Flow assurance

Introduction
Flow assurance is defined as an operation that
generates a reliable flow of fluids from the
reservoir to the sales point.
The operation deals with formation and
depositions of gas hydrates, paraffin,
asphaltenes, and scales that can reduce flow
efficiency of oil and gas pipelines.

 Because of technical challenges involved, this

operation requires the combined efforts of a
multidisciplinary team consisting of scientists,
engineers, and field personnel.
Technical challenges in the flow assurance
operation include prevention and control of
depositions of gas hydrates, paraffin (wax),
asphaltenes, and scales in the oil and gas
production systems.
Usually one or two of these problems dominate
in a given oil/gas field.

 Natural gas hydrate can form within gas

pipelines as a solid or semi-solid mass that can
slow or completely block gas flow
Flow assurance engineering has been known
as an operation that does not directly make
money, but costs a great deal in pipeline
operations, if not managed correctly.

 The most severe operational hazards of

offshore pipelines are the risks associated with
the transportation of multiphase fluids.
When water, oil, and gas are flowing
simultaneously inside the pipeline, there are
quite a few potential problems that can occur:
water and hydrocarbon fluids can form
hydrate and block the pipeline;
wax and asphaltene can deposit on the wall
and may eventually block the pipeline

 with high enough water cut, corrosion may

occur;
with pressure and temperature changes along
the pipeline and/or with incompatible water
mixing, scales may form and deposit inside the
pipeline and restrict the flow; and

severe slugging may form inside the pipeline

and cause operational problems to
downstream processing facilities.

 The challenge that engineers will face is, thus,

how to design the pipeline and subsea system
to assure that multiphase fluids will be safely
and economically transported from the
bottom of the wells all the way to the
downstream processing plant.
The practice of identifying, quantifying, and
mitigating of all the flow risks associated with
offshore pipelines and subsea systems is
called flow assurance.

 Flow assurance is critical for deepwater

pipeline and system operations.
In deepwater, the seawater temperature is
usually much colder than the surface air
temperature.
When pipeline is submersed in the deep
water, if there is no thermal insulation layer
surrounding the pipe wall, the fluid heat can
be quickly lost to the water.

 This is especially true if the water current

around the pipeline is strong.

With an un-insulated pipeline, the heat

transfer coefficient at the outer pipe wall can
be significant due to the forced convection by
the seawater movement (current).
If the fluid temperature inside the pipeline
becomes too low due to the heat loss, water
and hydrocarbon (oil and gas) may form
hydrate and block the flow.

 Furthermore, if the fluid temperature is low

enough, wax may start to precipitate and
deposit on the pipe wall.
Thus, effective preservation of fluid heat is
one of the most important design parameters
for offshore pipeline.

 In deep water, the pipeline is normally

followed by a production riser which goes
from the sea bottom to the surface processing
facilities (topsides).
The deeper the water is, the longer the
production riser is.

With a long riser, the pipeline operating

pressure will be higher due to the hydrostatic
head in the riser.

 For the same fluid temperature, with higher

operating pressure, it is easier for the fluids to
form hydrate.
With pipeline and riser production system, if
the flow conditions are such that severe
slugging occurs, the slugs will be proportional
to the riser length.
The longer the riser, the longer the severe
slugs.
How to optimize the pipeline and subsea
system design to mitigate the flow assurance
issues is a challenge.

 Flow assurance risks can be managed through

robust system design, like heavy thermal
insulation, high grade materials, and
sophisticated mitigation systems, which would
normally drive up the capital cost (CAPEX).
On the other hand, flow assurance risks can also
be managed through operations, like extensive
chemical inhibition, extensive pigging, and flow
monitoring, which will drive up the operating
costs (OPEX).
To balance the CAPEX and OPEX costs, the
economics and system uptime are the key
parameters.

Fluid Sampling and Characterizations

One of the most critical steps in identifying
and quantifying flow assurance risks is fluid
sampling.

Whether or not there will be any flow

assurance risks in subsea pipeline must be
determined from the fluid sample analysis:

 What is the fluid composition?

Is there a potential for wax deposition?
Is the potential for asphaltene deposition
high, medium, or low?
Will the fluid gel when the temperature is low
enough after system shutdown?
How much energy will be required to remobilize the fluid once it is gelled?
All these questions can be answered only by
lab or flowloop measurements of the fluid
samples.

 Thus, it is very important to sample the

representative fluid that will be transported
by pipeline.
No matter how accurate the lab
measurements and interpretations are, if the
fluids do not represent the real production
fluids, wrong conclusions may be drawn.
Any flow assurance mitigation strategies
based upon wrong conclusions will work
improperly and the pipeline and subsea
system will encounter severe operational risks.

 Water samples are also very critical in

establishing flow assurance risks.
These include scaling,
hydrate formation tendencies,
corrosivity,
compatibility with other water (injected water
or water from different production zones),
material metallurgy, and
design of the water handling equipment.

 One special challenge associated with flow

assurance risk assessment is that there is no
water available for sampling because the
exploration wells may never reach the aquifer
zones.
Without water samples, it is very difficult to
make accurate flow assurance risk
assessments.
A lot of times, water samples from nearby
fields have to be used, resulting in high levels
of uncertainty in the development of the flow
assurance mitigation strategies..

Wax Depositions
Crude oil is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons which consists of aromatics,
paraffins, naphthenics, resins, asphaltenes,
diamondoids, mercaptans, etc.
When the temperature of crude oil is reduced,
the heavy components of oil, like paraffin/wax
(C18C60), will precipitate and deposit on the
pipe wall.

Wax Depositions
The pipe internal diameter will be reduced
with wax deposition, resulting in higher
pressure drop.
Wax deposition problems can become so
severe that the whole pipeline can be
completely blocked.
It would cost millions of dollars to remediate
an offshore pipeline that is blocked by wax.

Wax Mitigation Strategies

Thermal Insulation.
For subsea production pipeline, the most
widely used wax mitigation method is to
include enough thermal insulation to maintain
the fluid temperature
everywhere along the pipeline above the wax
appearance temperature during normal or
steady-state operations.

Wax Mitigation Strategies

Pigging.
Another popular wax mitigation method is to
regularly pig the pipeline to remove deposited
wax from pipe walls.
For some subsea pipelines, especially export
lines where hydrate is not a concern, pigging
would normally be the main wax management
strategy.
There are numerous types of pigs, like simple
spheres, foam pigs, and smart pigs.

Wax Mitigation Strategies

Chemical Inhibition/Remediation.
Wax chemical inhibitors can be divided into
two different types:
one is to prevent/delay the formation of wax
crystals and thus reduce the wax appearance
temperature and also prevent the wax from
depositing onto the pipe wall;
the other is to decrease the wax pour point
and thus delay the waxy crude solidification
when the crude cools down.

Asphaltene Depositions
Asphaltenes are defined as the compounds in
oil that are insoluble in n-pentane or nhexane, but soluble in toluene or benzene.
That is, asphaltene solids would precipitate
when excess n-pentane or n-hexane is added
to the crude oil.
Asphaltene solids are dark brown or black
and, unlike waxes, will not melt.

Asphaltene Depositions
But like waxes, with changes in pressure,
temperature, and composition, asphaltenes
tend to flocculate and deposit inside reservoir
formation, well tubing, and production
flowlines.
Mixing reservoir fluids with a different gas
(injected gas or gas-lift gas) or mixing two oil
streams can also induce asphaltene
precipitations

Asphaltene Prevention and Remediation

Two kinds of methods are currently being
used for asphaltene remediation.
One is a mechanical method, which includes
pigging, ccutting.
The other is to use chemical solvents to
dissolve deposited asphaltenes.

Asphaltene Prevention and Remediation

Chemical inhibitors that are used to prevent
asphaltenes from deposition in a production
system include pipelines and wellbores.
oiled tubing operations, and wireline.
Pigging can be used to remove asphaltenes inside
manifolds and pipelines, provided the manifold
and pipeline system can handle pigs.
Compared to waxes, asphaltenes are brittle and
hard, and thus special pigs are required.
Pigs with disks and cups should be used; spheres
and foam pigs will not be efficient for removing
asphaltene solids.

 Chemicals, like blends of aromatics,

surfactants, and oil and water soluble
alcohols, are developed to inhibit asphaltene
precipitation.
Some of the chemicals would increase the
surface tension of crude oils, and thus help
keep asphaltenes from precipitating in the
treated hydrocarbon.

 Some of the chemicals would help supply

resins in the oil to stabilize the asphaltene
molecules.
Again, whether or not an inhibitor is effective
for a specific asphaltene problem can be
determined only by testing.
It is often true that a product effective for
dissolving deposits may not be a good
inhibitor.

Inorganic PrecipitatesScales
Waxes and asphaltenes are precipitates from
crude oils.
potential precipitates from water (inorganic
precipitatescalled scales).
Like wax and asphaltene depositions, scales
can potentially cause serious flow assurance
concerns by plugging production facilities and
topsides processing devices, jamming control
valves, and restricting flows in tubing and
pipelines.

 Scales can also form inside the formation and

can potentially reduce productivity by
plugging the formation.
Thus, it is important to understand how scales
are formed and how to mitigate the scale
problems.

Scale Prevention and Control

The main means of scale control is chemical
inhibition, which includes both continuous
chemical injection and periodic scale squeeze
into formation.
Scale inhibitors prevent scale deposition and
they do not normally re-dissolve the deposits
that have already formed.
So the key function of a scale inhibitor is
prevention, not remedy.
Scale control strategies can be different at
different stages of field life

Scale Removal
Once scales are formed in the production
facilities, they can be removed either by
mechanical means, such as pigging, or by
dissolving using chemicals.
When brush or scraper pigs are run through the
pipeline, they can mechanically remove some of
the scale deposits on the pipe wall.
But if the deposits, which may contain scales,
waxes, and/or asphaltenes, are too hard, pigging
may not be very effective.
Acids can react with scales and dissolve scale
deposits on the pipe wall.

Severe Slugging
One of the flow assurance issues in subsea
pipeline is related to production delivery.
From the processing point of view, it is always
desirable that the fluids coming from the
pipeline are stable in composition and in flow.
If the flow arriving topside is not stable, the
processing system may experience upsets that
often result in shutdown of the whole subsea
production system

 A typical subsea production system usually

consists of subsea pipeline and the production
riser.
Depending upon water depth, the riser length
ranges from less than one hundred feet, as in
shallow water production systems, to a few
thousand feet, as in deepwater production
systems.
With a longer production riser, more energy
will be required to deliver stable flow to the
processing system.

 For deepwater production fields, especially at

the late field life stage when the reservoir
pressure is low and the total production rate is
reduced, the gas and liquid velocities in the
pipeline are not high enough to continuously
carry the fluids out of the riser, resulting in
intermittent (unstable) fluid delivery to the
processing devices.

 When the liquid cannot be continuously

produced out of the riser, the liquid will
accumulate at the riser base to form a liquid
column, called liquid slug.
The liquid slug will completely block the gas
flow.
When the gas pressure behind the slug is high
enough, the liquid slug will be pushed out of
the riser, resulting in a huge amount of liquid
flowing into the processing separator.
This phenomenon is called severe slugging.

 The liquid slug with little or no gas in it would

often cause upsets (like high liquid level) in
the separator if the separator and its control
system are not adequately designed.
When liquid slug is being produced, there is
little or no gas flowing to the compressors.

This can cause compression system problems.

 Hydraulic design interacts with calculation of

temperature profile.
If the temperature is too low, wax deposition
and hydrate formation occur, and restarting
the flow is difficult.
If the velocity is too high, internal erosion and
noise occur.

Single-Phase Flow of Newtonian Fluids

Single-phase means that the whole cross
section of the pipe is filled with either a gas or
a liquid, but not partly gas and partly liquid.
Newtonian means that the shear rate is
linearly proportional to the shear stress, and a
single parameter called the viscosity describes
the relation between them.
Gases, water, and most kinds of oil behave as
Newtonian fluids.
Some heavy oils are non-Newtonian

 Fluid element in steady horizontal flow

 Figure 1 shows an element of fluid within a

short length ds of a horizontal pipeline with
uniform internal diameter D.
The fluid flows at a mean velocity U, averaged
over the cross section.
Distance along the pipeline is measured by s,
increasing in the flow direction.
At the left end of the element, the pressure is
p; at the right end, the pressure is p + dp.

 The pressure difference is balanced by the

shear stress across the pipe wall.
The shear stress occurs because the fluid has a
finite viscosity and because there is a velocity
gradient at the wall.
The force on the element that corresponds to
the pressure difference between p and p + dp
is dp multiplied by the cross section D^2/4,
and it acts in the upstream direction.

 The shear stress exerted by the wall on the

element acts over the area Dds of the
cylindrical outer surface of the element, and
also acts upstream.
Since the fluid is moving at a uniform velocity
and not accelerating, the resultant force on
the element must be zero, and so
1
which rearranges into
2

 The pressure decreases in the direction of

flow, as expected since is positive.
The pressure gradient dp/ds depends on the
wall shear stress and the diameter.
The wall shear stress is related to the mean
velocity by
3
Where f = skin friction coefficient
= fluid density
U = mean velocity, equal to the volumetric
flow rate q divided by the internal cross
section D^2/4

 Substituting from equation 3 into equation 2

4
which is the fundamental equation that
governs pressure drop.
In pipeline hydraulics, f is called the Fanning
friction factor.
Unfortunately, hydraulics also uses another
friction factor, the Moody friction factor, here
denoted m but often given other symbols,
related to f by

 In single-phase flow of Newtonian fluids, the

friction factor f is a function of Reynolds
number Re, defined by

 The friction factor also depends on the

relative roughness of the pipe, described by a
ratio k/D, where k is a roughness height that
describes the internal surface.
For new steel pipe, k is about 0.05 mm, but it
can be much increased by corrosion, erosion,
and wax and asphaltene deposition.

 Thus far the pipe has been taken as horizontal.

Equation 1 can be generalized by considering
an element of fluid in a pipeline along a
nonhorizontal profile (fig. 3):

where
s = distance along the pipe, increasing in the
flow direction
z = height measured upward from a datum
g = unit weight of the fluid
Again the resultant force on the element in
the direction of the pipe axis must be zero,
and so
9

 where the last term is the component parallel

to the pipe axis of the weight of the fluid
element.
Equation 9 rearranges into
10
Again substituting from equation 9.3,
11

 Equation 11 gives the pressure gradient in

terms of the diameter, the velocity, the
gravitational acceleration, the density, and the
friction factor (in turn a function of the
viscosity).
If, but only if, all these quantities are constant
along the length of the pipeline, equation 11
can be integrated along the length to find the
pressure drop from the upstream end 1 to the
downstream end 2.

12
where

This formula can be used to find pressure

drops in liquid flows where the temperature
changes are small enough to have little effect
on the viscosity, and in gas flows where the
pressure changes are small enough to have
little effect on the density.

 The correct procedure is to integrate the

fundamental equation 11 in increments from
the upstream end to the downstream end,
taking into account:
1. Heat transfer to the surroundings (through a
heat transfer model)
2. Variation in physical properties of the fluid,
through a model of properties such as
density and viscosity as a function of
temperature and pressure
3. Changes in height through the pipeline
profile

Line Sizing Gas Flow

There are simple approximate formula for gas
flows, such as the Panhandle
A formula used for transmission lines at
relatively low pressures up to 7 MPa.
In American units,

where
Q = flow rate in cu ft/day, measured at
reference temperature T0 R (F + 460) and
reference pressure p0 psia
E = an efficiency factor, typically 0.92
p1 = pressure at the upstream end, psia
p2 = pressure at the downstream end, psia
L = length, miles
T = mean flowing temperature, R
G = gas gravity (air = 1)
D = diameter, in.

 The corresponding form in metric units is:

Q = flow rate in m3/day, measured at the reference

temperature T0 oK (oC + 273.16) and the reference
pressure p0 MPa
E = an efficiency factor, typically 0.92
p1 = pressure at the upstream end, MPa
p2 = pressure at the downstream end, MPa
L = length, km
T = mean flowing temperature, oK
G = gas gravity (air = 1)
D = diameter, mm

 The corresponding form in metric units is:

Q = flow rate in m3/day, measured at the reference

temperature T0 oK (oC + 273.16) and the reference
pressure p0 MPa
E = an efficiency factor, typically 0.92
p1 = pressure at the upstream end, MPa
p2 = pressure at the downstream end, MPa
L = length, km
T = mean flowing temperature, oK
G = gas gravity (air = 1)
D = diameter, mm

Line Sizing Oil Flow

Rule of Thumb
Trade-off
CAPEX OPEX
D in; Q BBL/day
1 BBL = 42 US gal =35 Imp gal
1 BBL = 158.97 L
D mm; Q m3/s

PROBLEM 1
Consider the following pipeline system
transporting 100kBBL/day single phase oil
Oil density, = 850 kg/m3
Viscosity, = 0.01 Pas = 10 centipoise
Inlet pressure 5MPa
Arrival pressure 1MPa
Calculate the line size for a 25km pipeline

Heat Transfer Conduction

Fourier Law
Q heat loss per unit length (W/m), ttime (s)
k material thermal conductivity (W/m/K)
S surface area (m2)
T temperature (K)
U heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K)

Heat Transfer Steady State

Integrate per Unit Length
Annular layer
Temperature gradient

Heat Transfer Multiple Layers

Heat Transfer Coefficient

Heat Transfer Soil Effects

Buried Pipeline
ri inside pipe radius
ro outside pipe radius in contact with the
soil

Thermal Conductivity Parameters

Common Materials (W/m/K)
Steel
45
Concrete
1.2
Soil
1.02.0
Neoprene
0.26
PP syntactic
0.150.20
PU syntactic
0.100.15
PU light foam
0.020.03

PROBLEM 2
Calculate the heat loss coefficient (U) for an
in-air, single wall, steel linepipe with no
external or internal coatings.
Do = 508mm
t = 12.7mm
k = 45 W/m/K