Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 499505

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Analysis of the residence time distribution in large

otation machines q
D. Lelinski *, J. Allen, L. Redden, A. Weber
EIMCO Process Equipment Company, 669 West 200 South, Salt Lake City, UT 84110, USA
Received 2 October 2001; accepted 16 April 2002

Abstract
Residence time in a single otation machine is one of the most important parameters necessary to properly design a otation
circuit. The mean residence time for any particular cell design is usually determined from residence time distribution (RTD) experimental results. The comparison of the measured mean residence time with the expected residence time, as well as analysis of the
shape of the RTD curve, give the most useful and valid information about the mixing properties in the cell.
Experimental RTD results for three large otation cells (Dorr-Oliver, Outokumpu and WEMCO
) discussed in this publication
were released by the Chuquicamata Division of CODELCO as a part of the competitive rougher otation test report (CODELCO
(National Copper Corporation of Chile), Chuquicamata Division, 2000, Project IM2, No. 19/99; Final Report of the Evaluation of
Large Volume Flotation Cells). Evaluation of the results by CODELCO as well as by authors is provided. Approximation of the
theoretical curve of a perfect mixer, used by CODELCO as a base for cell categorization is analyzed and critiqued after comparing
to the criteria used by many authorities in the eld.
Conclusions are drawn based on the multi-parameter ow model, showing existence of stagnant volume of 45% in Outokumpu,
35% in Dorr-Oliver, and 7% in WEMCO
otation cell volumes.
 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Flotation machines; Froth otation; Flotation kinetics; Mass balancing

1. Introduction
Flotation is a dynamic process and the eciency is
directly related to the time material spends in the machine. To fully analyze this process, the distribution of
the time it takes for the material to proceed from the
inlet(s) to the outlet(s) has to be known. This distribution is the best indication of the ow patterns in the
vessel. The most common way of RTD determination is
to inject an impulse tracer (solid or water-soluble depending which RTD is to be obtained) and detect the
amount of this tracer emerging in the outlet(s) as a
function of time. The resulting patterns can be considered in terms of two ideal types: plug ow and perfect
mixing (Levenspiel, 1989, 1962; Kelly and Spottiswood,
1982). Distribution of residence times for both types of
q
This paper was presented at the 10th Annual Minerals Engineering
Conference in Cape Town, South Africa, November 1315, 2000.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-801-526-2555; fax: +1-801-5262911.
E-mail address: dariusz.lelinski@eimcoprocess.com (D. Lelinski).

the ow is presented in Fig. 1. The most important

characteristic of plug ow is equal residence time of all
elements in the cell. No mixing can occur in the ow
direction, but lateral mixing is allowed. Plug ow is
equivalent to a batch processing system (Kelly and
Spottiswood, 1982).
In perfect mixing, tracer input is immediately dispersed throughout the whole volume of the device. It
can be seen that some of the tracer leaves instantaneously, while some never leaves, so that there is a distribution of residence time from zero to innity.
The most important outcome from RTD experiments
is the measured mean residence time. This is the main
reason why the experimental evaluation of the residence
time distribution is performed. The relationship between
experimentally measured and expected mean residence
times is the easiest-to-obtain indication of the hydrodynamics of a otation cell. If they are equal, the cell is
most probably well mixed. If the experimental mean
is smaller than expected, it indicates that there are
dead volumes, short-circuiting, or other anomaly. The
cause of the dierence usually can be determined by

0892-6875/02/$ - see front matter  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 2 - 6 8 7 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 7 0 - 5

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D. Lelinski et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 499505

sively for testing at Chuquicamata. The nominal volumes

of the cells were: Dorr-Oliver 148 m3 ; WEMCO

160 m3 , and Outokumpu 160 m3 . The cells were used
in rougher duty and the operational parameters for otation feed are presented in Table 1.
All experimental results and procedures used in this
article are taken from CODELCO nal tabulation of the
data, which was made available to all three vendors
(CODELCO, 2000).

Fig. 1. Distribution of residence times for plug ow and perfect

mixing.

comparing the shapes of the RTD curves for ideal case

and the case in question. The description of the method
and many examples can be found in the Levenspiels
textbook The Chemical Reactor Omnibook (Levenspiel, 1989). Also, the analysis of the RTD for otation
is discussed in detail by Nesset (1988).

2. Large otation cell evaluation

On April 3, 2000, the Chuquicamata Division of
CODELCO released its report entitled Final Report of
the Evaluation of Large Volume Flotation Cells
(CODELCO, 2000). This report summarizes the competitive otation test conducted at Chuquicamata over
the period of 20 October 1998 to 14 May 1999. This
competitive test was part of a project, Improvement of
Cu and Mo Recovery in the Concentrator plant at
Chuquicamata, which had the goal of obtaining an
increase in recovery of 5.5% total Cu and 9.0% Mo.
Tests at the Chuquicamata Concentrator Plants were
performed in three phases: start up, optimization of the
cell operation, and the period of ocial evaluation, including the residence time distribution test.
Suppliers invited to participate were Dorr-Oliver,
EIMCO/Baker Process (manufacturer of the WEMCO

SmartCell), and Outokumpu. The otation cells oered
by these companies were designed and constructed exclu-

Table 1
Operational parameters for otation feed (CODELCO, 2000)
Operational
parameters

Values

Units

Dry feed tonnage

Particle size
% Solids
Primary collector
SF-113
Secondary collector
AP-7518
Chuqui frother mix
pH

580015 800
2830
3842
25

metric tons/day
% > 65 mesh
wt%
g/metric ton

g/metric ton

15
10.510.8

g/metric ton

3. Methodology
Throughout the competitive test campaign, operating
and metallurgical performance data were collected and
analyzed by CODELCO. In the course of the testing,
CODELCO also commissioned the Chilean Commission of Nuclear Energy (CCHEN), Section of Tracers to
perform measurements of residence time distribution in
each of the three otation machines. CCHENs ndings
appear as Appendix 4, Analysis of Residence Time
Distribution, following Chapter IV of the CODELCO
report (Diaz et al., 2000).
The general objective of the RTD experiment was to
characterize the uid dynamic behavior of the large
otation cells manufactured by the Dorr-Oliver, EIMCO/Baker Process, and Outokumpu. It was accomplished by determining the residence time distribution in
each of the cells, in separate experiments, using the pulse
tracer method. Selection of radioactive tracers was
based on the following properties:
The physico-chemical behavior should be suitable for
the material being traced. In this case it was necessary
to trace solid material that is not oatable. Final concentrator tailings of distinct particle sizes were used to
study the eects of this parameter.
The lifetime of the radioactive isotope should be compatible with the duration of the experiment, in this
case several minutes.
The type and energy of radiation from the isotope
must permit its detection in an adequate form relative
to the characteristics of the background where the
work is being conducted.
Selection of an appropriate tracer isotope was subject
to several constraints. To facilitate automated data acquisition in real time, CCHEN preferred to employ
tracers emitting gamma radiation. The tracer should be
non-oating ore material from the Chuquicamata concentrator, and this material must contain an element
that could be neutron-activated in CCHENs reactor.
After analysis of the neutron activation spectrum and
radioactive decay curves of the Chuquicamata material,
sodium was identied as the only suitable element for
activation.

D. Lelinski et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 499505

501

Table 2
Characteristics of tracer solids (Diaz et al., 2000)
Cell

Tracer mass (g)

Tracer size designation

Tracer particle size

Dorr-Oliver
Dorr-Oliver
Dorr-Oliver
Dorr-Oliver

75
75
60
75

Global
Intermediate
Fine
Coarse

No separation
+325, 100 mesh
325 mesh
+100 mesh

WEMCO

WEMCO

WEMCO

WEMCO

75
75
60
75

Global
Intermediate
Fine
Coarse

No separation
+325, 100 mesh
325 mesh
+100 mesh

Outokumpu
Outokumpu
Outokumpu
Outokumpu

75
75
75
75

Global
Intermediate
Fine
Coarse

No separation
+325, 100 mesh
325 mesh
+100 mesh

Based on these conditions, it was determined that

quantities of 2 mCi of Na-24 were sucient to obtain an
adequate appraisal in each of the experiments using
solid material. For experiments with liquid, 5 mCi of Br82 was the indicated amount, based on the other experiments in similar equipment.
Table 2 shows the characteristics of the tracer solids
in each case.
CCHE used scintillation detectors, 1
1:5 in., Tldoped NaI with associated electronics. The probe was
connected to the data acquisition system, which, besides
providing power to the probe, also acquires the data,
records them on the hard disc, and permits an adequate
visualization of the data during the experiment.

4. Experimental results
Chilean Commission of Nuclear Energy (CCHEN)
corrected the collected raw data for radioactive decay,
which was not negligible in this case because of the relationship between the duration of the experiment (some
hours), and the half-life of the irradiated tailing (be-

tween 15 and 30 h). Data were also corrected for natural

background (cosmic) radiation. Figs. 2 and 3 are examples of corrected data.
The mathematical expression that summarized the
calculation of radiation intensity was



t
ACOR Amed
BG exp 0:693

;
t1=2
where ACOR is the activity corrected for background and
radioactive decay, Amed is the measured activity, BG is
the background (cosmic) radiation, t is the measurement
time and t1=2 is the half-life of the irradiated tailings.
The experimental mean residence time was calculated
from the RTD curve
R
P
texp tCt dt
ti Ci
R
Pi
Ct dt
i Ci
for equal time intervals Dti ;
where texp is the experimental mean residence time, t is
the measured time and Ct is the tracer concentration at
time t.
Data calculated from tracer experiments are shown in
Table 3 and Fig. 4.

Fig. 2. Residence time distributions for liquid (DO Dorr-Oliver, WE WEMCO
, TK Outokumpu) (Diaz et al., 2000).

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D. Lelinski et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 499505

Fig. 3. Residence time distributions for all solids (DO Dorr-Oliver, WE WEMCO
, TK Outokumpu) (Diaz et al., 2000).

Table 3
Experimental mean residence times (Diaz et al., 2000, Heresi et al., 2000)
Tracer

Mean residence time (min)

Outokumpu

Liquid
All solids
Fine solids
Intermediate solids
Coarse solids

WEMCO

Dorr-Oliver

CCHEN

CODELCO

CCHEN

CODELCO

CCHEN

CODELCO

3.3
3.2
2.7
2.9
2.9

3.2
3.1
2.6
3.0
3.1

5.3
3.7
3.8
3.3
4.1

5.3
3.2
3.4
2.9
3.9

6.4
5.5
5.8
5.4
5.3

6.2
5.1
5.5
5.0
5.2

Fig. 4. Experimental mean retention time. Data from Heresi et al.,

2000.

5. Analysis by CODELCO
CODELCOs analysis was based on the data provided by CCHEN and consisted of tting models of
mixing to the experimental data and calculating the
mean residence time. The model curves obtained were
compared with the ideal cases to approximate how
closely each one approached conditions of ideal mixing.
The expected residence time was calculated for each cell
and served as a reference standard.
The experimental data were corrected for natural or
background radiation, and all the measurement times
were standardized, with measurements taken between

the time of injection and the time at which the measured

radiation reached the background level. The tails of the
curves were trimmed to avoid errors generated were
the measuring standards were low, at extended times
(Heresi et al., 2000). Table 3 compares mean residence
times obtained by CCHEN and CODELCO. The difference between both calculations is the method of data
correction. CCHN corrected the data for radioactive
decay and natural background radiation and CODELCO, in addition to CCHN corrections, standardized all
measurement times and cut tails of the curves. The additional data modication by CODELCO had a minor
inuence on the nal results.
The calculation of expected residence time is very
simple, as given by the equation below
texp Veff =Q;
where Veff is the eective cell volume and Q is the volumetric ow rate.
Obtaining the value of Q is straightforward, but obtaining a value of Veff requires making some assumptions. In a otation cell the eective volume is
Veffective Voverall  Vair  Vfroth :
One of the parameters, Vair , the content of air in the
pulp, is dicult to estimate. Gorain and co-workers
(Gorain et al., 1995) conducted experiments for mea-

D. Lelinski et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 499505

suring gas holdup in a pneumatic, industrial-scale otation cell, operating over a range of air ows (1
3:4 m3 = min) and impeller speeds (105245 rpm). It was
found that the volume of air (air holdup) increased with
the velocity of the impeller and increased airow. The
largest value measured was 33%. Glemboskii (Glembotskii et al., 1972) indicate that well-aerated pulp
contains between 20% and 30% of air by volume. They
also developed an equation for the calculation of the air
volume in a otation cell, with the pulp density as the
principal variable.
When the volume of air in each of the three machines
was calculated using the equation of Glembotskii
(Glembotskii et al., 1972) the values varied between 24%
and 32% of the total volume. Considering that these
values were higher than those obtained by other authors, the estimates of expected times were made with
the assumption that the air holdup was 25% in all cases.
It is also necessary to subtract the volume of froth
from the volume of the cell. Froth volume was not
calculated, but was estimated at 2% of cell volume. The
expected time calculations are shown in Table 4.
Final CODELCO conclusions were based on the
approximation of the theoretical curve of a perfect
mixer. The validity of this assumption is discussed in
the next chapter. In general, the distributions of residence times in all three cells were concluded to be close
to that for ideal mixing. The only one that presented a
small deviation was the WEMCO
cell. No signicant
anomalies, such as dead volume, short-circuiting, or
pulp recirculation, were noted by CODELCO in any of
the cells.

503

In all cells the RTD curves for distinct size fractions

of solids are practically coincidental, and the dierences
between the respective mean residence times are minimal. This indicates that the three cells have more than
adequate capacity for suspension of solids. Other parameters can be used to characterize uid-dynamic
performance, including power number, air ow number,
bubble ow, and mixing time, but these depend on
specic operations data and details of cell geometry that
were unknown at that time.

6. Analysis by EIMCO/Baker Process

The RTD experiment was professionally designed
and awlessly executed by the Section of Tracers of the
Chilean Commission of Nuclear Energy.
There are three main points that have to be made in
regard to the CODELCO analysis of the results.
First, the most important single piece of information
to be gained from tracer experiments of this type is the
mean residence time. True (measured rather than calculated) mean residence time provides the greatest opportunity for inference about ow through the cell,
especially when the measured residence times for a few
cells of the same volume and ow rate can be compared.
Table 3 shows that for all components the longest residence times were observed in the WEMCO machine.
Since the probability of otation increases with the
amount of time a oatable particle remains in the cell,
residence time should carry signicant weight in evaluation of otation machines.

Table 4
Expected mean residence times (Heresi et al., 2000)
Test number

Cell

Q (m3 /min)

Veffective (m3 )

Texpected (min)

1
2
3
4
5

Dorr-Oliver
Dorr-Oliver
Dorr-Oliver
Dorr-Oliver
Dorr-Oliver

20.2
20.8
20.1
19.5
20.4

104
104
104
104
104

5.2
5.0
5.2
5.3
5.1

Average
1
2
3
4
5

5.2
WEMCO

WEMCO

WEMCO

WEMCO

WEMCO

20.9
20.6
21.2
21.2
20.2

117
117
117
117
117

Average
1
2
3
4
5
Average

5.6
5.7
5.5
5.5
5.8
5.6

Outokumpu
Outokumpu
Outokumpu
Outokumpu
Outokumpu

21.0
20.9
21.4
21.0
22.3

117
117
117
117
117

5.6
5.6
5.5
5.6
5.2
5.5

504

D. Lelinski et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 499505

Table 5
Comparison of measured and expected values of residence time (min)
Material

Flotation cell
Dorr-Oliver

Liquid
All solids
Fine solids
Interm. solids
Coarse solids

WEMCO

Outokumpu

Meas.

Theor.

% Di.

Meas.

Theor.

% Di.

Meas.

Theor.

% Di.

5.3
3.2
3.4
2.9
3.9

5.2
5.0
5.2
5.3
5.1

+1.9
)36.0
)34.6
)45.3
)23.5

3.2
3.1
2.6
3.0
3.1

5.6
5.6
5.5
5.6
5.2

)42.9
)44.6
)52.7
)46.4
)40.4

6.2
5.1
5.5
5.0
5.2

5.6
5.7
5.5
5.5
5.8

+10.7
)10.5
0
)9.1
)10.4

Second is the lack of comparison between experimental and expected mean residence times. Of course,
both were calculated from experimental data (see Tables
3 and 4) but not compared. The comparison is made in
Table 5.
Comparison between the measured and theoretical
residence times is another opportunity for inference
about the ow characteristics of the otation vessels.
CODELCO chose to ignore the theoretical residence
times and focused on the measured values. Table 5
presents the comparison, with a column showing the percentage that each measurement deviates from the theoretical value. The ideal situation would be for the
deviation to be zero in all cases. The WEMCO
otation machine shows the smallest absolute deviations
from the expected or theoretical value. Literature in this
eld (Levenspiel, 1962, 1989; Kelly and Spottiswood,
1982; Mehrotra and Saxena, 1983; Weber and DiGiano,
1996) oers three physical conditions that can be inferred when the measured mean residence time is lower
than the expected (or theoretical) value: (1) the vessel
has dead spaces, where the medium is stagnant, and (2)
there is bypass ow, where a portion of the input
ow passes directly to the outlet and does not disperse
through the total volume, or (3) there is recycle ow,
where a portion of the contained volume continuously
remixes with the incoming feed.
These explanations are intuitive. If a medium transits
a vessel faster than the V =Q ratio would suggest, then a
portion of the medium must short-circuit to the exit,
or the actual volume through which the medium disperses must be reduced by a certain amount of dead
space. Based on the shapes of the experimental RTD
curves, and comparing with the diagnostic examples
presented by Levenspiel (Levenspiel, 1989) it can be

inferred that the Outokumpu and Dorr-Oliver otation machines contained stagnant backwaters, or dead
spaces, at the time these measurements were made. The
amount of negative deviation of the measured residence
time from the expected value is an indication of the
fraction of the vessels volume that is stagnant. This
fraction is presented in Table 6. There may be sound
reasons for operating a otation cell with a large stagnant volume, but the operator must recognize that this
reduces the eective residence time and consequently the
net probability of recovering the oatable particles in
the feed.
The higher measured value of liquid residence time in
the WEMCO
machine is in excellent agreement with the
ndings of Jowett (Jowett, 1961). He obtained similar
results and suggested that calculations of the expected
residence time for liquid do not consider agitation and
air injection, and thus neglect the processes of macroand micro-turbulence produced mechanically. Jowett
further concluded that the eective residence time for
otation is always more than the expected.
A nal, third, point regarding CODELCOs analysis
relates to their use of the perfect mixing model as a
standard for comparison of the measured RTDs of the
three machines. Previous studies on the mixing characteristics of otation cells (Dinsdale and Berube, 1972;
Bull and Spottiswood, 1974; Harris and Cuadros-Paz,
1978; Harris et al., 1975, 1976, 1978; Gardner et al.,
1980) show that perfect mixing is neither a valid nor
desirable approximation for otation cells. In all of
these studies the authors chose to interpret the tracer
response data using the multiple-parameter model approach developed and discussed by Levenspiel (1962,
1989) and Wen and Fan Wen and Fan (1975) among
many others.

Table 6
Stagnant portions of the otation machines
Material

Dorr-Oliver (%)

Outokumpu (%)

WEMCO
(%)

Liquid
All solids
Fine solids
Interm. solids
Coarse solids

0
36
35
45
23

43
45
53
46
40

0
10
0
9
10

D. Lelinski et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 499505

In this model, a otation cell consists of dierent

regions representing perfect mixing, dead volume, bypass, recycling and plug ow. The main reason cited for
the existence of stagnant portions of the otation machines is insucient turbulence. This portion of the
machine is usually located in the corners and upper part
of the vessel. The part of the cell where mixing is complete and there is no variation in composition is considered the eective volume. Bypass or short-circuiting
represents that part of the feed, which goes directly to
the exit stream without being dispersed in the cell.
Similarly, that part of the feed which may be recirculated through the impeller zone due to intense stirring
action in that zone represents recycling (Mehrotra and
Saxena, 1983).
Approximation to perfect mixing is not necessarily
the perfect operating mode for a otation machine.
Harris (Harris, 1976) has noted that the dierent stages
of the otation operation (e.g., suspension, bubble formation, particlebubble contact, and separation) all require dierent levels of turbulence, and that the dierent
regimes noted in the multiple-parameter model are actually the preferred situation.
In the case of perfect mixing, any input would be
immediately dispersed uniformly throughout the whole
cell. This prohibits part of the feed to be pumped
through the rotor space. In all types of otation machines, volume inside the rotor is the place where the
majority of particlebubble contact takes place. Without
a particlebubble contact otation can not take place;
this is the rst, necessary step.

7. Conclusions
The work of CCHEN with subsequent analysis by
CODELCO has provided a valuable measurement of
the RTD of both liquid and particles in large otation
machines. Coupled with knowledge of the expected
residence time, this provides new insight into the ow
characteristics of the individual machines that were
evaluated. Each of the otation machines contained a
certain amount of stagnant volume, and this varied from
7% of the WEMCO machines eective volume to 45%
of the Outokumpu volume.
Although the concept of perfect mixing is seducing,
the best method to interpret the residence time distribution data is to use a multiple-parameter model. Application of the perfect mixing model to the otation
machine is a simplistic approach that ignores the many
unit functions of a large modern otation machine.
Taking into consideration the necessity of the ow
through rotor, the slurry pumping rate together with the

505

highest achievable mean residence time in a otation cell

is the best possible indication of cell performance.

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