Control Systems/Transforms Appendix

Laplace Transform

2 Fourier Transform

When we talk about the Laplace transform, we are actually talking about the version of the Laplace transform
known as the unilinear Laplace Transform. The other
version, the Bilinear Laplace Transform (not related to
the Bilinear Transform, below) is not used in this book.

The Fourier Transform is used to break a time-domain

signal into its frequency domain components. The
Fourier Transform is very closely related to the Laplace
Transform, and is only used in place of the Laplace transform when the system is being analyzed in a frequency
context.

The Laplace Transform is dened as:

The Fourier Transform is dened as:

[Laplace Transform]

[Fourier Transform]

F (s) = L[f (t)] =

x(t)est dt
F (j) = F[f (t)] =

f (t)ejt dt

And the Inverse Laplace Transform is dened as:

And the Inverse Fourier Transform is dened as:

[Inverse Laplace Transform]

[Inverse Fourier Transform]

f (t) = L1 {F (s)} =

1.1

1
2j

+j

X(s)est ds

f (t) = F 1 {F (j)} =

Table of Laplace Transforms

F (j)ejt d

2.1 Table of Fourier Transforms

This is a table of common laplace transforms.

1.2

1
2

This is a table of common fourier transforms.

Properties of the Laplace Transform

2.2 Table of Fourier Transform Properties

This is a table of the most important properties of the

This is a table of common properties of the fourier translaplace transform.
form.

Where:

2.3 Convergence of the Fourier Integral

f (t) = L1 {F (s)}

2.4 Properties of the Fourier Transform

g(t) = L1 {G(s)}

3 Z-Transform

s = + j

1.3

Convergence of the Laplace Integral

1.4

Properties of the Laplace Transform

The Z-transform is used primarily to convert discrete data

sets into a continuous representation. The Z-transform
is notationally very similar to the star transform, except
that the Z transform does not take explicit account for
the sampling period. The Z transform has a number of
1

BILINEAR TRANSFORM

uses in the eld of digital signal processing, and the study 5 Star Transform
of discrete signals in general, and is useful because Ztransform results are extensively tabulated, whereas star- The Star Transform is a discrete transform that has simtransform results are not.
ilarities between the Z transform and the Laplace Transform. In fact, the Star Transform can be said to be nearly
The Z Transform is dened as:
analogous to the Z transform, except that the Star trans[Z Transform]
form explicitly accounts for the sampling time of the sampler.
X(z) = Z[x[n]] =

The Star Transform is dened as:

x[n]z n

[Star Transform]

i=

3.1

Inverse Z Transform

F (s) = L [f (t)] =

f (kT )eskT

k=0

The inverse Z Transform is a highly complex transforStar transform pairs can be obtained by plugging z = esT
mation, and might be inaccessible to students without
into the Z-transform pairs, above.
enough background in calculus. However, students who
are familiar with such integrals are encouraged to perform
some inverse Z transform calculations, to verify that the
6 Bilinear Transform
formula produces the tabulated results.
[Inverse Z Transform]

x[n] =

3.2

1
2j

The bilinear transform is used to convert an equation in

the Z domain into the arbitrary W domain, with the following properties:

X(z)z n1 dz
C

Z-Transform Tables

Here:
u[n] = 1 for n >= 0 , u[n] = 0 for n < 0

1. roots inside the unit circle in the Z-domain will be

mapped to roots on the left-half of the W plane.
2. roots outside the unit circle in the Z-domain will be
mapped to roots on the right-half of the W plane
3. roots on the unit circle in the Z-domain will be
mapped onto the vertical axis in the W domain.

The bilinear transform can therefore be used to convert a

Z-domain equation into a form that can be analyzed using the Routh-Hurwitz criteria. However, it is important
to note that the W-domain is not the same as the complex Laplace S-domain. To make the output of the bi4 Modied Z-Transform
linear transform equal to the S-domain, the signal must
be prewarped, to account for the non-linear nature of the
The Modied Z-Transform is similar to the Z-transform, bilinear transform.
except that the modied version allows for the system to
be subjected to any arbitrary delay, by design. The Modi- The Bilinear transform can also be used to convert an
ed Z-Transform is very useful when talking about digital S-domain system into the Z domain. Again, the input
systems for which the processing time of the system is not system must be prewarped prior to applying the bilinear
negligible. For instance, a slow computer system can be transform, or else the results will not be correct.
modeled as being an instantaneous system with an output The Bilinear transform is governed by the following varidelay.
able transformations:
[n] = 1 for n = 0 , [n] = 0 otherwise

The modied Z transform is based o the delayed Z [Bilinear Transform]

transform:
[Modied Z Transform]
z=

(T /2) + w
,
(T /2) w

w=

2 z1
T z+1

{
}
Where T is the sampling time of the discrete signal.
X(z, m) = X(z, )|1m = Z X(s)eT s |1m

3
Frequencies in the w domain are related to frequencies in
the s domain through the following relationship:

2
w = tan
T

s T
2

This relationship is called the frequency warping characteristic of the bilinear transform. To counter-act the
eects of frequency warping, we can pre-warp the Zdomain equation using the inverse warping characteristic.
If the equation is prewarped before it is transformed, the
resulting poles of the system will line up more faithfully
with those in the s-domain.
[Bilinear Frequency Prewarping]

(
)
2
T
arctan a
.
T
2

Applying these transformations before applying the bilinear transform actually enables direct conversions between
the S-Domain and the Z-Domain. The act of applying
one of these frequency warping characteristics to a function before transforming is called prewarping.

Wikipedia Resources
w:Laplace transform
w:Fourier transform
w:Z-transform
w:Star transform
w:Bilinear transform

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