CHAPTER 1

MEASUREMENTS AND ERROR

1.1 DEFINITIONS
1) Measurement is the process of determining the Value of the variable or quantity under measurement.
2) Instrumentation is a subject which describes all the different types of instruments used for measurement which serves
Sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.
3) Instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
4) Electronic instrument is working based on electrical or electronic principles for its measurement functions.
5) Resolution: the smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will respond.

6) Error: deviation from true value of the measured value.

1.2ACCURACY AND PRECISION
ACCURACY: the degree of exactness (closeness) of measured value with the expected (desired or true) value of the measurement.
Good instrument having accuracy is high.
PRECISION: a measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement, i.e. successive measurement value does not differ.
Error the deviation of the true value from the measured value.
ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Measurement always introduce error
Error may be expressed either as absolute or percentage of error
Absolute error, e = Yn X n
where Yn expected value or true value or desired value
X n measured value

YnX n

% error =

Relative accuracy(A)= 1-

%Accuracy(a)=100% - %error = A100

Precision (p) =1Where

Xn

Xn

)/Yn|100

YnX n

)/Yn|

Xn Xn

Xn

- value of the nth measurement

- Average of values of n measurements

EXAMPLE.1.1
Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V the measurement is 79V. Calculate,
i. The absolute error
ii. The % of error
iii. The relative accuracy
iv. The % of accuracy
SOLUTION:
Given data :expected value(Yn) = 80V
measurement value(Xn) = 79V
i. Absolute error, e =(Yn-Xn) = 80V 79V = 1V
ii. % error =

YnX n

iii. Relative accuracy, =1-

)/Yn|100 =

YnX n

8079

)/Yn|=1-

)/80|100 = 1.25%

8079

)/80|= 0.9875

iv. % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%

EXAMPLE.1.2
From the values given in table calculate the precision of 6 th measurement?
Measuremen Value of Nth
t no.(n)
measuremen
t
1
99
2
106
3
98
4
103
5
100
6
101
7
97
8
102

9
10

SOLUTION:
Precision (p) =1Where

Xn

Xn

101
99
TABLE

Xn Xn

Xn
- value of the nth measurement

- Average of values of n measurements

Given data: n=6

Xn=100,

Xn

- Average of values of n measurements=10.5 then

Precision (p) =1-

100100.5

100.5

=0.995

1.3SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:
Precision is composed of two characteristics:
1) Conformity :conforming the measured value with equal lent value
Ex: that a resistor, whose true resistance is 1,384,572 , is measured by an ohmmeter which consistently and repeatedly indicates
1.4 M. But can the observer read the true value from the scale? His estimates from the scale reading consistently yield a value
of1.4 M.
The error created by the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error.
2) significant figures :No. of. digits which are used to express the measured value
The more significant figures, the greater the precision of measurement.
Example: For example, if a resistor is specified as having a resistance of 68 , its resistance should be closer to 68 than to 67 or 69 . If
the value of the resistor is described as 68.0, it means that its resistance is closer to 68.0 than it is to 67.9 or 68.1. In 68 there are two
significant figures; in 68.0 there are three. The latter, with more significant figures, expresses a measurement of greater precision than the
former.
Example:

Solution:

1.4 TYPES OF ERRORS: No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is important to find out what the accuracy
actually is and how different errors have entered into the measurement.
Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified under three main headings:
1) Gross error/human error
2) Systematic Error
3) Random Error
1) Gross Error:
- cause by human mistakes in reading/using instruments
- cannot eliminate but can minimize
2)

Systematic Error:
- due to shortcomings of the instrument (such as defective or worn parts)
- 3 types of systematic error :(i) Instrumental error
(ii) Environmental error
(iii) Observational error
(i) Instrumental error:
- Inherent while measuring instrument because of their mechanical structure (bearing friction, irregular spring tension,
stretching of spring, etc)
- error can be avoid by:

(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement application

(b) apply correction factor by determining instrumental error
(c) calibrate the instrument against standard Instrument.
(ii) Environmental error:
- Due to external condition effecting the measurement including surrounding area condition such as change in
Temperature, humidity, barometer pressure, etc
- error can be avoid by :(a) use air conditioner
(b) sealing certain component in the instruments
(c) use magnetic shields
(iii) Observational error:
- introduce by the observer
- most common : parallax error and estimation error (while reading the scale)
3) Random error:
- due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic error has accounted
- accumulation of small effect, require at high degree of accuracy
- can be avoid by
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best approximation of true value

1.5 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: A statistical analysis of measurement data is common practice because it allows an analytical
determination of the uncertainty of the final test result.
1). Arithmetic Mean:
The arithmetic mean is given by the following expression:

______________________________(1)
2).Deviation from the Mean: Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings.
If the deviation of the first reading, x1, is called d1, and that of the second reading, x2, is called d2, and so on,then the deviations from
the mean can be expressed as

______________(2)

Note that the deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and that the algebraic sum of all the deviations
must be zero.
3). Average Deviation: By definition, average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of the deviation divided by the
number of readings.

------------------(3)
4). Standard deviation: In statistical analysis of random errors, the root-mean-square deviation or standard deviation is a very
valuable aid. By definition, the standard deviation
of an infinite number of data is the square root of the sum of all the individual
deviations squared, divided by the number of readings. Expressed
mathematically:

____________________________________(4)

Example:

Example: Calculate the Average deviation for the data given in previous example.

1.6 PROBABILITY OF ERRORS

Example:

1.7LIMITING ERRORS:

EXAMPLE:

SOLUTION: