The ISO (International Organization for Standardization) decided to construct a

framework of standards in which different vendors would be able to use in order to

communicate over a network consisting of diverse equipment and applications. This
framework is now considered the standard for communication of networks. The OSI
is divided into 7 layers, which divides the task into smaller more manageable task
groups. Each task or group of tasks assigned to each layer can also be
implemented independently. This limits complications between layers because the
solutions offered by one layer do not adversely affect the other layers.
The 7 layers can be split logically into two subgroups. Layers 7 thru 4 focus on the
end to end communication of data source and destinations. Layers 3 thru 1 are
provide consistent communication between the network devices. An easier way of
looking at the OSI model is dividing the upper layers (7, 6, 5) from the lower layers
(4, 3, 2, 1). The upper layers deal with application issues and are implemented only
in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is the closest to the end user.
The lower layers are responsible for the transportation of the data. The physical
layer and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest
layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the wires, for
example) and is responsible for placing data on the medium.
The following is a top-down explanation of the OSI Model. It starts with the user's PC
and it follows what happens to the user's file as it passes though the different OSI
Model layers. The top-down approach was selected specifically (vs. starting at the
Physical Layer and working up to the Application Layer) for ease of understanding. It
is used here to show how the user's files are transformed (through the layers) into a
bit stream for transmission on the network.

LAYER 7 - APPLICATION
The application level provides services that directly support the user applications,
such as user interface, e-mail, file transfer, database access, etc. There are many
protocols at this layer that are commonly needed such as HTTP, WWW, FTP,
TELNET, SMTP. It gives applications access to the network through the layers below.
Another important function is file transfer between computers. Some computers store
file names or represent text lines differently. The application layer takes care of the
incompatibilities and allows a smooth transfer between systems.
Protocols: FTP1, HTTP2, SMTP3, DNS4, TFTP5, NFS6, TELNET7.

LAYER 6 - PRESENTATION
The presentation level is translator between the application and network format.
Unlike the lower layers, its concern is with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted. Most user programs do not exchange random binary bit
strings. They exchange data such as names, addresses, dates, etc. Different
computers store the data in a different way. In order to allow these computers to
transmit the data to each other the presentation layer translates the data into a

standard form to be used on the network. Another function is data compression

which can be used to reduce the number of bits needed to send the packet of
information. Security is also added at this layer by using data encryption and
decryption. This prevents others from intercepting the data and being able to
decipher the meaning of the bits.
Protocols: ASCII8, EBCDIC9, MIDI10, MPEG11, JPEG12.

LAYER 5 - SESSION
This layer allows applications on connecting systems to communicate using a
session. It opens, uses, and closes this communication link. It also acts as a dialog
control mechanism controlling who is able to transmit. Sessions can allow data to be
sent in both directions at the same time or only one direction. The session layer
determines who has the ability to transfer at the current time. Another valuable ability
is to insert checkpoints during data transfers. During a large file transmission if the
system crashes the checkpoints allow the system to start downloading at the last
known checkpoint. An example of this is during either a interactive login or file
transfer connection, the session would recognize names in the session and register
them into a history. It could then connect and reconnect in case of a system crash at
either of the systems.
Protocols: SQL13, RPC14.

LAYER 4 - TRANSPORT
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the session layer,
break up the data into smaller units if need be, and send these manageable data
packets to the network layer. At the destination this layer is responsible for combining
the packets into their original state. This layer also checks to see if the layers are in
the right order when received and not in duplicated form. If there is an error in one of
the packets there is a request for that packet's retransmission. There are two
protocols that sit at this layer. First, the TCP protocol connects the sender and the
receiver using a socket which is determined by the IP address and port number. TCP
keeps track of the packet delivery order and which ones need to be resent. UDP on
the other hand is a connectionless communication and does not guarantee packet
delivery between sender and receiver. Because it is connectionless the sender
sends the data into the network with an IP address of the receiver and hopes it
makes it to its destination. Since there is not a way of asking the sender to retransmit
because of an error there is little error protection if any.
Protocols: TCP15 or UDP16.

LAYER 3 - NETWORK
The network layer basically handles all of the addressing issues. This layer
addresses packets, determines the best path or route, and manages network
problems such as data congestion. There are three ways in which the packets are
routed to their destinations. First, there could be a static route through the entire
network that will never be changed. Second, there could be a static line only used
during a particular session between the sender and receiver. Finally, the packets
could be dynamically sent through the network using changing paths in order to
prevent bottlenecks. The bottlenecks are formed when there are too many packets
present in one subnet causing them to get in each other's way. The network level is
also responsible for converting the network address and names to the MAC
addresses of the machines. One of the most important functions of this layer is the
ability to allow two different networks using conflicting addressing schemes to be
able to send data to each other. The network layer allows the different protocols to
"talk" to each other and understand where the packet's destination is. Routers work
at this level by sending the packets along the network.
Protocols: IP17, ICMP18, ARP19, PING20, Traceroute21.

LAYER 2 - DATA LINK

The data link layer defines the format of data on the network. All of the data sent
through the network are made into a frame which is performed at this level. The
frame is a uniform way of sending the data along with address information and error
checking capabilities. CRC is used for the error detection at this level. If at the
receiving end the CRC fails at this level there is a request back to the sender for
retransmission of this packet.
Protocols: IEEE 802.222, 802.323, 802.524.

LAYER 1 - PHYSICAL
The physical layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining and ending physical
connections (point to point) between computers. This layer is concerned with the
actual interpretation of the bit stream into an electrical signal that can be carried
across a physical medium. The protocols at this layer deal with the binary
transmission, voltage levels, and data rates. This layer would also specify physical
medium properties such as cables and network cards.
Protocols: IEEE 802.323, 802.524.

TERMS
1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) - Used to transfer files over the internet using
TCP/IP.
2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) - Underlining protocol used by the
World Wide Web. Allows Web servers and browsers to communicate with
each other.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) - Protocol used to send email
messages between servers.
4. DNS (Domain Name Service) - An internet service that translates domain
names, such as www.yahoo.com, into IP addresses.
5. TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) - Simplified version of the FTP protocol
which has no security features.
6. NFS (Network File System) - Client/Server application designed by SUN
MICROSYSTEMS to allow all network users to access files stored on different
computer types.
7. Telnet - terminal emulation program that allows you to connect to a server
and enter information and commands similar to if you were actually on the
server terminal.
8. ASCII - a code for representing English characters as numbers.
9. EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code) - IBM code
for representing characters as numbers.
10. MIDI (Musical Instrument Device Interface) - adopted by the electronic
music industry for controlling devices, such as synthesizers and sound cards,
that emit music.
11. MPEG (Moving Pictures Experts Group) - the family of digital video
compression standards and file formats developed by the ISO group.
12. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) - a lossy compression format
for color images that reduces file size by 5% while losing some image detail.
13. SQL (Structured Query Language) - a standardized query language for
requesting information from a database.
14. RPC (Remote Procedure Call) - allows a program on one computer
execute a program on a server.
15. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) - enables two to establish a
connection and exchange streams of data.

16. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) - offering a direct way to send and receive
datagrams over an IP network with very few error recovery services.
17. IP (Internet Protocol) - specifies the format of packets and the addressing
schemes.
18. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) - an extension of IP which
supports packets containing error, control, and informational messages.
19. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) - used to convert an IP address to a
physical address.
20. PING - a utility to check if an IP address is accessible.
21. Traceroute - utility that tracks a packet from your computer to an internet
host showing how many hops and how long it took.
22. IEEE 802.2 - divides the data link layer into two sublayers -- the logical
link control (LLC) layer and the media access control (MAC) layer.
23. 802.3 - Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This
is the basis of the Ethernet standard.
24. 802.5 - Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks.

2.