DNV-OS-J102 (Draft October 2004) Design and Manufacturing of Wind Turbine Blades (Offshore)

OFFSHORE STANDARD
DNV-OS-J102
DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING OF

WIND TURBINE BLADES
DRAFT OCTOBER 2004
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DNV Offshore Standard: 'Design and Manufacturing or Wind Turbine Blades, Draft, 041025
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION............................... 5
A.
Objectives............................................................ 5
A 100
Objectives ............................................. 5
B. Application.......................................................... 5
B 100
Application............................................ 5
C. Normative references .......................................... 6
C 100
IEC Type certification standards........... 6
C 200
DNV guidelines and standards.............. 6
C 300
Other references .................................... 7
SECTION 2
PROCEDURES FOR MATERIAL
QUALIFICATION .......................................................... 8
A.
General ................................................................ 8
A 100
General.................................................. 8
A 200
Quality system requirements................. 8
B. FRP materials ...................................................... 8
B 100
FRP materials........................................ 8
C. Sandwich core materials...................................... 9
C 100
Sandwich core materials ....................... 9
D. Adhesives ............................................................ 9
D 100
Adhesives.............................................. 9
E.
Laminated wood.................................................. 9
E 100 Laminated Wood ....................................... 9
F.
Metallic materials................................................ 9
F 100 Metallic materials for bushings etc............ 9
SECTION 3
DESIGN CALCULATION
PROCEDURES 10
A.
General .............................................................. 10
A 100
Objective............................................. 10
A 200
Quality system requirements............... 10
A 300
Processes............................................. 10
A 400
Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms
12
A 500
Design criteria..................................... 14
A 600
Load and load factors.......................... 15
A 700
Consequence of failure factor ............. 15
A 800
Material resistance and resistance Factors
15
A 900
Geometrical Parameters ...................... 16
B. Verification of input for design loads and tower
clearance analysis ....................................................... 17
B 100
Verification of input for load and tower
clearance analysis................................................... 17
C. Analytical models for linear analysis of blade
strains.......................................................................... 17
C 100
General................................................ 17
D. Finite Element Analysis .................................... 17
D 100
Modelling of Structures General...... 17
D 200
Software Requirements ....................... 19
D 300
Execution of Analysis ......................... 19
D 400
Evaluation of Results .......................... 20
D 500
Validation and Verification................. 20
E.
Buckling Analysis ............................................. 20
E 100 Concepts and definitions.......................... 20
E 200 General .................................................... 21
E 300 Calculation of buckling............................ 21
E 400 Buckling analysis of isolated components22
E 500 Buckling analysis of more complex

elements or entire structures .................................. 23
F.
Tower clearance ................................................ 23
G. Fibre failure....................................................... 24
G 100
General................................................ 24
G 200
Fibre failure at the ply level ................ 24
G 300
Fibre failure check using a modified
Tsai-Wu criterion ................................................... 25
G 400
Special considerations for fibre failure
under inplane compressive loads ........................... 27
G 500
Fracture mechanics approach.............. 27
H. Matrix failure .................................................... 27
H 100
General................................................ 27
H 200
Matrix failure based on simple stress
criterion 28
H 300
Matrix failure based on Puck's criterion
29
H 400
Obtaining orientation of the failure
surface
30
H 500
Matrix cracking caused only by shear. 31
H 600
Matrix yielding ................................... 31
I.
Delamination and bond failure .......................... 31
I 100
General .................................................... 31
I 200
Onset of delamination.............................. 31
I 300
Delamination growth ............................... 31
J.
Sandwich failure................................................ 31
J 100 General .................................................... 31
J 200 Failure of Sandwich Faces....................... 32
J 300 Failure of the Sandwich Core .................. 32
J 400 Failure of the Sandwich Skin-Core Interface
32
J 500 Buckling of sandwich structures.............. 32
J 600 Yielding ................................................... 33
J 700 Ultimate Failure of orthotropic homogenous
materials................................................................. 33
K. Fatigue Limit State ............................................ 35
K 100
General................................................ 35
K 200
Cyclic Fatigue ..................................... 35
K 300
Fibre failure in fatigue ........................ 36
K 400
Change of elastic properties................ 36
K 500
Initiation of fatigue damage ................ 36
K 600
Growth of fatigue damage................... 39
L.
Other Failure modes .......................................... 39
L 100 Wear ........................................................ 39
L 200 Chemical decomposition / Corrosion....... 39
L 300 Lightning protection ................................ 39
L 400 Impact ...................................................... 40
L 500 Creep........................................................ 40
L 600 Extreme temperatures in the blade........... 40
L 700 Draining ................................................... 41
SECTION 4
QUALIFICATION OF
MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES ........................ 42
A.
General .............................................................. 42
A 100
Manufacturing procedure manuals...... 42
SECTION 5
A.
TEST PROCEDURES...................... 44
General .............................................................. 44
A 100
General................................................ 44
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DNV Offshore Standard: 'Design and Manufacturing of Wind Turbine Blades, Draft, 041025
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B.
Selection of test blade and specification of testing

44
B 100
Selection of test blade ......................... 44
B 200
Parts of the blade to be tested.............. 45
B 300
Determination of natural frequencies and
damping 45
B 400
Static testing........................................ 45
B 500
Fatigue testing..................................... 47
B 600
Final static testing ............................... 49
C. Quality management of testing ......................... 49
C 100
General................................................ 49
D. Reporting........................................................... 50
D 100
General................................................ 50
SECTION 6
DOCUMENTATION FOR
DETALIED SPECIFIC BLADE DESIGN.................. 51
A.
General .............................................................. 51
A 100
General................................................ 51
A 200
Design Documents .............................. 51
A 300
Technical Documents.......................... 51
A 400
Work Instructions and Drawings ........ 51
A 500
Test Documents .................................. 51
A 600
Installation and Service Documents.... 52
SECTION 7
A.
MANUFACTURING OF BLADES. 53
General .............................................................. 53
A 100
General................................................ 53
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
A. Objectives
A 100 Objectives
101 This standard provides principles, technical requirements and guidance for the entire process for design and
manufacturing of wind turbine blades. The objective of the standard is to serve as:
technical reference document between clients, contractors, suppliers, consultants and third parties
detailed interpretation of IEC WT 01 for type certification of wind turbine blades
supplementary interpretation of ISO 9000 for certification of quality management systems for design and manufacturing of
wind turbine blades
supplementary standard for Manufacturer Product Quality Assessment (MPQA) services
supplementary interpretation of ISO 17025 certification of blade test laboratories
detailed standard for third party blade manufacturing inspection
Guidance note:
The type certification of blades according to IEC WT 01 involves design evaluation (verification of material qualification, design calculation and work
instructions), manufacturing evaluation (inspection of the manufacturing of one blade) and testing of blades.
The IEC WT 01 design evaluation will both cover the generic elements and specific elements of the design documentation. Verification of the generic elements
will only be carried out in details if these elements are critical for the specific design.
The IEC WT 01 blade testing evaluation is normally carried out as a review of test report from an accredited laboratory and a report for manufacturing of the test
blade.
The IEC WT 01 manufacturing evaluation is normally carried out once. The evaluation is carried out when the manufacturer consider tools (moulds) and quality
procedures ready for serial production. Often the quality procedures are in development during the manufacturing of the prototype test blade(s). In such cases the
manufacturing evaluation is carried out at a later stage and the documentation for manufacturing of the test blades is reviewed in the light of the final tools.
If design, materials or manufacturing procedures are changed necessary elements of design verification, testing and manufacturing evaluation must be repeated
before the IEC type certificate can be reissued.
DNV may offer additional services to the IEC WT 01 type certification to assist the manufacturer in developing and maintaining the quality system, to enable a
faster type approval process for new blade designs and to inspect blade manufacturing as a third party. These services can be arranged as MPQA, ISO 9000
certification, ISO 17025 certification of blade test laboratories and/or project related blade third party manufacturing inspection. The basis for these additional
services is provided with the present standard as it is divided in self contained sections.
---e-n-d---o-f---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
This standard does not cover details of the determination of design loads for wind turbine blades. The safety level is
specified according to loads and partial safety factors specified in IEC 61400-1.
102
B. Application
B 100 Application
Manufacturing and design of wind turbine blades are normally carried out both on generic and specific levels at the
manufacturers. The generic level involves qualification of design procedures, materials, manufacturing and test methods. The
specific level involves design, manufacturing and test of individual blade types.
101
The wind turbine blade manufacturer should preferably establish and control general design procedures, qualification of
materials, manufacturing procedures and applicable test procedures through for example revision-controlled manuals. The
manuals should be self-contained and preferably provide all relevant justification of procedures and qualification.
102
This standard is thus divided into a generic part concerning documentation of the qualification process and a specific part
for blade design and manufacturing.
103
104
The certification of wind turbine blades can be carried out in three steps as illustrated in Figure 1:
The first step covers verification of the blade manufacturer procedure manuals for control of design calculations, materials
qualification, manufacturing and blade testing. The verification is carried out on a generic level.
The second step involves approval of the specific design which is carried out according to the procedure manuals verified in
the first step and documented in form of design drawings, work instructions, design reports and test reports.
The third step consists of inspection of manufacturing of individual blades according to the design drawings and work
instructions verified in the second step. The procedure manual for manufacturing verified in the first step is used as guidance
for the inspection.
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Type certification is limited to a specific design. The type certification may not cover a verification of the complete
material qualification and all the generic procedures. Only elements of the material qualification and the generic procedures that
are critical for this design will be verified.
105
Guidance note:
The wind turbine blade designer and manufacturer must decide how to communicate design and manufacturing to the certifying body. In cases with many
different blade design based on the same principles it may help the communication not to mix generic documents and specific documents for the individual
designs in the documentation packages issued and in the verification statements to be requested from the certifying body.
Figure 1. Wind turbine design and development processes with reference to the sections of this standard
C. Normative references
The latest revision of the following documents applies:
C 100 IEC Type certification standards

IEC WT 01, IEC System for Conformity Teststing and Certification of Wind Turbines, Rules and Procedures
IEC 61400-1, Wind Turbines Generator Systems, Safety Requirements
IEC 61400-23, Full scale testing of wind turbine blades
IEC 61400-24, Lightning protection for wind turbines
C 200 DNV guidelines and standards

DNV Guidelines for Certification of Wind Turbine Power Plants
DNV/Ris Guidelines for Design of Wind Turbines
DNV OS-501-C501, Composite components
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C 300 Other references

ISO 9001:2000, Quality management systems, requirements
ISO 17025, General requirements for the competence of calibration and testing laboratories
Energistyrelsen: Recommandation for Design Documentation and Test of Wind Turbine Blades.
Guidance note:
The number of latest edition of DNV documents may be found in the publications list at the DNV website www.dnv.com
The latest edition of DNV OS-C501 may be read in the viewing area for offshore standards on http://exchange.dnv.com/
The latest edtion of the publications issued from Energistyrelsen may be found at www.dawt.dk
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SECTION 2
PROCEDURES FOR MATERIAL QUALIFICATION
A. General
A 100 General
101
The material qualification should at least include:
Requirements to manufacturing processes (e.g. curing control for resins and adhesives)
Requirements to traceability for material (e.g. name and trademark of manufacturer, material grade, batch number)
Requirements for storage (e.g. control of temperature, humidity and shelf life)
Characteristic material parameters for all relevant limit states including minimum and maximum service temperatures and
(e.g.: strength, toughness, density, cold deformability, ageing characteristics, resistance to rot and sun light)
Purchase specifications for the individual materials. The specifications shall at least cover strength properties, testing
methods, batch size, frequency of testing, certification, marking (labels/colour codes)
Qualification scheme for new suppliers of the individual materials. The scheme shall identify test methods that can be used
to document that a new material is compatible with the existing approved materials and the specified characteristic material
parameters.
Qualification records for the approved suppliers.
The characteristic material resistance is defined in this standard as either the low 2.5% or the low 5% quantile in the
distribution of the arbitrary strength. This is equivalent to the 97.5 % or 95% tolerance respectively. Partial safety factors shall be
used in accordance with the definition of characteristic strength, see Section 3, A 100.
102
The material strength shall refer to 95% confidence. The confidence requirement is important for test series that only
include a few tests.
103
104
The material stiffness shall refer to 95% confidence and mean value.
105
The qualification records shall cover all interfaces to neighbouring materials.
A 200 Quality system requirements

The documentation for the material qualification shall be open to all individuals involved in design, purchase and
manufacturing. The documentation should preferably be organised as a manual.
201
B. FRP materials
B 100 FRP materials
101
The material qualification for FRP materials should be carried out according to DNV-OS-C501.
102 A qualification of a fibre ply type shall consider all applicable resins in the justification of the characteristic static and
fatigue strength.
Guidance note:
One resin is typically selected to be used with a ply type early in the qualification phase. Later other resins may need to be qualified as substitutes for the first
resin. All relevant parts of the qualification shall be repeated for such substitutes.
103
The qualification of a resin shall consider all relevant fibre plies and all relevant adhesives.
The tensile and compressive strength of FRP laminates shall take into account the ply drops, fibre misalignment,
manufacturing procedure and workmanship and be corrected for fibre content.
104
Through thickness tearing shall be taken into account in the qualification of FRP laminates. The minimum tearing
strength shall not be lower than 9 MPa according to ASTM C 297.
105
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C. Sandwich core materials

C 100 Sandwich core materials
101
The material qualification for sandwich core materials should be carried out according to DNV-OS-C501.
102
The qualification of a sandwich core material shall consider the interface to the alternative laminates.
Guidance note:
The qualification of a sandwich core material shall involve the interface to the skins as this interface may be critical for the strength in some failure modes. The
qualification records shall clearly specify the laminate skins that have been part of the qualification
D. Adhesives
D 100 Adhesives
101
The material qualification for adhesives should be carried out according to DNV-OS-C501.
102
Qualification of adhesive shall be carried out according the specified maximum bond thicknesses.
Qualification of adhesives shall both consider ductility, shear strength and peeling strength. The acceptance criteria shall
be verified in full scale blade tests.
103
104
Qualification of adhesives shall consider thermal effects and ageing.
105
Adhesive joints shall be protected against exposure to water.
E. Laminated wood
E 100 Laminated Wood
101
The qualification of wood should be based on the same principles as in DNV-OS-C501.
102 Data for strength of tensile and compressive wood shall be corrected for the density. The purchase specification shall
specify acceptable densities
The procedures for purchase and storage of wood shall control the moisture content at the manufacturing. The
characteristic strength of wood shall be based on test data that are corrected to represent the worst possible humidity. The
variation in moisture content for the wood for a blade should be lower than 4%.
103
Guidance note:
The wood can normally be enclosed such that the moisture content will not increase when the blade is in service. Creep and ageing of the wood over the service
life can normally be neglected for a controlled moisture content below 10%.
F. Metallic materials
F 100 Metallic materials for bushings etc.
Metallic materials do normally not need qualification if the design is carried out according to a recognised standard i.e.
DNV Guidelines for certification of wind turbine power plants.
101
Bushings should be qualified in a test with both adjoining laminate, adhesives and the bushing arranged in a testing
machine where all the load is transferred from the bushing to the laminate in the same way as it is for the blade.
102
Bushings may be tested by inducing tension in one bushing and compression in other bushings. This kind of tests do not
have the same stress distribution as in the blade. Strength values can only be used for quality control and not for qualification or
design.
103
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SECTION 3
DESIGN CALCULATION PROCEDURES
A. General
A 100 Objective
101
This section provides the general framework for analytical verification of wind turbine blade strength.
The analytical verification is carried out a check of the response of the structure from exceeding specific limit states
defined as design criteria.
102
The verification is based on the principles of DNV-OS-C501. Reference is made to this standard for composite laminates
and sandwich structures.
103
A 200 Quality system requirements

The design calculation manual at the blade designer should specify the details of the processes covered in this section
when the emphasis is on the specific materials, structural lay-out and processes relevant for the actual designs.
201
202
The qualification scheme shall be specified for engineers performing or supervising finite element analysis.
A 300 Processes
301
The processes in the analytical verification of blade strength are illustrated in Fig. 3.1 and are commented below.
Selection of partial safety factors and definition of characteristic values are not marked in Figure. 3.1. The selection is
specified later in this section.
302
303 The structural input for aero-elastic model shall be verified. In the initial design phase this is accomplished through finite
element calculations or analytical models for blade stiffness and mass. In the final design phase the verification is followed up
through verification with measured data. Further details of the verification are given in Section B.
The aero-elastic calculation shall be carried out on the basis of IEC 61400-1 and DNV Ris Guidelines for design of wind
turbines. The aero-elastic calculation results in combined time-series of all relevant deformation modes of the blade. The
aero-elastic calculation is not covered further in this standard.
304
Guidance note:
The worst loads in a circular root section may not occur in the flap or edgewise directions. Sensors for blade bending in the aero-elastic model are defined in a
coordinate system where one axis typically is located in the rotor plane at the root and one axis is located in the direction of the aerodynamic profile along the
blade. The load histories for the individual sensors may not cover the most critical loads as these may occur in other directions than those of the sensors. Post
processing of the sensor histories with relevant transformation matrices for arbitrary positions on the root may be need to find the most critical positions and
loads.
305 A full scale static and dynamic blade test shall be carried out for all new blades designs as specified in IEC WT01 and
IEC-61400-23. The test loads shall be specified by the designer based on the aero-elastic calculation and the material
characteristics. The test loads cannot be taken directly as the design loads as this would require many load directions and a
fatigue test running several years. Instead the test loads are taken as a transformation of design loads where reference is made to
the most critical limit states. The transformation is carried out such that analytical utilisation ratios for are not reduced. Relevant
load factors are applied to variability in loads and strength. The specification of test loads are detailed in and the procedures for
testing wind turbine blades are detailed in Section 5.
A strain analysis shall be carried out for the worst ultimate loads. The strain analysis can be carried out as a linear analysis
supplemented with a simplified local evaluation of the resistance against buckling. If the local buckling analysis indicates that
the effect of buckling is moderate and is limited to a few elements that do not interact, then the final strain distribution can be
taken as the linear response with a correction for buckling based on simplified analysis.
306
The strain analysis shall be carried out as a global buckling analysis if there is a significant influence of buckling on strain
distribution when the blade is subjected to ultimate loads or if there is an interaction between buckling of neighbouring structural
elements in the blade. The global buckling analysis is normally carried out as finite element analysis
307
Buckling of the blade under normal operating loads is not acceptable. Accordingly, the strains for the fatigue analysis can
be based on a linear analysis.
308
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Figure 3.1 Processes in analytical verification of wind turbine blade strength
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A 400 Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms

401
Fracture of the blade may be caused by any combination of axial tension, compression, torsion or bending moments.
402 The global analysis of the wind turbine blades shall provide the worst combination of the above loads for local analysis.
The local analysis shall establish load effects (stresses or strains) on the ply level. Effects of buckling shall be taken into account
in the local analysis.
403
Every possible failure mode and failure mechanisms shall be identified for the blade.
General analysis methods for composite laminates and sandwich structures are given in DNV-OS-C501 Section 9. One of
the suggested analysis methods shall be used for wind turbine blades.
404
The most common failure mechanisms related to fracture of composite laminates and sandwich structures are
summarised in Table A1.
405
Table A1: Typical failure mechanisms that can lead to fracture

Failure
Mechanisms
Comments
Section in this standard
Fibre breaking
Fibre buckling
Ply failure with main stress in the fibre direction. Is assumed to cause
fracture. Fibre failure can be caused by exceeding the tensile or
compressive strength of the individual fibres. The fibres may start to
buckle at micro level or on a higher level. The buckling may reduce
the compression strength drastically. Imperfections further increase
the effect of buckling. Shall always be checked.
Is assumed to cause fracture in UD laminates, in 0/90 laminates loaded
in in-plane shear and in joints
May reduce stiffness and compressive fibre strength.
May initiate delamination.
Failure in the matrix shall consider both the matrix and the interface to
the fibre. The seizing of the fibre controls may have a significant
impact on the strength of the interface
Otherwise a failure mode that does not influence fracture.
Shall be checked, unless structure can tolerate large deformations of
the material investigated.
Is assumed to cause fracture if a structure is exposed to through
thickness stresses.
May be acceptable for in-plane loads.
May reduce buckling strength
If limited delamination is accepted it shall be verified that this
delamination do not grow to an unacceptable size during the service
life
Shall always be checked.
3G
Matrix
Cracking
Matrix yielding
Delamination
Sandwich core
fracture
Sandwich core
yield
Fatigue
Shall be checked, unless structure can tolerate large deformations of

the material investigated.
Repeated loading lead to accumulation of fatigue damage
3H200-600
3H700
3I
3J700
3J600
3K
Guidance note:
Interlaminar tensile failure and interlaminar shear failure are in this standard and in DNV-OS-C501 described as matrix cracking and/or delamination.
Yielding is typically a failure mode for polymeric foams, but not a failure mode for most fibre reinforced laminates. If yielding can happen two options may be
used:
The design does not allow yielding.
A fully nonlinear analysis may be done considering the effects of yielding.

406 For each failure mechanism its critically with respect to fracture shall be evaluated. Criticality may be different at
different locations in the blade.
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If a failure mechanism is found to be critical design calculations or testing shall show that this failure mechanism will not
happen within the lifetime of the blade.
407
408
The failure mode for fatigue is normally fatigue damage accumulation. See section 3.I.
In addition to the above mentioned failure modes that are initiated from the global ultimate and fatigue loads the
following other failure modes shall be considered in design of a wind turbine blade: impact from hail, lighting, wear (from sand
particles in the air), corrosion, creep in areas under constant high (pre-)load (i.e. at T-bolts bolts) and temperature.
409
410 Special consideration shall be given to interfaces between laminates and steel or laminates and laminates, see
DNV-OS-C501 Section 7.
Guidance note:
The mechanisms of failure of composites can be discussed at different material levels. Failure can be considered to happen in the matrix, in the interface between
the matrix and the fibre or in the fibre. On a larger scale, it can happen to the individual ply (or core). Eventually, one can consider the whole thickness of the
structure as one quantity, i.e. the laminate or the sandwich structure.
Design criteria are often investigated on the most detailed level, i.e. first ply failure are used for as a criteria for laminate strength. For some structure there is a
high redundancy and there may be significant conservatism in this approach.
In some cases, a critical sequence of mechanisms of failure may be required for a failure mode to occur. That sequence
should be specified (considering the domino effect), if relevant.
411
Guidance note:
Different sequences may lead to the same failure mode. In this case, the structure shall only be considered as failed, if the whole sequence of mechanisms of
failure modes has happened.
The type of failure (brittle or ductile failure) is determined for each failure mechanism in DNV-OS-C501. This is not done
here, because simplified material resistance factors are used.
412
Laminates and sandwich structures typically show a sequence of failure mechanisms. These sequences should be
considered. If one failure mechanism cannot be well described it may be sufficient to design the component in a way that the
preceding failure mechanism will not occur.
413
414
415
Typical sequences for laminates are:

matrix cracking => delamination => fibre failure
debonding and matrix cracking => fibre buckling => fibre failure
delamination => crack propagation due to fatigue => global buckling
An unusual but possible sequence is:
Wedge shaped matrix cracks => component failure in compression
Typical sequences for sandwich structures is:
under fatigue loading, crack initiates in the core due to core shearing => crack then propagates in core material =>
face-core delamination starts when shear crack reaches interface => face-core delamination propagates along the
interface until final catastrophic failure.
416
Typical failure mechanisms of sandwich structures are shown in the Figure below.
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(a) face/core yielding/fracture;

(b) core shear;
(c) buckling - face wrinkling;
(d) delamination;
(e) general buckling;
(f) buckling - shear crimping;
(g) buckling - face dimpling;
(h) core indentation - core yield.
Figure 1: The Failure Mechanisms in a Sandwich Beam.

Guidance note:
The types and directions of loading shown in the figure 1 are indicative, and are characteristic of loading associated with the elementary failure mechanisms of
sandwich structures. However, in real structures, a failure mechanism can occur under various loading conditions.
A 500 Design criteria

501
A design criterion shall be assigned to each relevant mechanism of failure.
The general design criterion in the case of a single load for the Load and Resistance Factor Design format is taken
according to IEC 61400-1:
502
S k ( f Fk )
Rk
n . m
where,
503
f
Partial load effect factor
Fk
Characteristic load
Sk
Local stress or strain based design load effect
Characteristic resistance
Rk
Partial resistance factor
m
Consequence of failure factor
n,
The last term in 502 is the design resistance or the design strength
504
The selection of the partial safety factors shall be determined according to Section A700.
505 The characteristic value of the local stress or strain based on the characteristic load shall be determined. Nonlinear effects
in the analysis should be considered to obtain the proper value and distribution of the local stress or strain.
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Guidance note:
The safety factor format in IEC 61400-1 differs from the safety factor format in DNV-OS-C501. The consequence of failure factor is not part of the safety factor
format of DNV-OS-C501. Instead the following factors are used: Load model factor, Resistance model factor, system effect factor and a partial factor for fatigue
analysis.
The load model factor in DNV-OS-C501 can be taken as 1.0 for wind turbine blades as the loads are carefully verified through measurements and the response of
the blade is verified through full scale blade testing. Geometrical tolerances shall be taken into account in a conservative way.
The resistance model factor in DNV-OS-C501 can be taken as 1.0 if the following accuracies are taken into account:
Non-linearity of the strain response is taken into account in the calculated strain distribution before fibre failure is evaluated.
Matrix failure models are calibrated to tests for the actual stress distributions in the given laminate
If the delamination model takes into account the crack length, See DNV-OS-C501, sec. 6E.
Failure models for brittle fracture of core materials under multidirectional loading are calibrated to tests for the actual material under the same type of
loading.
The system effect factor in DNV-OS-C501 can be taken as 1.0.
The design criteria in DNV-OS-C501 are only valid for linear stress and strain response to design loads.
The fatigue factor in DNV-OS-C501 is not relevant as IEC-61400 and the present standard specify the safety in fatigue at strain level as for the ultimate strength.
The present standard does not specify the safety in fatigue on fatigue life level as DNV-OS-C501. The safety level in the present standard is of the same level as
the safety level in DNV-OS-C501 for the slope of typical SN curves for materials for wind turbine blades (8 < m < 25 for curves on log-log scale).
The safety factor format in DNV-OS-C501 is based on the hypothesis that effects of low cycle fatigue, size effects of test specimens, long term effects of
humidity, temperature, ageing and degradation all can be taken into account in a concise way through testing. The present standard defines a penalty factor for
material strength that can be used when detailed testing for these effects has not been completed.
It is also assumed in DNV-OS-C501 that the statistical variation in material strength properties in the qualification of materials can be used as a basis for the
determination of partial safety factors for resistance. The partial safety factor for resistance in the present standard is based on a minimum partial safety factor
multiplied with a penalty factors for increased variations in strength. The minimum safety factor is based on the lowest realistic variation in strength for present
composite materials and manufacturing methods for wind turbine blades. The penalty factors for increased variation in strength is based on experience with the
specified optional materials and manufacturing methods.
A 600 Load and load factors

601
The specification of characteristic values and partial safety factors for loads should follow IEC 61400-1 or DNV-OS-J01.
602
Load effects shall be determined for all phases of the blade, e.g., transport, installation, operation, repair.
A 700 Consequence of failure factor

701
The consequence of failure factor shall be taken a according to IEC 61400-1
Table C1: Consequence of failure factors

Factor
n
Consequence of failure factor
Ultimate
Strength
1.0
Fatigue
Strength
1.15
A 800 Material resistance and resistance Factors

The specification of characteristic values shall refer to the material qualification The characteristic material strength as
described in DNV-OS-501 Section 4 should be used for all calculations. Strength values shall based on the low 2.5% quantile in
the distribution of the arbitrary strength with 95% confidence. If only data of the low 5.0% quantile in the distribution of the
arbitrary strength with 95% confidence are available an additional materials factor shall be used, as stated in Table C2.
801
If the strength of the material is temperature dependent, dependent on the surrounding environment or degrades over the
service life within the range of operational conditions, the analysis should consider the range of strength using the same
principles as given in DNV-OS-C501. If this influence is moderate the reductions in strength is taken into consideration by
applying a strength reduction factor when determining the partial safety factor for strength, see Table C2
802
803
The material resistance factor m is given as a combination of partial factors:
m = m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m6
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where m1 to m6 are partial safety factors and strength reduction factors described in Table C2.
Table C2: Partial material resistance factors
Factor
Basic partial resistance factor 95 % fractile strength data
Correction factor if strength data refer to 97.5% fractile
instead of 95 % fractile
Strength reduction factor for repeated loading/low cycle
fatigue
Strength reduction factor for of size effects, temperature,
ageing and degradation for UV radiation and humidity:
- Epoxy resin
- Polyester resin
- Wood with fibre reinforced epoxy shielding
Strength reduction factor for effects of optional materials and
manufacturing methods:
Fibre reinforced thermo setting resin
- Prepreg or resin infusion unidirectional plies areas with
continuous plies and no ply drops and manufacturing
methods which do not allow wrinkles through laminates
- Prepreg or resin infusion with mainly unidirectional plies
including ply drops
- Random orientated mats and/or hand layup
Laminated wood, number of veneers through the thickness-- - More than 11 veneers
- 6 veneers
- 4 veneers
- 3 veneers or less
Interpolation between these values shall be done for other
number of veneers
Sandwich core
- Plastic Polymeric foam, designed for yielding (PVC)
- Brittle polymeric foam designed for fracture (PMI)
- Balsa wood
Bonded joints
- Adhesive
Strength reduction factor for post curing:
- Post curing controlled with DSC or equivalent
- Post curing without control of cured laminate
- Exothermic curing only
m1
m2
Ultimate
Strength
1.3
0.95
Fatigue
Strength
1.2
0.95
m3
1.1
m4
1.1
1.2
1.1
m5
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.3
m6
1.0
1.05
1.1
Guidance note:
The factors in table C2 have been selected according to experience with coefficient of variation COV for optional materials and manufacturing methods. The
COV is defined as the standard deviation divided by the mean value. Further details of influence on COV on partial safety factors can be found in Appendix E of
DNV-OS-C501
The design of components in ferrous materials should follow DNV: Guidelines for certification of wind turbine power
plants and is not considered in further details in the present standard.
804
A 900 Geometrical Parameters

Nominal dimensions shall be used for all calculations related to FRP laminates or polymers except for thicknesses taken
into account in buckling calculations. thicknesses in buckling calculation shall be taken as conservative values
901
Guidance note:
There may be large variations in fibre content/thickness in wet lay-up.
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B. Verification of input for design loads and tower clearance analysis

B 100 Verification of input for load and tower clearance analysis
The verification of the input for the load and clearance analysis shall confirm the distribution of aerodynamic profiles and
the orientation of the local coordinate systems in the computer model and cover a comparison of measured and calculated values
for:
101
Mass
Mass center
First and second flapwise natural frequency and damping
First edgewise frequency and damping
Flapwise blade deflections in load conditions that are reprentative for the load at minimum tower clearance.
Torsional stiffness
Guidance note:
Torsional stiffness verification can be omitted if it is justified that flutter instability is not critical for the blade design.
The verification of the input for the load analysis shall evaluate critical effects of combined loads such that design loads
are calculated for all critical details of the blade.
102
Guidance note:
The worst loads in a circular root section may not occur in the flap or edgewise directions. Sensors additional to the flap and edgewise root bending
moment sensors in the aero-elastic model may be specified to provide necessary details of the design loads for other directions.
C. Analytical models for linear analysis of blade strains

C 100 General
101 In many blade designs the global bending loads are carried by a beam structure in the blade. The beam is composed of
symmetric balanced laminates. The Aerodynamic profile of the blade is based on curved sandwich panels attached to the beam.
For this type of structure the strains from global bending can be found with simple beam theory.
102 Beams in blades are not prismatic. Simple Bernoulli-Euler beam theory can be extended by correction factors covering
the effect of flanges that are not parallel.
D. Finite Element Analysis

D 100 Modelling of Structures General
Only recognised FE programs should be used. Other programs shall be verified by comparison with analytical solutions
of relevant problems, recognised FE codes and/or experimental testing
101
102
Element types shall be chosen on the basis of the physics of the problem
The choice of the mesh should be based on a systematic iterative process, which includes mesh refinements in areas with
large stress/strain gradients.
103
104
Problems of moderate or large complexity shall be analysed in a stepwise way, starting with a simplified model.
Model behaviour shall be checked against behaviour of the structure. The following modelling aspects shall be treated
carefully:
105
loads,
boundary conditions,
important and unimportant actions,
static, quasi-static or dynamic problem,
damping,
possibility of buckling,
isotropic or anisotropic material,
temperature or strain rate dependent material properties,
plastic flow,
nonlinearities (due to geometrical and material properties),
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membrane effects.
Guidance note:
Bending of bolted root joints may be controlled by the stiffness of the hub and pitch bearing. The stiffness of the interface shall refer to the technical specification
for the blade.
106 Stresses and strains may be evaluated in nodal points or Gauss points. Gauss point evaluation is generally most accurate,
in particular for layered composites, in which the distribution of stresses is discontinuous, and should therefore be applied when
possible.
Guidance note:
The analyst shall beware that Gauss point results are calculated in local (element or ply based) coordinates and must be transformed (which is automatically
performed in most FE codes) in order to represent global results. Thus, Gauss point evaluation is more time-consuming than nodal point calculations.
107 Support conditions shall be treated with care. Apparently minor changes in support can substantially affect results. In FE
models, supports are typically idealised as completely rigid, or as ideally hinged, whereas actual supports often lie somewhere in
between. In-plane restraints shall also be carefully treated.
Joints shall be modelled carefully. Joints may have less stiffness than inherited in a simple model, which may lead to
incorrect predictions of global model stiffness. Individual modelling of joints is usually not appropriate unless the joint itself is
the object of the study. See also requirements for the analysis of joints in DNV-OS-501.
108
Element shapes shall be kept compact and regular to perform optimally. Different element types have different
sensitivities to shape distortion. Element compatibility shall be kept satisfactory to avoid locally poor results, such as artificial
discontinuities. Mesh should be graded rather than piecewise uniform, thereby avoiding great discrepancy in size between
adjacent elements.
109
110
Models shall be checked (ideally independently) before results are computed.
111
The following points shall be satisfied in order to avoid ill-conditioning, locking and instability:
a stiff element shall not be supported by a flexible element, but rigid-body constraints shall be imposed on the stiff element,
for plane strain and solid problems, the analyst shall not let the Poissons ratio approach 0.5, unless a special formulation is
used,
3-D elements, Mindlin plate or shell elements shall not be allowed to be extremely thin,
the analyst shall not use reduced integration rule without being aware of possible mechanism (e.g. hourglass modes).
Guidance note:
Some of these difficulties can be detected by error tests in the coding, such as a test for the condition number of the structure stiffness matrix or a test for diagonal
decay during equation solving. Such tests are usually a posteriori rather than a priori.
Need for mesh refinement is usually indicated by visual inspection of stress discontinuities in the stress bands. Analogous
numerical indices are also coded.
112
113 For local analysis, a local mesh refinement shall be used. In such an analysis, the original mesh is stiffer than the refined
mesh. When the portion of the mesh that contains the refined mesh is analysed separately, a correction shall be made so the
boundary displacements to be imposed on the local mesh are consistent with the mesh refinement.
114
For nonlinear problems, the following special considerations shall be taken into account:
the analyst shall make several trial runs in order to discover and remove any mistake,
solution strategy shall be guided by what is learned from the previous attempts,
the analyst shall start with a simple model, possibly the linear form of the problem, and then add the nonlinearities one by
one,
115 Computed results shall be checked for self-consistency and compared with, for example, approximate analytical results,
experimental data, text-book and handbook cases, preceding numerical analysis of similar problems and results predicted for the
same problem by another program. If disagreements appear, then the reason for the discrepancy shall be sought, and the amount
of disagreement adequately clarified.
116
The analyst shall beware the following aspects:
for vibrations, buckling or nonlinear analysis, symmetric geometry and loads shall be used with care since in such problems
symmetric response is not guaranteed. Unless symmetry is known to prevail, it shall not be imposed by choice of boundary
conditions,
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for crack analysis, a quarter point element can be too large or too small, thereby possibly making results from mesh
refinement worse,
the wrong choice of elements may display a dependence on Poisons ratio in problems that shall be independent of Poissons
ratio,
if plane elements are warped, so that the nodes of the elements are not co-planar, results may be erratic and very sensitive to
changes in mesh,
imperfections of load, geometry, supports and mesh may be far more important in a buckling problem than in problems
involving only linear response.
In the context of finite element analysis (FEA) of laminate structures (one of) the following element types should be
applied:
117
layered shell elements with orthotropic material properties for each layer (for in-plane 2-D analysis,
solid elements with orthotropic material properties (for 3-D and through thickness 2-D analysis.
The decision to use 2-D or 3-D analysis methods should be made depending on the level of significance of through thickness
stresses and gradients of inplane stresses through the thickness.
Guidance note:
There are two options for the solid elements: The modelling may be performed with (at least) two solid elements through the thickness of each ply. Alternatively,
one may apply layered solid elements where the thickness of a single element includes two or more plies.
D 200 Software Requirements

201
202
Selection of finite element software package shall be based on the followings:

software availability,
availability of qualified personnel having experience with the software and type of analysis to be carried out,
necessary model size,
analysis options required,
validated software for intended analysis.
Useful options for the analysis of composite structures include:
layered solid elements with orthotropic and anisotropic material behaviour,

layered shell elements,
solid elements with correct material models or appropriate interface elements allowing for debond (for analysis of bonded
and laminated joints),
interface elements allowing for large aspect ratio (for analysis of thin layer bonds),
the possibility to select different co-ordinate systems in a clear and unambiguous way.
203
Depending on the area of application, additional analysis options should be available, such as:
appropriate solver with stable and reliable analysis procedures,
options characterising large displacements and large strains (for geometrically nonlinear analysis),
material models describing the behaviour of, e.g., laminates beyond first failure (for materially nonlinear analysis),
robust incremental procedures (for nonlinear analysis in general),
tools for frequency domain analysis and/or options such as time integration procedures (for dynamic analyses),
appropriate post-processing functionality,
database options,
sub-structuring or sub-modelling.
D 300 Execution of Analysis

Extreme care shall be taken when working with different relevant co-ordinate systems, i.e. global, ply based, laminate
based, element based and stiffener based systems.
301
302
The approach shall be documented.
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D 400 Evaluation of Results

Analysis results shall be presented in a clear and concise way using appropriate post-processing options. The use of
graphics is highly recommended, i.e. contour plots, (amplified) displacement plots, time histories, stress and strain distributions
etc.
401
The results shall be documented in a way to help the designer in assessing the adequacy of the structure, identifying
weaknesses and ways of correcting them and, where desired, optimising the structure.
402
D 500 Validation and Verification

FE programs shall be validated against analytical solutions, test results, or shall be benchmarked against a number of
finite element programs.
501
Analysis designer shall check whether the envisaged combination of options has been validated by suppliers. If this is not
the case, he shall perform the necessary validation analysis himself.
502
FEA results shall be verified by comparing against relevant analytical results, experimental data and/or results from
previous similar analysis.
503
504
Analysis and model assumptions shall be verified.
505
Results shall be checked against the objectives of the analysis.
506
Verification whether the many different relevant co-ordinate systems have been applied correctly shall be considered.
507
The calculated strains shall be verified by measured strains from the blade test.
E. Buckling Analysis
E 100 Concepts and definitions
101
Elastic buckling phenomena are commonly considered in two main categories:
Bifurcation buckling: Increasing the applied loading induces at first deformations that are entirely (or predominantly) axial
or in-plane deformations. At a critical value of applied load (elastic critical load) a new mode of deformation involving
bending is initiated. This may develop in an unstable, uncontrolled fashion without further increase of load (unstable
post-buckling behaviour, brittle type of failure), or grow to large values with little or no increase of load (neutral
post-buckling behaviour, plastic type of failure) or develop gradually in a stable manner as the load is increased further
(stable post-buckling behaviour, ductile type of failure).
Limit point buckling: As the applied load is increased the structure becomes less stiff until the relationship between load and
deflection reaches a maximum (elastic critical load) at which the deformations increase in an uncontrolled way (brittle type
of failure).
Determination of the elastic critical load of a structure or member that experiences bifurcation buckling corresponds to
the solution of an eigenvalue problem in which the elastic buckling load is an eigenvalue and the corresponding mode of
buckling deformation is described by the corresponding eigenvector.
102
103
Elastic buckling may occur at different levels:
Global level for the structure. This involves deformation of the structure as a whole.
Global level for a structural member. This is confined mainly to one structural member or element but involves the whole of
that member or element.
Local level for a structural member. Only a part of a structural member or element is involved (e.g. local buckling of the
flange of an I-beam or of a plate zone between stiffeners in a stiffened plate).
Resistance of a structural member to elastic buckling is normally expressed as a critical value of load (applied force, or
stress resultant induced in a member) or as a critical value of a nominal average stress (e.g. axial or shear force divided by area of
cross-section). However, such resistance may also be expressed as a critical value of mean strain induced at a cross-section in a
member.
104
Initial geometrical imperfections (out-of-straightness, out-of-roundness, or eccentricity of applied loading) that lead to a
situation where compressive forces in a structural part are not coincident with the neutral axis of that part may influence
significantly the buckling behaviour. An idealised structure without such imperfections is referred to as geometrically perfect.
105
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Bifurcation buckling is essentially a feature of geometrically perfect structures. Geometrical imperfections generally
destroy the bifurcation and lead to a situation where bending deformations begin to grow as the load is increased from zero. An
elastic critical load may still be associated with the structure, and may provide a good indication of the load level at which the
deformations become large. However, some structures with unstable post-buckling behaviour are highly sensitive to geometric
imperfections. In the presence of imperfections, such structures may experience limit point buckling at loads that are
significantly lower than the elastic critical load of the geometrically perfect structure.
106
Elastic buckling deformation of a geometrically perfect or imperfect structure may trigger other failure mechanisms such
as fibre failure (compressive or tensile) or matrix cracking.
107
The presence of failure mechanisms such as matrix cracking or delamination may influence significantly the buckling
behaviour of structures and structural members.
108
E 200 General
201 Load carrying components shall not buckle when subjected to the design load. For all other components, elastic buckling
under the design load is acceptable. Buckling shall not occur under the characteristic value of the maximum operational load.
Simple analytical formulas for buckling of flat and curved orthotropic panels can normally be used to identify if buckling
will have an influence on the strain distribution in the blade or if the strain distribution at extreme loads shall be analysed
202
Buckling of the wind turbine blade shall be considered as a possible failure mechanism. Global and local buckling shall
be checked.
203
The interaction of buckling with other failure mechanisms, such as delamination and matrix cracking, shall be considered
carefully.
204
205
Buckling may in extreme cases lead to violation of displacement requirements.
E 300 Calculation of buckling

301
The methods described in DNV-OS-C501 Section 9 for buckling analysis shall be followed.
302 The need for special buckling analysis shall be assessed carefully in every case. In particular the following aspects shall
be considered in making this assessment:
Presence of axial compressive stresses
Presence of shear stresses
All parts of the blade, like shell, rips, joints and fittings should be evaluated for buckling. Buckling calculations shall be
carried out at least for panels and the webs in the blade.
303
304 Buckling shall be evaluated as described in Section DNV-OS-C501 Section F taking due account of geometric
imperfections.
305
Assumptions regarding geometrical imperfections shall wherever possible be based on
knowledge of production methods and corresponding production tolerances

knowledge of how imperfections of given shape and magnitude influence the structural behaviour, and
experience from previous measurements and tests
If an adequate knowledge base does not exist, a programme of measurement and/or testing shall be agreed to demonstrate that
the design assumptions are justified.
If analytical formulae are used for estimating critical buckling loads, due account shall be taken of the anisotropic
properties of the wind turbine blade.
306
307
Two alternative approaches may be used in analysing buckling problems:
Analysis of isolated components of standard type, such as tubular sections, beams, plates and shells of simple shape.
Analysis of an entire structure (or of an entire, complex structural component)
Buckling analysis may be carried out by analytical or numerical methods. Such analyses may be applied to either
geometrically perfect or imperfect structures. Analytical methods are mainly confined to geometrically perfect structures, except
for some simple structural members with imperfections of simple shape.
308
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309
When performing a buckling analysis the boundary conditions shall be evaluated carefully.
If in any buckling analysis the applied load is higher than the load that would introduce partial damage in the structure,
e.g. matrix cracking or delaminations, the buckling calculations shall take this partial damage into account.
310
For structures or structural elements that are expected to exhibit bifurcation buckling, an analysis to determine the elastic
critical load (or critical stress or strain) shall normally be carried out before more complex non-linear analysis is performed. The
purpose of this is to establish:
311
whether it may be acceptable to perform only geometrically linear analysis,

whether the structure is clearly under-dimensioned against buckling (if the applied load clearly exceeds, or is close to, the
elastic critical load);
in the case of finite element analysis, the required fineness of mesh for a more complex buckling analysis
Analytical formulae for elastic buckling shall be checked carefully if they contain empirical safety factors or not and if
they are based on structures with or without imperfections. Without this knowledge analytical formulas should not be used.
312
Except in the case of analysis for elastic critical loads (or elastic critical stresses or strains), the analysis model shall
incorporate the least favourable geometrical imperfections that are possible within the specified production tolerances.
Alternatively, a series of analyses may be performed incorporating a representative range of geometrical imperfections that may
arise in the intended production process; these may then be combined with statistical information about the imperfections that
arise in practical production, in terms of their distributions of shape and amplitude.
313
314 If imperfections are not directly included in the buckling analysis as described in, their effects shall be evaluated by other
means such as supplementary analysis or testing. However, if it is demonstrated that the eccentricities or local bending moments
induced by the least favourable geometrical imperfections are less than 10% of the corresponding quantities resulting from other
features inherent in the structure or its loading, such as out-of-plane loads, the geometrical imperfections may be neglected.
In assessing buckling-induced failure, the design criteria shall normally be applied at the level of local stress or strain
state, considered at all points in the structure. The criteria related to fibre failure, matrix cracking, delamination, yield and
ultimate failure shall be applied as appropriate. For sandwich structures the special criteria shall be applied in addition.
Additionally the displacement criterion shall be applied both globally and locally to ensure that there are no excessive buckling
displacements.
315
To obtain the resistance quantities required for the checks, geometrically non-linear analysis shall be performed.
Reduction of mechanical properties due to local failure such as matrix cracking or delamination shall be taken into account.
316
317
The calculated resistance is to be considered from a probabilistic point of view.
318
Variability is introduced by:
Uncertainties in the stiffness parameters that are used in the buckling calculations
Uncertainties in geometric parameters
Uncertainties in size of imperfections and how imperfections are considered
319
The uncertainty introduced by geometrical imperfections shall be evaluated when determining the characteristic strength.
E 400 Buckling analysis of isolated components

401 When a member or component that is a part of a larger structure is analysed separately a global analysis of the structure
shall be first applied to establish
the effective loading applied to the member/component by the adjoining structural parts;
the boundary conditions for the structural member, in terms of translational and rotational stiffness components in all
relevant directions.
402 For simple members or components standard formulae or tables may be used to estimate elastic critical loads (Pe), critical
stresses (e) or critical strains (e), and the corresponding elastic buckling mode shapes. Alternatively these quantities may be
calculated using analytical or numerical methods. It shall always be checked that the buckling mode shape is consistent with the
boundary conditions.
An assessment shall be made of the shape and size of initial, geometrical imperfections that may influence the buckling
behaviour of the member. Normally the most critical imperfection shape for a given buckling mode has a similar form to the
403
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buckling mode itself. However, any geometrical feature (including eccentricity of loading) that results in compressive forces that
are not coincident with the neutral axis of the member may require consideration. The assumed form and amplitude of the
imperfection shall be decided on the basis of the production process used with due consideration of the relevant production
tolerances. Refer to DNV-OS-C501 Section 6H.
Guidance note:
In some cases a geometrically non-linear analysis may be avoided as follows. The elastic critical load (without imperfections) Pe is calculated. In addition an
ultimate failure load Pf is estimated at which the entire cross-section would fail by compressive fibre failure, in the absence of bending stresses at the section in
question. If Pe > Pf the further assessment may be based on geometrically linear analysis provided geometrical imperfections are included and the partial load
effect modelling factor is increased by multiplying it by the factor
1
1 Pf 4 Pe
In cases where it is possible to establish the bending responses (stresses, strains or displacements) associated with an in-plane loading separately from the
in-plane (axial) responses, a first estimate of the influence of geometrical non-linearity combined with the imperfection may be obtained by multiplying the
relevant bending response parameter obtained from a geometrically linear analysis by a factor
1
1
1
,
or
1 P Pe 1 e
1 e
and combining the modified bending responses with the (unmodified) in-plane responses.
The above procedures may be non-conservative for some cases where the post-buckling behaviour is unstable or where delamination and/or matrix failure are
critical. Examples include cylindrical shells and cylindrical panels under axial loading and panels with delamination defects. Such cases shall be subject to
special analysis and/or tests.
E 500 Buckling analysis of more complex elements or entire structures

501 Buckling analysis of more complex elements or entire structures shall be carried out with the aid of verified finite element
software or equivalent.
Initially an eigenvalue buckling analysis shall be performed assuming initial (non-degraded) elastic properties for the
laminates. This shall be repeated with alternative, finer meshes, until the lowest eigenvalues and corresponding eigenmodes are
not significantly affected by further refinement. The main purposes of this analysis are to clarify the relevant buckling mode
shapes and to establish the required mesh density for subsequent analysis.
502
503
Careful attention shall be paid to correct modelling of boundary conditions.
If the applied load exceeds, or is close to, the calculated elastic critical load, the design should be modified to improve the
buckling strength before proceeding further.
504
A step-by-step analysis shall be carried out. Geometrical non-linearity shall be included in the model. The failure criteria
shall be checked at each step. If failure such as matrix cracking or delamination is predicted, any analysis for higher loads shall
be performed with properties reduced as described in DNV-OS-C501 Section 4 I.
505
Alternatively to the requirement in 505 a geometrically non-linear analysis may be performed using entirely degraded
properties throughout the structure. This will normally provide conservative estimates of stresses and deformations. Provided
reinforcing fibres are present in sufficient directions, so that the largest range of un-reinforced directions does not exceed 60,
such an estimate will not normally be excessively conservative.
506
The influence of geometric imperfections should be assessed, on the basis of the production method and production
tolerances.
507
F. Tower clearance
101
The deflection of the blade shall be kept to a certain maximum to avoid contact with the tower or other components.
102
The partial safety factors to be applied in design criteria for tower clearance are specified in IEC 61400-1
103 The partial safety factor for material in deflection criteria (mainly tip to tower distance) shall be multiplied by 1.1 when
mean values for stiffness is used in the analysis. It is accepted that this factor is reduced to 1.0 if:
The deflection analysis is carefully calibrated with the full scale static testing of the blade
A quality control instruction covers retesting of the flapwise stiffness for manufactured blades on a spot check basis
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G. Fibre failure
G 100 General
101 Fibre failure is defined here as the failure of a ply by fracture of fibres. The fibre strength or strain to failure is based on
test results from plies or laminates. Ply failures are measured as rupture of the ply in fibre direction.
102
The maximum strain criterion should be used to check fibre failures.
Other design criteria may be used if it can be shown that they are equal or conservative compared to the maximum strain
criterion given here.
103
104
Fibre failure should be checked at the ply level, not at the laminate level.
If laminates have a layup with fibre orientation seen through the entire thickness that are more than 45o apart, matrix
cracking or deformation due to in plane ply shear stresses may cause rupture of the laminate. In this case matrix cracking due to
ply shear should also be checked to avoid fracture, unless it can be shown that matrix cracks or deformations can be tolerated by
the laminate under the relevant loading conditions.
105
Guidance note:
A pipe made of +55 laminate with a liner can tolerate matrix cracks and shear deformations, as long as the pipe sees only internal pressure. If the pipe must carry
axial loads or bending moments in addition to the pressure, fibres would want to reorient themselves to a different angle, a complicated condition. This is only
avoided as long as the shear properties of the pipe are intact.
A pipe made of a 0/90 laminate can tolerate matrix cracks and shear deformations under internal pressure and axial loads. This pipe would have problems with
axial torsion, since the stresses due to torsion have to be carried by the matrix.
Regardless of the analysis method used, these laminates should always be analysed with non-degraded in-plane shear
moduli G12.
106
If laminates have a layup with fibre orientation seen through the entire thickness that are more than 70o apart, matrix
cracking or deformation due to in plane ply shear stresses or stresses transverse to the fibres may cause rupture of the laminate. In
this case matrix cracking due to all possible stress components should also be checked to avoid fracture (see also J100 to J300),
unless it can be shown that matrix cracks or deformations can be tolerated in by the laminate under the relevant loading
conditions.
107
Guidance note:
This condition is typical for UD laminates where all fibres run parallel in one direction throughout the thickness of the laminate. Great care should be taken when
using such laminates due to their low properties in all other directions than the fibre direction.
Regardless of the analysis method used, these laminates should always be analysed with non-degraded matrix dominated
elastic constants, i.e., E2 , G12 , 12 .
108
G 200 Fibre failure at the ply level

201 For single loads, the maximum strain design criterion is given as:
nk < k fiber
where:
nk
fiber
202
Value of the local response of the structure (strain) in the fibre direction n vor the design load
Design value of the axial strain to fibre failure
For each fibre direction of the laminate the partial analysis factor shall be given by
= Elin/Enonlin,
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where Elin and Enonlin are laminate moduli (stiffnesses) related to loading in the fibre direction of consideration. Elin is the
laminate stiffness based on initial (non-degraded) ply properties, while Enonlin is the reduced laminate stiffness obtained
from degraded ply properties due to matrix cracking. A further explanation is provided by figure 1 and the Guidance note
below
Guidance note:
The introduction of partial analysis factors, A, above may be thought of as a reduction of the effective strain to failure from to corr (mean values). Figure 1
shows a typical laminate stress-strain curve for a laminate containing 0, 45 and 90 layers when loaded in the 0 direction.
A partial analysis factor shall be calculated for each fibre direction of the laminate, which in this example corresponds to obtaining laminate stress-strain
relations for loading in the 0, 45 and 90 degrees directions for the laminate in figure 1.
Enonlin
Elin
corr
Matrix cracking
in 90 layers
Matrix cracking
in 45 layers
Fibre failure
in 0 layer.
Laminate
failure
Figure 2. Typical stress-strain relation for a laminate containing 0, 45 and 90 layers
The maximum strain criterion shall be checked in all n directions parallel to the fibres, and for tensile and compressive
strains.
203
204
kfiber is the time dependent characteristic strength of the ply in fibre direction. One value for one fibre and weave type
shall be used.
G 300 Fibre failure check using a modified Tsai-Wu criterion

301 In many cases the maximum fibre strain criterion is not available in commercial software packages. As an alternative the
Tsai-Wu criterion may be used with modified input parameters as described here.
302
The Tsai-Wu criterion is described in 3-D as:
(F + F + F + F + F + F
+ (2 H + 2 H + 2 H )
+ (F + F + F ) < 1
2
1
11
12
2
2
22
33
2
3
13
12
2
12
2
13
13
23
232 )
23
in 2-D:
(F
11
2
1
+ F22 22 + F12 122 + 2 H 12 1 2 + R F1 1 + F2 2 < 1
with
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F11 =
F12 =
1t 1c
1
12 2
1
F1 =
1t
H 12* =
Where:
n
n
F22 =
F13 =
1c
H 12
F11 F22
2t 2 c
1
,
13 2
F23 =
F2 =
H 13* =
2t
F33 =
3t 3 c
23 2
2c
H 13
F11 F33
F3 =
3t
*
H 23
=
3c
H 23
F22 F33
The co-ordinate system is the ply co-ordinate system, where n refers to the directions 1, 2, 3, 12, 13 and 23
Value of the local load effect of the structure (stress) in the direction n for the design load
nt
Design tensile strength in the direction n
nc
Design compressive strength in the direction n
nk
303
Design shear strength in the direction nk
The interaction parameters
*
H 12* , H 13* , H 23
should be determined experimentally for each material.
304 Since Tsai-Wu criterion is here only used to check for fracture of the laminate and small matrix cracks are acceptable,
strength properties should be taken as described below. Characteristic strengths as described in Section 4 B 400 should always be
used.
1t
tensile ply strength in fibre direction.
1c
compressive ply strength in fibre direction.
E2
1t
E1
E
= 2 1c
E1
2t =
2c
modified inplane tensile ply strength transverse to the fibres.
modified inplane compressive ply strength transverse to the fibres.
3t
tensile through thickness ply strength in fibre direction.
3c
compressive through thickness ply strength in fibre direction
12
inplane shear strength.
13
through thickness shear strength.
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Page 27
23
through thickness shear strength.
If tensile and compressive fibre strength differ by more than 60% it should be checked that the individual design criteria,
i.e. fibre failure in 200 and matrix cracking in J200 or J300, do not give lower allowable stresses than this criterion.
305
G 400 Special considerations for fibre failure under inplane compressive loads
401 The orientation of matrix cracks shall be checked if the compressive strength of a laminate is important (Section J400).
If matrix cracks with an orientation of 30o-60o relative to the plane of the laminate may be present, the compressive strain
to fibre failure used in the design criteria of this section shall be obtained from measurements on laminates with the presence of
matrix cracks with an orientation between 30o and 60o. Alternatively, the compressive strain to failure may be reduced by 50%,
or a component test shall be carried out.
402
G 500 Fracture mechanics approach

501 The fibre design criteria described above can always be used. However, in the presence of stress concentrations that reach
infinity a fracture mechanics approach may be applied.
502
Stress concentration can be caused by the following factors:

cut-outs,
discontinuous linear and smooth geometry (including rough edges),
joints which include bolted joints, bonded joints, and other mechanical joints,
mismatch of elastic properties between two adjacent components or materials,
voids and damage due to material fabrication.
Unidirectional laminates should never be used in the presence of infinite stress concentrations, because matrix cracks and
delaminations can propagate from that point through the structure with nearly no resistance.
503
In the presence of infinite stress concentrations matrix cracking and delamination will occur. If that is not acceptable on a local
level, the design shall be changed to remove the stress concentration.
H. Matrix failure
H 100 General
101 Matrix design criteria apply to a matrix in a ply where the deformation of the matrix is restrained by the fibres of the ply
or the surrounding laminate.
Guidance note:
Matrix cracking is a simple concept at first sight but quite involved in details.
Some laminates have already matrix cracks after manufacturing. These cracks can be introduced by thermal stresses or by shrinkage of the matrix during cure.
Laminates without matrix cracks have an initial ply stress when the first cracks start to form.
Once cracks are formed they start to propagate at higher ply stresses and additional cracks are formed.
Crack formation will eventually lead to a change in stiffness. This point is usually referred to as the matrix crack point or first ply failure etc., because this is what
can easily be measured.
Eventually laminates show crack saturation and no further cracks form when loaded more. The change of modulus has been related to matrix crack density in
some publications.
102 Matrix cracking is defined here as the onset of matrix cracking. The increase of the number of matrix cracks at higher
stresses or strains is not covered by the matrix cracking criteria presented in this section.
103
Matrix cracking shall be checked on the ply level.
104
Two alternative design criteria may be used. The simple stress criterion (200) or the Puck criterion (300).
If the component may fail due to wedge shaped matrix cracks in compression, the Puck criterion shall be used to obtain
the direction of the failure surface (300 and 400).
105
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H 200 Matrix failure based on simple stress criterion

201 The following design criterion should be used when the stress in one direction is dominating compared to the stresses in
the other directions. The stress in one direction is said to be dominating when the criterion in 202 is not satisfied.
. nk < nk
matrix
Where:
n
Direction of the dominating stress
nk
nk matrix
Design value of the stress components to matrix cracking in the direction n

The coordinate system is the ply coordinate system.
Guidance note:
The stress to matrix cracking is in general direction-dependent. This is due to the presence of fibres that concentrate the stresses, such that the matrix stress to
failure in the direction parallel to the fibres is in generally larger than in the perpendicular direction.
The combination between the stress components in several directions shall be taken into consideration when the criterion
below is satisfied. In that case, there is no dominating stress and the combination cannot be disregarded.
202
maxi
ik
ik
matrix
/
ni
nk
10
nk matrix
The coordinate system is the ply coordinate system, where i and n refer to the directions 22, 33, 12, 13 and 23
When the combination between the stress components in several directions shall be taken into consideration, the design
criterion for matrix cracking is given by:
203
nk
matrix
nk
n
Where:
n
nk
<1
The coordinate system is the ply coordinate system, where n refers to the directions 22, 33, 12, 13 and 23
nk matrix
Design value of the stress components to matrix cracking in the direction n
Guidance note:
This design criterion is often not available in finite element codes or other commercial software. The Tsai-Wu criterion can be used instead to check for matrix
cracking, if the following modifications are made to the strength parameters:
The ply strengths in fibre direction may be chosen to be much (1000 times) higher than the actual values.
The interaction parameter f12=0 shall be set to 0
It is, however, recommended to use the Puck criterion to predict matrix cracking, see D300).
204
Matrix failure cannot be checked on a laminate level, it shall always be checked on a ply level.
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H 300 Matrix failure based on Puck's criterion

301 Matrix cracking can be predicted using the criterion from Puck. It is probably the design criterion that describes the
physics of the process the best.
302 The criterion evaluates the stress state over all possible failure surfaces. The orientation of the failure surface is described
by the angle . The stress state n, nt, nl in the co-ordinates of the failure surface described by is obtained from the ply stresses
by:
2
s
2sc
0 0 3
n c

2
2
nt = . sc sc (c s ) 0 0 23
0
0
0
s c 31
n1

21
2
(c = cos ; s = sin )
In addition, the stress component II in fibre direction is needed.

II = 1
Failure is evaluated based on the stress state n, nt, nl for all angles between -90 and 90 degrees. The design criterion is:
if n ( ) 0
2
2
2
maxFf II + Fnn+ n ( ) + (Fnt nt ( )) + (Fnl n1 ( )) + Fn+ n ( ) < 1 ,
for all with 90 90 ,

if n ( ) < 0
2
2
2
maxFf II + Fnn n ( ) + (Fnt nt ( )) + (Fnl n1 ( )) + Fn n ( ) < 1 ,
or all with 90 90 ,
Where:
1, 2, 3, 12, 13, 23
Values of the local load effect of the structure (stress) in the co-ordinates of the ply for the design load.
Fik
Strength factors, (see 303)
303
The strength factors Fik are functions of the ply strength parameters
2t
1c
fibre
and shape parameters of the failure surface. The factors are defined as:
Ff =
1
At
fibre
1t
if II 0 and Ff =
1
Ac 1fibre
c
if II < 0
( +)
p ()
1 p
, Fnn =
Rz RA
RA
p(+)
p()
+
,
Fn = A Fn = A
R
R
1
1
Fnt = A , Fnl =
R
R||
Fnn+ =
DET NORSKE VERITAS
matrix
2c
matrix
12
shear
1t
fibre
Page 30
with
At = Ac = 1.6
nl
= tan
nt
( +)
RA
(+)
A
R
( +)
cos 2 +
p ||
sin 2
R ||
)
p (||)
p ()
p (
2
=
cos +
sin 2 )
R A R A
R ||
A
R
=
Rd
()
2(1 + p
)
where
+ ) ( )
the shape parameters p (+||) , p (||) , p (
, p should be determined experimentally. If they are not available the following
default values shall be used:
(+)
()
p ( +|| ) = 0,30, p ( ||) = 0,30, p
= 0,15, p
= 0,27
R =
2t
Rd =
matrix
2c
R || =
matrix
12
shear
304 The resistance model factor Rd shall be chosen to be 1.1. The model factor shall ensure a conservative result with respect
to the simplifications made regarding the treatment of combined loads.
305
Matrix failure cannot be checked on a laminate level, it shall always be checked on a ply level.
H 400 Obtaining orientation of the failure surface

401 The orientation of the fibre failure surface is critical if a structure is loaded in compression. Matrix crack failure surfaces
with an orientation of 30o to 60o relative to the plane of the laminate can reduce compressive fibre strength and reduce the
resistance to delamination.
The orientation of the failure surface should be determined with the Puck design criterion by finding the angle at which
the matrix design criterion in 302 reaches its maximum.
402
If the laminate may have matrix cracks with an orientation of 30o to 60o relative to the plane of the laminate the
compressive fibre strength shall be measured on laminates with the presence of such cracks and this value shall be used in the
fibre design criterion (see Section I). In this case the tested laminate should be equal to the one used in the component.
403
Guidance note:
Matrix cracks with an orientation of 30o to 60o occur mainly when the ply is exposed to high inplane shear stresses or compressive stresses normal to the fibre
direction.
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H 500 Matrix cracking caused only by shear

501 Some laminates may fail (rupture) due to shear in the plies without fibre failure. This condition was described in I-105. In
this case matrix cracking due to stresses transverse to the fibres is acceptable. To check for this condition the matrix failure
design criteria described in 100-300 may be used by applying them just for shear stresses.
502
For simple 2-D inplane conditions the matrix cracking design criterion in D200 reduces to:.
12 < 12 matrix
Where:
12
Value of the local load effect of the structure (stress) in the inplane shear direction 12 for the design load.
12 matrix
Design value of the stress components to matrix cracking in the inpane shear direction 12.
The coordinate system is the ply coordinate system.
H 600 Matrix yielding

601
The von Mises yield criteria can be used to design against yielding, see J600.
I. Delamination and bond failure

I 100 General
101 Delamination is a separation of plies. Delaminations are debonded areas that can grow gradually, once they are initiated.
102
Delaminations can also be debonding between core materials and skins or in bonded joints.
I 200 Onset of delamination

201 The onset of delamination due to inplane stresses or strains is difficult to predict. It is known that delaminations will not
initiate before matrix cracks have formed. It is, therefore, a conservative choice to model the onset of delamination with the
matrix cracking criteria.
I 300 Delamination growth

301 Growth of interlaminar cracks can be analysed with a fracture mechanics approach. The crack will propagate when the
strain energy release rate G will reach the critical strain energy release rate Gcritical. The design criterion is then given by:
G < G critical
G shall be calculated using local interlaminar stresses
Gcritical depends often on the crack length. Conservative assumptions shall be made with reference to studies for equivalent
materials.
302
Gcritical has to be chosen for the appropriate crack opening mode. For mixed mode conditions Gcritical can be calculated as a
weighted average of GI critical and GII critical.
303
J. Sandwich failure
J 100 General
101 Sandwich structures are built of a light weight core embedded between two faces (or skins). Design criteria are discussed
for skins, cores and the core skin interface.
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J 200 Failure of Sandwich Faces

201 The same general design criteria as discussed above apply.
202
Both faces shall be checked for failure, since they may be exposed to different stress states.
J 300 Failure of the Sandwich Core

301 Many core materials show plastic behaviour. If yielding cannot be accepted in the sandwich structure the yield criterion in
Section J600 shall be applied.
The following table indicates typical failure types of common core materials at normal laboratory loading rates (strain
rate about 1% per minute). Failure types can change with loading rates. The failure types indicated are typical cases and shall be
documented for the specific material.
302
Yielding of Core Material

Typical Failure Type
Paper honeycomb
Ductile
Aluminium honeycomb
Ductile
Glass/Phenolic honeycomb
Does not yield
Nomex honeycomb
Does not yield
Balsa wood
Does not yield
Polyurethane foam
Does not yield
Polystyrene foam
Does not yield
Polyvinyl chloride foam (linear)
Ductile or plastic
Polyvinyl chloride foam (cross-linked)
Ductile or plastic
Poly-methacryl-imide foam
Does not yield
Corrugated core
Material-dependent
303 Ultimate failure of brittle and plastic core materials shall be checked with the design criterion for orthotropic homogenous
materials in Section J700.
In many cases the dominant stress in a core is shear, causing shear yield or failure or tensile failure in 45o to the through
thickness direction. This case is also covered by the criteria given in Sections L and M.
304
305 Core indentation due to local compressive stress shall be checked. The core will indent if the compressive strength of the
core is exceeded (see 301 and 302).
J 400 Failure of the Sandwich Skin-Core Interface
401 Interface failure between the skin and core of a sandwich can be treated the same way as a delamination (Section K).
Care shall be taken to use proper material properties when applying the design criterion. Interface properties may differ
from the core or laminate properties.
402
Sandwich structures with PVC core show typically no failure directly in the interface, but they fail inside the PVC core
close to the interface. PVC core properties may be used in the design criteria.
403
404
J 500
Sandwich structures with Balsa core fail typically in the interface.
Buckling of sandwich structures
501
The same buckling criteria as for general structures apply.
502
Sandwich structures show some special buckling modes. The following modes shall be considered:
Face wrinkling will occur when the compressive direct stress in the face will reach the local instability (or wrinkling)
stress, i.e.
503
face wrinkling
504
Global buckling will occur when the axial load will reach the critical buckling load, i.e.
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 33
P Pcr .
505
Shear crimping will occur when the direct stress will reach the crimping stress, i.e.
face crimping
506 Face dimpling or intercellular buckling occurs only in sandwich structures with honeycomb and corrugated cores. Face
dimpling will occur when the compressive stress in the cell wall reaches the buckling stress of a honeycomb cell or a corrugated
core, i.e.
core dinpling
J 600
601
Yielding
Yielding design criteria apply to most polymer core materials of sandwich structures.
Yielding design criteria may apply to a matrix material with plastic characteristics if the matrix is located in a region
where it is not restrained between fibres, e.g. in the case of resin rich layers.
602
The von Mises yield criterion shall be used to describe isotropic materials that yield. The stresses used in this criterion are
the principal stresses.
603
. ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) < y
2
Where:
n
Principal stresses, n=1,2,3 for the design load
Design value of the yield stress of the material
y
604 When two or several loads are combined, each stress component n in direction n can be the result of several combined
loads. In that case each stress component nj, local response of the structure in direction n due to load j, shall be considered
separately as an individual stress component.
Foam cores under significant hydrostatic pressure or tension shall be checked in addition for ultimate failure of
orthotropic homogenous materials (Section M). Significant hydrostatic pressure or tension exists if:
605
0.1 3
1
( 1 + 2 + 3 ) 0.1 1
3
where 1, 2, 3 are the principal stresses with 1 > 2 > 3.

Design criteria can be developed where local yielding in a structural element is accepted. Such design criteria are not
described further in this standard
606
J 700
Ultimate Failure of orthotropic homogenous materials
The criterion can only be used for orthotropic homogenous materials, i.e. materials with three axes of symmetry. Isotropic
materials are included, since they are a sub-group of orthotropic materials. This criterion is typically applied to core materials.
Strength values shall be determined relative to the axes of material symmetry. The criterion is not valid for fibre reinforced
laminates, because laminates are not homogeneous.
701
702
The criterion can be applied to brittle core materials or to polymeric materials after yield.
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Page 34
The following design criterion should be used when the stress in one direction is dominating compared to the stresses in
the other directions. The stress in one direction is said to be dominating when the criterion in 104 is not satisfied. The criterion
shall be applied for tensile and compressive stresses.
703
. nk < nk
Where:
n
nk
Direction of the dominating stress

nk
Design value of the strength (stress to failure for component n)

Local response and strength must be given in the same coordinate system
Guidance note:
A typical example for core materials in a sandwich would be to check that the through thickness shear stress does not exceed the shear strength. In many cases the
shear stress is the dominating stress component, however, this shall be checked with the criterion in 104.
The interaction between the stress components in several directions shall be taken into consideration when the following
criterion is satisfied. In that case, there is no dominating stress and the interaction can not be disregarded.
704
ik
maxi
ik
nk 10
/
n i
nk
where i and n refer to the directions: 11, 22, 33, 12, 13, 23
For isotropic materials the directions shall be either the principal normal stresses or the principal shear stresses.
For orthotropic materials the directions shall be the material axes.
The same coordinate systems shall be used in 103 and 104.
When the interaction between the stress components in several directions shall be taken into consideration, the design
criterion below shall be applied. The criterion shall be applied for tensile and compressive stresses.
705
nk
nk
n
<1
Where:
n
Refers to the directions 11, 22, 33, 12, 13, 23
nk
nk
Design value of the strength (stress to failure for component n)
For orthotropic materials the directions shall be the material axes.

For isotropic materials the directions shall be along either the principal normal stresses or the principal shear stresses.
This is a conservative design criterion. It has been chosen due to a lack of data and experience with ultimate failure under
multiple stress conditions. Other design criteria may be used if experimental evidence for their validity can be given.
DET NORSKE VERITAS
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K. Fatigue Limit State

K 100 General
101
Cyclic fatigue should be considered for composite wind turbine blades.
102
All failure modes that were evaluated in static analysis shall also be evaluated for possible fatigue failures.
103 All critical sites of each component along the wind turbine blades shall be evaluated. These sites normally include details
that causes stress concentrations or load introduction points.
104
Possible changes in stiffness with time shall be considered for cyclic fatigue.
K 200 Cyclic Fatigue

201 The wind turbine blades system shall have adequate safety against cyclic fatigue within the service life of the system.
All cyclic loading imposed during the entire service life, which have magnitude and corresponding number of cycles
large enough to cause fatigue damage effects, shall be taken into account.
202
For fatigue analysis the mean and amplitude of the stress or strain fluctuations shall be specified. Basically a table of the
following form should be established.
203
Number of cycles
Mean load
Amplitude
Table 1: definition of fatigue loads
As an alternative to the representation in Table 2, the fatigue loads can be represented on matrix form with one row for
each mean strain, one column for each strain amplitude, and number of cycles as the entry of each matrix element as
shown in the Figure below.
(col. j)
Mean strain
Strain amplitude
(row i)
nij
Matrix representation of rain-flow counted strain amplitude distribution
Guidance note:
- The history of mean and amplitude of stress shall be established on discretised form by a rainflow analysis
- A minimum resolution of the discretisation of stresses has to be defined before the stress history is established
- Note that for the fatigue analysis the history of mean stress/strain and amplitude is needed. In a non-linear analysis, the mean may shift relative to the amplitude
during the transfer from applied load to load response.
- If the time duration of some cycles is long or if the mean value is applied over a long time, these loads may have to be considered for sustained load cases (stress
rupture) as well.
- Degradation is a non-linear, history-dependent process. If different load and environmental conditions can cause different degradation histories, all relevant
load combinations shall be considered.
---e-n-d--- o-f---G-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
204 Based on the material properties, in particular the S-N curve and the magnitude of its slope parameter, it shall be assessed
whether the bulk of the fatigue damage will be caused by several thousand or more stress cycles from the characteristic stress
distribution, or if it will be caused by only one or a very few extreme stress amplitudes from this distribution. In the former case,
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 36
the natural variability in the individual stress amplitudes can be disregarded as its effect on the cumulative damage will average
out, and the partial load factor can be set equal to 1.0. In the latter case, the natural variability in the few governing extreme stress
amplitudes cannot be disregarded and needs to be accounted for by a partial load factor greater than 1.0. If no detailed analysis of
the load factor can be made, the same factors as those for static loads shall be used.
Normally, the methods based on S-N curves and reduction of strength with time are used during design for fatigue life
assessment. SN curves should be obtained as described in DNV-OS-501 Section 4 C.
205
If representative fatigue resistance data are not available, direct fatigue testing of the actual components shall be
performed with due regard of the internal and external environment (DNV-OS-C501 Section 10).
206
The stress to be considered for fatigue in a wind turbine blades is the cyclic (i.e., time-dependent) stress. Mean value and
amplitude should be obtained.
207
The combined stresses may vary around the circumference and length of the wind turbine blade. The fatigue damage must
hence be calculated at a number of regularly spaced points to identify the most critical location.
208
K 300 Fibre failure in fatigue

301 The fatigue load conditions, as defined in Section D203, shall be used as the applied load when checking fatigue. A table
similar to the one given in Section D203 should be used, indicating the mean and amplitude of applied stress or strain as a
function of the number of cycles. The load conditions shall be based on a conservative estimate.
302 Fatigue analysis may be performed on a ply (lamina) level or on a laminate level. However, fatigue data shall always be
measured on laminates with representative layups to ensure that the data represent the interactions between plies.
303 If a component is exposed to static and cyclic long term loads the combined effect shall be taken into account. As a
conservative choice the effects may be taken to be additive. Other combinations may be used if experimental evidence can be
provided. If fatigue is analysed or tested with a mean load that corresponds to the permanent static load, effects of static and
cyclic fatigue may be considered separately.
Matrix cracks may develop under cyclic loads even if the maximum stress is below the level to initiate matrix cracking in
a static test.
304
K 400 Change of elastic properties

401 Fatigue loads may change the elastic properties of a material. The change is of permanent nature in most cases. How the
modulus changes with the number of cycles is described in DNV-OS-C501 Sections 4 and 5.
The result of a change of the elastic properties can be a redistribution of stresses in a larger structure or the exceedence of
a maximum displacement requirement. If the redistribution of stresses is of concern a stress analysis with the changed elastic
constants shall be performed. If displacement requirements shall be observed the displacement criterion shall be fulfilled for the
relevant elastic properties in the analysis.
402
Guidance note:
The change of elastic constants is usually a result of an accumulation of matrix cracks under cyclic fatigue.
---e-n-d---o-f---g-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
In some cases a certain contact pressure may be needed for a component. It shall be documented that the change of elastic
constants due to cyclic fatigue will not reduce the contact pressure to an unacceptable level.
403
Guidance note:
A specified contact pressure is often needed for bolted connections, or if a component is kept in place by friction.
---e-n-d---o-f---g-u-i-d-a-n-c-e---n-o-t-e---
K 500 Initiation of fatigue damage

501 Materials may fail due to the cyclic application of loads: this process is called fatigue. A combination of cyclic loads with
an aggressive environment is here also called fatigue. The analysis is generally the same for both processes, but the material
curve describing the reduction of strength with time depends on the surrounding environment.
502 All failure mechanisms shall be checked for fatigue, unless a particular failure mechanism may be acceptable for the
structure. The approach is basically the same for all failure mechanisms, but different SN curves and residual strength values
shall be considered. These are described in Sections 4 and 5.
503
A fatigue analysis shall contain two steps:
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 37
Can the structure survive the expected load sequence.

Is the structure strong enough that it can survive all relevant extreme load cases on the last day of its service life.
504 A constant amplitude lifetime diagram shall be constructed from the available characteristic SN curves if the structure is
exposed to fatigue stresses of other R ratios than the measured ones or to various R-ratios. The diagram can be used to
extrapolate expected number of cycles to failure for different combinations of mean and amplitude. The characteristic number of
cycles to failure
ncharact ( applied ) shall be extracted for each applied strain condition (amplitude and mean level) from the
constant lifetime diagram. The number of expected cycles to failure shall be found for the applied strains applied
Guidance note
Constant amplitude lifetime diagrams CAL are commonly used to obtain fatigue lifetimes for a given stress amplitude and mean. Fatigue data are often only
available for three R-ratios, R=10, -1, and 0.1. These data represent three lines in the CAL diagram, other values have to be extrapolated. Linear extrapolations
may be used, giving the CAL diagram typically triangular shape.
Figure 4-2 gives an example of a CAL diagram.
The diagram was based on characteristic fatigue curves measured at the R-ratios R=10, -1, and 0.1. In addition the characteristic static tensile and compressive
strains at failure were needed.
The CAL diagram can be divided into four sectors in this case. The sectors are shown in Figure 4-2. Within each sector constant life lines were drawn for
lifetimes of 10, 100, 1000, ... cycles. These lines are assumed to be straight.
For sectors 1 and 4 all lines were connected to the static tensile and compressive strains at failure.
If fatigue data at other R-ratios exist an equivalent approach with more (or less) sectors can be used.
The expected lifetime Nexp for a given strain amplitude and mean can be found by the following procedure (see also Figure 4-2):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Draw the point P in the constant amplitude life diagram representing the given strain amplitude and mean .
Draw a line a from the origin of the constant amplitude life diagram (0 mean, 0 amplitude) through and beyond the point P.
Identify the two closest constant life lines nearest to P, n1 and n2, where n2 is the line with the higher number of cycles to failure.
Measure the length a1 on line a between the two constant life lines n1 and n2 nearest to P.
Measure the length a2 on line a between point P and the constant life line n2 with the higher number of cycles nearest to P.
Find the line b nearest to P representing fatigue life of a measured R-ratio, e.g. R=10, or R=-1, or R=0.1.
Measure the length b1 on b between n1 and n2.
Calculate b2 = b1 a2 / a1
Find the strain amplitude CAL corresponding to point Q that lies on b at a distance b2 away from the intersection of b and n2.
Obtain the characteristic value of the expected number of cycles Nexp for Cal using the measured characterist SN curve.
This geometrical description can be fairly easily put into a computer program.
R= -1
Sector 3
a
b1
Q
b2
a1
R=0.1
n1
a2
n2
Enlargement of the region with the points P and Q.
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 38
R= -1
STRAIN AMPLITUDE [%]
2.00
R=10
0.00
Figure 4-2:
b2
Q
Sector 1
-2.50
R=0.1
a
b1
1.00
Sector 3
Sector 2
-1.50
-0.50
Sector 4
a
a2 1 n n1
2
0.50
1.50
MEAN STRAIN [%]
2.50
Schematic of a constant amplitude life diagram. The drawing illustrates the description above how the fatigue life for a strain amplitude
at mean (described by point P as an example) can be found.
505
The following design criterion for fatigue shall be used:
{
{
}
}
n actual j applied
<1
ty
charact
j
n
applied
j =1
N
Where:
n {....} n as a function of
applied
nactual
ncharact
N
j
ty
Local response of the structure to the strain condition applied

Number of cycles per year at a particular strain condition
Number of cycles to failure under a given design strain condition including partial resistance factor
The total number of strain conditions
Index for strain condition
Number of years for the fatigue evaluation (typically equal to the design life)
506 A stress based fatigue analysis may be used as an alternative to 504 and 505, using the same approach, but replacing
strains by stresses.
If the structure is exposed to a known load sequence and the SN curve has been obtained for that load sequence the Miner
sum calculation is not required. If the load sequence changes Miner sum calculations are needed.
507
The selection of the partial safety factors is based on the following assumptions: The fatigue load (mean and amplitude) is
defined as a conservative mean value, i.e. no uncertainty needs to be considered for that variable..
508
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 39
Composite materials may show a reduction of strength with numbers of cycles for various failure mechanisms. All
relevant failure mechanisms shall be checked for the reduced strength values under extreme load conditions. Possible reduction
of Young's moduli should also be considered, depending on the analysis methods used.
509
K 600 Growth of fatigue damage

601 Growth of fatigue damage is defined here as the accumulation of damage due to fatigue loads on macro level, e.g. the
increase of the number of cracks in the matrix or the growth of a delamination.
The growth of damage is a complicated process that shall be documented based on experimental evidence. The simplified
approach of assuming that the component is always completely saturated with damage may be used.
602
603
If a component may accumulate damage due to fatigue, the component shall be analysed with and without that damage.
L. Other Failure modes

L 100 Wear
101 The blade shall be designed against wear from particles like sand in the air. The basis for design against wear shall be
given in the technical specifications for the blade.
Guidance note:
Rubber reinforcement of the leading edge in the tip area may be part of the design. The reinforcement shall be part of the technical specification for the blade. The
reinforcement may have an impact on noise and loads and should be present in the type testing of the turbine.
L 200 Chemical decomposition / Corrosion

201 A material may degrade due to chemical decomposition during the service life. Materials shall preferably be chosen
which do not decompose chemically in the design environment within the lifetime of the wind turbine blades. Otherwise effect of
degradation shall be considered by the time dependence of strength and stiffness values.
Shielding and coating shall be designed to protect all sensitive materials for decomposition and corrosion during the
service life.
202
The extrapolation of long term data under environmental exposure describes usually the gradual effect of environment or
load on the properties. Chemical decomposition may act suddenly and rapidly and may not be detected by mechanical long term
tests.
203
204
If a material is exposed to chemicals, possible chemical decomposition should be considered.
Guidance note:
Degradation of blade material for accidental leakage of hydraulic oil from the pitch control system shall be considered. The resistance shall be specified in the
technical specification for the blade.
205 Some core materials may release gases with time, especially under high temperatures. The pressure build-up from these
gases can cause core/skin delaminations. Only cores that are properly degassed should be used in production.
Possible corrosion of the constituent materials should be considered. Carbon fibres in contact with metals may cause
galvanic corrosion and shall be properly shielded.
206
L 300 Lightning protection

301
The lightning protection system shall be designed according to IEC 61400-24.
Blades that are designed with carbon fibre reinforcement are to be protected taking into account the electrical
conductivity of the carbon fibre. This can be done either by integrating the carbon fibres in the lightning protection system or by
protecting the carbon ith metallic nets in the surfaces of the blade.
302
303
Metallic parts in the blade structure away from the root and the lightning protection system should be avoided.
Guidance notes:
Thermo sensors and needles are used in the blade laminate during manufacturing but should not be left in the blade structure.
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 40
L 400 Impact
The blade shall be designed against hail impact in both operating condition and in storm. The maximum hail size to be
considered is 50 mm unless otherwise is specified in the technical specifications for the blade.
401
402
Accidental impacts shall be considered in the design of the blade.
Guidance notes:
Accidental impact should lead to visible damage if it is critical for the strength of the blade. Otherwise the blade shall be designed for a maximum impact
determined based on the packaging, transport and installation procedures.
403 Impact of an object may have two effects on a structure. The impact may be so strong that failure modes are introduced
that will immediately lead to a violation of functional requirements. More often impact may cause some minor failures that may
lead to further damage and violation of functional requirements in the future.
404 When considering the effects of impact, it should be documented that no unintended failure mechanisms will happen due
to impact.
405
The resistance of a structure to impact should be tested experimentally. This can be done in two ways.
The material or a small section is exposed to a relevant impact scenario. The strength of the material with the impact damage
is determined as described in DVV-OS-C501 Section 4 or 5. This strength can be used for further design of the component.
The full component is exposed to a relevant impact scenario. The component is tested afterwards to show that it can still
tolerate the critical loads.
406
Impact design criteria may be used if experimental evidence shows that they are applicable for the application.
In impact testing the geometry of the impactor and the boundary conditions should represent a worst case for the
application. A change of impactor geometry, boundary conditions, material properties or testing rate often changes the structural
response completely.
407
The points of impact in impact testing should be chosen carefully to represent all worst case scenario. In some cases a
single point may be sufficient for testing.
408
It should further be evaluated whether the tested component should be able to withstand more than one impact scenario.
In that case the component should be exposed to the expected number of impact events.
409
The impact testing should verify that no unacceptable damage is introduced into the tested component. Once the tested
component has been exposed to impact it should be carefully inspected to ensure that no unexpected failure mechanisms
occurred that may reduce the component's performance, in particular long term performance. If the component will be taken out
of service after an impact, long term considerations do not have to be made.
410
It shall be shown further that the component can carry all relevant loads after impact until it can be taken out of service for
repair or replacement. This can be done by analysis taking the observed impact damage into account, by testing, or a combination
of analysis and testing.
411
L 500 Creep
501 The effects of possible creep or stress relaxation on the wind turbine blades system should be evaluated.
Guidance note:
Creep is typically critical for the pre-stressed material in T-bolt joints.
L 600 Extreme temperatures in the blade

601 Calculation of extreme temperatures shall consider the specified maximum ambient temperature and the maximum solar
radiation. Conditions where the blade is stored on the ground and conditions where the turbine starts up after a period without
wind shall be considered. Typical daily variations in ambient temperatures and solar radiation may be used together with data for
heat capacity to find the maximum daily temperature. All blade colours specified by the technical specification shall be
considered.
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 41
Guidance note:
The extent of the verification of extreme temperatures may be limited if the extreme temperature has little impact on all properties for the materials used.
The glass transition temperature of polymers including polymeric sandwich core materials, resins and adhesives shall be
higher than the highest temperature to be expected in the blade.
602
603
The materials shall not change stiffness or strength more than 5% in the expected temperature interval.
604 The extreme temperatures should not change material parameters like stiffness or strength outside the characteristic
values taken into account in the design.
L 700 Draining
701
The blade shall be designed with a drain system such that no water can accumulate in any parts of the blade.
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 42
SECTION 4
QUALIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES
A. General
A 100 Manufacturing procedure manuals
The manufacturing procedure manual shall cover details for the control of the critical processes. The critical processes
should preferably be described through photographs. Typical repairs may be part of the critical processes.
101
Guidance Note:
Typical critical processes are listed in Table 1
102
TABLE 1. Critical processes for blade manufacturing
Physical characteristics
Critical for
Dust and moisture in glass

fibre plies
Strength
Degradation of gelcoats,
resins or adhesives
Strength
Control of temperature, dust and sunlight in

warehouse. The measured temperature and
humidity is recorded.
Expiry dates is clearly indicated on the
materials.
Wrong combination of
materials
Strength
Condensed water on
materials
Strength
The materials required for a continuous

production process shall be reserved before
the process and the amount and condition of
the materials shall be checked to be in
accordance with the requirements in the
work instruction
Condensation is avoided if the temperature
in the work shop is a few C higher than in
the warehouse.
The materials shall be brought to the work
shop in due time to allow them to adjust to
the work shop temperature
Calibrated automatic mixing machines
Tolerances on hardener and accelerator
Rolling in wet-lay-up
Control of enclosure in resin infusion
Mixing should not trap air in the resins or
adhesives
Use of degassed corematerials
Control of potlife and process time
Temperature recording during processing Thermo-graphic or with thermo sensors.
Barcol hardness tests
Time or hardness requirements to the
specified for the break out of cured part
from the mould
Post curing at elevated temperature or cold
post curing shall be specified.
Test of cured samples, e.g. by crushing
Special comb for thickness control during
rolling
Control of time before the gelcoat is
covered with a laminate
Use of a thin ply of fibre reinforcement
Tap testing after curing
Measurement of bond thickness before
applying adhesive
Mixing of adhesives and

Strength
resins
Air or in resins or adhesive Strength
Curing of resins and

adhesives
Strength
Permanent deformation of the
blade
Gelcoat thickness
Wear resistance and strength
Gelcoat to laminate bonding Bond strength
Thickness of adhesive joints Bond strength
Typical means of process control and/or

quality control
Control of dust, temperature and humidity
in the ware house for glass fibre.
Data to be recorded and filed.
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Notes
The glass should preferably be stored at a
higher temperature 2 C higher than in work
shop.
The daily variation in temperature in the
mould should be less than 3 C
The humidity in the work shop shall be lower
than 80%
The acceptable storage temperatures shall be
taken in accordance with the supplier data
sheet. This is in particular important for
prepregs.
Dust may be avoided by storing materials in
relevant containers or wrapping
Unused materials shall not return from the
work shop to the ware house unless there is a
specific procedure to cover this.
Uncontrolled combinations of materials
occur if these are running short during
continuous processes
Relevant means of transport is required for

warehouses in another building than the
work shop
Strength is typically more sensitive too

mixing for epoxies than for polyesters
Sandwich materials can degass when heated
Thin and thick laminate may have different

curing histories due to exothermal behaviour
of resin during curing.
The blade may deform it is released from the
mould to early
The gelcoat thickness shall typically be

between 0.3 and 0.6 mm
Laminate to be applied (wetted) on gelcoat
within 12 hours
Page 43
Preparation of bond surfaces Bond strength
Flaws in adhesive joints
Bond strength
Bad bonding to metallic

bushings
Bond strength
Wrinkles in laminate
Laminate strength
Grinding or peel ply

Parts to be joined shall be normally be fully
cured
Careful control of applied volume of
adhesive and joining of parts
Thermografic inspection of blade during
curing of adhesive
Cleaning of metal bushings by a solvent
just before bonding
Priming of metal parts
Stretching of plies during lay-up
Fixing of plies with clamps etc.
Correct type and location of Laminate strength

plies
Correct lay-up of sandwich Wrinkles in laminate &
core material
Buckling strength
Colour codes & clear working

instructions/drawings
Colour codes & visual inspection
Sealing of materials
sensitive to moisture
Sealing or painting
Degradation of materials due to

fungus or rot
Flatness of root
Grinding is required in case of a laminating

process that has been interrupted
Stretching can be difficult when the mould

surface is not horizontal
Visual inspection shall be carried out by a
foreman or a representative from the quality
department
Visual inspection shall be carried out by a
foreman or a representative from the quality
department
May be critical for wood surfaces, for edges
of cut laminate and for sandwich core
materials at lightning receptors
Sealing of surfaces may require a fibre
reinforcement of the coating.
Has an impact on the fatigue of

Grinding of root
bolts in root joint
Twist of blade
Aerodynamics of rotor
Rotor sets from same mould
Balancing of static moment Rotor imbalance will lead to
Adding of weight to the lightest two blades
at root for a blade set
vibrations and fatigue
The flap-wise angle
A narrow tolerance is required if
between the root plane and the tip to tower distance is critical
direction from the root
for a turbine
centre to the tip
The edgewise angle
Variations for a blade set
between the root plane and contribute to rotor imbalance
direction from the root
centre to mass centre for the
blade
Thickness of trailing edge in Noise
Grinding with subsequent repair of
Grinding can damage
the outer part of the blade
laminates, bonded joints and gel-coat
Pinholes in blade surface
Noise and aerodynamic properties
Relative dislocation of
Aerodynamic properties
The mould closing mechanism shall
suction and pressure side of
prevent this kind of defects.
a bonded blade
Too much adhesive
Total weight of blade
Loose adhesive
Noise
Adhesion of surface
Adhesion tests to be applied as quality
painting
control
Repair of laminate
Strength
Tapering of layers in the bond at the edge of
the repair
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 44
SECTION 5
TEST PROCEDURES
A. General
A 100 General
All new blade designs shall be tested. The scope of a blade test is to verify the structural properties. By structural
properties is meant:
101
Mass and centre of gravity

Stiffness distribution
Natural frequency and damping
Ultimate strength
Fatigue strength
It is not necessary to test parts where the margins of structural safety have been verified to be large through numerical
calculations and where the layout is similar to other parts that are tested at sufficient load or have been tested previously.
102
The specification of test loads shall be carried out taking into account the way the test blade is selected, the utilisations
found in the numerical analysis and the variation in the structural layout of the blade along the blade axis.
103
Test loads are primarily applied to test the global bending strength of the blade. Local strength of panels may have to be
tested in addition to the global bending strength depending on the margins of safety in the design for local load distribution.
104
105
Test loads shall be taken in accordance with IEC 61400-23.
106 When measuring the natural frequency of a blade suspended in a test rig, the stiffness of the test rig will influence the
result. This is mainly important if the test rig is flexible or a bearing is inserted between the test rig and the blade. The stiffness of
the test rig and the resulting influence must be considered and evaluated.
B. Selection of test blade and specification of testing

B 100 Selection of test blade
Testing of blades shall be carried out for all blade types and in case of major changes in design or in the optional types of
materials.
101
Guidance note:
Large adhesive joints shall normally be retested in case of changes in the adhesives or the surfaces to be joined.
102
The test blade can be selected:
- as the first blade produced

- on a random basis
- as a worst case based on recorded manufacturing history and NDT
103 If the first blade is selected for testing the manufacturing history must be carefully recorded and the manufacturing shall
be witnessed by an independent third party unless otherwise agreed with the certifying body.
Guidance note:
There is typically a change in process history from the first blade to the later blades. Such changes must be recorded even in the
work instruction are not complete when manufacturing the test blade. Photos, films and log-books may be used to supplement
preliminary work instructions.
104
If the test blade is selected on a random basis the manufacturing shall normally not be witnessed by an independent third
party.
If a worst case blade is identified and tested the test factor for blade to blade variation can be reduced. The method used to
rank the blades must be part of the quality control instructions and refer to defects and imperfections that are controlling the
105
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 45
strength investigated in the test. The inspection used for ranking of the blades shall be witnessed by an independent third party
unless otherwise agreed with the certifying body.
106
The as-build documentation for the test blade should be prepared in accordance with Section 6.
107
Third party witnessing of test blade manufacturing includes review of as-build documentation.
B 200 Parts of the blade to be tested

201
The test shall cover as many parts of the blade as possible.
It is not necessary to test parts where the margins of structural safety have been verified to be large through numerical
calculations and where the layout is similar to other parts that are tested at sufficient load or have been tested previously.
202
203
Tip brakes shall be tested for extreme loads, fatigue and wear from repeated braking.
B 300 Determination of natural frequencies and damping

Natural frequencies and structural damping must be determined. At least the following natural frequencies must be
determined:
301
1st flapwise natural frequency

2nd flapwise natural frequency
1st lead lag wise natural frequency
1st torsion natural frequency
302 When measuring the natural frequency of a blade suspended in a test rig, the stiffness of the test rig will influence the
result. This is mainly important if the test rig is flexible or a bearing is inserted between the test rig and the blade. The stiffness of
the test rig and the resulting influence must be considered and evaluated.
303
The structural damping must be determined for at least the following natural frequencies:
1st flapwise natural frequency

1st lead lag wise natural frequency
304 The aerodynamic damping contributes to the results of the measurements of damping, as the measured result is a
combination of both aerodynamic and structural damping. The contribution from aerodynamic damping is highest when
determining the damping in flapwise direction. It is therefore important to determine the damping with very small deflection of
the blade. The maximum acceptable deflection of the blade tip depends on the natural frequency and the velocity of the blade. It
is recommended to measure the vibrations over a period and evaluate from these measurements what may be the maximum
acceptable deflection.
The blade temperature will influence the determination of natural frequencies and well as damping. It is therefore
important to know the structure temperature when determining frequencies and structural damping. This factor can be known by
letting the blade obtain ambient temperature inside the test laboratory beforehand.
305
Guidance note:
The determination of natural frequencies and structural damping is normally done following the subsequently described method.
The vibration mode that is subject for investigation is excited by hand. The movement of the blade is hereafter determined by means of an accelerometer
mounted on the tip of the blade. The signal from the accelerometer is analysed by a computer or manually after plotting the signal. The torsion natural frequency
is determined by means of two accelerometers mounted on the leading and trailing edges of the blade.
Alternatively the natural frequencies and the structural damping can also be evaluated in connection with a modal analysis. In connection with a modal analysis
also the mode shape of the vibrations will be determined. Modal analysis is recommended in connection with the verification of the input parameters for the
aeroelastic codes used for calculation of the loads.
Modal analysis is carried out as described below:
A hammer with a force transducer mounted excites the blade. The responses are hereafter measured by means of accelerometers mounted at app. 10 different
positions along the blade. The response function between the force transducer and the accelerometers can hereafter be determined by FFT analysis. The results of
the measurements are besides natural frequencies and damping for several natural frequencies also the shape of the vibration.
B 400 Static testing

As large a part of the blade as possible must be tested. This means that it is not acceptable only to test the parts, which are
evaluated to have the largest stresses. The static test must be carried out in such a way that the blade is tested for all extreme load
cases in each direction. This means that the blade must be tested in 5 directions as follows:
401
Flapwise direction from suction side to pressure side

DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 46
Flapwise direction from pressure side to suction side

Lead - lag wise direction from trailing edge towards leading edge
Lead - lag wise direction from leading edge towards trailing edge
Torsion - only stiffness distribution are determined. This test may be omitted in case the stiffness is not critical for the design
of the blade.
Edgewise bending and flapwise bending are normally not carried out as a combined test load. For some parts of the blade
(i.e.at the root) the test loads may be taken higher than the extreme flapwise or extreme edgewise loads to compensate for the
increase in utlistation of the blade when considering combined edgewise and flapwise loads.
402
Applying one or more load clamps to the blade and then pulling these load clamps in either vertical or horizontal direction
normally constitutes the test of the blade. By loading in several positions simultaneously a more correct distribution of both
bending and shear is obtained. However, when loading the blade in several positions the load clamps will contribute to the
stability of the blade. The width of the clamps should therefore be as small as possible taking the surface pressure into account.
When loading in horizontal direction, disturbances from the weight of the blade itself and the various load clamps will not affect
the test.
403
The deflection of the blade in flapwise direction can be very large. Consequently, the distance from the point of attack
perpendicular to the induced force to any spot on the blade will vary during the test. This circumstance must be taken into
account when determining the bending moment during the test in order to avoid influential errors.
404
The blade must be tested to a load, which is higher than the design load. This is done in order to take influences from
temperature, humidity, production (blade to blade variations) and other environmental aspects during the life of the blade into
account. The test load will hereafter be:
405
Test load = su Design load

Where:
su is a blade to blade variation factor
The blade to blade variation factor su is normally taken as 1.1. The blade to blade variation factor su may be taken below
1.1 when a worst case blade is used for testing.
406
407
408
During the test the following must be registered or measured at either specified intervals or continuously:
Strain in heavily loaded areas and areas with imperfections
Deflection at the tip and a appropriate number places along the blade
Possible buckling must be described
Position, angle of attack and load at all load clamps
Temperature
Possible photos for the reporting
Deflection of the test rig and its influence on the test results must be considered.
At maximum load, the load must be maintained for a period of time, which as a minimum must be of the same length as
the period of the extreme load. Also the time used for inspection of the blade must be taken into account in connection with the
choice of maintaining period. In default of a specified period, a period of 10 s may be used.
409
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 47
After the end of the static test a detailed inspection of the blade must be carried out. Possible damages must be reported.
The results of this inspection together with measuring results and observations of possible buckling will lead to either acceptance
or rejection of the blade. The following criteria can be used in connection with the assessment of the blade:
410
Acceptable Features
Criteria for Rejection
Unidentified noise emerging during the test
Total breakdown of the blade
All cracks in gel coat
Severe damage of load carrying laminates
Cracks in Adhesive in areas without any load

carrying effect
Severe buckling in load carrying laminates

which do not return to original shape when
unloading
Cracks close to load clamps which appear to

come from overloading (for instance with shear
stress)
Any buckling at loads coming from load cases in

normal operation. This could for example be a
situation with a sudden change of wind direction
at cut out wind speed
Damages due to excessive surface pressure at

the load clamps
Damages which may clearly be identified as
production errors and which after repair prove
their strength by a supplementary test
B 500 Fatigue testing

501 Fatigue testing can be carried out in different ways. In most cases one of the following methods is used:
Excitation of the blade at its natural frequency by means of a rotating unbalance fixed to the blade. When applying masses to
the blade it is possible to load a major part of the blade to its design load.
Forced deflection of the blade by means of hydraulic activation or similar. As this method implies large requirements to the
hydraulic system it is difficult to carry out the test at high frequencies. Only part of the blade will therefore be loaded to its
design values when applying forces in one position only. However, determination of the applied forces is thus specified with
less uncertainty.
502 In order to apply the correct load distribution during the fatigue test it is often necessary to apply dead weight to the blade.
Especially when using method 1 it is possible to apply a correct load distribution through applying 2 or 3 dead weights to the
blade. Fatigue test in lead - lag wise direction combined with a static load in flapwise direction may also be made.
The blade must be tested to the design load multiplied with a test partial safety factor according to IEC 61400-23. The test
load must be:
503
Ftest = Fequivalent nf sf ef
where
Ftest
is the test load
Fequivalent
is an equivalent load with a fatigue damage equal to the calculated fatigue damage in the design load spectrum.
The equivalent load depends on the number of test load cycles.
nf
is the partial factor for consequences of failure. The partial factor is 1.15.
sf
is the blade to blade variation factor equal to 1.1. The factor may be increased or decreased depending on the
blade production method or failure probability distribution data available.
ef
is a factor originating from possible errors in the fatigue formulation. The factor is equal to 1.05 and may be
reduced when less uncertainty can be documented.
The procedure for calculation of equivalent loads must be based on a numerical model for fatigue in the blade material for
the main load carrying parts. The numerical model can be based on rain-flow counting and Palmgren-Miners rule. The model
must consider the effect of mean stress on the fatigue life.
504
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 48
The following items must be considered when planning the blade fatigue test and determining the test load and number of
505
cycles:
The increase in load, which is required to accelerate the test, depends on the slope of the fatigue curve for the details tested.
The slope of the fatigue curve m may vary from m = 3 to m = 15 for different details of a wind turbine blade and for different
levels of the mean stress. Due to the variation in slope of the Whler curve some areas of the blade might not be sufficiently
tested. These blade details which are left out of the scope of the blade fatigue test must be tested otherwise.
To get to the largest extent of details covered in a blade fatigue test, a test series with more than one load level may be
applied.
The fatigue loads should not exceed the extreme static test loads.
The fatigue damage model which is used for calculation of the equivalent loads must be verified with a sufficient number of
tests approved by the certifying body on representative specimens within the range of mean strains and strain widths
considered for the blade in the transformation from the design load spectrum to equivalent load.
The tip of the blade can in some cases be removed from the blade to increase the natural frequency controlling the feasible
number of load cycles in the test. The tip must be removed after the initial static testing. The tip must be thoroughly
inspected (e.g. by cutting and visual inspection) to detect manufacturing defects that would require documentation for the
impact on fatigue strength. Criteria for assessing the possibility of removing the tip of the blade can be found in
IEC61400-23, sec. 6.6.
506 The load must be applied either in tip chord direction or perpendicular to this. During the test the following must be
registered or measured at either specified intervals or continuously:
507
Strain in heavily loaded areas and areas with imperfections

Loads on the blade
Number of cycles
Temperature
Possible photos for the reporting
The measurement of strain during the test is mainly carried out in order to secure the correct load distribution during the
test.
The fatigue test set-up must be calibrated at periodical intervals during the fatigue test. During the calibration the stiffness
as well as the strain as function of the bending moment is checked. If no other intervals are specified the following calibration
intervals may be used:
508
before start
at 10,000 load cycles
at each 1,000,000 load cycles hereafter
after the end of the test
Guidance note:
It is recommended that, in agreement with the blade manufacturer, the test laboratory keep the certifying body informed of the results from the fatigue test during
the test period.
During and after the fatigue test a detailed inspection of the blade must be carried out. Possible damages must be reported.
The results of this inspection together with measuring results will lead to either acceptance or rejection of the blade.
509
DET NORSKE VERITAS
Page 49
510
The following criteria can be used in connection with the assessment of the blade:
Acceptable Features
Unidentified noise emerging during the test
All cracks in gelcoat
Criteria for Rejection

Total breakdown of the blade
Severe damage of load carrying laminates and
adhesive connections
Cracks in adhesive in areas without any load

carrying effect
Cracks close to load clamps which appear to
come from overloading (for instance with shear
stress)
Damages which can clearly be identified as
production error and which after repair prove
their strength by a supplementary test
Guidance note:
It is recommended that the planned examination be carried out after agreement with the certifying body.
B 600 Final static testing

601 After the fatigue test a final static test must be carried out. The object of this test is to verify that blade has not sustained
any severe damage during the fatigue test and it still has the strength to withstand any extreme load case. For instance
de-lamination will give a far lower buckling strength without necessarily affecting the stiffness of the blade.
602 The final static test must be carried out in the same way as the prior static test, and all measurements and observations
must be reported likewise. In cases where some of the blade has been removed in connection with the fatigue test, this part will
not be included in the final static test.
During the initial static test and during the fatigue some areas of the blade might have been overloaded. The overload of
these areas might have weakened the blade in such way that the blade is damaged during the final static test. The certifying body
shall assess if these damages will be acceptable.
603
Guidance note:
The blade has to be examined also after the final static test. It is recommended to cut up the blade as a part of the inspection.
There may be specified special test for tip brakes. Such test may cover wear and fatigue from repeated retraction under
aerodynamic loading.
604
Testing of blades shall be carried out for all blade types and in case of major changes in design or in the optional types of
material
605
Guidance note:
Large adhesive joints shall normally be retested in case of changes in the adhesives or the surfaces to be joined.
C. Quality management of testing

C 100 General
101
Testing shall be controlled according to ISO 17025. The test procedures shall specify
Equipment: traceablity of tested items, sensors and equipment. Calibration and accuracy of sensors.
Personnel: training and responsibilities of the individuals participating in the test
Reporting: Accuracy, clarity and unambiguousness of reporting. Measurement uncertainties.
102
All testing shall be carried out by laboratories accredited to ISO 17025 otherwise the test shall be witnessed by a
independent third party. The third party witnessing the test shall also approve the test report.
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D. Reporting
D 100 General
101
The reporting of the test shall be prepared in accordance with IEC 61400-23 and include.
Mass and location of centre of gravity and the condition of fluid dampers and tip brakes for each test blade
Stiffness of test rig (angular deflection at extreme loads)
Temperature at the laboratory during the test and if the blade has been exposed to sun light
Temperatures in the blade (Thermography can be used to illustrate fatigue testing)
Natural frequency and damping for the following modes: first edgewise, first and second flap-wise.
Torsional stiffness measurement
Static testing of all critical sections. Both extreme positive and extreme negative loads. Strains and deflections
Fatigue testing of all critical sections, Strains and deflections, preloading from exciter and masses fastened to the blade
Testing to verify the integrity after the fatigue test normally a repetition of the static test
Noise, cracks, de-lamination, buckling, permanent deflections or other failure and damage observed during the tests
Deviations from test plans
Repairs carried out during the test.
Guidance note:
Torsional stiffness measurement can be omitted if it is justified that flutter instability is not critical for the blade design.
The location of anchor points for applied loads shall be described such the exact bending mode including second order
effects are identified.
102
Guidance note:
The anchor points for a tensioning wire shall point at the neutral axis for the blade in order not to twist the blade when bending.
Second order effects are importand for tensioning wires of finite length near the tip of the blade which can deflect in the order of 20 % of the blade length.
Strains shall be measured at all critical locations in relevant directions. Strains shall at least be measured longitudinally in
the leading edge, the trailing edge and on each side for every second meter.
103
Deflections shall be measured at the tip and at the middle of the blade. The location of anchor points for the deflection
measurements shall be described such that second order effects are identified.
104
105
The equipment number for all measurement equipment shall be included in the report
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SECTION 6
DOCUMENTATION FOR DETALIED SPECIFIC BLADE DESIGN
A. General
A 100 General
101
Minimum requirements to the contents of the documentation for the specific blade design are given in 200 through 500.
A 200 Design Documents

201 The design documents shall cover design calculations according to the limit states and design methods defined in the
design procedure manual. The design loads used for calculation shall be clearly defined and separate load reports/specifications
shall be clearly referenced in the design documentation.
A 300 Technical Documents
301
The technical documents shall cover technical specifications for blades including the following details:
Service life
Temperature interval, stand still
Temperature interval, operation
Mass including tolerance
Static moment for each blade in a set including tolerance
Chord length and thickness distribution
Mass distribution
Stiffness distribution edgewise, flap-wise and torsional
Aerodynamic profiles type and distribution including tolerances
Twist distribution including tolerances and root marking
Specification of wear tapes, stall strips or vortex generators and other aerodynamic devices
Specification of tip brake if relevant
Natural frequencies and structural damping (first and second flap-wise, first edgewise)
Specification of root joint including bolt circle diameter, bolt size, number of bolts, tolerances on location of bolt holes,
flatness of root and necessary constraints on hub and pitch bearing design to avoid overloading of the joint in bending.
Specification of lightning protection level (ref. IEC 61400-24 or DEFU Recommendation 25)
Marking of blade with Supplier, Type, Manufacturing number for actual blade and for the other blades in the blade set, blade
weight and centre of gravity, lifting points.
Colour and reflection (RAL, ISO 2813)
Verified resistance to hydraulic oils
Verified resistance to wear from particles in the air.
Identification of replaceable wear parts
A 400 Work Instructions and Drawings

401
Work instructions and design drawings shall include the following details:
Drawings with the dimensions and materials for all parts
Work instructions for lay-up of the individual plies for the individual laminated parts of the blade parts including tolerances
Work instructions for adhesive joints
Work instructions for curing process including temperature tolerances
Work instructions for balancing, root and surface dressing
Quality control instructions and record sheets including applicable tolerances for the critical processes. Ref. Table 1
Details of lightning protection system
Details of aerodynamic devices such as stall strips and vortex generators
Details of fluid dampers
A 500 Test Documents

501
The test specification must be based on design loads and test load factors as specified in IEC 61400-23
502
The method used to select the test blade must be reported.
503
The test reports must as a minimum include the following:
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Mass and location of centre of gravity and the condition of fluid dampers and tip brakes for each test blade
Stiffness of test rig (angular deflection at extreme loads)
Temperature at the laboratory during the test and if the blade has been exposed to sun light
Temperatures in the blade (Thermography can be used to illustrate fatigue testing)
Natural frequency and damping for the following modes: first edgewise, first and second flap-wise.
Torsional stiffness measurement
Static testing of all critical sections. Both extreme positive and extreme negative loads.
Fatigue testing of all critical sections
Testing to verify the integrity after the fatigue test normally a repetition of the static test
Noise, cracks, de-lamination, buckling, permanent deflections or other failure and damage observed during the tests
Deviations from test plans
Repairs carried out during the test.
Guidance note:
Torsional stiffness measurement can be omitted if it is justified that flutter instability is not critical for the blade design.
The test blade manufacturing shall be documented in an as-built documentation. The documentation shall include
reference to:
504
Blade type (name) and production number (id)

Revision of work instructions and drawings used for manufacturing
Type and batch number for all materials where traceability is required
Identification of worker teams responsible for each individual operation
Registrations used as basis for quality control (Ref. table 1 in Section 4)
Repairs carried out.
A 600 Installation and Service Documents

601
Installation and service manuals shall include instructions for:

Transportation
Lift
Tolerances
Pretension of bolted joints
Procedures for commissioning
Annual inspection
Repair of surface
Inspection and repair after lightning strikes
Recommendations on cleaning interval
Guidance note:
Dirty blades can be critical for the power production
Installation and service manuals shall clearly explain with type of defects can be repaired by the owner and which types of
defects require repair in cooperation with the manufacturer.
602
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SECTION 7
MANUFACTURING OF BLADES
A. General
A 100 General
101
Blade manufacturing shall be carried out according to approved work instructions, quality procedures and drawings
102 Work instruction and quality procedures for the individual blades shall be prepared in accordance with the manufacturing
procedure manual described in Section 4.
Quality procedures for blade manufacturing shall clearly specify the duties of the production department and the quality
control department
103
104
Quality procedures shall specify the training required for individuals participating in blade manufacturing.
105
Blade quality recording shall be carried out on approved sheets. Blade quality recording shall cover the following items:
revision numbers of drawings and work instructions which have been used
type and batch numbers of all materials used in the work shop where traceability has been specified.
certification and incoming inspection of materials
identification of moulds and other critical equipment used for the processes
identification of all individuals participating in the critical processes by name or employee number
confirmation that quality check points have been carried out by signature of responsible employee. Type and orientation of
reinforcing layers shall normally be checked right after they have been applied/positioned.
thermographs and hydrographs recorded at representative location(s) in the workshop
curing history of laminates measured in form of time, temperature and pressure at critical locations for the curing.
identification of test coupons that are manufactured together with the blade
repairs carried out
106 All equipment used for measurements shall be calibrated according to a specified scheme. Such equipment includes
weights, thermo sensors, hygro meters, load gauges, pressure gauges, mixing machines with mass or volumetric control etc.
107
The as-build documentation shall be filed for minimum 20 years.
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DNV (Det Norske Veritas) is an independent,
autonomous Foundation working to safeguard life, property
and the environment. DNV comprises 300 offices
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DNV-OS-J102 (Draft October 2004) Design and Manufacturing of Wind Turbine Blades (Offshore)

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DNV-OS-J102 (Draft October 2004) Design and Manufacturing of Wind Turbine Blades (Offshore)

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OFFSHORE STANDARD

DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING OF

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E 500 Buckling analysis of more complex

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Selection of test blade and specification of testing

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C 100 IEC Type certification standards

C 200 DNV guidelines and standards

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C 300 Other references

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The material qualification should at least include:

The qualification records shall cover all interfaces to neighbouring materials.

A 200 Quality system requirements

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C. Sandwich core materials

Qualification of adhesives shall consider thermal effects and ageing.

Adhesive joints shall be protected against exposure to water.

The qualification of wood should be based on the same principles as in DNV-OS-C501.

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A 200 Quality system requirements

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Figure 3.1 Processes in analytical verification of wind turbine blade strength

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A 400 Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms

Table A1: Typical failure mechanisms that can lead to fracture

Section in this standard

Shall be checked, unless structure can tolerate large deformations of

The design does not allow yielding.

A fully nonlinear analysis may be done considering the effects of yielding.

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Typical sequences for laminates are:

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(a) face/core yielding/fracture;

Figure 1: The Failure Mechanisms in a Sandwich Beam.

A 500 Design criteria

A design criterion shall be assigned to each relevant mechanism of failure.

A 600 Load and load factors

A 700 Consequence of failure factor

The consequence of failure factor shall be taken a according to IEC 61400-1

Table C1: Consequence of failure factors

Consequence of failure factor

A 800 Material resistance and resistance Factors

The material resistance factor m is given as a combination of partial factors:

A 900 Geometrical Parameters

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B. Verification of input for design loads and tower clearance analysis

C. Analytical models for linear analysis of blade strains

D. Finite Element Analysis

Models shall be checked (ideally independently) before results are computed.

The analyst shall beware the following aspects:

D 200 Software Requirements

Selection of finite element software package shall be based on the followings:

layered solid elements with orthotropic and anisotropic material behaviour,

D 300 Execution of Analysis

The approach shall be documented.

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D 400 Evaluation of Results

D 500 Validation and Verification

Analysis and model assumptions shall be verified.

Results shall be checked against the objectives of the analysis.