Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing, Vol.

7 (2) 7995 (1997)

1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
CCC 1090-8471/97/020079-17

Methods Engineering: Using Rapid Prototype

and Virtual Reality Techniques
Yohanan Arzi
Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel

ABSTRACT
Methods engineering (ME) is the most traditional area of industrial engineering. In spite of its
importance, the tools and techniques in use have hardly changed in the last 30 years. Lately, tools
based on rapid prototyping (RP) and virtual reality (VR) techniques have been developed. This
article presents the concept of incorporating these technologies with the ME process. A framework
for an RP and VR-based ME system is introduced. Two preliminary attempts to implement RP
technology in ME are reported. 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Methods engineering is the most traditional area of industrial engineering. Actually, industrial engineering started with methods engineering during the 19th century and the
beginning of the 20th century, when pioneers such as C.W. Babbage, F.W. Taylor, H.L.
Gannt, and L.M. Gilberth published their works (Niebel, 1993). During the mid-20th
century methods engineering methodology, tools, and techniques had been crystallized.
Since then and up until the 1980s, no dramatic progress has occurred in the field.
The aim of ergonomics is to generate working conditions that advance safety, wellbeing, and performance (Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert, 1994). Since the 1980s
ergonomics (Corlett and Clark, 1995; Karwowski, 1992; Niebel, 1993) have enormously
affected methods engineering, so that today methods engineering combines traditional
concepts together with knowledge and approaches taken from this field.
In spite of this very important progress in the field, the tools and techniques have not
changed much in the last 30 years. In fact, nowadays engineers are using very similar
techniques and tools to those which were in use 20 or 30 years ago.
Method engineering (ME) is a systematic design process for a given task (Mundel and
Danner, 1994; Niebel, 1993). It includes the design of the work center where the task
takes place, and its environment, the design of the operations that are required for performing the task, and the design of the process (the chronological sequence of the operations). The aim of ME is to find the best design for a given task under a given set of
objectives. Common objectives are: production rate, unit cost, and quality measures. ME
is often used for designing new tasks as well as for improving existing ones.
Design evaluation is an important stage in the design process of work tasks. At this
stage, design faults are revealed and corrected. Aspects of design that seem to be nonsatisfactory in respect to the objectives are modified. Most importantly, the decision whether
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RP AND VR TECHNIQUES IN METHODS ENGINEERING

to continue in the design process (in order to improve the design) or to remain with the
current result is made.
In products design, mock-ups and prototype testing are often used in order to study
user behavior under conditions that are near to reality. Although of great importance is
the evaluation stage, work task designs are usually tested only by various charts (e.g.,
process chart, man-machine chart, flow chart, layout chart) and simple mathematical models (see Mundel and Danner, 1994; Niebel, 1993). Generally the only meaningful evaluation is done after the implementation. By that stage, the correction of the design faults is
difficult and expensive.
Over the past few years three-dimensional (3D) graphic simulators supported by various software tools for rapid prototyping of virtual environments and anthropometrically
accurate biomechanical human models have been developed (Deitz, 1995; Porter et al.,
1995). These tools enable the testing of complex work systems in conditions that are
relatively close to reality. However, no methodology (or a systematic procedure) that combines these advanced tools within the design process of work tasks has yet been developed.
This article presents the concept of incorporating rapid prototyping (RP) and virtual
reality (VR) technologies within the method engineering process. The aim of this article
is to point out several advantages that may arise by using these technologies and to suggest a framework for an appropriate computer system. Two simple preliminary attempts
to implement RP technology, which have been carried out in the Method Engineering and
Ergonomics Laboratory in the Department of Industrial Engineering at Tel Aviv University, are also reported.

2.

METHOD ENGINEERING METHODOLOGY

The ME process consists of a wide variety of procedures for description, systematic analysis, design, and improvement of work methods. It considers the raw materials, the design of the outputs (product, services, etc.), the order of work (the process), the tools,
workplace, and equipment for each step in the process, and the human activity required to
perform each step (Mundel and Danner, 1994). These procedures may be used for designing new tasks as well as for redesigning existing ones.
The systematic design process generally consists of the following basic steps (Niebel,
1993):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Selection of a project and objectives definition.

Definition of measures for evaluating the design in view of the objectives.
Determination of the project limitation and freedom of action.
Data gathering and presentation.
Analysis of the data.
Development and presentation of alternative methods.
Evaluating alternative methods and selection of the best one.
Detailed design and presentation of the selected method.
Implementation of the designed methods (work place and method).
Following up the method.

In the three first steps the problem is selected and defined. This includes an accurate
definition of the task that has to be designed (or redesigned, in the case of an existing
system), the objectives and quantitative criteria for the design, the project domain, and

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the limitations imposed (i.e., budget limitations). For the three first steps no special tools
are required.
In step 4 all the existing data concerning the task are gathered. During this step the
designer obtains production requirements, procures engineering, manufacturing, and cost
data, learns about existing methods, describes and sketches existing layout and tools,
constructs various charts (like operation process charts, flow process charts, operators
and machine process charts), and estimates time data by applying time study techniques.
During step 5 the collected data are analyzed in view of the defined measures and
according to accepted standards of safety and ergonomics. Haslegrave and Corlett (1995)
addressed the importance of work and workplace design on health, safety, and quality
performance. They surveyed means for evaluating risk of injury. Hale, Stoop, and Hommels (1990) claimed that safety faults should be detected by a means such as human error
models, as an integral part of the design process.
Anthropometric (the measurement of human physical form) and biomechanical aspects are also considered in ensuring that the design satisfactorily fits the required target
population (an example of anthropometric survey for a target populationthe British
driversis given in Haslegrave, 1979). A principal factor in the design must be considered in deciding how to characterize the limiting extremes of a target population. Haslegrave (1986) introduced the complexity, when several important dimensions of the body
are involved. It was suggested representing the limiting extremes of a target population
on the basis of their relevant stature and weight, and calculating the median values for the
other dimensions.
Another ergonomic aspect that is often considered is the affect of the environmental
conditions on the operator. Extensive research was carried out on the physical environment and its affect on human safety, health, and performance (Bonney, 1995; Haslegrave,
1995; Howarth, 1995; Parsons, 1995).
Considering these analyses, the designer develops, in step 6, alternative methods for
the designed task. In the case of redesign of an existing task, the existing method is often
considered as one of the alternatives. For the development and presentation of the alternative methods similar tools to those of step 4 are being used.
In step 7 the various alternatives are evaluated (again, in view of the defined measures). Then, by using decision-making procedures, the best alternative is chosen. In
step 8 the chosen alternative is elaborated by drafts and process charts, accompanied by
verbal descriptions. Finally, in step 9 the designed method is implemented, and followed
up (step 10) along its life span until a need for additional redesign is identified.
3.

THE USE OF RAPID PROTOTYPING IN METHODS ENGINEERING

3.1. A Framework for a Rapid Prototyping-Based Methods

Engineering System
The use of RP is based on replacing the traditional tools, which give only a general description of the task, with a computerized system that enables the designer to generate,
animate, and analyze 3D prototypes. The basic modules of such a system are presented in
Figure 1.
These basic modules consist of many means and tools supporting the ME methodology. Some of these tools are available or can easily be developed. However, many of the
required means do not exist and an extensive further research is required in order to develop them. The various modules of the suggested framework are as follows.

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RP AND VR TECHNIQUES IN METHODS ENGINEERING

Figure 1

The basic modules of a rapid prototyping-based methods engineering system.

3.1.1. Modeling. The basis of a RP system is the modeling module. This module consists of tools for easily generating and controlling realistic 3D models of environments
and human beings. The modeling module includes universal means for 3D modeling such
as: 3D rapid graphic modeler, animator, and a library of primitives and prototypes. This
module also includes special means for assimilating human figures such as: an anthropometric accurate modeler and an anthropometric data base. Undoubtedly, in comparison
with traditional charts, 3D prototypes provide more accurate, detailed, and realistic presentations of the task environment.
3.1.2. Anthropometric and Biomechanical Design. Anthropometric design deals
with the fitness of physical environments to the measurements, moveability, and visual
capability of human beings from a given population (Karwowski, 1992). Biomechanical
design refers to the statics and dynamics of the human body while performing a task
(Kroemer et al., 1994). The inputs to these two aspects of design are: a 3D prototype of
the work environment, a detailed definition of the task including the function of the physical components and determination of the target population.
Generally the anthropometric design starts with finding the locations for the principal
physical functionalities that are most fitted for operators with characteristic physical measurements (typically most frequent or average of the target population). By using the
graphic model, 3D human figures with appropriate measures and the physical components of the environment concerned with the main functions can be located within the
visual area and the normal working envelope of the operators.
In order to find the best layout a what-if process can be used. The analyzer can easily
locate the human and the physical elements figures in various places, animate the model,
and perform various anthropometric and biomechanical analyses. He can also check the
effect of alternative methods and facilities on the design.
The analyses may consider the following aspects: dimensions and locations of physical
elements, static workloads on operator body, clearness, reachability, visual perception of
the required facilities, collision detection, and dynamic workloads on the moving elements of the body (Tracy, 1995).

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After achieving a reasonable layout for the principal functionalities, other functionalities are added in an ascending order of their criticality and frequency of use, in order to
provide appropriate reachability, clearness, and visibility.
It is required to examine the fitness of the designed layout to the target population.
Usually, a satisfactory design provides reasonable work conditions to people whose physical measurements lie between the 5th and 95th percentile of the target population. The
check of fitness can be done easily by changing the sizes of the operator figures and
animating them. The designer can also change the size of each member of the human
body. For example, he can examine the behavior, within the work environment, of a man
(or woman) with 25th percentile legs and 85th percentile midsection.
At this phase the designer may check (again by a what-if process) the effect of changes
in the layout, in the method of doing the task, or in the facilities in use. The anthropometric design usually results in few alternative designs of the work environment.
The anthropometric design module includes means and tools supporting the described
process. This module includes: anthropometric data bases (a detailed reference list of
such data bases is given in Kroemer et al., 1994), models of biomechanical behavior of
the human organs, means for analysis of the visual workspace, and procedures for calculations of various measures reflecting the degree of fitness of a specific design to the
target population.

3.1.3. The Physical Environment. The physical environment module includes means
for analyzing the fitness of the auditory, thermal, visual, and vibratory environments to
the task and to the operators. This module may include models of the physics of the environmental variables, tools for estimating their effects on the operator behavior, and
means for comparing the environmental conditions to acknowledged standards.
The knowledge and technology now in existence allow the development of reasonably
good models of the physical environments. The auditory model, for example, may include the physics of noise reflecting from various objects, tools for comparing the conditions in different locations to standards, and means for measuring the effect of noise
conditions on the operator. Similarly, the visual environment model may include the physics of illumination by various light sources, calculations of illuminance, luminance, contrast, glare, and other relevant properties in different places within the environment,
procedures for comparing existing conditions to standards, and routines for estimating
the effect of the illumination conditions on the operator performance.
3.1.4. Controls and Displays Design. In many tasks operators use controls and
displays. The controls and displays design module supports the design of controls and
displays and the analysis of their fitness to the task in view of accepted standards and relevant measures. This module includes means like: controls and displays library, controlsdisplay-process relationships analyzer, library of controls and displays standards, and tools
for calculating relevant measures.
3.1.5. Operational Analysis. Operational analysis deals with the operational aspects
of the task. This includes the sequence of operations and the synchronization between
elements that take part in the task (operators, robots, machines, etc.). The target of operational analysis is usually to improve the way of doing the task in terms of measures such
as: productivity, efficiency, flexibility, and costs.
The operational analysis module includes tools and analytical models for finding the
best sequence of operations and the best way to synchronize between the elements per-

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RP AND VR TECHNIQUES IN METHODS ENGINEERING

forming the task. It also includes routines for measuring various performance indices and
for comparing between alternative designs.

3.1.6. Time Standards Generation. Time standards are essential for method engineering. The process of generating time standards by the acknowledged methods requires
a lot of effort. Exact time standards can be derived directly from the prototype. During
the creation of the task animation, the motions are recorded to a file. This file, which
includes determinations of all the motion segments performed during the task, can be
utilized to generate time standards.
The time standards generation module includes procedures for retrieving the motion
segments and other relevant data (such as weight of objects) from the relevant files, a
time standards data base related to the recorded motion segments, and a routine for generating the time standards.
3.1.7. Safety and Health. One of the objectives of any task design is to provide a safe
and helpful workplace for the employees. The safety and health module may include
means for confronting the design with safety and health regulations and standards as well
as tools for obstacles and collisions detection (such as error models and simulators).
3.1.8. Task Evaluation. In task evaluation the result of the design process is confronted with the original objectives. Task evaluation is used to select the best alternative
among the designs. The alternative designs are compared by measures related to the design objectives and through a decision-making processthe best one is selected. Usually, the measures are related to throughput, quality, utilization, efficiency, cost, and profit.
Hence, the task evaluation module consists of tools for measuring various objectives and
decision-making procedures that may help the designer to choose the best design.
3.1.9. User Utilities. As in every computer system various utilities are required to
enable the use of the system. This includes tools such as: friendly user interface, means
for documentation (drafts, charts, reports, graphs, etc.), and interfaces to various input
and output devices.
3.2. The Effect of Rapid Prototyping on Method
Engineering Methodology
The use of RP may affect ME process. The effects of RP on the ME process are as follows
(steps are according to those previously presented in section 2):
Steps 1-3: The determination of the task to be designed, the objectives, the measures
reflecting these objectives, and the project limitations are not dependent on the design tools. Therefore, these steps will not be affected by the use of new technologies.
However, as the results of these steps are inputs to the task design process they
should be fed to the system.
Step 4: On the basis of the gathered data and an initial design of the task (the present
one in the case of a redesign of a task or any other initial design in the case of a new task)
a computerized 3D geometric model of the task environment, facilities, and human beings is generated. The model presents all the physical elements of the task in a very
detailed manner. The motions of the moving elements (humans, machines, robots, conveyers, etc.) are also defined. By animating the model the designer can see on the computer screen the task in operation and automatically generate time standards.

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Step 5: The model and the analysis tools may be used to analyze the task. The task
can be examined according to its anthropometric, environmental, safety, health, and
operational aspects. Various problems, weaknesses as well as strengths, may be identified.
Step 6: The advantages of rapid prototyping tools are best addressed in this step.
Traditional tools enable the designer to perform only few alternatives and to test
them by using abstract two-dimensional charts and theoretical models. The development of each alternative requires hard work, creativity, imagination, and a lot of
time. In order to test a task in realistic conditions a physical prototype has to be built.
Conversely, computer prototypes allow the designer to easily create many alternatives and versions of the task, without the expenses and the time required to create
physical prototypes. Moreover, during the process of developing each of the alternatives, various ideas can be tested interactively through the what-if capability of
the system. The ability to examine and evaluate many alternatives improves significantly the quality of the design and reduces its costs.
Step 7: The selection of the best alternative with respect to the design objectives
may be supported by the task evaluation module. This module gives the designer
tools for evaluating the alternatives and decision-making procedures that may help
him to choose correctly. Because of the computer capabilities, it would be very easy
to iterate steps 6 and 7 many times, until satisfactory results are achieved.
Step 8: The 3D prototype of the selected alternative would be used to support the
detailed design. By adding the missing details to the prototype, a complete 3D geometric model can be easily generated. Then, the required documentation for implementation can be automatically produced.
4.

THE USE OF VIRTUAL REALITY TECHNOLOGY

Virtual Reality (VR) technology allows the creation of a visual image of the environment
(Carr and England, 1995). By using a head-mounted visual display and six degrees-offreedom position and orientation sensors, the designer may position himself (or someone
else) as an operator within a virtual environment and get an illusion that he is actually
present in the environment. The operator can perform the task and move freely in the
virtual environment. More than that, by using a suitable 3D audio system and by controlling thermal and other environmental factors, the operator can feel the effect of the environmental factors (noise, heat, etc.). These activities allow the designer to make
experiments, assess the operators view, test the ease and the comfort of doing the task,
and evaluate various critical functions.
VR enables the designer to examine the designed task by a real operator in very realistic conditions, similar to those of physical prototypes, yet consuming less time and effort. Basically, similar analyses to those described in the previous section for rapid
prototyping models are also required here and similar means are to be used. It is expected
that the use of VR tools in ME will improve the quality of design.
5.

PRELIMINARY IMPLEMENTATIONS OF RAPID PROTOTYPE TOOLS

Jack is a multifaceted system, for interactively modeling, manipulating, and animating

articulated figures, principally human figures. Jack software (1994) was developed in the
Computer Graphics Research Laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania. The software
displays and manipulates 3D geometric figures of humans (or other articulated figures

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RP AND VR TECHNIQUES IN METHODS ENGINEERING

like robots). Jack represents the human figure as collections of rigid segments connected
by joints that may have arbitrary rotational or transitional degrees of freedom. It is possible to create human figures in any anthropometric dimensions and to change them to
arbitrary values. Jack uses an inverse kinematics algorithm to control human behaviors
such as motions of foot, arms, body, fingers, head, and eyes. The software includes facilities for rapidly constructing geometric environments (such as a workstation), positioning the human figure in a scene, and performing various types of analyses of the
figures (such as viewing analysis, torque display, and strength display). Jack has an interface to a six degrees-of-freedom position and orientation measuring system, which
may be used to control a Virtual Human in the Jack Environment (Badler, Hollick, and
Granieri, 1995). Finally, by using a VR head-mounted visual display, a real human can
get the illusion of performing the task within the virtual environment. The software runs
on Silicon Graphics workstations.
In this section two preliminary implementations of Jack software to ME are introduced. The first implementation is a redesign of a supermarket cashier workstation and
the second implementation is a generation of a time standard to a simple task.
5.1. Redesign of a Supermarket Cashier Workstation
An attempt to implement the methodology previously described was carried out through
a redesign of a cashier workstation in an Israeli supermarket.
The redesign objectives were: (a) increase throughput, (b) improve service, and (c)
decrease cashier fatigue. One measure was determined for the throughput and service
objectives: the average service time of a client. Three measures were determined for the
fatigue decrease objective: the forces and torques on the worker body, the average number of hands and body motions, and the percentage of time the cashier is forced to stand.
The management of the supermarket states that: (a) only minor changes in existing
equipment are permitted (no investment), and (b) the total required space floor will not
increase.
The cashiers work was studied extensively through: interviewing of the workers and
the manager; verbal and graphical description of the tasks, processes, workplace, and the
environment; still photography; and video recording. Traditional ME techniques were
applied in order to identify the main process, subprocesses, operations, and work elements. All data were organized through: a workplace layout chart, cause-effect chart,
process charts, and right-hand-left-hand operations charts (Mundel and Danner, 1994).
An extensive work study was carried out and time standards of all operations (and work
elements) were determined. In addition, all the relevant technologies related to supermarket cashiers were reviewed.
Basically, the present workstation (Figs. 2, 3, and 4) includes a long platform for the
products, which consists of frontal and rear conveyors with weighing surface, a bar-code
scanner, and a cash drawer in between. At the back of the rear conveyor there is a storage
area for the products. The cash register stands orthogonal to the products platform, and
consists of a keyboard, two display units (one for the cashier and one for the client), a
printer, and a credit card reader. Beyond the cash register stands an intercom device.
The process is as follows. The customer takes the products from a cart and puts them
on the frontal conveyer (while the cashier serves a former customer). The conveyer transfers the products automatically one by one towards the cashier. The cashier enters the
product data (by bar-code or typing), weights it (when necessary), and puts it on the rear
conveyer. The rear conveyer transfers the product to the storage area. After all products

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Figure 2

87

A typical supermarket cashier workstation.

are handled, the customer pays the bill by cash, credit card, or a chech. Finally the customer packs the products and transfers them to his cart (while the cashier serves the next
customer).
Based on the collected information, a 3D prototype of the present workstation was
generated using Jack software. Because supermarket cashiers in Israel are usually adult
women, the cashier was modeled by an anthropometricly accurate female figure. The
existing workstation was analyzed taking into consideration the following aspects:

The physical layout.

The purpose, method, and sequence of the operations.
The clearance, reachability, posture, and visual capacity of the cashier.
The colors of the physical components of the work environment.
The facility in use (e.g., the type of chairs).
The performance in relation to the selected measures.

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RP AND VR TECHNIQUES IN METHODS ENGINEERING

Figure 3

A cash register.

The analysis points out quite a large number of defects in the present method (see
Table 1). The major problems were related to a poor design of the workplace. For example, the space for the cashiers legs is too small, so that she can only sit with flexed knees;
the cashier sits normal to the conveyer and to the consumers so that she has to twist her
head and/or pelvis many times; the cashier chair does not have enough space to rotate; the
cashier has to carry products by hand from time to time.
After the present design was analyzed, the 3D model was used for checking possible
improvements. During this phase various possible solutions were considered and tested
interactively with the computer (Fig. 5). Finally, a satisfactory (with respect to the design
objective formerly defined) proposed design was generated (Fig. 6). The major improvements in the proposed design are:
The cashier sits towards the product platform and the customers. This saves head
and pelvis rotations and decreases the loads on the cashiers hands.
There is adequate space for the cashiers legs. She can straighten her legs whenever
she wants.
The cashier can rotate her chair freely.
All facilities are located within the cashier work envelope and zone of vision.
It is recommended to replace the bright weighting surface by a duller one.
Two bar code scanners are located. One scanner is set within the weighting surface
and a second is set above the conveyor. By doing so, the necessity to lift the products
is eliminated and the number of failed code readings becomes negligible.
The process was redesign so that the number of operations was decreased.

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Figure 4

An overview of a typical supermarket cashier workstation.

89

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Defects in the Present Design of the Supermarket Cashier Workplace

Problem

Solution

Space for legs is too small

Cashier twists pelvis in order to place products
on the weighting surface
Cashier twists pelvis in order to place products
on the rear conveyor
Cashier twists head for contact with the
customer
Cashier lifts products towards the bar code
scanner
Cashier sometimes stands in order to reach a
product or another facility
Products have to be turned or lifted towards
the bar code scanner
Chair cannot rotate

locate cashier towards product platform

locate cashier towards product platform

Weighting surface reflects too much light and

dazzles the cashier
Bar code scanner fails many times in reading
the code
Cashier has difficulties in reading the display
Typing and product moving are not done
simultaneously
Cashier sometimes lifts a product beyond her
normal work envelope

use a dull weighting surface

locate cashier towards product platform

locate cashier towards product platform
use two scanners, one within the weighting
surface and a second above the conveyor
locate all facilities within the normal work
envelope or at least within the maximal one
use two scanners, avoid necessity to turn or
lift products by locating them properly
locate cashier towards product platform

use two scanners, one within the weighting

surface and a second above the conveyor
use an improved colored display
move products in one hand and type with the
second simultaneously
eliminate such motions; wait for products to
reach a point within the normal work envelope

Result
adequate space for legs; decreases fatigue
reduces head and pelvis rotations; decreases
fatigue; saves time
reduces head and pelvis rotations; decreases
fatigue; saves time
reduces head and pelvis rotations; decreases
fatigue; saves time
decreases fatigue; saves time
decreases fatigue; saves time
decreases fatigue; saves time
eliminates necessity for chair rotation; chair has
enough space to rotate
decreases fatigue; reduces errors
saves time; reduces errors
decreases fatigue; reduces errors
saves time
decreases fatigue

RP AND VR TECHNIQUES IN METHODS ENGINEERING

TABLE 1.

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Figure 5

91

3D models of alternative designs.

The proposed design is better than the present one in all four performance measures.
The average service time per client was decreased by about 13%. The forces and torques
on the cashiers neck, hands, pelvis, and legs were significantly decreased. The body motions were eliminated and the number of hand motions decreases by about 16%. The time
of standing decreased from about 25% of the total time to almost zero. The three
objectivesincrease in throughput, improvement in service, and decrease in fatigue
were achieved.

5.2. Time Standards Determination

Jack software allows the recording of all the user commands to files. Several of the user
commands are motion commands. Each motion command represents a single segment of
a body motion. A motion command defines the type of motion and the location of the

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RP AND VR TECHNIQUES IN METHODS ENGINEERING

Figure 6

A 3D model of the preferred design.

motion segment end point. By relating to each type of motion a time standard, it is possible to calculate an exact time standard for the whole task.
We wrote a simple computer program that uses MTM2 system (see Barnes, 1980) for
determining time standards for simple tasks. The program scan a Jack motion command
file of a given task and identifies the motion parameters. Then it matches between the
motion segments and MTM2 predetermined times. During this process, required parameters that are not included in Jack files (like weight of objects) are added interactively by
the user. The output is a time standard for the whole task.
Figure 7 introduces an example of a simple task in which a sitting man transfers two
objects (A and B), which are placed on a table in front of him, to another point (C).
This program was developed for the sole purpose of demonstrating the concept and the
feasibility to set time standards directly from the 3D model of the task. At present it
cannot be used for more complex tasks. The major problem is that the definitions of the
motion elements in the MTM2 system do not always correlate with those of the Jack
software. This problem may be solved by developing a time standard system that is based
on the definitions of the motion elements in the 3D modeling software. Such a system
may be developed by using generic predetermined motion-time systems (Sellie, 1992), as
well as time studies.

6.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

Advanced computer technologies such as 3D rapid prototyping and virtual reality challenge a new approach to methods engineering. The introduced approach is based on incorporating these technologies and various supporting tools in order to test and evaluate
easily and interactively a large number of alternative designs, in conditions that are very
close to reality.

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Figure 7

93

An example for time standard generation.

A framework for an appropriate ME computer system is suggested. This framework

consists of various tools. Several of these tools are already available and can be adopted
whereas others have still to be developed.
A method engineering computer system, such as the one described, promises benefits
related to the time and cost of the design process. The major benefits are:

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RP AND VR TECHNIQUES IN METHODS ENGINEERING

Ability to test many alternative designs rapidly and easily.

Ability to simultaneously consider various design aspects.
Reduction of the necessity for physical prototypes and mockups.
Ability to easily retrieve knowledge related to various aspects of the task.
Ability to use various supporting design tools such as: models, algorithms, decisionmaking tools, and task evaluation tools.
Ability to evaluate designs under conditions near to reality.
Ability to refer to data bases of standards, regulations, and other data.
Ability to automatically generate time standards.
In order to realize the suggested framework, further developments are required in three
major directions. The first direction is related to the methodologies and tools. It is necessary to test the validity of the existing tools, to improve methodologies, and to develop
better means for each of the modules of the ME computer system. Examples for means
that still remain to be developed are: better models of the physical environments, general
time standard systems that support 3D modeling software, and a sophisticated and realistic dynamic modeling of humans.
The second direction is integration of the various modules to one comprehensive system. Although using the various modules separately may be very beneficial, only an integrated system will derive the most benefits.
The third direction concerns computer technology. RP and VR technologies require
numerous and expensive computer resources, beyond the means of regular practitioners.
In order to enable a wide use of such ME computer systems, a great effort has to be made
in order to reduce these huge expenses.
The use of RP and VR tools in ME has just begun and a great deal of research and
development is still required. However, despite the difficulties, the implementation of RP
and VR tools in ME will improve the quality of the task designs while decreasing the time
spent and the expenses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is thankful to Mr. Ariel Rozenfeld, an undergraduate student in the Department of Industrial Engineering at Tel Aviv University, for his contribution in performing
the implementations in the Method Engineering and Ergonomics Laboratory.
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