticalgreatnessofGreece,andthecauseswhichbroughtaboutthepolitical
downfallofGreeceareinpartaccountableforthedecayofGreekphilosophy.
SixteenyearsbeforethedeathofAristotle,thebattleofChaeronea(338B.C.)wasfought,thebattleinwhichthedoomofGreece
wassealed.TherefollowedaseriesofunsuccessfulattemptstoshakeofftheMacedonianyoke.InvaindidDemosthenesstriveto
arouseinthebreastsoftheAtheniansthespiritofthedaysofMarathonandThermopylae;theironhandofmilitarydespotism
crushedthelastmanifestationsofpatriotism.ThentheRomancame,tosucceedtheMacedonian,andGreece,thefairhomeof
philosophyintheWest,wasmadeaprovinceofavastmilitaryandcommercialempire.
ThelossofpoliticalfreedomwasfollowedbyaperiodoftorporofthecreativeenergiesoftheGreekmind.{1}Speculation,inthe
highestsenseofconstructiveeffort,wasnolongerpossibleandphilosophybecame whollypractical initsaims.Theoretical
knowledgewasvaluednotatall,oronlyinsofarasitcontributedtothatbracingandstrengtheningofthemoralfiberwhichmen
begantoseekinphilosophy,andforwhichalonephilosophybegantobestudied.Philosophythuscametooccupyitselfwithethical
problems,andtoberegardedasarefugefromthemiseriesoflife.WhenmenceasedtocountitanhonortobeacitizenofHellas,
they turned to philosophy in order to become citizens of the world; and so philosophy assumed a more cosmopolitan
character.ImportedintotheRomanEmpire,itfailedatfirsttotakerootonRomansoilbecauseintheLatincontemptofthe
Graeculus wasincludedacontemptforallthingsGreek.Gradually,however,philosophygainedascendencyovertheRoman
mind,whileinturntheRomanloveofthepracticalasserteditsinfluenceonGreekphilosophy.
All these influences resulted in (1) a disintegration of the distinctively Greek spirit of philosophy and the substitution of a
cosmopolitanspiritofeclecticism;(2)acenteringofphilosophicalthoughtaroundtheproblemsofhumanlifeandhumandestiny;and
(3)thefinalabsorptionofGreekphilosophyinthereconstructiveeffortsoftheGrecoOrientalphilosophersofAlexandria.

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But, while metaphysics and physics were neglected in this anthropocentric movement of thought, the mathematical sciences,
emancipatingthemselvesfromphilosophy,begantoflourishwithnewvigor.TheastronomersofSicilyandlaterthoseofAlexandria
standoutofthegeneralgloomoftheperiodasworthyrepresentativesoftheGreekspiritofscientificinquiry.
Theprincipalschoolsofthisperiodare:(1)theStoics,(2)theEpicureans,(3)theSceptics,(4)theEclectics,(5)themathematicians
andastronomers.AseparatechapterwillbedevotedtoThePhilosophyoftheRomans.

CHAPTERXIII
THESTOICS
Sources.AllthewritingsoftheearlierStoics,withtheexceptionofafewfragments,havebeenlost.Wepossess,indeed,the
complete works of the later Stoics, Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, Heraclitus, and Cornutus; but these
philosopherslivedundertheRomanEmpire,atatimewhenforeigninfluenceshadsubstitutednewelementsforthedoctrineswhich
hadbeencharacteristicoftheschoolatthebeginningofitsexistence.Weareobliged,therefore,torelyforourknowledgeofearly
StoicismonwriterslikeCicero,Plutarch,DiogenesLaertius,SextusEmpiricus,andtheAristoteliancommentators,who,
however, do not always distinguish between the earlier and the laterforms of Stoicism. Consequently, it will be found more
satisfactoryfirsttogiveahistoryoftheStoicschool,andthentodescribetheStoicdoctrineasawhole,withoutattemptingto
determinethecontributionsmadebyindividualmembersoftheschool.
HistoryoftheStoicSchool.(a)GreekStoics.ZenoofCittium(350258B.C.),thefounderoftheStoicschool,was
bornatCittiuminCyprusintheyear350B.C.Hewasatfirstamerchant,butowing,itissaid,toashipwreckinwhichhelosta
considerablepartofhiswealth,herepairedtoAthenswiththeintentionofpursuingthestudyofphilosophy.Onreadingthe
MemorabiliaofXenophonandtheApologyofPlato,hewasimpressedwiththeremarkablecharacterofSocrates,andwasled
toattachhimselftotheschoolofCrates,theCynic,whoappearedtoreproduceinhisownlifeandmannersthecharacterofthe
sage.Lateron,repelled,nodoubt,bythecoarsenessandvulgarityoftheCynics,hebecamesuccessivelydiscipleofStilpo,the
Megarian,andofXenocrates,theruleroftheAcademy.Abouttheyear310B.C.hefoundedaschoolofhisown,whichreasonofhis
habitofteachinginthePaintedPorch(Stoa)cametobeknownastheStoicschool.Hereachedanadvancedageand,according
toaccountgivenbyDiogenesandothers,endedhislifebysuicide.Hiswritingshaveallbeenlost.
CleanthessucceededZenoasmasteroftheStoa.Heissaidtohavebeenoriginallyapugilist.Zenocharacterizedthemental
temperamentofCleathesbycomparinghimtoahardslabonwhichitisdifficulttowrite,butwhichretainsindefinitelywhateveris
writtenonit.Truetothisdescription,Cleanthespreservedtheteachingsofhismaster,butshowedhimselfincapableofexpanding
themintoamorecompletesystem.HeisthereputedauthorofaHymntotheMostHigh,preservedbyStobaeus.{2}
Chrysippus,whosucceededCleanthes,wasbornatSoli,inCilicia,intheyear280B.C.HewasmoreoriginalthanCleanthes,
andunderhisdirectiontheStoicschoolreacheditsfulldevelopment.AmonghisdiscipleswereZenoofTarsus,Diogenesof
Seleucia,andAntipaterofTarsus,whosepupil,Panaetius(180111B.C.),introducedStoicismintotheRomanworld.
(b) RomanStoics.AmongtheRomanStoicsthebestknownare L.AnnaeusCornutus (A.D.2066), M.Annaeus
Lucanus(A.D.3965),Senecatheyounger(A.D.365),Persius,thesatirist(A.D.3462),Epictetus,thephilosopherslave
(flourishedA.D.90),andtheEmperorMarcusAurelius(A.D.121180).
ItisafactworthyofnotethatCleanthes,Seneca,andLucancommittedsuicideinaccordancewithwhatasweshallseewasoneof
theethicaldoctrinesoftheschool,imitatinginthistheexampleofthefounder.
STOICPHILOSOPHY
GeneralIdeaofStoicPhilosophy.TheStoicsevidentlyconsideredthemselvesthetruedisciplesofSocrates,anditwas,
withoutdoubt,fromSocraticprinciplesthattheydeducedtheirideaoftheaimandscopeofphilosophy.Wehaveseenthat
Zenowasfirstledtophilosophybythehopeoffindinginitconsolationforthelossofhistemporalgoods,andwhenhecameto
establishhisschoolhetookforhisstartingpointtheSocraticdoctrinethatknowledgeisvirtue,makingthepursuitofknowledge
(philosophy)andthecultivationofvirtuesynonymous.When,however,theStoicssetaboutdiscoveringasystematicbasisfor
theirethicalteachings,theywentbacktopreSocraticsystems,anddrewlargelyfromthephysicaldoctrinesofHeraclitus.Now,
thereweretwotenetsintheHeracliteanphilosophywhichrecommendedthemselvesinaspecialmannertotheStoics:(1)thatall
individualthingsarebuttheeverchangingmanifestations,orapparitions,oftheeverenduringfire,and(2)thatthereisbutonelaw,
whichgovernstheactionsofmen,aswellastheprocessesofnature.Consequently,theStoicsmadetheseprinciplesthefoundation

68

ofthescienceofhumanconduct.AtthesametimetheydidnothesitatetosupplementthephysicsofHeraclitusbyborrowingfrom
Aristotle'sphysicaldoctrines.Theywereinfluenced,too,byAntisthenes'nominalismandbyhisoppositiontothePlatonictheoryof
Ideas,andintheirtheologicaldoctrinestheymadeuseoftheSocraticandPlatonicteleology.Alltheseelementstheyamalgamated
into a consistent system. Logic and physics they made subservient to ethics, on the principle that the theoretical should be
subordinatedtothepractical.
Wehave,therefore,threedivisionsofStoicPhilosophy.(1)Logic,includingthetheoryofknowledge;(2)Physics,including
theology;and(3)Ethics,thehegemonicscience.
StoicLogic.ItwasprobablyZenowhofirstgavetologicthenamebywhichitisnowknown,thoughthisisbynomeanscertain.
ThelogicoftheStoicswassimplythe Analytic ofAristotlesupplementedbyamoreadequatetreatmentofthe hypothetical
syllogismandbytheadditionoftheproblemofthecriterionoftruth.Tothelatterquestiontheydevotedspecialattention,and,
intheirsolutionofit,developedtheStoictheoryofknowledge.
Theory of knowledge. 1. The Stoics start with the Aristotelian principle that all intellectual knowledge arises from sense
perception. Senseperception (aisthsis) becomes representation, or imagination (phantasia), as soon as it rises into
consciousness.{3}Duringtheprocessofsenseperceptionthesoulremainspassive,theobjectproducingitsimageonthemind,just
asthesealproducesitsimpressiononwax.Theprocesswas,therefore,called tup sis,althoughChrysippusissaidtohave
substitutedthewordheteroi sis,alterationofthesoul.{4} Whentheobjectofknowledgeisremovedfromthepresenceofthe
senses,weretainamemoryofit,andalargenumberofmemoriesconstitutesexperience(empeiria).
2.Thenextstepisthe formationofconcepts.Conceptsareformedeither(a) spontaneously,thatis,when,withoutour
conscious cooperation, several like representations fuse into universal notions (prolpseis, or koinai ennoiai); or (b)
consciously,thatis,bythereflexactivityofthemind,whichdetectsresemblancesandanalogiesbetweenourrepresentations,
andcombinestheseintoreflexconcepts,orknowledge(epistm).Neitherspontaneousnorreflexconceptsare,however,innate;
spontaneitydoesnotimplyinnateness.
3.As,therefore,allourknowledgearisesfromsenseperception,thevaluetobeattachedtoknowledgedependsonthevaluetobe
attachedtosenseperception.Consequently,theStoicsdecidedthat apprehension (katalpsis) isthecriterionoftruth.
Thatistruewhichisapprehendedtobetrue,anditisapprehendedtobetruewhenitisrepresentedinthemindwithsuchforce,
clearness,andenergyofconvictionthatthetruthoftherepresentationcannotbedenied. {5} ThesayingattributedtoZenoby
Cicero{6}thatPerceptionislikethefingersextended,thatAssentislikethehalfclosedhand,thatApprehensionislikethe
handfullyclosed,andthat Knowledge (Scientia)isliketheclosedhandfirmlygraspedbytheotherhand,wouldseemto
attributetoknowledgeasuperiorityoversenseperception.Oncloserexamination,however,itisseenthatthedifferenceisonlya
differenceofdegree.{7}
4.Thequestion,Whatisthevalueofconcepts?wasansweredbytheStoicsinaccordancewithnominalisticprinciplesborrowed
fromAntisthenes,who,inoppositiontoPlato,taughtthatnouniversalityexistsoutsidethemind,theindividualalonebeingreal.{8}
5.IntheirclassificationofconceptstheStoicsreducedthetenAristoteliancategoriestofour:(1)substance(hupokeimenon),
(2)essentialquality(topoion),(3)accidentalquality(p sechon),and(4)relation(prostip sechon).{9}This
enumeration,aswillbereadilyperceived,doesnotretaintheAristoteliandistinctionbetweenpredicablesandcategories.Allthe
Stoiccategories,exceptthefirst,aremodesofpredicationratherthanmodesofbeing.
StoicPhysicsandTheology.ThephysicsoftheStoaisasystemofmaterialisticmonism,whilethetheologyoftheStoa
maybedescribedasacompromisebetweentheismandpantheism.
TheStoicsmaintainedthatthematerialaloneisreal.Theywouldnotadmit,forexample,thatthesoul,orvirtue,isrealexcept
insofarasitismaterial.GodHimselftheybelievedtobematerial.Aboveallthecategories,therefore,theywouldplacenoton,
Being,butti,something,atranscendentalnotionincludingnotBeingaswellasBeing,theincorporealaswellasthecorporeal.
Thusdidtheyidentifytheincorporealwiththeunreal,andincludeallrealbeingunderthegenericconceptofmatter.{10}
ConsistentlywiththeseprinciplestheStoicsteachthatallattributesareaircurrents:emotions,concepts,judgments,virtues,and
vicesareaircurrentswhicheitherpassintothesoulorcomeoutfromit. {11} Inextenuationofthiscrudematerialism,itmustbe
remarkedthattheStoicsdistinguishbetweenafinerandacoarsermatter,attributingtotheformeranactiveandtothelattera
passivecharacter.Theaircurrentsareinsubstancematerial;infunction,however,theyareactive,andmaybesaidtoplayarle
similartothatwhichtheformplaysinAristotelianphilosophy.{12}
Everything,therefore,ismaterial:thecommondistinctionbetweencorporealandincorporealismerelyadistinctionbetweencoarser

69

andfinermatter.Wemay,indeed,distinguishtwoprinciples,orsources,ofreality,matterandforce,butweshallfindthatin
ultimateanalysisforce,too,ismaterial.
Godis,atonce,theAuthoroftheuniverseanditsSoul,theimmanentprincipleofitslife;foreverykindofactionultimately
proceedsfromonesource,which,whetheritresidesintheheavensorinthesunorinthecenteroftheworld(onthispointtheStoics
werenotagreed),diffusesitselfthroughouteverypartoftheuniverse,asthecauseofheatandgrowthandlifeandmotion.
Godisatonetimedescribedas Fire,Ether,Air,AtmosphericCurrent (pneuma);atanothertimeas Soul,Mind,
Reasoncontainingthegermsofallthings (logos spermatikos); while sometimes both styles of phraseology are
combined,andHeiscalledtheFieryReasonoftheWorld,MindinMatter,ReasonablePneuma.Thelanguageof
compromise is never wholly consistent, and the Stoic theology is an attempt to compromise between theism and
pantheism.Itis,however,certainthattheStoicsconceivedGodtobesomethingmaterial;forintheirexplanationofthepresence
ofGodintheuniversetheyassumethattheuniversalintermingling(krasisdihol n)impliestheimpenetrabilityofmatter,sothat
evenwhentheycallHimMind,Law,Providence,Destiny,theyunderstandbythesetermssomethingcorporeal.{13}
Godandtheworldarethesamereality,althoughthereexistsarelativedifferencebetweenGod,orrealityregardedasawhole,and
theworld,orrealityconsideredinsomeoneorotherofitsaspects.ThispantheismisthecentraldoctrineoftheStoicphysics;
indeed,itmaybesaidtobetheinspiringthoughtwhichjustifiedtotheStoicmindthestudyofnaturalphenomena.FortheStoics,as
hasbeensaid,lookeduponphilosophyasprimarilyamatterofpracticalimport,andstudiedphysicsonlyinordertofindabasisfor
theirethicalspeculations.Suchabasistheyfoundinthedoctrineofpantheism.Thisdoctrinemay,therefore,besaidtohavebeen
theirreligionaswellastheirphilosophy.Accordingly,theycriticisedthepopularbeliefsoftheirtime,beingcareful,however,toadmit
whateverelementsoftruththeyfoundinpolytheisticreligion,andmakingfreeuseofallegoryasameansofbridgingoverthechasm
betweenpolytheismandpantheism.{14}
Wemay,therefore,speakoftheworldasthebody,andoftheDeityasthesouloftheuniverse,ifwearecarefultobearinmind
thatthedistinctionismerelyarelativeone.Theworldaroseinthefollowingmanner.Theprimalfirewascondensedintoairand
water;waterinturnwascondensedintoearthThederivedelementsareconstantlytendingtoreturnbyrarefactiontotheprimal
fire;{15}butnosoonerwillthisdestructionbyconflagrationhavetakenplacethantheprimalfirewillissueforthinanotherseriesof
condensations,thusbeginninganothercosmicperiod,whichwillendlikeitspredecessorinconflagration.Heretheinfluenceof
Heraclitusisapparent.
TheDeity,regardedastheoriginoftheseprocessesofcondensationandreturningrarefaction,theprimalfire,is logos
spermatikos regardedastherulingorguidingprincipleoftheseprocesses,Heis Providence (pronoia)and Destiny
(eimarmen).Forallthingscomeforthfromtheprimalfireaccordingtolaw,andallthesubsequentchangesintheworld,allthe
eventsofhumanhistory,takeplaceaccordingtothenecessarysequenceofcauseandeffect.Whenwethinkoftheorderand
intelligent arrangement of the divine government, we name the Divine Ruler Providence; when we think of the necessary
dependenceofeffectoncause,wenameHim Destiny or Fate.{16} AccordingtotheStoicconception,Providenceis directed
immediatelytotheprocessesoftheuniverseingeneralandonlymediatelytotheindividualandhisactions.
InsupportoftheirdoctrineofProvidence,theStoicsappealtotheuniversalconsentofmankind,{17}being,apparently,thefirst
tousethisargument.
Thehumansoulismaterial.ThisnotonlyfollowsfromthegeneralprinciplesofStoicphilosophybutisalsoexpresslytaughtby
theStoicsandprovedwiththeaidofmanyarguments. {18}Thesoulisconceivedasfierybreath(pneuma)diffusedthroughoutthe
body;infact,therelationofthesoultothebodyisthesameasthatoftheDeitytotheworld.Itis,inaspecialsense,partofthe
Deity,partakingmoreandmoreofthenatureoftheDeityaccordingasweallowgreaterplaytothedivine,orreasonable,inus. {19}
Now,itispreciselyonaccountofthisspecialproximityofthesoultothedivinethatitcannotescapethenecessitywhichdivine
lawimposesonallthings.Thesoulisinnosensefree,unlessitbesaidtobefreebecausethenecessitybywhichitisruled
comesfromitsownnatureratherthanfromanythingexternaltoit.Meritandrewardfollowtheactionwhich,althoughitmustbe
performed,isperformedvoluntarily,thatis,withperfectacquiescenceintheruleofdivinedestiny."Volentemfataducunt;nolentem
trahunt."{20}
TheStoicideaofthesoulisasincompatiblewith immortality asitiswiththefreedomofthewill.Thesoul,beingmaterial,is
destinedtodestruction.Thetime,however,atwhichthesoulistobedissolvedintotheprimalfireisnotthemomentofdeath,but
theendofthecosmicperiod,whenallmatteristobedestroyedbyconflagration.TheStoicsweredividedastowhetherthesoulsof
allmen,oronlythoseofthewise,willlastuntilthattime.{21} Seneca'sreference{22} todeathasthebirthofafuturelife,andhis
descriptionofthepeacethatawaitsthesoulbeyondthegrave,suggestiveastheyareofPlatonicand,possibly,Christianinfluences,
containnothingthatisatvariancewithwhattheStoicstaughtaboutthedestinyofthehumansoul.

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StoicEthics.TheStoicsregardedethicsasthe"divinepart"ofphilosophy,fromwhich,asfromacenter,alltheirlogicaland
physicalinquiriesradiate.Questionsoflogicandphysicswereofinterestmerelyinsofarastheirsolutionthrewlightonthe
paramountproblemofphilosophy,theproblemofhumandestinyandhumanhappiness.Thus,attheveryoutsetoftheethical
inquiryconcerninghappiness,theStoicsappliedthemostcharacteristicoftheirphysicaldoctrines,thateverythingintheworldof
realityobeysandmustobeyinevitablelaw.Man,itistrue,isendowedwithreason,andistherebyenabledtoknowthelawwhichhe
obeys;heisnonethelessobligedtoobeyit.Nay,more,sinceheisinaspecialsensedivine,heisundergreaternecessitytoobey
than other manifestations of the Divine. The supreme canon of conduct is, therefore, to live conformably to nature
(homologoumen s t phusei zn), or, as Zeno is said to have formulated the maxim, to live a consistent life,
homologoumenoszn.Thisis man'shappiness(eudaimonia), hischiefgood(agathon), theendofhisexistence
(telos).{23}
Thehighestpurposeofhumanlifeisnot,therefore,contemplation,butactioninaccordancewiththelawsofuniversalnature,with
thewilloftheDeity.Ahintofthispurposeiscontainedintheinstinctofselfpreservationwhichistheprimaryimpulseineverybeing.
Actioninaccordancewithnature'slawsisvirtue,whichCicerotranslatesrectaratio.Virtueisnotmerelyagood;itistheonly
good.Consequently,richesandpleasureandhealthandhonorsarenotgoodsinanytruesenseoftheword;andtheStoics
persistentlycombatedtheteachingofPlatoandAristotle,whoconsideredthattheexternalgoodsoflifeareworthyofbeingdesired,
althoughtheyaresubservienttothechiefgood,whichisvirtue.StoicismwasstillmoredecidedinitsoppositiontotheHedonist
doctrinewhichmadevirtueitselftobeagoodsubordinatetopleasure.{24}
Tf,then,virtueistheonlygood,itmustbesoughtforitsownsake;itcontainsalltheconditionsofhappiness;virtueisvirtue's
ownreward.{25}Everythingelseisindifferent(adiaphoron).
TheStoicsadheredtotheSocraticdoctrinethatvirtueisone,andyet,sincevirtue,whileone,mayhaveapluralityofobjects,they
considered that therearedifferent manifestations ofvirtue,suchasprudence,courage, temperance,andjustice (whichPlato
regardedasfourkindsofvirtue),andpatience,magnanimity,etc.,whichmayberegardedasderivationsfromoneorotherofthe
cardinalvirtues.{26}Accordingly,amanwhoisprudentmustofnecessitybecourageous;forhewhopossessesonevirtue
mustpossessall.{27} Now,hewhohasarightappreciationofgoodandevil,andwhoconsequentlyintendstodogood,is
virtuous.Fromwhichitfollowsthatnoactisinitselfpraiseworthyorreprehensible;themoralityoftheactisdeterminedbythe
disposition:"Nonquidfiat,autquiddeturrefert,sedquamente."{28}
Vice,theoppositeofvirtue,consistsinlivingoutofharmonywiththelawsofnature.Likevirtue,itisessentiallyone.Hewhois
guiltyofoneviceisguiltyofall;thereisnodistinctionofdegreeinvice.("Omniapeccataparia.")
TheStoics,however,althoughtheyseemedtoidentifymoralexcellencewithintellectualorrationalinsight,andspokeofthevirtuous
manasthewiseman,recognizedthatmanisnotwhollyrational.Fromhisirrationalnaturespringtheemotions (path).The
emotions perturbationes,asCicerocallsthemaremovementsofthemindcontrarytoreason. {29} Now,thereis adesire
(horm)whichisaccordingtolawandreason,andthisisthenaturalimpulsetowardswhatisgood.Thedesire,onthecontrary,
whichisaccordingtoemotionisintrinsicallyunreasonableandthereforebad;forallemotionsarecontrarytoreason.Itfollowsthat
thewisemanshouldaimateradicatingallhisemotions;heshouldstrivetobecomeabsolutelyemotionless. {30} Thisdoctrineof
apathyisoneofthemostcharacteristicofthedoctrinesoftheStoa.{31}
IntheirapplicationoftheseethicalprinciplestheStoicsdevelopedavastnumberofparadoxesreferringtothewiseman,
thatis,totheidealStoicphilosopher.Healoneisfree,beautiful,rich,andhappy.Healoneknowshowtogovernaswellastoobey.
Heistheorator,thepoet,theprophet.Therestoftheworldismad;themajorityofmenpasstheirlivesinwickedness,slavesto
custom,topleasure,andtoamultitudeofdesires.Thewisemanaloneisindifferenttopain;forhimdeathhasnoterrors,andwhen
heiscalledupontodecidebetweendeathanddishonorheistruetohisStoicteachingifhepreferstheformer.Suicide,therefore,is
sometimesaduty;itisalwaysjustifiedifimpendingmisfortuneissuchasseriouslytothreatenpeaceofmindandtranquillityofsoul.
Thewisemanisindependentofalltiesofbloodandkinship.Heisathomeeverywhere.Heisacitizenoftheworld,or,asEpictetus
says,{32}heisachildofGodandallmenarehisbrethren.
Historical Position. Stoic philosophy, by reason of its systematic development, approaches more closely to the
comprehensivenessofthePlatonicandAristoteliansystemsthandoesanyotherphilosophyofthisthirdperiod.Takingupthebest
principlesoftheCynicmorality,itadvancedfarbeyondtheCynicphilosophy,owingtothelargerpartwhichitassignedtomental
cultureinitsschemeoflife,andalsotothebroaderandmoresystematicbasisoflogicandphysicsonwhichitbuiltitsethical
teaching. Nevertheless, Stoicism is not free from the dominant vice of the age to which it belonged. It is a onesided
developmentofphilosophy.Itsubordinatesthetheoreticaltothepractical.Initstheoryofknowledgeitissensistic;inits
physicsitismaterialisticandpantheistic;inthedevelopmentofitsmoralprinciplesitsubordinatestheindividualtouniversallaw,

71

stampingoutindividualdesire,andadvocatingthemergingofdomesticandpoliticalinstinctsinafaroffdreamofthefellowshipof
cosmopolitanphilosophers.Itlacksthatcomprehensivesweepofcontemplationwhich,inthegoldenageofGreekphilosophy,set
thetheoreticalbythesideofthepractical,placedthestudyofnatureonafootingwhichgaveitavalueofitsown,distinguished,
withoutseparating,matterandmind,andinethicsgavedueimportancetotheindividualemotionsandtothesocialinstinctsaswell
astotheimmutablemorallaw.Thisdisintegrationoftheuniversalphilosophicalview,andtheconsequentisolationofseparate
aspectsofspeculativeandpracticalproblems,whichisfirstseeninStoicism,goesonincreasinginthesystemswhichcomeafter
thephilosophyoftheStoa.
OfallthedefectsofStoicism,thatwhichcontributedmosttothedownfallanddissolutionoftheschoolwasthedoctrinethatthe
wisemanisemancipatedfromallmorallaw.ThisdoctrineisnottheonlytenetoftheStoicswhichrecallsthephilosophyof
theOrientratherthanthatofGreece.TheidentityofGodandtheworld,theemanationofthesoul,thefinalreabsorptionofallthings
inGod,theseandsimilardoctrinesarepeculiartotheOrientalformofspeculation.WemustrememberthatZenoofCypruswas
notmorethanhalfGreek,andalthoughhismentaltrainingandthelogicalderivationofhisphilosophywereentirelyGreek,therewas
inhimenoughoftheOrientaltemperamenttoinfuseintohisphilosophyaspiritmoreinaccordancewiththequietismoftheEast
thanwiththeGreciansenseofartisticcompleteness.Thisquietism,togetherwiththeexorbitantclaimssetuponbehalfofthewise
man,finallybroughtStoicismdowntosolowalevelofmoralaimsthatitwasscarcelytobedistinguishedfromEpicureanism.

{1}ThisopinionofZellerandothersiscontrovertedbyBenn,TheGreekPhilosophers,Vol.1,p.xi.
{2}Cf.Zeller'sStoics,etc.,p.41,n.;RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.394,notee.
{3}Placita,IV,12;Diels,op.cit.,p.401.
{4}Sext.,Mathem.,VII,228.
{5}Sext.,Mathem.,VII,244.
{6}Acad.,II,47.
{7}Cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,pp.399ff.
{8}Placita,IV,xi;Diels,op.cit.,p.400.
{9}Forauthorities,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.407.
{10}Cf.Seneca,Ep.58.
{11}Forreferences,cf.Zeller,Stoics,etc.,p.127,n.;cf.alsoRitterandPreller,op.cit.,p.408,notee.
{12} Cf. Ritter, HistoryofAncientPhilosophy,trans.byMorrison(Oxford,1838),VolIII,p.513;alsoBenn, TheGreek
Philosophers,Vol.II,p.13.Thelattersays:"Virtuesandviceswere,accordingtotheStoics,somanygaseouscurrentsbywhich
the soul is penetrated and shaped a materialistic rendering of Plato's theory that qualities are distinct and independent
substances."
{13}Cf.Cicero,DeNat.Deorum,II,7ff.;ibid.,I,14.
{14}Cicero,DeNat.Deodrum,III,24ff.
{15}Stob.,Ed.,I,444;Diels,op.cit.,p.465.
{16}Diog.Laer.,VII,149.
{17}Stob.,Ecl.,I,100.
{18}Diog.Laer.,VII,157.
{19}Seneca,Ep.31.
{20}Cf.Cicero,DeFato,XVIII.
{21}Diog.Laer.,VII,256.
{22}Ep.102.
{23}Cf.Cicero,DeFinibus,III,5;Diog.Laer.,VII,88.
{24}Diog.Laer.,VII,30;MarcusAurelius,IX,16.

72

{25}Diog.Laer.,VII,102;Seneca,Ep.85.
{26}Stob.,Ed.,II,204.
{27}Cicero,Paradoxa,3,1.
{28}Seneca,DeBeneficiis,VI,6.
{29}Diog.Laer.,VII,120,
{30}Diog.Laer.,VII,117.
{31}ForcomparisonoftheChristianandtheStoicsystemsofmorality,cf.Talamo,LeoriginidelCristianesimoeilpensiero
stoico(terzaed.,Roma,1902).
{32}Dissertations,I,23,3.

CHAPTERXIVTHEEPICUREANS
Sources.OfthevoluminouswritingsofEpicurusonlyafewfragmentshavecomedowntous,andtheseareforthemostpart
unimportant.ForthehistoryoftheschoolthemostimportantprimarysourceisLucretius'poemDeRerumNatura.Assecondary
sourceswehavetheworksofCicero,Plutarch,DiogenesLaertius,andtheAristoteliancommentators.
HistoryoftheEpicureanSchool.{1} Epicurus wasbornatSamosintheyear341or342B.C.Hisfather,Neocles,was,
Strabotellsus,aschoolteacher.AccordingtothetraditionoftheEpicureanschool,Epicuruswasaselftaughtphilosopher,andthis
isconfirmedbyhisverysuperficialacquaintancewiththephilosophicalsystemsofhispredecessors.Still,hemusthavehadsome
instructioninphilosophy,forPamphilusandNausiphanesarementionedashavingbeenhisteachers;Epicurus,however,wouldnot
acknowledgehisdebttothem,boastingthathehadbegunhisselfinstructionattheageoffourteen,havingbeendriventorelyon
hisownpowersofthoughtbytheinabilityofhisteachertoexplainwhatwasmeantbytheChaosofHesiod.Hefirsttaughtat
Mitylene,afterwardsatLampsacus,andfinallyatAthens,whereheestablishedhisschoolinagarden,therebygivingoccasionfor
thenamebywhichhisfollowerswereknown,hoiapot nkp n.Herehetaughtuntilhisdeath,whichtookplacein270B.C.
ThemostcelebratedofthedisciplesofEpicuruswereMetrodorus(born330B.C.),Hermarchus(whosucceededEpicurusas
presidentoftheschoolandwassucceededby Polystratus), Dionysius,and Basilides.Towardstheendofthesecond
centuryB.C.theschoolwasrepresentedatAthensbyApollodorus,ZenoofSidon,andPhaedrus.
Amalfinius(about150B.C.)seemstohavebeenthefirsttomakeknownthedoctrinesofEpicurustotheRomans.Lateronwe
hearofaSyro,orSciro,whotaughtEpicureanphilosophyatRome;butitisLucretius(TitusLucretiusCarus,9551B.C.)who,
inhispoemDeRerumNatura,givesusthefirstLatincontributiontoEpicureanliterature.
AlthoughtheschoolofEpicurusissaidtohavebeendistinguishedbyitscheerfultone,itiscertainthatitindulgedinmuchabusive
criticism,fortheEpicureanswereknownthroughoutantiquityasleadersintheartofcalumny.Everything,therefore,whichthe
EpicureanssayaboutthesystemsandthephilosophersofpreSocraticandSocratictimesmusthavecorroborationfromother
sourcesbeforeitcanbeaccepted.Epicurushimselfsettheexampleinmisrepresentation,whenhegaveexpressiontohiscontempt
forhisteachersandpredecessors,whilefromhisownfollowersheexactedeveryoutwardmarkofrespect,eveninsistingontheir
committingtomemorycertainbriefformulas(,~pw.t&$iu)whichcontainedthepithofhisteaching. {2}HenceitisthattheEpicurean
philosophyadheredsocloselytotheformwhichitfirstreceivedfromtheteachingofEpicurus.
EPICUREANPHILOSOPHY
EpicureanNotionofPhilosophy.Havingdefinedphilosophyastheartofmakinglifehappy,{3}andhavinglaiddown
theprinciplethatthereshouldbenodeviationfromthekuriaidoxai,Epicurussubordinatedspeculationtothepracticalaspectsof
philosophyandeffectivelydiscouragedallindependenceofthoughtonthepartofhisdisciples.Itiswellknownthathedespised
learningandculture.Theonlylogicalproblemtowhichhegaveevencursoryattentionwastheproblemofknowledge.Heattached
greatervaluetothestudyofnature,butonlybecauseheconsideredthataknowledgeofnaturalcausesmayfreethemindfroma
fearofthegodsandinthiswaycontributetohumanhappiness.{4}InthephilosophyofEpicurus,therefore,ethics,ortheinquiryinto
thenatureandconditionsofhappiness,istheparamountproblem,towhich logic andthe studyofnature aremerelythe
preliminaries.

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EpicureanLogic.ThisportionofEpicureanphilosophywasstyledcanonic,becauseitconsistsmerelyofasystemofrules,
EpicureanPhysics.ThephysicaldoctrinesoftheEpicureansreceivetheirtoneandcharacterfromthepurposewhichthe
Epicureansalwayshadinmindthroughouttheirinvestigationsofnature,tofreemenfromthefearofthegods.Tothisaim
theEpicureanssubordinatedtheirphysicalinquiries,andastheycaredlittlewhethertheirexplanationwasaccurateorinaccurate,
completeorincomplete,theyleftmattersofdetailtobesettledbyindividualsaccordingtoindividualchoice,insisting,however,in
theirgeneralexplanationofnaturalphenomena,ontheexclusionofanycausethatwasnotanaturalcause.
DeliberatelyrejectingtheSocraticphilosophyofnatureandturningtothepreSocraticsystemsofphilosophy,Epicurusrecognized
thatthephilosophywhichwasmostnaturalisticinitsexplanationsandwagedmostpersistentwarfareonfinalcauses,wasthatof
Democritus.Ashistheoryofnature,therefore,headoptedthephysicsofDemocritus,modifyingit,asweshallsee,inoneimportant
respect.Thusheacceptedwithoutmodificationthe atomism ofDemocritusaswellastheDemocriteanideaofa vacuum.
Nothingexistsexceptatomsandvoid:mindasmovingcauseisasuperfluouspostulate:

Ergo,praeterinaneetcorpora,tertiaperseNullapotestreruminnumeronaturarelinqui.{9}
TheonlypointonwhichDemocritusandEpicurusdifferisinreferencetotheprimalmotionofatoms.Democritusmaintained
thattheatoms,fallingthroughemptyspace,movedwithdifferentvelocitiesonaccountoftheirdifferenceinweight.This,Aristotle
pointedout,isimpossible.Epicurus,acknowledgingthejusticeofAristotle'scriticism,soughttoaccountforthecollisionofthefalling
atomsbypostulatingonthepartoftheatomsaselfdeterminingpowerbymeansofwhichsomeofthemswervedslightlyfrom
theverticallineandthus{10}causedacircularorrotatorymotion.
InhisaccountoftheoriginoflifeEpicurusacceptedthetheoryofEmpedocles,whoheldthatallsortsofdeformedandmonstrous
creaturesfirstsprangfromtheearth,thosealonesurvivingwhichwerefittosupportandprotectthemselvesandtopropagatetheir
kind.
TheEpicureanaccountofhumansocietyiswellknown.Lucretius {11} taughtthatthemenofoldentimeswereasstrongandas
savageasbeasts;thattheprimitiveconditionoftheracewasoneofwarfare;andthatcivilsocietywasformedasaprotection
againstanarchyandtheabsolutepowerofkings.
Similarly,religion,accordingtotheEpicureans,wasofnaturalgrowth.Fearisthebasisofreligion.{12}Ignorance,too,isafactor
inthegenesisofthereligiousinstinct.Itwasowingtoignoranceandfearthatmenattributednaturalportentstotheinterventionof
supernaturalpowersandsoughttoexplaintheregularityofthemotionoftheheavenlybodiesbyreferringittotheagencyof
Providence.Nevertheless,Epicurusdidnotwhollyabandonbeliefinthegods.Thegods,hesaid,existbecausetheyhaveappeared
tomenandleftonthemindsofmenrepresentativeimages(prolpseis).{13}Theyareimmortal;theyenjoyperfecthappiness;
formedofthefinestatoms,theydwellintheuppermostpartsoftheuniverse,inthespacesbetweenthestars.Thepopularnotion,
however,thatthegodstakeaninterestinhumanaffairsiserroneous,becauseaninterestintheaffairsofmenwouldbeinconsistent
withtheperfecthappinesswhichthegodsenjoy.{14}
Thehumansoulis,likethegods,composedofthefinerkindofatoms.Itisamoresubtlekindofbody,resemblingairand
fire.{15}Moreaccurately,itiscomposedofair,fire,vapor,andafourthelement,whichisnameless.Thislastconstitutestherational
part(logicon)ofthesoul,whichisseatedinthebreast,whileair,fire,andvaporconstitutetheirrationalpart,whichisscattered
throughouttheremainderofthebody.Lucretiuscallstherationalpartanimus,ormens,andtheirrationalpartanima.{16}
AccordingtotheStoics,itisthesoulwhichholdsthebodytogether;accordingtotheEpicureans,itisthebodywhichsheltersthe
atomsofthesoul,sothat,whentheprotectionaffordedbythebodyceases,asitdoesatthemomentofdeath,thesoulatomsare
instantlyscattered,owingtotheirextremelightness.{17} InthiswayEpicurus,keepinginmindthechiefaimofallhisphysical
inquiries,soughttorobdeathofitsterrorsbyteachingthat thereisnofuturelife."Totaresfictaestpueriliter,"asCicero
exclaims.
Epicurusassertedthefreedomofthewill.Hedeniedtheexistenceoffate,butinhisownanalysisofhumanactionhewasobligedto
substitutechanceforfate.Despitehisdoctrineoffreedom,hewasforcedtomaintainthatthereisnotruthindisjunctivepropositions
referringtothefuture.{18}
EpicureanEthics.TheEpicureancanonicandthegeneralviewswhichtheEpicureansmaintainedinmattersofphysical
scienceledinevitablytotheconclusionthat theonlyunconditionalgoodispleasure,aconclusionwhichisthebasisof
Epicureanethics.TheethicalsystemofEpicurusissimplyamodifiedformoftheHedonismofAristippusandtheotherCyrenaics.
When,however,Epicuruscomestodefinepleasure,hedoesnot,likeAristippus,defineitasagentlemotion:consideringratherits
negativeaspect,hedescribesitastheabsenceofpain.Hedoesnotindeedomitthepositiveaspect;hemerelyinsiststhatthe

74

negativeaspect,reposeofmind(ataraxia),isessential,whilethegentlemotionwhichconstitutespositivepleasureissecoridary
andaccidental.{19}Unsatisfieddesireispain,andpainisdestructiveofmentalrepose;forthisreason,andforthisreasonalone,
shouldthedesiresbesatisfied,anditisonlyinthiswaythatpositivepleasurebecomespartofthehighestgood.{20}
ThedifferencebetweentheEpicureansandtheCyrenaicsisfurthermoreapparentintheEpicureandoctrineofthehierarchyof
pleasures.Highestofallpleasuresarethoseofthemind,namely,knowledgeandintelligence,whichfreethesoulfromprejudiceand
fear,andcontributetoitsrepose.Forthisreasonthewisemanshouldnotplacehishopeofhappinessinthepleasuresofsense,but
shouldrisetotheplaneofintellectualenjoyment.Here,however,Epicuruswasinconsistent;hecouldnotlogicallymaintaina
distinctionbetweensenseandintellect.Indeed,Diogenes{21}preservesasayingofEpicurustotheeffectthatthereisnogoodapart
fromthepleasuresofthesenses,andPlutarchandothersrepresentMetrodorusasmaintainingthateverythinggoodhasreference
tothestomach.{22}
IntheirapplicationofthedoctrineofpleasuretheEpicureansrecognizethateachmanis,inacertainsense,hisownlegislator.Itis
forhimtodeterminewhatisusefulorpleasantandwhatisharmfulorpainful.Hencetheprincipleofmoderation:Restrainyour
needsanddesireswithinthemeasureinwhichyouwillbeabletosatisfythem.And,whilenokindofpleasureis
evilinitself,thewisemanwillavoidthosepleasureswhichdisturbhispeaceofmindandwhich,therefore,entailpain.{23}
VirtuehasfortheEpicureansamerelyrelativevalue.Itisnotgoodorpraiseworthyinitself,butonlysofarasitisusefulinsecuring
thatpainlessnesswhichisthehappinessoflife.Thevirtuousmansecuresthemaximumofpleasureandtheminimumofpain;
temperanceteacheshimtoavoidexcess,andcourageenableshimtoforegoapleasureorendureapainforthesakeofgreater
pleasureorlesspaininthefuture.Lesssuccessfuleventhantheseattemptsatfindingarationalbasisforcourageandtemperance
istheEpicureanattemptatanalyzingthevirtueofjustice;forjusticeintheEpicureanphilosophyisbasedonthesocialcompact
into which primitive man entered as a means of selfdefense and selfpreservation. Cicero complains that the ethics of the
Epicureansleavesnoplaceforthesentimentofhonor;amoreseriousfaultisitsfailuretosupplyarationalbasisforthevirtueof
justice.
TheclaimswhichtheEpicureansadvancedonbehalfofthewisemanaresimilartothoseadvancedbytheStoics.Thewiseman
aloneismasterofhisdesires;heisunerringinhisconvictions;heishappyineverycircumstanceandconditionoflife;andalthough
heisnot,aswastheStoicsage,whollyunemotional,stillheholdshisemotionsinperfectcontrol.Later,however,thisidealgradually
degenerated,anddespitetheexampleofmoderationsetbyEpicurusandhisearlyfollowers,thewisemanofEpicureantradition
becamethemodelofthecarelessmanoftheworld,withwhomitisimpossibletoassociateearnestnessofmoralstriving.
HistoricalPosition.TheStoicandtheEpicureanschools,thetwomostimportantschoolsoftheperiod,bothsprangupand
developedundertheinfluenceofthesameexternalconditions.Theinternalprincipleoftheirdevelopmentwas,however,different.
TheStoicswerefatalists; theEpicureanswere casualists. Thisdifferencein theirconceptionof nature ledtothe
differenceintheirviewofpracticallifewhichissoapparentintheirethicalsystems.Yettherewerepoints,theoreticalaswellas
ethical, inwhich the twoschools approached veryclose to eachother. Bothwerematerialistic intheirphysicalsystemsand
sensualisticintheirtheoriesofknowledge;bothwereillogicalintheirdevelopmentoftheideaofduty,although,asZellerpointsout,
thechargeofinconsistencyisurgedwithlessjusticeagainsttheEpicureansthanagainsttheStoics.TheEpicureansdefined
philosophyastheartofmakinglifehappy,andforthemhappinesswasprimarilyamatteroffeelingratherthanofknowledge,while
theStoicsdefinedhappinessasconsistinginalifeledinharmonywithnature.FortheStoic,therefore,thestudyofnatureandthe
adoptionofaconsistenttheoryofnaturewereofgreaterimportancethantheywerefortheEpicurean.
ThephysicsoftheEpicureansdiffers,ashasbeensaid,fromthephysicsofDemocritusinregardtothedoctrineoftheswerving
motionoftheatoms,anadmissionwhichdestroystheconsistencyofDemocritus'theory.Thistheorywasatleastnotself
contradictory:theEpicureantheoryisamixtureofdynamismandmechanismwhichcannotstandamoment'sseriousinvestigation.
TheethicsoftheEpicureanschoolissimplytheHedonismofAristippusrefinedunderabroaderideaofcultureandamore
enlightenedconceptofSocraticEudemonism.InspiteofSocraticinfluence,theEpicureanethicsisnot,inthestrictsenseofthe
word,asystemofmoralityatall.Itcontainsnoprinciplesofmorality;itreducesrightandwrongtoamatterofindividualfeeling,
substitutingforgoodandevilthecategoriespleasantandpainful.

{1}Forbiographicaldata,cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,pp.373ff.
{2}Cicero,DeFin.,II,7.
{3}Sext.,Mathem.,XI,169.
{4}Cicero,DeFin.,I,7.

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{5}Diog.Laer.,X,33.
{6}Lucr.,IV,26.ReferencesaretothepoemDeRerumNatura.
{7}Op.cit.,IV,730.
{8}Cf.Zeller,op.cit.,p.432.
{9}Lucr.,I,445.
{10}Lucr.,II,216.
{11}V,925ff.
{12}Lucr.,III,14;I,62.
{13}Cf.Cicero,DeNat.Deorum,I,16.
{14}Diog.Laer.,X,123.
{15}Op.cit.,X,63.
{16}Cf.III,94ff.
{17}Lucr.,III,417ff.
{18}Cf.Cicero,DeNat.Deorum,I,25.
{19}Diog.Laer.,X,136.
{20}Seneca,Ep.66.
{21}X,6.
{22}Cf.RitterandPreller,op.cit.,387.
{23}Diog.Laer.,X,130;cf.Cicero,Tusc.,V,31.

CHAPTERXVTHESCEPTICS
Sources.Pyrrho,thechiefScepticofthisperiod,leftnowritings.Ofthewritingsofhisearlierfollowersveryfewfragmentshave
comedowntous.Weareobliged,therefore,torelyonsecondarysources,suchasDiogenesLaertius,Aristocles(quoted
byEusebius),andtheLaterSceptics.{1}
TheStoicsandEpicureanslaiddowncertaintheoreticalprinciplesfromwhichtheydeducedcanonsofconduct,alwayskeepingin
view the practical aim of philosophy, to make men happy. The Sceptics agreed with the Stoics and Epicureans in referring
philosophyprimarilytoconductandthepursuitofhappiness,but,insteadoflayingdowntheoreticalprinciplesastheStoicsand
Epicureanshaddone,theytaughtthatthefirststeptohappinessistoforegoalltheoreticalinquiryandtodisclaimallcertaintyof
knowledge.
The principal Sceptics are: (1) Pyrrho, (2) the Platonists of the Middle Academy, (3) Later Sceptics, including
AEnesidemus.
PYRRHO
Life.PyrrhoofEliswasacontemporaryofAristotle.Verylittleisknownabouthislife.Itisprobablethathediedabouttheyear270
B.C.Amonghisdisciples TimonofPhlius,surnamedthe sillographer,isbestknown.Timoncomposedsatiricalpoems
(silloi)inwhichheattackedthedogmatists,followinginthistheexampleofhisteacher,whodeclaredthatDemocritusalone
deservedthenameofphilosopher,andthatalltherest,PlatoandAristotleincluded,weremereSophists.
DOCTRINES
InaccountingforPyrrho'sScepticismitissafetoaddtotheinfluencewhichDemocritusmayhaveexercisedonhismind the
influenceoftheMegarianspiritofcriticismwhichmusthaveprevailedinPyrrho'snativecity.

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AllweknowabouttheteachingofPyrrhomaybereducedtothefollowingpropositions:(1)Inthemselves,realthingsareneither
beautifulnorugly,neitherlargenorsmall.Wehaveaslittlerighttosaythattheyaretheoneaswehavetosaythattheyarethe
other.Hencethefamousoudenmallon.{2}(2)Realthingsare,therefore,inaccessibletohumanknowledge,andheiswisewho,
recognizingthefutilityofinquiry,abstainsfromjudging.Thisattitudeofmindwascalled epoch aphasia.{3} (3)Fromthis
withholdingofjudgmentarisesthestateofimperturbability(ataraxia)inwhichhumanhappinessconsists.{4}
InthisaccountofPyrrhonismnoattempthasbeenmadetoseparatethedoctrinesofPyrrhofromthoseofTimon.Pyrrhotaught
orally,andthefactofhishavingleftnowritingsaccountsforthefreedomwithwhichwritersattributetohimtheprinciplesandtenets
ofhisfollowers.
THEMIDDLEACADEMY
ArcesilausandCarneades,departingfromthetraditionofthePlatonicschool,ofwhichtheyweretheofficialrepresentatives,
lenttheiraidtotheScepticalmovementbyseekingtoestablishonrationalandempiricalgroundsthethesisthatitisimpossibleto
arriveatcertitude.{5}TheScepticismoftheMiddleAcademyveryquicklygavewaybeforeEclecticism.
THELATERSCEPTICS
Underthis titleare included AEnesidemus andotherswhowere forthemost part physicians, and who from sensualistic
premisesdeducedasystemofScepticismwhichwasmoreradicalthantheidealisticScepticismortheprobabilismoftheAcademy.
AEnesidemus ofCnossusinCretetaughtatAlexandriaaboutthebeginningoftheChristianera.AccordingtoRitterand
Preller,{6}heflourishedbetweentheyears80and50B.C.Diogenes{7}alludestoaworkofAEnesidemusinwhichbymeansoften
tropes (tropoi) he strove to show that contradictory predicates may be affirmed of one and the same subject, and that,
consequently,certainknowledgeisimpossible.ThesetropesareafairlycompleteenumerationoftheargumentsoftheScepticsand
furnished,directlyorindirectly,materialtomorethanoneadvocateoftherelativityofknowledgeinsubsequenttimes.
AccordingtoSextusEmpiricus,{8}AEnesidemussubjectedthenotionofcausetospecialanalysis,andpronouncedittobeself
contradictory.Acause,heargued,eitherprecedestheeffect,orissynchronouswithit,orissubsequenttoit.Now,itcannotprecede
theeffect;ifitdid,itwouldbeacausebeforeitwasacause.Itcannotbesynchronouswiththeeffect,forinthatcasecauseand
effectwouldbeinterchangeable;therewouldbenoreasonwhyoneratherthantheothershouldbecalledtheproduct.Finally,the
hypothesisthatthecauseissubsequenttotheeffectismanifestlyabsurd.InthiswaydidAEnesidemusconclude,sophistically,that
thenotionofcauseisutterlydevoidofmeaning.
AEnesidemus,however,didnotregardScepticismasasystem,butonlyasanintroduction(agg)toasystemofphilosophy.
Agrippa,wholivedaboutacenturyafterAEnesidemus,reducedthetropestofive,andarguedthatknowledgeisimpossible
because,themajorpremiseofthesyllogismbeingitselfaconclusion,syllogisticreasoningisaregressusininfinitum.
SextusEmpiricus,whoisthemostimportantofthelaterSceptics,livedatAlexandriaabouttheyearA.D.300.Inhiswork
AgainsttheMathematicians,andinhistreatiseknownasPyrrhonicHypotyposes,hesubjectstocriticalexaminationthe
dogmatismnotonlyofthegreatconstructivesystemsoftheoreticalandpracticalphilosophybutalsoofarithmeticandgeometry.He
maintainsthatnoscienceiscertain,orratherthatthetrueScepticshouldrefrainfromanyabsolutejudgmentwhatever.
HistoricalPosition.ThehistoryofGreekScepticismexhibitsaninterestingphaseofthepracticalideawhichdominatedthe
philosophyofGreeceduringthethirdperiod.LiketheStoicsandEpicureans,theScepticswereanimatedwiththedesiretofindin
philosophyarefugefromthedishearteningconditionsofthetimesinwhichtheylived;but,unliketheirdogmatizingcontemporaries,
theybelievedthatthefirststeptowardssecuringhappinessistheabdicationofallclaimtotheattainmentofscientificknowledge.

{1}Forbiographicaldata,cf.Suidas,Lexikon(ed.Bernhardy,2vols.,Halle,1853);cf.Migne,PatrologiaGraeca,Vol.CXVII,
col.1194.
{2}Cf.Diog.Laer.,IX,61.
{3}Op.cit.,IX,103.
{4}Aristocles,quotedbyEusebius,PraeparatioEvangelica,XIV,18,apudMigne,Patr.Graeca,Vol.XXI,coll.1216ff.
{5}Cf.p.123.
{6}Op.cit.,p.570.

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{7}IX,106.
{8}Mathem.,IX,220.

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