Professional Documents
Culture Documents
energy
efficiency,
weight,
and
volume.
The
other
types
of
engines
other
than
the
above
INTRODUCTION
A four-stroke engine, also known as four-cycle, is an
internal combustion engine in which the piston completes
four separate strokesintake, compression, power, and
exhaustduring two separate revolutions of the engine's
crankshaft, and one single thermodynamic cycle.
There are two common types of engines, which are closely
related to each other but have major differences in their
design and behavior. The earliest of these to be developed
is the Otto cycle engine which was developed in 1876 by
Nikolaus August Otto in Cologne, Germany,[1] after the
operation principle described by Alphonse Beau de Rochas
in 1861. This engine is most often referred to as a petrol
engine or gasoline engine, after the fuel that powers it.
The second type of four-cycle engine is the Diesel engine
developed in 1893 by Rudolph Diesel, also of Germany.
Diesel created his engine to maximize efficiency which
was lacking in the Otto engine. There are several major
2
differences between the Otto cycle engine and the fourcycle diesel engine. The diesel engine is made in both a
two-cycle
Ironically Otto's
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2. Compression
3. Power
4. Exhaust
As their name implies, four-stroke internal combustion
engines have four basic steps that repeat with every two
revolutions of the engine:
(1) Intake stroke (2) Compression stroke (3) Power stroke
and (4) Exhaust stroke
1. Intake stroke: The first stroke of the internal
combustion engine is also known as the suction stroke
because the piston moves to the maximum volume
position (downward direction in the cylinder). The inlet
valve opens as a result of piston movement, and the
vaporized fuel mixture enters the combustion chamber.
The inlet valve closes at the end of this stroke.
2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, both valves are
closed and the piston starts its movement to the minimum
volume position (upward direction in the cylinder) and
compresses the fuel mixture. During the compression
process, pressure, temperature and the density of the fuel
mixture increases.
3. Power stroke: When the piston reaches the minimum
volume position, the spark plug ignites the fuel mixture
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next
cycle.
Four-stroke
engines
require
two
revolutions.
Many engines overlap these steps in time; jet engines do
all steps simultaneously at different parts of the engines.
Terminology I
TDC: top dead center, piston position farthest from
crankshaft
BDC: bottom dead center, piston position nearest to
crankshaft
Direct fuel injection: into main combustion chamber
Indirect fuel injection: into a secondary chamber
Bore: diameter of cylinder or piston face
Stroke: distance that piston moves clearance
volume: volume in combustion chamber at TDC
Displacement volume: volume displaced by piston
Ignition delay: Time between start of ignition and start
of Combustion
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Engine components
History
Otto cycle
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recent
development
has
been
the
introduction
of
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coil. Dwell time is decreased when there is more than enough spark
energy to combust the mixture, this decrease will reduce spark plug
wear, therefore increase spark plug life.
Electronic capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) systems have been
common on large industrial engines because the technology has
been in use since the 1960's.
Capacitive discharge ignition systems work by storing energy in an
external capacitor, which is then discharged into the ignition coil
primary winding when required. This rate of discharge is much
higher than that found in inductive systems, and causes a
corresponding increase in the rate of voltage rise in the secondary
coil winding. This faster voltage rise in the secondary winding
creates a spark that can allow combustion in an engine that has
excess oil or an over rich fuel air mixture in the combustion
chamber. The high initial spark voltage avoids leakage across the
spark plug insulator and electrodes caused by fouling, but leaves
much less energy available for a sufficiently long spark duration;
this may not be sufficient for complete combustion in a lean burn
turbocharged engine resulting in misfiring and high exhaust
emissions.
19
20
Manufacturing
Company).
In
1872,
Gottlieb
(GFD)
developed
electric
ignition
and
the
carburetor.
In 1890, Daimler and Maybach formed a company known
as Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft. Today that company is
known as Daimler-Benz.
Diesel cycle
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24
are
four-stroke,
four-valve
and
high
revving,
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Charles Law
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27
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compressed
charge
engine
had
an
operating
it
can
petroleum
have
destroy
widely
the
engine.
varying
flash
Fractions
points
of
(the
30
engine
being
higher
efficiency.
Higher
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Bio Diesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based
diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl (methyl, propyl or
ethyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically
reacting lipids (e.g., vegetable oil, animal fat (tallow)) with
an alcohol producing fatty acid esters.
Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines
and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used
to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used
alone, or blended with petrodiesel. Biodiesel can also be
used as a low carbon alternative to heating oil.
Blends
Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based
diesel are products most commonly distributed for use in
the retail diesel fuel marketplace. Much of the world uses
a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of
biodiesel in any fuel mix:[2]
100% biodiesel is referred to as B100, while
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require
certain
engine
modifications
to
avoid
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Applications
Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be
blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in
most injection pump diesel engines. New extreme highpressure (29,000 psi) common rail engines have strict
factory limits of B5 or B20, depending on manufacturer.
Biodiesel has different solvent properties than petrodiesel,
and will degrade natural rubber gaskets and hoses in
vehicles (mostly vehicles manufactured before 1992),
although these tend to wear out naturally and most likely
will have already been replaced with FKM, which is
nonreactive to biodiesel. Biodiesel has been known to
break down deposits of residue in the fuel lines where
petrodiesel has been used. As a result, fuel filters may
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Railway usage
British train operating company Virgin Trains claimed to
have run the world's first "biodiesel train", which was
converted to run on 80% petrodiesel and only 20%
biodiesel, and it is claimed it will save 14% on direct
emissions.
The Royal Train on 15 September 2007 completed its first
ever journey run on 100% biodiesel fuel supplied by Green
Fuels Ltd. His Royal Highness, The Prince of Wales, and
Green Fuels managing director, James Hygate, were the
first passengers on a train fueled entirely by biodiesel fuel.
Since 2007, the Royal Train has operated successfully on
B100 (100% biodiesel).
Bio - Diesel Plant
36
Properties
Biodiesel has better lubricating properties and much
higher cetane ratings than today's lower sulfur diesel
fuels. Biodiesel addition reduces fuel system wear, and in
low levels in high pressure systems increases the life of
the fuel injection equipment that relies on the fuel for its
lubrication. Depending on the engine, this might include
high pressure injection pumps, pump injectors (also called
unit injectors) and fuel injectors.
Production
Biodiesel is commonly produced by the transesterification
of the vegetable oil or animal fat feedstock. There are
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including
the
common
batch
process,
transesterification
reaction.
lipid
manufactured,
100 kg
of
glycerol
are
produced.
Research
Wageningen
International,
University and
department
Research
Centre
of
the
in
the
cultivation
through
field
and
laboratory
experiments.
The Center for Sustainable Energy Farming (CfSEF) is a Los
Angeles-based non-profit research organization dedicated
to Jatropha research in the areas of plant science,
agronomy, and horticulture. Successful exploration of
40
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Diesel Engines
Diesel engines by their nature do not have concerns with
pre-ignition. They have a concern with whether or not
combustion can be started. The description of how likely
Diesel fuel is to ignite is called the Cetane rating. Because
Diesel fuels are of low volatility, they can be very hard to
start when cold. Various techniques are used to start a
cold Diesel engine, the most common being the use of a
glow plug.
In some applications, such as in burning used cooking oil,
the fuel itself is solid and must be heated to liquify prior to
use. A common complaint here is that the exhaust may
have the odor of French Fries.
Design and engineering principles
Power output limitations
42
wall
Turbocharging
A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the
engine's exhaust gases, by means of a turbine. It consists
of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side
that compresses the intake air, and the other side that is
powered by the exhaust gas outflow.
46
The
increased
intake
volume
causes
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more
recent
times,
turbochargers
have
become
50
Valve clearance
Valve clearance refers to the small gap between a valve
lifter and a valve stem that ensures that the valve
completely closes. On engines with mechanical valve
adjustment excessive clearance will cause noise from the
valve train. Typically the clearance has to be readjusted
each 20,000 miles (32,000 km) with a feeler gauge.
Most modern production engines use hydraulic lifters to
automatically compensate for valve train component wear.
Dirty engine oil may cause lifter failure.
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Energy balance
Otto engines are about 30% efficient; in other words, 30%
of the energy generated by combustion is converted into
useful rotational energy at the output shaft of the engine,
while the remainder being losses due to friction, engine
accessories, and waste heat.[5] There are a number of
ways to recover some of the energy lost to waste heat.
The use of a Turbocharger in Diesel engines is very
effective by boosting incoming air pressure and in effect
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53
by
2016,
new
ways
of
engineering
the
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non-wasted
spark
system
only
provides
spark
on
the
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travelling
up
towards
it,
and
may
cause
detonation
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non-wasted
spark
system
only
provides
spark
on
the
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travelling
up
towards
it,
and
may
cause
detonation
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Working Principle
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SV:
Side valve 4 strokes have their valves (B & H) mounted in the
cylinder. This design was popular for many inexpensive, low
performance engines.
The OHV design is simple, reliable and reasonably efficient. But how
does it work? First it is necessary to become familiar with the major
component parts:
Rocker (A)
Piston (C)
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Crankshaft (E)
Camshaft (F)
Pushrod (G)
Starting at the top, the cylinder head carries the valves, inlet (B)
and exhaust (H), and the spark plug. In addition, in OHV designs
the valves are operated by a rocking arm or lever (A), also carried
in the head.
The head is generally bolted to the cylinder, and the cylinder is in
turn bolted to the crankcases; however some 4 stroke designs have
a combined cylinder and upper crankcase half. 4 stroke crankcases
are split vertically on single cylinder designs; however the Japanese
manufacturers in particular prefer horizontal splitting cases on the
majority of their multi-cylinder engines. This horizontal splitting of
the cases makes assembly and disassembly much easier.
The 4 stroke is so called as all the required functions to make the
engine run are completed in 4 strokes of the piston-- inlet,
compression, power, exhaust.
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The first stroke is the inlet or induction stroke. As the piston moves
down inside the cylinder, the inlet valve opens allowing a fresh
change of mixed gasoline and air to enter the cylinder.
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After the piston has completed the inlet stroke, the inlet valve
closes and the piston returns back up inside the cylinder to
compress the mixture in readiness for the power phase.
After the gases have been ignited, the piston is driven down inside
the cylinder forcing the crankshaft to rotate.
As the piston completes its power stroke, the exhaust valve opens
in readiness for the exhaust phase.
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Arrangement of Cylinders
Fuel injection
Multipoint port fuel injection: one or more injectors at each
cylinder intake Throttle body fuel injection: injectors
upstream of intake manifold.
Carburetor
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Word origin
The
from
"carbide".
the
Carburer means
to
specific
meaning
of
increasing
the carbon(and
form
of
fuel
injection
known
as
a pressure
carburetor.
Most production carbureted (as opposed to fuel-injected)
engines have a single carburetor and a matching intake
manifold that divides and transports the air fuel mixture to
the intake valves, though some engines (like motorcycle
engines) use multiple carburetors on split heads. Multiple
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motor carburetors
are
typically
sidedraft,
Operation
these
domination
carburetors
in
the
UK
car
rise
to
market,
position
though
of
such
on
some
European
and
few
Japanese
the
VV
carburetor
proved
problematic
in
service.
Disadvantages of the Carburetor
The main disadvantage of basing a carburetor's operation
on Bernoulli's principle is that, being a fluid dynamic
device, the pressure reduction in a venturi tends to be
78
Cold start
Hot start
Idling or slow-running
Acceleration
Types of Carburetors:
1. Solex Carburetor
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2. Carter carburetor
3. S.U. Carburetor
Carburetor Efficiency
A carburetor is the part of an internal combustion engine
that blends air and fuel in a tiny explosion. The kinetic
energy from that explosion is used to push the pistons of
the engine.
A basic understanding of how an internal combustion
engine works is as follows:
The fuel injectors inject the gasoline.
The spark plugs ignite the gasoline.
The gasoline explosion moves the pistons. (Sort of like
a potato cannon.)
The pistons turn the crankshaft.
The crankshaft turns the rest of the car.
There is alternatives to an internal combustion engine.
External Combustion = Less efficient.
Gas Turbine = More Expensive, but very efficient.
Electrical = Currently difficult to refuel.
Hybrid Internal Combustion/Electrical = More efficient,
slightly more expensive.
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expensive.
Lack of Efficiency
The primary problem
with
carburetors
is
wasted
as
heat
standard
use of the other parts of the car and by making cars out of
lightweight materials), carburetors today are still only
about 12% efficient.
Which means the other 88% is basically wasted energy in
the form of heat.
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Combustion
All
internal
combustion
engines
depend
on
the
fuels are
made up of
combustion
engines
require
ignition
of
the
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Diesel
engines
and
HCCI
(Homogeneous
charge
87
apparatus),
and
for
running
auxiliary
electrical
dedicated
intake
or
exhaust
strokes,
alternative
displacement,
crankcase-scavenged
two-stroke
are
much
cleaner
burning
than
their
traditional
allows
more
effective
cooling.
More
unusual
to
serve
three
banks
of
double-ended
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Two-stroke
This system manages to pack one power stroke into every
two strokes of the piston (up-down). This is achieved by
exhausting and recharging the cylinder simultaneously.
The cylinder of the four strokes engine differs from the two
strokes engine. The major difference between both
engines is the valves that are located on the top of the
cylinder. These two valves open and close alternatively to
allow either air/fuel mixture to enter or exhaust gases to
come out. As it was previously mentioned, the motion of
the two valves happen through the camshaft system. The
spark plug is the one that ignites the compressed fuel-air
mixture
at
time
when
both
valves
are
closed.
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93
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96
and
compresses
the
air/fuel
mixture,
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and
mixture to
an
exhaust
enter
port
the combustion
discharges
the
products of combustion.
Crankshaft: A shaft which converts the reciprocating
motion of the piston into a rotary motion.
Connecting rod: A rod which connects the piston with
the crankshaft.
Spark plug: An ignition-source located at the cylinder
head that is used to initiate the combustion process.
Operation
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chamber
and
the
outer
atmosphere
while
from
the
crank
chamber
enters
into
the
101
Disadvantages:
The lack of lubrication system that protects the engine
parts from wear. Accordingly, the 2-stroke engines have a
shorter life.
2-stroke engines do not consume fuel efficiently.
2-stroke engines produce lots of pollution.
Sometimes part of the fuel leaks to the exhaust with the
exhaust gases. In conclusion, based on the above
advantages and disadvantages, the 2-stroke engines are
supposed to operate in vehicles where the weight of the
engine is required to be small, and the it is not used
continuously for long periods of time.
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Four-stroke
stroke:
Fuel
vapor
and
air
are
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Diesel cycle
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P-v Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows
the numbers 1-4 in clockwise direction.
Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle
reminiscent of a four-stroke cycle, but with a compression
heating ignition system, rather than needing a separate
ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle. In
the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into the
cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure,
as the piston moves.
Otto cycle: Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the
cars internal combustion engines that work using gasoline
as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the same one that was
described for the four-stroke engine. It consists of the
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double
expansion
engine,
having
two
outer
Six-stroke
First invented in 1883, the six-stroke engine has seen
renewed interest over the last 20 or so years.
Four kinds of six-stroke use a regular piston in a regular
cylinder (Griffin six-stroke, Bajulaz six-stroke, Velozeta sixstroke and Crower six-stroke), firing every three crankshaft
revolutions. The systems capture the wasted heat of the
four-stroke Otto cycle with an injection of air or water.
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such
as
response,
exhaust
efficiency,
emissions,
weight,
or
power,
noise.
heat,
Sometimes
110
Conclusion
Internal
combustion
important
engines
engineering
are
among
applications.
The
the
most
theory
of
to
the
mechanism
of
working.
altogether.
Two-stroke
motors
111
will
likely
be
REFERENCES
1. A Text book of Automobile Engineering Mr. R. K. Rajput
2. A Text book of Internal Combustion Engines Mr. R.K.
Rajput
3. C. Fayette Taylor and Edward S. Taylor, The Internal
Combustion
Engine,
1961.
4. C.F. Taylor, The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory
and Practice.
5.
A.R.
Rogowski,
Elements
of
Internal
Combustion
113