1.

TOOLS
1.0 Bench work and fitting
1.1 Vices: - used for holding work. Size is specified by width of Jaws and Maximum
Jaws.

opening between the

* Bench Vice is also Engineer's parallel vice and also known as fitter's vice.
* Leg vice is used by black smith for heavy work. Suitable for heavy hammering and cutting work.
* Pipe vice used for holding round section tubes, pipes.
* Hand vice is used for holding light work and for gripping rivets, keys, screws and
small drills etc.
* Pin vice is used for holding small diameter works such as wires and pins.
* Tool maker's vice useful for holding small work.

1.2 Hammers: - used to deliver blows. Made from forged steel and specified by its weight.
*. Ball peen hammer is also known as Engineer's hammer. This is chiefly used for chipping and riveting.
* Cross peen hammer is used for bending, stretching, hammering.
Straight peen hammer used for stretching or peening etc.
* Soft hammer is also called mallet made of wood, hard rubber, lead and copper.

1.3. Chisels: - are used for cutting and chipping away pieces of metal. Made of high carbon steel.
* Flat chisel is used for general chipping operations.
* Cross cut chisel is also known as cape chisel. Used for cutting grooves in large surface.
* Round nose chisel useful for cutting oil grooves in bearings.
* Diamond point chisel used for cutting v-groove

1.4 Files: Files are used to cut, trim or finish a job of metal or wood. It is specified by its length and made from
high carbon steel or tungsten steel. A file can removes the metal only on the forward stroke. Files are classified
into four types.
(a) On the basis of length (b) on the basis of shape
(c) On the basis of grade.

(d) On the basis-of cut

* Round and half round files are used for round cutting, filing curved surfaces and enlarging holes.
* Knife edge file used for filing narrow slot, notches and grooves.
* A rough file used for cutting soft metals and trimming the rough edges of casting of soft metal.
*A second cut file used for harder metals.
* In single cut file teeths are cut at an angle of about 60 to the centre line of the file.

* In double cut file teeths are cut at an angle of 60 and the up cut at an angle of 70 to the centre line.
* Raps files useful for filing wood, plastic hard rubber etc.
1.5 Scrapes: these are used for shaving or parting off thin slices or flaks of metal to
surface. Generally these are made from old files.

make a fine, smooth

1.6 Hacksaw: - Hacksaw blades these are made from high carbon steel (or) high speed steel. The metal is
removed during the forward stroke and the return stroke is an idle stroke.
* Soft metals and plastics are being cut by coarse tooth saw.
* Tool steel, medium-hard steel, copper alloys are cut by the medium tooth saw.
1.7 Marking tools:Surface plate is used for testing the flatness of work itself and also used for marking out work. Larger jobs
marking out table is used. It is made of gray cast iron.
* Scriber are use to scribe lines on metal.
* Punch is used in bench work for marking out work, locating center etc. Made of high carbon steel.
* Centre punch angle 90. Use to make a centre at a drilling point.
* Dot punch angle is 60. It is used to make perm

ant marking.

* Prick punch angle is 30- 40. Useful for marking on jobs of thin metal sheets.
* V-Blocks are made of cast iron used for holding round bars during marking

and drilling.

*Angle plate is made of grey cast iron. It is used to hold the work in a vertical position for laying out.
* Try square is use to set another edge or surface exactly at right angle to the already true edge or surface.

2.0 Forging Tools:1.1 Anvil: - It provides support when force is applied to the forged component. It is made of cast steel or
wrought iron. Round hole provided on the face of anvil is known as pritchel hole and square hole is known
as hardie hole.
2.2. Swage block: - Made of cast steel or cast iron. Used for squaring, sizing, heading, bending and forming
operations.
2.3 Tongs: - Used to hold the job and are made from mild steel.
2.4 Swages: They are used for work which has to be reduced and finished to round, square or hexagonal
form. These are made from high carbon steel.
2.5 Chisels: - These are made from high carbon steel.
* Cutting angle most commonly used of a cold chisel is 60.
* Cutting angle of a cold chisel various according to the type of material to be cut. Aluminum - 30,
copper - 45, Brass-50,
wrought Iron & mild steel - 55,Cast steel - 60, tool steel - 70.
* Hot chisel included angle is 60.
2.6 Fullers: They are used for flocking down a piece of work.
2.7 Flatters: - These are made of tool steel. These are used for finishing flat surface.

3.0 Carpentry Tools:3.1 Marking and Measuring Tools:Bevel Square: - It is similar to try square but has a blade that may be swiveled to any angle from 0 to
180.
Mitre Square: - Used to mark and measure the angles of 45.
3.2 Combination Square: - It is a combination of six parts, namely
(a) a square (b) a 45 Bevel (c) a set square (d) a rule (e) Straight edge (f) a centre finder
3.3 Gauges: - It is used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a piece of wood.
* Marking gauge has one marking point.
*Mortise gauge has two marking points one fixed and other movable.
* Cutting gauge has a cutting knife held, in position by a wedge and used for gauging fine deep fines.
3.4 Cutting Tools:Saws: - It is specified by the length of the blade.
* Rip saws are used to cut alone the grains of wood.
* Cross cut saws are used-to cut across the grains of wood. It is also known as hand saw.
* Panet saw is used mainly for fine and accurate cuts, and sometimes for ripping as well as cross cutting.
*Tenon saw is also known as Back saw. It is mostly used for cross cutting for finer and more accurate
finish. Teeth are in the form of equilateral triangle.
* Dovetail saw is similar to tenon saw. Used where greatest accuracy is required.
* Composs saw is also known as turning saw it is used for cutting small curves.
* Bow saw is used for cutting quick curves.
* Coping saw is used for small radius curves.
* Pad saw is used for cutting keyholes.
3.5 Chisels: - They are driven into wood using blows.
* Firmer chisel used for taking winder cuts and finishing flat surfaces.
* Dovetail chisel used dovetail joints and other V-grooves.
* Mortize chisel used for to take heavy cuts.
3. 6 Planning Tools: - The planning tools or planes are cutting tools which are used for shaving or
smoothing plane surfaces.
3.7 Striking Tools
* Claw hammers are used for driving nails and extracting nails out of wood.
* Mallet is a wooden hammer.
3.8 Holding Tools:* Slash cramp is also known as Bar Cramp or T-Cramp. It is used for holding wider works.

*G-Cramp is used of smaller work.

* A Pincer is a tool used for pulling out nails from wood.

2. MEASUREMENT AND INSPECTION

1.0 Linear Measurement:1.1 Non Precision Instruments: - Accuracy is limited to 1rnm to 0.5mm.
* Steel rule is a direct measuring Instrument to read on accuracy of 0.5mm and 1/ 64th of an inch. They
are made of hardened Steel.
* Calipers are used to transfer and compare a dimension from one object to another.
* Jenny or hermaphrodite caliper is used for scribing line parallel to edge of a cylindrical job.
* Telescopic gauge is used for measuring the inside size of the slots or holes.
* Depth gauge is used to measure depth of holes, grooves and slots.
1.2 Precision instruments:External micrometer used to measure external dimensions like diameter of shafts, thinness of parts to an
accuracy of 0.01mm.
(b)British standard i.e., English micrometer has an accuracy of 0.001inch.
A Screw micrometer is used for measuring pitch diameter of screw threads.
A depth micrometer is used to measure depth of holes to an accuracy of 0.01mm and 0.001 inch.
Inside micrometer is used to measure diameter of holes up to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
Vernier caliper is used to measure both outside and inside diameters of Shafts, thickness of parts etc. to
accuracy is up to 0.02 mm and 0.001inch.
Slip gauges are precision gauge blocks used for precise measurement of parts.
Dial indicator is a mechanical comparator and accuracy is up to 0.01 min
A pneumatic comparator is specially used in automatic size control
2.0 Angular Measurements:2.1 Non precision Instruments:(a) Bevel protectors are used to measure angles but not very accurate.
Adjustable bevel gauge is used for checking, comparing or transferring angles.
Combination set consist of three parts, they are square head, center head and bevel protector.
2.2 Precision Instruments:Vernier Bevel Protector is used to measure of angle to an accuracy of 1/12 (or) 5 minuses of a degree.
Sine bar is a most accurate instrument used for measuring angles. It is specified by its distance between
centres of two rollers. 100mm length is most common.

(c)Sprit level is widely used for the static leveling of machinery and other equipment.
Auto collimator is an optical instrument used for measurement of small angular differences, straightness and
alignment.
3.0 Taper Measurement:A taper angle is measured by the following measuring instruments.
(a) Bevel protector. (b) Tool room microscope
(c)Auto collimating Telescope (d) Sine bar and dial gauge (e) Rollers slip gauges and micrometers.
4.0 Surface Measurement
(a)Straight edges are commonly used for testing the straightness and flatness of plate surfaces. Flatness is
checked by a light test.
(h)Surface gauge is used to scribe lines at a given vertical height.
5.0 Gauges: Gauges are tools which are used for checking the size, shape and relative positions of various
parts. But not provided with graduated adjustable members.
* Plug gauge is used for checking holes of different shape and size.
* Ring gauge is used for testing external diameter.
* Taper gauge are used to test tapers of both internal and external. They are made in both plug and ring style.
* snap gauge are used for checking external dimensions. Shafts are mainly checked by snap gauge.
* Thread gauges are used to check the pitch diameter of threads.
* Screw pitch gauge is consists of a number of flat blades which are cut out to a given pitch and pivoted in a
holder. It is used to check the pitch of screw threads.
* Radius and fillet gauges are used to check the radii of curvature of convex and concave surfaces.
* Feeler gauges are used to check clearance between matching surfaces.
* The thickness of sheet metal is checked by means of plate gauge and wire diameter by means of wire
gauge.

3. METALS
Metal is a mineral which is used in all works of Engineering. Metals are mainly two types i.e., ferrous metals
and Non Ferrous metals.
1.0 Physical properties: - Weigh, construction, color, Magnetization, conductivity and melting point are
physical properties of metal.
2.0 Mechanical properties
* Ductility: - The ability of metals to deform under tensile load is called ductility. The metals with this
property can be easily drawn into wires. Ex:-Mild steel.
*Brittleness is the ability of a metal which break or fail before much deformation take place. Ex: - Cast
Iron.
* Elasticity: - The ability of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external
forces are removed. Steel is most elastic material.

* Stiffness: It is the ability of material to resists deformation under stress.

* Plasticity: - It is the property of material which regains the deformation produced under load permanently.
This property is necessary for forging metals.
* Malleability: It is the ability of material to deform under compressive load. The metals with this property
can make into thin sheets. Example :- Aluminum, tin & lead.
* Toughness: it is property of material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like hammer blow.
* Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. This
property is essential for spring metals.
* Creep: - When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of time. It will
undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered in designing I.C.
Engines, turbines etc.
* Hardness: - It is the ability of material to resist scratching, wear, abrasion, cutting,
penetration.

indentation and

* Fatigue: - Failure of material under reversal stress is called fatigue.

* Weld ability: It is the ability of material to be joined by welding.
* Cast ability: - Cast ability of metal refers to the ease with which it can be cast into different shapes.
3. Pig Iron: - The product of blast furnace is pig iron. Iron ore, Coke, Limestone & Blast of air are required
to produce pig Iron. Lime stone acts as a flux and forms impurities into a liquid slag. The important ores of
Iron are Hematite, Magnetite, Limonite, Pyrite and Siderite.
3.1 Cast iron: - The product of the coupla is cast Iron. Pig iron, steel scrap, Coke and lime stone are
required to produce cast Iron. Cast Iron is an alloy of Iron, carbon and silicon. The carbon content ranges
from 2 to 4%.
* Types of cast Iron
(a) Gray cast Iron

(b) white cast Iron (c) Spheroidal gray C.I. (d) Malleable cast Iron (e) Alloy cast Iron.

3.2 Wrought Iron: - It is pure Iron. It is approximately 99%. Pure Iron and remaining carbon & slag is left.
*It is soft and can be easily forged and welded.
* It is manufactured by melting white pig Iron in puddling furnace.
* used for-nuts, chains, crane hoots, railway -cowling, pipe and pipe fittings, boiler tubes-etc.
3.3 Steel: Steel is fundamentally an alloy of Iron& Carbon with the carbon content varying up to 1.5%.
* Steel is manufactured by the following processes.
(a) Open Hearth process
(e) LD process

(b) Bessemer process (c) Duplex process

(f) Crucible steel process

* Steel can be divided into two types i.e., (a) Plain carbon steel (b) Alloy steel
* Plain carbon steels are classified based on carbon content is
1. Low carbon steel
2. Medium carbon steel
3. High carbon steel.

(d) Electric process

Low Carbon steel: - If carbon percentage is less than 0.1A% is called dead mild steel. Carbon percentage is
0.15- 0.35% then steels are called mild steel.
High ductile and soft.
Used for Nuts, bolts, rivets, Chains, nails, wires, and thin Sheets.
Medium Carbon Steel: - The carbon percentage is from 0.35% to 0.6%.
Relatively harder, toughest and less ductile.
Used for making connecting rods, shafts, axles, crank shafts, pulleys, wire tops rails etc.
High carbon steel: - The carbon percentage is from 0.6% to 0.9% for tool steels carbon percentage varies
from 0.9% to 1.5%.
This is very hard and tough.
It acquires permanent magnetic properties.
Used for making springs, anvil faces files, cold chisels, punches, dies and cutting tools.
Alley Steel: - Steel that contains one or more alloying elements is called alloying steels.
High speed steel (HSS) is a alloy steel used for cutting tool. The most common type is known as 18 - 4 -1
HSS and contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, and ly Vanadium. HSS is extensively used for drills, Lathe,
planner tools and milling cutters.
Stainless steel is a corrosion resistance steel it has 18% Chromium 8% Nickel and most commonly known as
18/8 stainless steel. Used for surgical Instruments, Kitchen equipment, utensils etc.
Invar contains nickel up to 36%. It has low coefficient of expansion. It is used for measuring Instruments,
clocks etc.
4.0 Non-ferrous Metals: The metals that do-not contain Iron are called Non ferrous metals.
4.1 Aluminum: - It is mainly produced from bauxite ore. It is of white blue color. It occurs in abundance on
the surface of earth.
* It is good conductor of heat and electricity.
* Light in weight, very malleable and can be rolled into thin sheet.
* Melting point is 660C.
* Used for making parts of aero plane, electric wires, utensils etc.
4.2 Copper: - It is reddish in color, Extracted from copper pyrites.
* Good conductor of heat, soft, flexible, ductile, tough and strong.
* Melting point is 1083 C.
* Used for electrical purposes, tubes and utensils.
4.3 Zinc: it is bluish white metal. It is mainly produced from zinc sulphide and zinc carbonate.
* It is good conductor of heat and electricity.
* It is used as a productive coating for Iron and Steel sheets.
* It is used to make brass and bronze.
* Its melting point is_ 420 C.

4.4 Tin: - It is silvery white metal obtained from tin stone.

* Soft and malleable.
* Its melting point is 230C.
* Used as a protective coating for Iron and steel and making bronze, gunmetal, bearing metal and solder.
4.5 Lead: - Lead is a heavy metal and extracted from Galena. It is of bluish brown colour.
* It is very soft, malleable, ductile and tough.
* Melting point is 320C.
* Used in manufacture of storage batteries, electric cable coverings, soft solder, lead pipes, fuse wires etc.
*It is a bright white metal. Its melting point is 960C.

5.0 Non - Ferrous alloy:S.

N
o
1

Alloy

Duralumin

Al-94.3%, Cu-4%, Mn-Building aero plane structures,

0.5%
automobile parts etc

Brass

Mg - 0.5%, Si - 03%.

Muntz
Metal

Cu-70%, Zn -30%

4
5
6
7
8
9
1
0
11
1
2
1
3

Composition

Uses

Utensils, Condenser tubes etc

Naval
Brass

Electrical fittings,
Cu-60%, Zn-39%, Sn- Itubes.
%
Marine pans

Monel
Metal

Ni-60%, Cu-38%, A1-Steam turbine Blades and impeller

2%
of pumps tc.

Bronze
Bell metal.

Cu-70 to 95% Sn -25 to Making

coins,
5%
ornaments etc.

Gun metal

Cu-80%, Sn-20%

Solder

Cu -83%, Sn-10%, Zn- Making guns, bearing and boiler

2%
fittings.

Babbit
metal
Nichrome
White
metal
German
silver

Cu-60%, Zn -40%

Condenser

statues

and

Making bells and gongs.

Sn-63 to 42%, Pb-37toSoldering.

58%
Making crank shaft- bearing&
Sn-88%, Cu-4%, Sb-7% Electrical hearten, Iron, cookers
Ni-80%, Cr-20%
Sn-35%,
10%

Cu-5%,

etc
AI-Large bearings of light load&

Ornaments, and resistance coils

Cu-55%, Zn-25%, Ni7-etc.
20%

Aluminum. Cu = Copper, Mn =Manganese, Mg = Magnesium, Si = Silicon, Sn =Tin, Pb = lead, -CrChromium.

4. METAL JOINING PROCESSES

1. Metal joining process: Metal joining process is the process joining of similar or-dissimilar metal by the
application of heat. It is classified as follows
(a) Welding

(b) Soldering. (c) Brazing

2. Welding: It is process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with or without the application
of pressure and with or without the addition of filler metal.
3. Types of welding: fusion or non-pressure welding. The metal at the Joint is heated to a molten state and
then allowed to solidify. Since no pressure is applied in this process
Ex: Gas welding, Electric arc welding, Termite welding
Pressure or plastic welding: The metal pans are heated to a plastic state. Then they are pressed together to
make the joint. It is also known as pressure welding. No filler metal is required for pressure welding.
Ex: Electric Resistance welding, forge welding.

4. Gas welding: It is a type of fusion, non pressure welding. This required heat to melt the metal parts is
supplied by a high temperature flame obtained by a mixture of two gases.
* Flame temperature of different gases
* Oxy - acetylene (3200C), Oxy hydrogen (1900C)
* Oxy-Methane (2000C), Oxy- water gas (2300C)
* Oxy- acetylene is widely used for welding purposes.
* Oxy- acetylene welding is particularly suitable for Joining metal Steels and plates of thickness 2 to 50
mm.
* Oxy - hydrogen process is suitable up to plate thickness 7 mm only.
* Acetylene is manufactured with the action of water on calcium carbide.
* Acetylene is stored in cylinders in liquid form.
* Pressures of oxygen and acetylene are respectively 15000 kn/m2 and1600kn/m2.
* Oxygen cylinder is generally painted black, while acetylene cylinder is painted maroon.

4.1 Type of flame: Oxygen and acetylene can be ejected from the torch tip in three possible mixtures.
Natural flame: This flame has equal quantity of oxygen and acetylene. This flame has two zones. This is
used for welding steel, stainless steel, cast Iron. Non ferrous metal like cooper & Aluminum. This flame is
used in cutting operation also.
Oxidizing flame: In this flame oxygen and acetylene are in the ratio of 1.2 to 1.5:1 i.e. excess oxygen. This
flame has two zones. It is used for welding copper brass and bronze.

Carburizing or Reducing flame: The ratio of oxygen to acetylene is 0.9:1 i.e. excess acetylene. This flame
has three zones. It is mainly used for welding allot steel.

4.2 Gas welding Techniques:

Leftward or forward welding: It also called back hand welding. Blow pipe is held in right hand and the
welding rod is on left hand. The weld is working from right to left.
* Inclination of the blow pipe with the work surface is between 60 to 70.
* Inclination of filler rod with the work surface is 30 to 40.
Right ward or backward welding: It is also known as forehand welding. The weld is made from left to
right.
* Inclination of the blow pipe with the work surface is between 40 to 50and filler rod with the work surface
is 30 to 40.
Vertical welding: It does, not require any edge preparation for plate thickness up to 15mm.
*Inclination of the nozzle of the blow pipe with vertical work surface is depends on plate thickness and is
in between 25to 90.
* Filler rod with the vertical work surface is nearly 30.
5.0 Electric arc welding: The source of heat for electric arc welding is an electric arc. The arc is produced
between an electrode and the work
* Air gap between work and the electrode is approximately 3mm.
* The temperature at the centre of the arc is5500c to 6000C.
* AC or DC Supply can be used for arc welding
* For AC welding supply, transformers are used to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400v) to the
normal open circuit winding voltage 50-9OV.
* Welding is going on; arc voltage is of the order of I8-40v.
5.1 Comparison of DC and AC arc welding:
* DC arc welding is suitable for both ferrous and non ferrous metals. A.C arc welding is not suitable for non
ferrous metal.
* Arc stability is more in D.C. whereas less in A.C
* Non coated bare electrodes can be used in DC. Only coated electrodes are used in A.C arc welding.
* In DC arc welding positive terminal connected to the work and negative terminal to the electrode.
Whereas in A.C any terminal can be connected to the work or Electrode.
* D.C is less efficiency. Whereas AC more efficiency.
52 Electrodes for Arc welding: Electrodes for arc welding are classified into two categories
Consumable electrodes: They get consumed during the welding operation. They are may be either bare or
coated type.
* Bare electrode has limited applications like minor repair of poor quality work of welding.
* Electrode coated with flux material such as asbestos.

* Flux coated electrodes main functions are to stabilize arc, provide a protecting atmosphere and formatting
of slag.
Non-Consumable electrodes: These are made of carbon, graphite or tungsten. Which do not consume
during welding process.
6.0 Arc welding Methods: The electric arc welding is classified in to
(A) Metal Arc welding
(B) Carbon Arc welding
(C)Submerged
Arc
welding
(D) Metal inert gas (MIG) Arc welding
(E) Tungsten inert gas (TIG) Arc welding
metal arc welding.
6.1 Metal arc welding: The consumable flux coated electrode is used. Both AC and DC welding machines
are used. The angle between gee-electrode and work should be 70.
6.2 Carbon arc welding: A non consumable carbon electrode is used. Electrode is connected to the negative
terminal and the work is the positive terminal. Only DC supply is used in carbon arc welding. The
Temperature produced is about 3200c.
6.3 Submerged arc welding: It is sometimes called hidden arc welding. The arc is formed between the end
of a continuous i.e. depositing surface, under layer of protective mineral powder known as the flux or melt.
The bare electrode is fed from a reel down through the gun or nozzle.
6.4 Metal inert gas(MIG) welding: It is a gas Shielded metal arc welding process which uses the high heat
of an electric arc between a continuously fed, consumable electrode wire and the material to be welded for
Aluminum or copper, or argon helium mixture are used. Titanium requires pure argon.
6.5 Gas Tungsten Arc welding (TIG): It is similar to MIG welding except-electric are between a non
consumable tungsten electrode and the material to be welded. Argon is more widely used for shielding. This
process is not used as often on plate over 6.4mm thick.
7.0 Resistance welding: In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated to a plastic state over a
limited area by their resistance to the flow of an electric current and mechanical pressure is used to complete
the weld. There are two copper electrodes in the circuit
Heat generated in watt hours H= I2 RT
Where R =Resistance, I = current in amps, T = time
Voltage used is very low 4 to 12v.

7.1 Type of resistance welding.

Spot welding: Spot welding is used to join overlapping, sheets or plates of metal at small areas this weld be
used to weld steel and other metal strips up to 12 mm thick.
Seam welding: It is a continuous type of spot welding over two overlapping metal sheets or plates. Instead
of using pointed Electrode, roller type copper electrodes are used.
Projection welding: In this welding a number of spots can be welded in one closure of the press.
Butt welding: there are two types of butt welding namely, (i) upset Butt welding and (ii) flash butt welding.
Upset Butt welding: The two parts to be welded are placed in contact by clamping edge to edge in copper
Jaws. It is extensively used for joining bars or pipes end to end.

Flash Butt wielding: in this type, the two parts to be welded are clamped in copper Jaws of the welding
machine and brought together in a light. Contact or with a small air space between them. It is used for
welding body, tubes, wheels axles and flame in the automobile contraction work.
8.0 Thermit welding: It is a fusion welding process. The welding is done by pouring super heated liquid
thermit steel around the parts to be welded. Thermit steel is a mixture of finely divided aluminum powder
and Iron oxide at the ratio of 1:3 by weight. It is used for welding very heavy parts as Joining of rails, cables,
shafts, broken machinery frames and broken teeth of large gears etc.
9.0 Welding defects:
Poor fusion: It is usually caused by insufficient heat and too fast travel of electrode.
Under cut: It is due to excessive weaving speed, big electrode, and excessive current.
Porosity: The formation of blow holes, gas pockets, on the surface of the weld. This is due to the presence
of gases in the metal, moisture in the flux and presence of rust, grease.
Cracks: Due to incorrect welding technique or using a filler metal having a different rate of contraction
compared to that of parent metal.
Spatter: It refers to the small particles or globules of metal scattered around the vicinity of weld along its
length.
10.0 flame Cuing: Iron and steel sheets and plates can be cut by using oxy-acetylene is based on the fact
that ferrous metals are subjected to oxidation.
11.0 Soldering: Soldering is the process of Joining two pieces of metal by adding a fusible alloy or metal
called solder. It is used as a filler rod. The work pieces are not- melted in the soldering process.
* A Soldering is an alloy of lead and tin.
* It has a low melting temperature in the-range of 150 - 350C.
* Zinc chloride is used as a flux in Soldering
* Soldering Iron bit is made up of copper because its ability to absorb and give up heat.

11.1 Type of Soldering: The different compositions of solder for different purpose are
(I) Soft solder = lead 37%, tin 63%
(ii) Medium solder =lead 50% tin sock
(iii)Plumber's solder = lead 70k tin 30%
(iv) Electrician's Solder = lead 58%., tin 42% 12.0 brazing: It the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by a fusible alloy called "spelter". It
is similar to soldering except that speller is used instead of solder.
* The Most commonly used flux in brazing is borax.
* Fluorides, chlorides and boric acid also used as a flux.
* The melting point of the- filler metal in brazing should be above 420c.
* Silver alloys made of silver and copper with a milting range of600-800c are used for brazing any metals.

5. SHEET METAL WORK

1.0 Sheet metal works is generally regarded as the working of metal, from 16 gauges to 30 gauges, with
hand tools and simple machines into various forms by cutting, forming into shape, and Joining.
* Metals used in sheet metal work are black Iron, galvanized Iron, S.S, Copper, brass, Aluminum, tin plate
and lead.
* Zinc coated Iron is known as galvanized Iron. This is popularly known as G I Sheet.
2.0 Sheet metal hand tools: Basic tools used in sheet metal work.
(i) Measuring tools: Steel rule, folding rule, circumference rule, Vernier caliper, micrometer, thickness
gauge, and sheet metal gauge. (ii)Straight edge (iii) steel square (IV) scriber (iv) Divider, (vi)Trammel
points, (vii) Punches (viii) Chisels, (ix) Hammers, (x) snips or shears (xi) pliers (xii) grooves and rivet sets
(xiii) soldering Iron

3.0 Sheet metal operations:

3.1shearing: It designates a cut in a straight line across, a strip, sheet or bar. This procedure leaves a clean
edge on the piece of metal that is sheared or cut. The basic shearing operations are
Curing off: This means severing a piece from a strip with a cut along a single line.
Parting: It signifies that scrap is removed between the two pieces to part them.
Blanking: cutting a whole piece from sheet metal.
Punching: It is a operation of producing circular holes on a sheet metal by a punch and die.
Notching: This is a process of removing metal to the desired shape from the side or edge of a sheet or strip.
Slitting: Shearing is conducted between, rotary blades. It cuts the sheet metal length wise.
Lancing: This makes a cut part way across a strip.
nibbing: Cutting any shape from sheet metal by nibbing machine.
Trimming: It is the operation of curing away excess metal in a flange or flash from a piece.

3.2 Bending: It occurs when forces are applied to localized areas, such as in bending a piece of metal into a
right angle and forming occurs when complete items or parts are shaped.
3.3 Drawing: it is a operation of producing thin walled hollow or vessel shaped parts from sheet metal.
3.4 Squeezing: It is a quick and widely used way of forming ductile metal. The squeezing operations of
sizing, coining, bobbing, riveting etc.

4.0 Sheet metal Joints:

Hem: It is an edge or border made by following. Three common type of hems are single hem, double hem
and wired edge.
Seam: It is a joint made by fasting two edges together. Most common type of seam & are
Lap Seam: Lap joint by soldering.
Single seam: Used to join a bottom to vertical bodies
The double Seam: its formed edge is bent upward against the body.
The dovetail seam: Used to join flat plate to a cylindrical piece.

6. MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS

1.0 It is simply plastic deformation performed to change dimensions, properties and surface condition of a
metal by means of mechanical pressure.
* If plastic deformation above re-crystallization temperature but below melting point is hot working.
* If plastic deformation below re-crystallization temperature is cold working.

Hot working methods:

Hot rolling: Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shape by plastic deformation in
between rolls.
* bars, plates, sheets, rails and other structural sections like I-section, channel section, Equal angle and Tsections. Etc is manufactured by rolling.
Piercing: It is the process employed for the manufacturing of seamless tubes.
Drawing: It is the process of making cup shaped parts from flat sheet metal blanks.
Hot spinning: it is a process of making circular sections from sheet metal. It is carried on lathe

Extrusion: It is a process in which heated billet or slug of metal is forced by high pressure through an
orifice that is shaped to provide the desired form

Rods, tubes, brass cartridges, lead cover cables, aircraft parts and many hardware items are typical
product of extrusion.
Seamless tubes in mass production are manufactured by the extrusion process.

1.2 Cold working methods:

Cold drawing: The operation involves the forcing of metal through a die by means of a tensile force applied
to the exit side of the die. All the wire that is available is produced by cold drawing through dies.
Cold Spinning: It is the operation of shaping very thin metal by pressing it against a form while it is
rotating.

* Used in making of bells on musical instruments, light fixtures, kitchen ware, and large processing kettles.
Cold extrusion: It is similar to that of hot extrusion. Collapsible medical tubes and toothpaste tubes are
made in this method.
Cold heading: It is a cold forging process, used primarily for the manufacture of bolts, screws, rivets and
similar items.
Thread rolling: It is used for mass production of threaded parts.
Rotary swaging: It is the process used to reduce the cross sectional area of rods and tubes.
Coining: Process involves the impression and rising of images or characters from a punch and die into the
metal.
* Coins, medals and other such similar parts are produced by this process.

7. HEAT TREATMENT

1.0 heat Treatment: Heat treatment can be defined as the process of changing the structure and properties of
metal by controlled heating and cooling.
Purposes of heat treatment:
* To relieve the internal stresses.
* To refine the grain size so as to improve the mechanical properties
* To improve the mach inability.
* To increase corrosion and wear resistance.
1.1Critical temperature: When steel is heated at high temperature, then at a certain temperature change
starts in the internal structure. The temperature at which this change starts take place is called critical
temperature.
1.2 Lower critical temperature: The temperature at which the change in structure start taking place is
called lower critical temperature. This is about 723 C.
1.3 Higher critical temperature: The temperature at which constituents Iron and carbon mix up completely
and becomes one. This point of temperature is called upper critical point.

1.4 Heat Treatment processes:

Annealing: It is the process of heating steel slightly above its critical range holding it there until the
temperature of the piece is uniform throughout and then cooling at a slow rate.
* The primary purpose of annealing is to soften and to increase the ductility.
* It also relieves internal stress.
Normalizing: It is the process of heating the metal above the upper critical temperature and cooling in air.
* The purpose is to refine the grain structure, relieve the internal tresses and to improve the machine ability.

Hardening: It is the process of heating steel to a temperature within or above its critical range and then
cooling it rapidly in oil or water or other suitable solutions.
* The purpose of Harding is to develop high hardness, wear resistance and ability to cut other materials.
Tempering: It is the process of heating the hardened steel below lower critical temperature, holding at this
temperature for sufficient time and slow coolie
* Tempering reduces the hardness, brittleness and increases toughness.
Carburizing: It is a process whereby carbon is absorbed into the surface of steel alloys. It consists in
heating of steel to a red heat, in contact with some carboneous material.
* The process is carried out on low carbon steels for producing hard surface.
Nitriding: It is a process of case hardening ferrous alloy of suitable composition by absorption of nitrogen.
This is done by heating in an atmosphere of ammonia.
Cyaniding: It is a Case hardening process in which both carbon and Nitrogen added to the surface layers of
the steel.
Induction hardening: It is a surface herding process in which the part to be surface hardened is placed
within an induction coil through which a high frequency current is passed.
Flame hardening: It is a surface Harding process in which the part is heated to hardening temperature with
an oxy-acetylene flame.

8. Foundry
1.0 Foundry: It deals with the process of making castings in moulds prepared by patterns.
1.1 Casting: It is the process of pouring molten metal, into mould and allowing it to solidify
* In order to prepare a component by casting the following are required.
(a) Pattern (b) molding sand (c) molten-material

1.2 Types of patterns:

Most commonly used types of patterns are single piece pattern, split pattern
Match plate pattern, cope and drag pattern, gated pattern, loose piece pattern, sweep pattern, shall pattern
etc.
* Wooden pattern are used for small sized production schedules
* Metal patters are used for large size production
* Match plate patterns are used for small castings in large quantities.
* Sweep patterns are used for symmetrical mouth particularly in large sizes.
1.3 Pattern allowance:
Shrinkage allowance: It is provided to compensate for the volumetric loss of metal during cooling in the
moulds. It is added to pattern made larger size by an amount equal to that of shrinkage.

Machining allowance: It is provided on the pattern in order to get required surface finish for the casting. It
is added to pattern.
Draft allowance: All vertical Surfaces of the pattern are provided taper allowance so that pattern can be
removing easily. It is a positive allowance.
Color codes of patterns:
* Surface to be left unfinished - Black
* Surface to be machine - red
* Seats for loose pieces- Red stripes on yellow back ground.
* Core prints-

- Yellow

1.4 Moulding tools and equipments:

Shovel: used for mixing and tempering moulding sand.
Riddle: A riddle sometimes called a screen. Used for removing foreign material such as this, shot metal,
splinters of wood etc., from moulding sand.
Rammers: Used to pack the sand evenly around the pattern
Slick: Used for repairing and finishing the mould surface and edges after the pattern has been withdrawn.
Lifters: Used for removing the sand particles from the mould.
Swab: Used for moisturizing the edges of sand mould.
Vent rod: Used to make series of holes in the sand of a mould to permit gases to escape.
Draw spike: Used to remove the pattern from the mould
Trowels: Used to shape and smoothen the surface of the mould and for doing minor repairs
Bellow: Used to blow loose particles of sand from the pattern and the mould cavity.
Moulding Box: Top part of Box is called cope, bottom part is called drag and middle part is called cheek.

1.5 TYPES OF MOULDING SAND:

Green Sand: It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30% Clay, and moisture 6 to8%. used for small and
medium size castings.
Dry sand: This is free from moisture, used for making large casting
Lome sand: it contains 50%clay. It is particularly employed for large casting.
Facing sand: forms the face of the mould. Used to prevent the metal from burning into the sand.
Core Sand: used for making cores sometimes called oil sand.
Parting sand: Used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern and also to allow the sand on the
parting surface of the cope and drag to separate without clinging.

1.6 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND:

Porosity: It is the property of the sand which allows the gases and steam to escape through the sand.
Flow ability: It is the ability to behave like a fluid so that, it will flow to all portions of a mould and take up
required shape.
Collapsibility: It is the property due to which the sand mould collapses after solidification of the casting to
allow a free Contraction of the metal.
Adhesiveness: Property due to which it is capable of adhering to another body.
Cohesiveness: This is the ability of sand particle to stick together.
Refractoriness: The ability of sand to with stand high temperature of the molten metal without fusing.

1.7 MOULDING PROCESS:

Floor moulding: Production of Medium and large castings.
Pit moulding: moulds of large jobs are generally prepared in a pit dug in the foundry floor.
Bench moulding: For small casting which are light in weight.

1.8 MOULDING MACHINES:

Squeezer Machine: moulding sand in the flask is squeezed until the moulds attain the desired density.
Jolt machine: The action of raising and sudden dropping of the table the sand get packed and rammed. The
sand is rammed hardest at the parting plane and around the pattern and remains less dense in the top.
Jolt squeeze machine: - a combination of squeeze and Jolt action is often employed.
Sand Slinger: Ramming is obtained by the impact of sand which falls at a very high velocity.

1.9 SPECIAL MOULDING PROCESSES

* CO2 moulding process uses sodium silicate as the binder. Silica gel formation occurs in CO2 moulding.
* Thermo setting Resin is used as the binder for shell moulding.
* Wax patterns are used in Investment casting.

2.0 PERMANENT MOULD CASTING

* Very high rate of production is achieved in die casting and tolerances of the order of 0.025 mm.
* Semi centrifugal casting is used to obtain gears, disked wheels, pulleys etc.
* True centrifugal is Ideal for hollow cylindrical castings such as bushings, gun barrels, cast Iron pipes etc.
* In centrifugal casting, cores are not required for hollow castings.

2.1 GATING AND RISERING OF CASTING

* Gating system is provided to continuous, uniform feed of molten metal with as little turbulence as
possible to the mould cavity.
* Sprue is a vertical passage through the cope and connects the pouring basin with the runner or gate.
* Riser permits the molten metal to rise above the highest point in the casting after the mould cavity is
filled up.

9. MACHINE TOOLS

Lathe Machine
1.0 Lathe: The main function of a lathe is to remove metal in the form of chips from a work piece to give it
the required shape and size, this is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the lathe and
then rotating it against a cutting tool.

1.1
Specification
of
a
(i) Height of centers from the bed

lathe:

(iii) Maximum swing over carriage.

The
size
of
a
lathe
(ii) Maximum swing over bed

is

specified

by

(iv) Maximum distance between centers

(v) Overall length of the bed.

1.2 Types of lathe

* Speed lathe has no carriage, gearbox; used for wood working, polishing and spinning.
* Engine or center lathe widely used for many operations like turning, facing, taper turning &, thread
cutting, drilling etc.
* Bench lathe is used for small and precision works.
* Tool room lathe is used for very precision turning of tools, gauges and dies.
* Turret and capstan lathe are production lathes used for mass production.
* Automatic lathes are high speed, heavy duty and mass production lathes with complete automatic.
* Special purpose lathes are designed to perform certain specified operations only. E.g. crank shaft,
Duplicating lathe.

1.3 - Functions of lathe parts:

Bed: Base of the lathe. All parts are located on the bed. The bed has flat or inverted V guide ways.
* Outer ways provides bearing and sliding surface for the carriage
* Inner ways provide ways for tail stock.
* Automatic chip disposal is advantage in inverted V-guide ways.
* Made gray cast iron alloy with nickel and chromium.
* The bed material should have high compressive strengths, wear resistance and good absorb of vibration.

* Head Stock: Secured permanently at the left end of the bed.

* It carries a hollow spindle and a live centre can be fitted into the hollow spindle.
* The spindle got external thread and taper is 1:20.
* a back gear is provide minimum speeds to the spindle.
* Head stock can run at different speeds using (a) Belt drive on cone pulley (b) All geared Head stock (c)
Variable speed motor.
*Tail Stock: Located on the inner ways at the right hand end of the bed.
* it is used for supporting the right end of the work piece by means of a dead centre.
* It holds a tool for performing operations liked drilling etc.
* It can be also used for taper turning operation.
Carriage: it is supported on the lathe bed ways and can move in a direction parallel to the lathe axis. It
consists of saddle, cross slide, compound rest, tool post apron.
* Saddle carries the cross slide, compound rest and tool post. It move along the guide ways.
* Cross slide carries the compound rest and tool post. It can be moved by hand or by power feed.
* Compound rest is mounted on the cross slide. It carries a circular base called swivel plate which is
graduated in degrees. It is used to set the tool for angular cuts, It moved by means of hand wheel.
* Tool post is fitted over the compound rest. The tool is clamped in the tool post.
Lower part of the carriage is termed as the apron. It is attached to saddle and hangs in front of the bed.
Feed mechanism: The lathe tool can be given three types of feed, namely, longitudinal, cross and angular.
* Feed rod is a plain long shaft used to move the carriage or cross slide all operations expect thread cutting.
* The lead screw is a long thread shaft is used to transverse the tool along the work to produce screw
threads. The half nut or split nut makes the carriage to engage or disengage the lead screw.
1.4 Types of feeds: when the tool moves parallel to the lathe bed axis, called longitudinal feed, this is
achieved by moving the carriage.
* When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of the lathe bed axis the movement is called cross feed,
this is achieved by moving the cross slide.
* When the tool moves at an angle to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called angular feed, this is
achieved by moving the compound slide.

1.5 Work holding and supporting devices: - The devices employed for holding and supporting the work
piece and the tool on the lathe are also called its accessories.
Chucks: Works of short length, large diameter and regular and irregular shapes can be held in chucks the
chuck is mounted on the spindle of the lathe.
* Three jaw is also called self centering chuck. It consists of a cylindrical body having three jaws fixed
radially at its front. When the chuck key is tightened the work is centered automatically.
* Four jaw is also called independent chuck. Irregular or eccentric jobs can be held in this chuck.
* Collect chuck used for holding bars of small sizes. It is normally used in capstone and automatic lathe.

* Magnetic chuck is used for holding thin jobs of magnetic materials.

* Centers are used for work holding in a lathe. A live center rotates with the work piece and a dead centre is
stationary which supports the right end of the work piece.
* The included angle of the centre is 6o degree and is machined to standard morse taper.
* Ordinary centre is used for general works and half centre is used for facing operation without the removal
of the centre.
Face Plate: It is a circular plat screwed to the lathe spindle. It consists of radial, plain and T slots. Large and
irregular jobs which can hold on face plate by bolts and clamps.
Angle Plate: It has two faces at right angle to each other, holes and slots are provided on both faces to held
the work in vertical
Mandrels: It is used for holding hollow work piece between centers.
Catch Plate or Driving Plate: It is a circular plate and transfer motion to the dog fitted with the work piece.
It is used to drive the work piece through the dog or carrier, when the work piece is held between centers.
Carrier or Dog: It is used to transfer motion from the rotating catch plate.
Supporting devices: Used to long support work pieces.
* Steady rest is fastened to the lathe bed at a convenient point.
* Follower rest is bolted to the carriage and thus it supports the work immediately behind the tool
throughout the transverse.

1.6 Lathe Operations:

Turning: Tool is fed parallel to the lathe axis and cylindrical surface is produced.
Facing: It is the operation of machining of the end face of work to make it flat. The tool is feed
perpendicular to the axis of lathe.
Grooving: It is the process of reduces the diameter of a work piece over a very narrow surface. It is also
called under cutting or necking.
Parting: It is the operation of cutting the work piece. After it is machined to the desired size and shape.
Knurling: It is the process of embossing a diamond shaped regular pattern on the surface of a work piece. It
is done to give a good gripping surface on the work piece.
Drilling: It is the operation of making a hole in the work piece. It is done when the job rotates the drill bit is
fed into the work pieces by turning the tail stock hand wheel.
Boring: It is the operations of enlarging a hole, produced by drilling, boring is used when correct drill is not
available.
Reaming: It is the operation of finishing a drilling or bored hole to accurate size. The reamer is held in the
tail stock spindle.
* Magnetic chuck is used for holding thin jobs of magnetic materials
Chamfering: It is the operation of beveling the extreme end of the work to protect the end of the work piece
from being damaged. It is an essential operation to be performed after thread cutting.
Taper Turning: A taper is defined as the uniform Se in the diameter of a work piece measured along its
length.

1.7 Angle of Taper: If 'D' is large diameter, d is small diameter, l' is length of tapered part, then

Tan =

Dd
l

Where is angle of taper or half taper angle

Conicity : It the ratio of the difference between diameters of the taper to the length of taper.

Conicity (K) =

Dd
l

Taper turning methods:

(a)Taper turning by the compound rest: The compound rest may be swiveled and set at the desired half
taper angle and tool is fed by rotating the compound rest wheel. It is suitable for short but steep tapers.
(b) Form tool: This method is applicable for short work only taper turning is done by a form tool.
(c)Taper attachment: It is suitable for any length of the job. Internal taper can also be turned.
(d) Tail Stock Set Over: In this method the tail stock may be set over by loosing the nut from its centre line.
Used for turning small taper on long jobs and external taper only.
Set over (s) =

Dd
2

1.8 Thread Cutting: It is the operation to produce helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface by
feeding the tool longitudinally, the rotation of lead screw is used to traverse the toot along the work to
produce screw threads.
*The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch bf the thread to be cut per evolution of the work piece.
Speed of spindle

Pitch of lead screw

Speed of lead screw

Pitch of thread to be cut

* In case of cutting right hand threads, both the spindle and the lead screw will rotate in the same direction
and carriage must move towards head stock.
* For cutting left hand threads, the spindle and lead screw will rotate opposite to each other and carrage
must move away from the head stock.

1.9 Capstan and turret lathes: in these lathes tail stock is absent and it is replaced by hexagonal turret.
* Automatic indexing and bar feeding mechanism is used to reduce the time required to produce a
component.

* Altogether 14 different tools can be mounted in the lathes.

* Used for mass production.

1.9 Turret lathe Vs Capstan Lathe:

* The turret of turret lathe is directly mounted on the bed. The turret of a capstan1athe is mounted on a
short slide which slides on saddle.
* Turret lathe provide almost rigidity to the tool support, in capstan lathe, over hanging of ram present anon
rigid Construction.
Turret lathe is suitable for heavy jobs. Capstan lathe is suitable for bar works.
1.10 Definitions:
Steed: Speed is the rate of rotation of work piece, express in revolution per minute (rpm) and denoted by N.
Cutting Speed: It is the speed at which metal is removed by the tool from the work piece. ,
Cutting speed (v) =

DN
1000

m/min

Where D is the diameter of the work piece in mm.

Feed: Feed is the distance the tool advances for each revolution of the work piece. It is express in mm/rev.
Dept of cut: It is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the uncut surface of
work. It is expressed in mm.
Depths of cut =

d 1d 2
2

If d1 = diameter of work before machining, d2 = diameter of work after machining.

DRILLING MACHINE

2.0 Drilling: It is the operation of producing hole in the work piece by using a rotating cutter called drill. In
the drilling machine, the work piece is held stationary and as the drill rotates it is fed into the work piece.
2.1 Type of drilling machines:
Portable drilling machine: it is very small and compact drilling machine. it may be operated by hand or by
an electric motor.
* The maximum size of drill it Call hold is up to 18mm.
* This machine is specified by the maximum drilling capacity.
* Sensifire Drilling Machine: it is a light seed machine tool. it is mounted on a bench it is called bench
type and if mounted on face it is floor type.
* It is specified by the diameter of the largest work piece that can be drilled.
* It can drill holes from 1.5mm to 15mm diameter.

* The drill is fed into the work piece by hand only using rack and pinion arrangement.
Upright drilling machine: It is similar to sensitive drilling machine except that it has power feed
mechanism for rotating drill and it designed for medium size work.
* Round column drilling machine is also known as pillar drilling machine.
* The box column machine is more rigid than a round column machine.
* The maximum size of holes can be drill up to 50mm.
Radial Drilling Machine: It is used for drilling large and heavy work pieces.
* Three movements are possible in a radial drilling machine to locate the drill quickly over any point on the
work.
* It has an additional swiveling adjustment in either the head or the arm and can drill holes at any angle.
* It is specified by the length of the arm and column diameter.
Gang Drilling taws Machine: When a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side
by side on a common base and have a common work table. A series of operation can be done on the job.
Multi spindle tingling machine: These machines have several spindles driven by a single motor and allspindles are fed simultaneously.

2.2 Drilling Machine Operations: Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are (a) Drilling
(b) Reaming
(c)Counter boring
(d) Counter sinking (d) Tapping
Counter Boring: It is the operation of enlarging one end of a drilled hole. The enlarged hole forms a square
shoulder with the original hole. Counter boring is done to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
Counter Sinking: It is the operation of making a cone shape enlargement of the end of a hole. It is done to
accommodate flat head screw or counter sank rivet fitted into the hole.
Tapping: It is the operation of cutting internal threads by means of a cutting tool called tap.
Tap grill size: the size of the tap is equal to the outside diameter of its threads. Therefore the drilled hole
must be smaller than the tap by twice the depth of the thread.
Drill size= Tap size - 2 x depth of thread
2.3Tool holding Devices: The different methods are used for holding the drill in a drill spindle are
(a) By directly fitting in the Spindle: The tool shank is forced into the tapered hole of the spindle and the
tool is gripped by friction. The tool may be move from the taper hole using a drift.
(b) Drill Sleeve: If the taper shank of the tool is smaller than the taper in the spindle hole, a taper drill sleeve
is used.
(c) Drill Socket: When the tapered tool shank is larger than spindle taper, drill sockets are used to hold the
tool.
(d) Drill Chuck: The drill chuck is used to hold smaller size driers. It has two or more adjustable jaws set
radially to hold straight shank drills.

2.4 Twist Drill Nomenclatures:

(a)Tang: It is the flattened end of taper shank. It fits into the slot in the machine spindle.

(b) Shank: It may be to tapered or straight. Morse taper is used for taper shank.
(c)Lip of cutting edge: It is the edge which actually cuts the material.
(d) Flutes: Flutes are helical grooves cut on the body of the drill. The functions of flutes are to form the
cutting edges, to allow the chips to escape and to allow the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
(e) Point Angle: Point is the cutting end of the drill and point angle is the angle it between the cutting lips.
The usual point angle is 118 degrees, but for harder, steel alloys, the angle increases.
2.5 Drill Sizes: In metric system drills are commonly manufactured froth 0.2 to 100 mm. in British system
the drills are manufactured in three different sizes
(a) Number sizes: The drill size varies from No. 1 to No. 80.
(b) Letter sizes: In this system the drill sizes range from A to Z.
(c) Fractional sizes: In this system the drill sizes range from 1/64 inch to 5 inch.
(d) Cutting Speed: It is expressed in m/min

Cutting speed (V)=

DN
1000

m/min

D is the diameter of the drill. N is the rpm of the drill spindle.

Feed: The feed of a drill is the distance the drill moves into the work at each revolution of the spindle. It is
expressed in mm/rev or per min.
The feed per min = feed per rev x rpm
Depth of Cut: The depth of cut in drilling is equal to one half of the drill diameter.
T=

d
2 mm

3.0 Boring machines: They are used to bore holes in large and heavy parts like engine drams, engine
cylinders, machine housing.
3.1 types of Boring machines:
Horizontal Boring Machines: Work is supported on a table which is stationary and the tool revolves in
horizontal axis.
Vertical Boring Machine: The work rotates on a horizontal table about a vertical axis and the tool is
stationary except for feeds.
Jig boring Machine: it is the most actuate of all machine tools. Used for production of Jigs, Fixtures, Tools
and other precision parts. The machining accuracy is a firm.

11. SHAPING MACHINE

4.0 Shaper: Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended, primarily to produce flat surface. Here
tool is allowed to reciprocate.
4.1 Classification of Shapers: Shapers are classified as follows.
(I) according to the type of design of the table
(a) Standard shaper.

(b) Universal shaper

(ii) According to the position and travel of the ram

(a) Horizontal type

(b) Vertical type

(iii) According to the type of driving mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to the tarn.
(a)Crank type

(b) Hydraulic type

(c) Geared type

(iv) According to the Design of table:

(A) Standard Shaper: The table as two movements only, vertical and horizontal to give the feed.
(b) Universal shaper: Table can be tilted about two more axes. One axis is parallel to the ram axis and other
perpendicular to the first axis. A universal shaper is mostly used in tool room work.
According to the position and travel or the ram:
Horizontal type: ram reciprocates along Horizontal direction. They are used mainly to produce flat surface.
Vertical Type: ram reciprocates along vertical axis. They are used for machining internal surface, keyways,
slots and grooves.
According to the type of driving mechanism

used for giving reciprocating motion to the ram.

Crank Shaper: It uses a crank mechanism to convert circular motion of a large gear called bull gear into
reciprocating motion.
Geared Shaper: Reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained using rack and pinion mechanism.
Hydraulic Shaper: Reciprocating motion is obtained using hydraulic power. Infinite number of cutting
speeds can be obtained from zero to the maximum value and the control is easier.
4.3. Specifications of a shaper: The size of the shaper is specified as follows.
(i) Maximum length of stroke. (ii) The maximum size of cube that can be held in a shaper.
A number of other details are required to specify a shaper fully.
(i)Maximum vertical adjustment of the table (ii) Power of the drive motor
(iii) Type of driving mechanism

(iv) Type of shaper

(v) Floor space and net weight

4.4 Quick Return Mechanism: The quick return of the ram can be obtained by any one of the following
mechanisms
(a) Crank slotted link mechanism
(c)Hydraulic mechanism

(b) Whitworth quick return mechanism

The average time ratio of cutting stroke to return stroke in a shaper is 3:2.
4.5 Shaper operations: The basic operations performed on a shaper are machining horizontal surface,
vertical surface, angular surface, cutting slots keyways and machining irregular surface.
4.6 Cutting Speed: Cutting speed is the speed at which the tool traverses through the material.
Cutting Speed = Length of the cutting stroke
Time taken for the cutting stoke
Feed: It is the relative movement of tool or work in a direction perpendicular to the movement of the ram. It
is express in mm per stroke. The feed is always given at end of return stroke.
Depth of Cut: It is the thickness of metal removed in one cut It is expressed in mm.

12. SLOTTING MACHINE

5.0 Slotter: Slotting machine is a reciprocating type of machine tool similar to a shaper. The main difference
is that in a slotter the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis, where as in a shaper the ram
holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis.
5.1 Types of slotters:
Puncher Slotter: They are heavy duty machines, equipped with a powerful motor and can cut metal at a
very high speed.. It consists of a square or circular table.
Precision Slotter: It is a lighter machine and it is operated at high speeds. It is designed to take light cuts
giving accurate finish. these are usually fitted whit worth quick return mechanism.
5.2 Slotter Specifications: The size of a slotter is specified by the maximum length of the stroke of the ram.
The size of a slotter usually ranges from 80to 900mm.
To specify the machine fully the following particulars are also given.
(1) The diameter of the table in mm

(ii) Cross and longitudinal movement of the table

(iii) Number of speeds and feeds

(IV) Power of the motor and

(v) Floor space required

5.3 Slotter Operations: The following operations are performed on a slotter.

(I) flat surface machining

(ii) Circular surface machining

(iii) Irregular surface and can machining

(IV) Cutting slots, keyways and grooves

13. PLANING MACHINE

6.0 Planer is the largest reciprocating type machine tool. It is primarily intended to produce plane and flat
surface by a single point cutting pool. The main difference between a shaper and a planer is that in a planer
the work is moved against a stationary tool and is the fed into the work. Where as in a shaper the tool moves
across the stationary work and fed across the tool.

6.1 Types of planning machine:

Standard or Double housing planer: It consists of two massive vertical housing connected by a cross rail.
Open side planer: It has a housing on one side of the base only as a cantilever. It allows large and wide
jobs.
Pit Planer: The table is made stationary and the columns carrying the cross rail are made to reciprocate. It is
used for very large work.
Edge or plate planer: It is used for squaring and beveling the edges of steel plates for different pressure
vessels and ship building works.
Divided table planer: It consists of two tables on the bed which may be reciprocated separately or together.
This type of design saves idle time while setting the work.
6.2 Driving Mechanism: Mechanisms used for driving the table of planer are
(a) Crank drive

(b) Open & Cross belt drive (c) D.C reversible motor drive

(d) Hydraulic drive.

6.3 Specification of a planer: Its size is given by the largest rectangular solid that can reciprocate under the
tool. It is known by
* The horizontal distance between the two vertical housings.
* Vertical distance between the table top and the cross rail when the latter is in its top most position.
* Maximum length of table travel or length of stroke.
6.4 Planer Operations: The common operations performed in a planer are
(1) Planning flat horizontal surface. (ii) Planning vertical surface
(iii) Planning curved surface
(v) Planing at an angle

(iv) Planning slots & grooves

(vi) Machining dovetails

6.5 Planer Vs Shaper:

* Planer is specially adapted to large work. Whereas the shaper can do only small work.
* On the planer the work is moved against stationary tool but on shaper the tool moves across the work
which is stationary.
* In a planer, work setting required much of skill and where as shaper work may be clamped easily and
quickly.
* On the planer the quick return mechanism is incorporated for the table but in a shaper the quick return
mechanism is used for driving the ram.
* Planer tool are much more robust that used in a shaper.

14. MILLING MACHINE

7.0 Milling : A milling is a machine tool that removes metal in the form of chips by a rotating multi point
cutter. It removed metal in the form of chips by a rotating multipoint cutter. It removes metal at a very fast
rate.
7.1 Types of milling machines:
Column and knee type: It consists of a column and a knee which can be moved up and down, a long cross
and longitudinal directions.
(a) Plain milling machine: table consists of three movements only
(b) Universal milling machine: fourth motion of table i.e. Rotation is apart from standard table motions.
(c) Vertical milling machine: The spindle of the machine is vertical. The machine is used for machining
grooves, slots and flat surface.

7.2 Specification of milling machine: The size of column and knee type milling machine is specified by
(i) Maximum length of longitudinal, cross and vertical travels of the table.

7.3 Milling Operations: The different operations performed in the milling machine are
Plain milling: Plain milling is the operation of producing plain, flat and horizontal surface parallel to the
axis of rotation of the cutter, including slots and grooves. This also called slab milling, when very wide plain
milling cutter is used.
Face Milling: It is performed by a face milling cutter rotated about an axis perpendicular to the work piece.
Side Milling: It is the operation of producing a flat vertical surface on the side of work piece using a side
milling cutter.
End Milling: It is the operation of a flat surface which may be horizontal, vertical or inclined to the table. It
is also used for producing slots, grooves and keyways.
Angular Milling: It is the operation of producing an angular surface on a work piece. The angular groove
may be single or double angle.
Gang Milling: It is the operation which involves the use of a combination of more than two cutters.
Saw Milling: It is the operation of producing narrow slots or grooves. Parting off operation can also be done
using the slitting saw.
T-Slot Milling: A T-Slot is produced using a T-Slot cutter. The T-slot milling cutter is a special form of end
mill.
Form milling: It is the operation of producing the required profiles on the work piece. The profile may be
concave, convex or any other shape.
Gear Cutting: The gear cutting operation may be done using a form cutter, having formed Cutting edges of
involute shape.
7.4 Tool holding devices Arbors: It is a short shaft. The cutters having a bore at the centre are mounted on
the arbor.
Collects: It is used to hold straight shank milling cutters.
Adaptors: It is used to hold, shank type cutters whose shank is smaller than that of hole in the spindle.
7.5 Milling processes:

Up milling: It is also called Conventional Milling. It is the process of removing metal by a milling cutter
rotated against the direction of travel of the work piece. The cutting force in up milling increases from zero
to the maximum value per tooth movement of the cutter.
Down milling: It is also called climb milling. Metal is removed when the cutter teeth move downwards.
Here the cutter rotates in the same direction as the travel of the work piece.

15 GRINDING MACHINES

8.0 Grinding: A metal cutting operation performed by means of rotating abrasive wheel that acts as a cutting
tool called grinding. Accuracy in dimension is in the order of 25 microns.
8.1Kinds of Grinding:
Rough or non precision Grinding: Snagging and off hand grinding are examples for rough grinding,
examples for this are trimming of surface left by the sprues and risers on castings, removal of flash on
forging etc.
Precision Grinding: This is connected with producing good surface finish and high degree of accuracy. The
type of surface to be ground, is classified as
(a) External cylindrical grinding
(c) Surface grinding

(h) Internal Cylindrical

(d) Form grinding

8.2 Grinding machines:

Rough Grinders: The removal of stock without any reference to the accuracy. They are mainly of the
following type
(a) Bench & floor stand grinders

(b) portable & flexible shift grinders

(c) Swing frame grinders

(d) abrasive belt grinders

Precision grinders: Are those that finish parts to very accurate dimensions.
(a) Cylindrical Grinders: It is primarily used for grinding plain cylindrical parts, contoured Cylinder, tapers
etc. There are four movements involved in a cylindrical centre type grinding;
(i) Work must revolve

(ii) The wheel must revolve

(iii)The work must move past the wheel

(iv) The wheel must move past the work.

* Plain center type grinders are essentially a lathe on which a grinding wheel has been substituted for a
single point tool.
* In universal centre type grinder, the head stock spindle can be swiveled, at an angle in a horizontal plane.
(b) Centreless grinders: It is a method of grinding exterior cylindrical, tapered and formed surfaces on
work pieces that are not held and rotated on centers.
* It requires a grinding wheel, regulating or back up wheel and a work rest.
* Centre less grinding may be done in one at three ways, through feed, inked, and end feed.
* Through feed is used for long and slender shafts, where no shoulders or other forms are not present.
* Infeed is used for components having forms or shoulders.

* Endfeed is used for components to produce tapes components.

(c) Internal grinders: Used to finish straight, tapered or formed holes to correct size. There are three
general types of internal grinders.
(a) Chucking

(b) Planetary

(c) Centre less

Surface grinder: They are employed to finish plane or flat surfaces and also capable of grinding irregular,
curved, tapered surfaces.
Tool and cutter grinder: They are used mainly to sharpen and recondition multiple tooth cutters like
reamers, milling cutters, drills, taps etc.
(e) Special grinding machines: These are used to do highly specialized work. Ex: - Crank shaft grinders,
piston grinders, thread grinders and tool post grinders.

8.3 Wheel Materials:

Abrasives: It is a substance used for grinding and polishing operations. They are classified into two groups.
Natural: Includes sandstone or quartz, emery, corundum diamond.
Artificial: Include chiefly Silicon carbide and aluminum oxide.
Grit, Grade and structure of grinding wheel:
Grit or grain it indicate the size of abrasive grains used in making a wheel.
* Coarse Wheels are used for fast removal of materials and for soft and ductile materials.
Fine grain wheels are used to grind hard and brittle materials.

Grade: It refers to the hardness with which the band holds the cutting point.
The grade shall be denoted by a alphabet. A to H indicates soft grade, I to P indicates medium and Q to Z
indicates hard grain.
Structure of Grain Spacing: The structure refers to the number of cutting edges per unit area of wheel face as
well as to the number & size of void spaces between grains, denoted by numbers.
Soft and ductile materials require an open structure.
Hard and brittle materials require dense structure.

9.0 Surface finishing operations:

Honing: It is a grinding process for finishing round holes by means of bonded abrasive stones

hones.

* Amount of material removed is less 0.25 nun.

* Automobile cylindrical liners are honed for surface finish.
9.1 Lapping: It can be used on flat cylindrical and spherical surface.
* Metal that can be removed is 0.005 to 0.01mm.
* It is used for slip gauges, piston pins, roller bearings and optical parts.
9.3 Super finishing: Generally all machining and grinding leave surface with fragmented, metal which
cause excessive wear and noisy operations. It is removed using super finishing.

* A very fine grit abrasive stone is used.

* Amount of material removed is around about 0.005 mm.
9.4 Buffing: It is a final operation to remove the polish of a metal and to bring maximum luster.
* Polishing wheels with fine abrasive particles are used.
Pickling: It refers to the removal of surface oxides and scale from by acid solutions.
Commonly pickling solutions contain sulphuric or hydrochloric acids.
It is commonly done on rolled shapes, wires, sheets heat treatment steel parts.
* In some applications, such as on aluminum, pickling is called oxidizing.
9.6 Electro Plating: It is the most popular means of applying metallic coatings on the surface of metals and
sometimes on non-metals.
* This is done for protection against corrosion or against wear and abrasion and for appearance.
* The four Common plating metals are chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, and tin.
* The four essential elements of a plating process are the cathode, anode, electrolyte and direct current.
9.7 Hot Dipping -. A protective coating may be applied on by dipping them into certain molten metal
namely zinc, tin or an alloy of lead and tin.
* The process of zinc coating on steel is called galvanizing.

Gear cutting: Gears can be best produce on mass production by hobbing.

* Gear finishing operation is called gear shaving. .
* Thin gears from sheet metal can be produced commercially by stamping.
* Gear bobbing process is faster than milling because several teeth cut at time. .

LAWS OF MOTION
1.0 Mechanics: It is the branch of Physics which deals with action of forces.
Kinematics deals with motion of bodies and not about magnitude of forces.
Dynamics is the mathematical and physical study of the behavior of bodies under the action of forces that
produce motion in a body.
Statics is the mathematical and physical study of the bodies in equilibrium under the action of forces.

1.1 Kinematics:
Displacement is the shortest distance between initial and final position of the particle.
* Speed is the ratio of the distance travelled to time. It is a scalar quantity.
The displacement of a body in unit time is called velocity.

* A moving particle is said to have uniform velocity when equal displacement of particle takes place in equal
intervals of time.
* When n a body moves with uniform velocity, its acceleration is zero.
* The negative acceleration of a body is called Retardation.

1.2 Equations of motion: A body moving with uniform acceleration 'a'. Let its initial velocity be u and
attains a velocity 'V'. after covering a distance 's in the time 't.
1
2

Linear motion: v = u + at ; S = ut +

at2 ; v2- u2 = 2 as ; Sn = u + (n - 1/2) a

'Sn' is the distance covered by the body in n th second.

Vertical motion v = u gt ; hut

1
2

1 +t
Circular motion , =
;

gt2 ; v2 u2 = 2 gh

1
=1 t+ t 2
;
2

2212=2

Where = angular velocity (rad/s); = angular acceleration (rad/s2) ; = angular displacement (rad)

U2
Maximum height reached by the vertically thrown body 'H = 2 g

U
Time of ascent is the time taken to reach the height by the bodyt = g

Time of descent is the time taken to travel from highest point to the position from which it has projected
U
upwards. t = g

Time of flight of a body is sum of time of ascent and time of descent. T =

2U
g

1.3 Motion in two dimensions:

Projectile: A body which moves in a two dimension plane in the gravitational field of earth is called a
projectile.

Trajectory: The path followed by the projectile is called trajectory. The path of trajectory parabola.
* Time of flight (T) =

2 U sin
g

Where ' is angle of projection; 'u' is initial velocity.

Range (R): The horizontal displacement undergone by a projectile, when it returns to its initial elevation.
2

R=

U sin 2
g

Maximum height: The maximum height of a projectile is reached at a time when its vertical velocity
component has decreased to zero.
H=

U 2 sin 2
2g

In long jump, the maximum span of jump is obtained when the angle of take off is 45.

1.4 Mass: It is the amount of matter contained in a given body. It does not vary with the change in its
position on the earth surface. It can be measured by Balance lever.

1.5 Weight: It is the gravitational force of attention of the body towards the centre of earth. It varies with
place to place. Weight is measured by spring balance.

2.0 Newton's law of motion:

Newton's first law: The momentum of body remains as along as no external force acts on it.
* First law introduces the concepts of 'force and inertia' and leads their definitions.
Force: Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body.
Inertia: Inertia is the inability of a body to change its state.
Newton's Second law: Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to applied force.
F= ma,
Units: S. I Newtons

C.G.Sdynes M.K.Skgm/s2.

Newton's Third law : To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Impulse: Is the product of force and time of application of force .
Impulse It (I) =F x t=m (V - u)

Units: C.G.S dyne-sec

SI Ns

2.1 Law of conservation of momentum: When no external force acts on a system, the algebraic sum of the
momentum of the bodies in the system remains constant any direction after any number of collisions.
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
u1 & u2 velocities of bodies before collision v1 & v2 are velocities after collision.

* If second body is moving in opposite direction to first one before collision.

m1 u1 - m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
Jet planes and Rockets work on the principle of conservation of momentum (or) Newton's third law of
motion.
Recoil of a gun is due to the principle of conservation of momentum (or) Newton's third law of motion.

2.2 Law of conservation of energy: According le law of conservation of energy, energy can be neither be
created nor be destroyed, it Can be transferred from one form to another form.
Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by a dynamo.
Electrical energy is convened into heat energy is convened into heat energy and light energy by arc lights,
electric bulbs and heaters.
Sound energy is converted into electrical energy by microphones.
Internal combustion engines convert chemical or heat energy into mechanical energy.
* Water falling from a certain height converts P.E. into Kinetic energy.
* Battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
* Steam engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
* Pelton wheel converts potential energy into mechanical energy.
* Electrical motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

3.0 Rotational motion:

A body is said to have rotate. Motion when it moves in a circular path about a fixed point or about an axis.
Eg : The motion of a grinding wheel, a fly wheel and the rotary motion of the earth about its own axis.
The angle subtended by an arc of length equal to its radius, at its centre is called radian. One radian is equal
to 57.18'
* The rate of angular displacement of a body is called velocity ( ).

Linear velocity is the product of angular velocity ( ) and radius of the path (r) i.e., V = r .

Angular acceleration () is the rate of change of angular velocity.

Centripetal acceleration of a particle in circular motion with constant speed 'v is

towards the centre.

v2
r

directed

The centripetal force is that force, which acting at right angles to the motion of the body causes it to
move in a circular path with constant angular velocity. This force is needed to keep a body in circular
motion.
The gravitational force applied by the sun on the earth makes revolve round the Sun. This radial
force, directed towards the centre of the earth's force, is centripetal force.
The force experienced by a body moving in a circular path radially outwards is called the centrifugal
force.
Separation of cream by skimming milk, centrifugal pump basing on centrifugal
Torque is the product of force and perpendicular distance of the point from the line of action of the
force (T= f x r)
In rotatory motion, moment of a force or Torque is the product of moment of inertia (I) and angular
acceleration ( )
Power (P) is the product of torque (T) and angular velocity ( ).

In general, most of bodies like motion of the earth, have both translatory and rotatory motions. The
total kinetic energy is the sum of its translatory and rotational kinetic energies.
1
1
2
Total K.E = 2 mv + 2 I w2
The angular velocity of seconds hand of watch is

/30 rad/sec.

4.0 Apparent weight of a person in a lift:

* w = mg is the real weight of a person.
* If the lift moves up with constant acceleration (a) the apparent weight of the person W1 = m (g + a)

if the lift moves down with a constant acceleration W2 = m (g-a)

If the lift moves up or down with uniform acceleration W3 = mg
In the case of a freely falling lift, the apparent weight of the person is zero.
5.0 Work, Power and energy:
Work is the product of force and displacement measured in the direction of force.
W = F. S. Cos
Units: C.G.S system: Erg

S I system: Joules, 1 Joule = 102 erg

One kilo Watt hour (Kwh) or unit is equal to 36 x 105 joules.

Power is the time rate at which work is done.

P= W/t,

Units C.G.S System = erg/sec,

S.I System= j/S (or)Watt/

* Energy is the capacity to do work; it has the same units as work.

Mechanical energy is of two forms, potential energy and kinetic energy.

Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position,
P. E= mgh

1
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by virtue of its motion, K. E = 2

The relation between momentum and energy is , K.E =

P2
2m

mv2

where p is the momentum of body.

Two bodies of different masses have the same kinetic energy. When heavier mass has greater momentum
than the lighter mass.
6.0 Dimensional formula-:
Force

2
: MLT

Momentum and Impulse

: M.LT-1

Power

: M L2T-3

Work and energy

: ML2T-2

Angular velocity

: T-1

Angular acceleration

: T-2

Stress

: M L-1 T-2

Surface tension

: ML-2

Viscosity

: ML-1 T-1

Latent Heat

: L2 T-2

Electric charge

: AT

Moment of Inertia

: M L2

Gravitation constant

: M-1 L3 T2

Pressure

: ML-1T2

Young's, modulus

: ML-1T-2

Specific heat

: L2 T2 K-1

Vectors and Scalars:

Vector: A physical quantity which has magnitude and direction is called vetor. E.g. Displacement, velocity,
momentum and force.
Scalar: A physical quantity which has only magnitude is called Scalar. Eg. Mass, time, speed, energy,
volume, density and work.
8.0 Friction:

Friction: The force which always opposes the motion of one body over there body in contact with it is
called the friction.
Static friction: The maximum frictional force present when a body just tends to slide over the surface of
another body is called the static friction.
Dynamic friction: The frictional force present when one body slides over other body are known as dynamic
friction or kinetic friction.
Rolling friction: When a body like a wheel, cylinder, or drum rolls over the. Surface of another body the
friction is called roiling friction
8.2. Coefficient of friction:
* The Coefficient of friction between two surfaces is the ratio of the frictional force to the normal reaction.
=F/R
Where ' is the Coefficient of friction.
s > k >r ;

'F is the frictional force. 'R' is the Normal reaction.

s is the coefficient of static friction;

k is the coefficient of kinetic reaction,

r is the coefficient of rolling friction.

Angle of friction: Incase of limiting friction, if the normal reaction and the frictional force be compounded
into a single force, which is referred to as resultant. The angle which this resultant makes with the normal
reaction is called the angle of friction.
Tan = F/R =

8.4 The laws of limiting friction:

Friction always opposes motion.

The force of friction is proportional to the normal reaction between the two surfaces in contact.
Friction is independent of the areas of the surfaces in contact, but depends on the material, nature and
condition of the surfaces in contact.

9.0 Planetary motion:

Laws of universal gravitation: The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centres.

m1 m 2
r

or F

G m1 m2
r

Where 'G' is the universal gravitational constant.

G = 6.67 x 10-4 dyne cm2 gm-2 in C.G.S system.
= 6.67 x 10^-11 Newton m2 kg-2 in S. I. system.
GM
Relation between 'G' and 'g' is g =

GM
2
R

10.0 Simple harmonic motion

A body is said to have simple harmonic motion, if its acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point on
its path and is proportional to its displacement from the fixed point.
The maximum displacement of the vibrating particle on either side of the mean position is called its
amplitude.

Period of Oscillation (t): The time for one complete Oscillation of the particle is called period of Oscillation
or vibration.

2
displacement
=2
W
accleration

T=

y
a

Frequency (n): The number of vibrations made by the particle in unit time is called frequency

N=

1 W
1
= =
T 2 2

a
y

Unit : hertz (Hz)

* Simple Pendulum: The period of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of its length
=T=2

L
g

or g = 4 2 ( T 2

TRANSMISSION
1.0 * in transmission of power, mechanical, electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic driven are employed. Belts,
ropes, chain drives and gears are examples of mechanical drives.

1.1 Belt and rope drives

Belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys.
Belts are made of leather, rubber, cotton, balata, fabric.

1.2 Types of Belts: According to the speed of the drive belts classified into the following three groups.
(a) Light drives: These are used to transmit small powers at belt speed up to about 10 m/s, as in agricultural
machines and small machines tools.
(h)Medium drives: These are used to transmit medium power at belt speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22 m/s, as
in machine tools.
(c) Heavy drives: These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s, as in compressors and
generators.
According to the shape, belts are classified into three types.
(a) Flat belts (b) V-belts
(c) Circular belts or ropes

1.3 Flat Belts: These are used to transmit power, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not
more than 8 meter apart.
The standard flat belt thicknesses are 5, 6.5, 8, 10 and 12 mm.

1.4 types of flat belt drives:

Open belt drive:

It is used for shafts arranged in parallel and rotating in the same direction.
Angle of contact is less in these belts, when compared with cross belts.

Length of the open belt (L) is given by, L=

2 (d1 + d2 )2x +

(d 1d2 )2
4x

Where d1 & d2 are diameters of larger and smaller pulleys. x is the centre to centre distance between pulleys.

Velocity ratio of open belt drive equal to the inverse ratio, of pulley diameters

N 2 d1
=
N 1 d2

d
( 2+1)
or ( d 1+1)

Where t is the thickness of the belt.

In case of compound belt drive, the velocity ratio is

VR =

Speed of . Last follower

Product of diameter of drivers .
=
Speed of first driver
Product of diameter of followers .

* Relative motions the belt and the pulley surface is called slick. It reduces the velocity ratio.

N 2 d1
s
= ( 1
)
N 1 d2
100

where s is the total percentage of slip.

Cross belt drive:

* It is used with shafts arranged in parallel but rotating in opposite directions.
* Wear and tear in a cross belt is higher due to rubbing at the crossing-point.
* Length of the cross belt drive

L=

(d 1 +d 2)2
2 (d1 + d2 ) + 2x +
4x

* Angle of contact is more.

Quarter turn belt drive: It is used with shifts arranged at right angles and rotating in one definite direction.

Stepped or cone pulley drive:

* Used for obtaining different speeds on the drive shaft with a constant speed driver shaft.
* This is done by shifting the belt from one step to the other on the stepped cone pulley.
Fast and loose pulleys: There will be two pulleys on the driven shaft. One keyed to the shaft and the other
freely rotating relative to the shaft.
* It is used when the driven or machine shaft is to be started or stopped when ever desired without interfering
with the driving shaft. This is done by shifting the belt froth the loose pulley to the fast pulley or vice-versa.
Crowning: Pulleys are provided with convex rims to avoid running away of belts. This convexing is known
as crowning.

1.5 Power Transmitted by a Belt: Power transmitted by a belt = (T1 T2) V watts where
T1 = Tension in the tight side in Newton

T2 = Tension in the slack side in Newton, and

V = Velocity of the belt in m/s.

Power transmitted =

T 1T 2
75

h.p.

Where T1 and T2 are in kgf.

1.6 Creep: Due to the difference of two tensions, the belt continuously moves with a very negligible velocity
over the pulleys.
It is called as Creep.
Tight side and Slack side: The lower side of a running belt is known as tight side and upper side of the belt is
known as slack side.

Ratio of driving tension for flat belts:

T 1
=e
T2

Where T1 and T2 are the belt tensions on tight and slack sides.
' is angle of contact in radians.

1.7 Centrifugal Tension: Centrifugal tension (Tc ) = mv2

Centrifugal tension is independent of the belt tensions. T1 and T2 depend on belt velocity and belt density
only.

* The power transmitted by a belt drive is maximum when the maximum tension in the belt is three times the
Centrifugal tension Tmax = 3 Tc

1.8 Initial tension (To ) in the Belt:

Initial Tension (To ) in the belt is given by, To = (T1 + T2 ) /2

* When centrifugal tension is taken into account

To =

T 1 +T 2 +2 T c
2

V-belts:
* A v-belt is made of fabric and cords usually cotton, rayon or nylon and impregnated with rubber.
* V-Belt are used for smaller centre to centre distance between shafts.
* V- belts are made endless and there is no joint trouble, therefore the drive is smooth.

* V-Belt is of trapezoidal cross section the included angle varies between 30 to 40.
* The rim of the pulley is grooved in which the belt runs. The V-belt is contact with sides of the groove and
not the bottom to give good grip and also to adjust automatically as the belt wears.
* V-belts may be operated in either direction, and high velocity ratio is obtained.
* These are use to transmit very large amount of powers.
* Slip is negligible and hence it is a positive drive.
* Length of the belt (L) is given by the same equation used for a flat open belt.

Ratio of driving tension is given by

T1
T2

=e cosec ; where ' is the semi groove angle,

2.0 Rope drives:

The ropes drives are widely used where a large amount of power is to transmitted from are pulley to another,
over a considerable distance.
* The ropes drives use the following two types of ropes (a) fiber ropes, and (b) wire ropes.
The groove angle of the pulley for rope drive is usually 45.
The ratio of driving tensions for fiber rope

T1
T2

=e cosec where ' '

* The fiber ropes operate successfully when the pulleys are about 60 meters apart, while the wire ropes one
used when the pulleys are upto 150 meters apart.

Wire ropes run on grooved pulleys but they rest on the bottom of the grooves and are not wedged
between the sides.
3.0 Chain drives:
Chain drives are used to transmit large power where the distance between two rollers or sprockets is small.
Chain drives give a constant velocity ratio.
* No slip or creep is involved.
Chain drive is a positive drive.
The chain runs over sprockets with have teeth on the circumference.

The Relation between pitch and pitch circle diameter is

T1 and T2 are number of teeth on the sprockets

`x' is the centre to centre distance.
For smooth operation it is good practice to use minimum 17 teeth on the driving sprocket.
F V
Power transmitted (p) is given by, P = 60
watt

F= driving force

V = Velocity of chain in m/min.

Bush and roller chains are used in motor cycles and cycles.

4.0 Gears:
Gears are mainly used to transmit larger powers for smaller distance.
They will transmit exact velocity ratio.
They may be used to change the speed or the torque of one shaft with relation to another.
4.1 Types of Gears:
Spur Gears:

Spur gears are used to transmit power between two shafts which are parallel and coplanar. The larger wheel is
called spur wheel and smaller pinion.
E.g.: Lathe machine.

Helical Gears: these are also used for the same purpose as the spur gears are used, put the teeth cut on the
gears are inclined at an angle ranges from 20 to 35.
* Used to transmit power between parallel shafts and shafts are inclined at any angle but not intersecting.

Bevel gears: These are used to transmit power between taco shafts whose axes are perpendicular to each
other. E.g. - Drilling Machine.

Spiral gears: These are used when the axes of the shafts are non-intersecting and non parallel.

Worm and Worm Wheels: These are used in the same manner as spiral gears are used but instead of a
pinion a shaft having thread on its periphery is used to transmit motion or power.
* A high speed reduction ratio is possible.
Rack and Pinion: A rack is a gear with an infinite radius, or a gear with its perimeter stretched out into a
straight line.
* It is used to change reciprocating motion to rotary motion or vice versa.

Hypoid gears: Hypoid gears are similar to bevel gears, but the shafts do not intersect.

4.2 terms used in n gears

Pitch Circle: It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the same motion as the actual
gear.
Pitch Circle diameter: It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually specified by the
pitch circle diameter. It is also called as pitch diameter.
Addendum: It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
Dedendurn : It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.
Circular Pitch: It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a point of one tooth
to the corresponding point on the next tooth.

Pc =

D
T

, where D= Diameter of the pitch circle; T = No. of teeths

Diameteral Pitch: It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in millimeters. It is denoted
by Pd
Diametral pitch Pd =

T
=
D Pc

Module: It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in millimeters to the number of teeth. It is usually denoted
by 'm".

Module m =

D
T

Velocity ratio: If D1 and D2 are pitch circle diameters of driver & driven having teeth T1, and T2 respectively,
then velocity ratio =

D2 T 2
=
D1 T 1

Backlash: It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as measured on the pitch
circle.

5.0 Bearings
5.1 A bearing is a machine element which supports another moving machine element. It permits a relative
motion between the contact surfaces of the members, while carrying the load.

5Classification of Bearing
* Depending upon the direction of load to be supported
The bearings under this group are classified as
(a) Radial bearings: The lead acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the moving element.
(b) thrust bearings: The load acts along the axis of rotation.

* Depending upon the nature of contact: The bearings under this group are classified as.
(a)Sliding contact bearings

(b) rolling contact bearings

Sliding Contact Bearings: The sliding takes place along the surfaces of contact between the moving element
and the fixed element.
* The sliding bearings in which the sliding action is along the circumference of a circle or an arc of a circle
and carrying radial loads are known as Journal or Sleeve bearings.
Self lubricating bearings are the bearings which need no lubrication during their span of service.

*thrust bearings are classified as (i) Pivot or foot Step bearings

(ii) Collar bearings

Rolling contact bearings:

* In rolling contact bearings, the contact between the bearing surface is rolling instead of sliding, having
point or line contact between the contact surfaces
Due to low friction offered by rolling contact bearings, these are called anti friction bearings.

Rolling contact bearings are classified as

(a) ball bearings

(b) roller bearings

* Ball bearings will have balls as rolling members and they have point contact with surfaces.
* Roller bearings will have rollers as rolling members and they have line contact surface.

SIMPLE MACHINE
1.0 Machine: A machine is a device used to receive energy in some form and convert it into some useful
work.
1.1 Simple Machines: Simple machine is a device Used to lift heavier loads by exerting smaller efforts.
E.g., Lever, inclined planes, pulleys, wheel and axle, screw jack etc.,
1.2 input of Machine: The work done on the machine by the effort is known as input of machine.It is the
product of effort and distance moved by the effort.
Input of the machine = P x Y
1.3 Output of Machine: The actual-work done by the machine in lifting the load is called output of a
machine. It is equal to the product of the load and the distance moved by the load.
Output of the machine = W x X
1.4 Velocity Ratio: It is the ratio of distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load in a given
time is called the velocity ratio.
Velocity Ratio (V.R) =

distance moved by the effort

distance moved by the load

Y
X

1.5 Mechanical Advantage: The ratio of load (w) to effort (p) is called mechanical advantage:
Mechanical Advantage (MA) =

Load
Effort

W
= P

1.6 Efficiency of a Machine: It is defined as the ratio of work done by the machine to the energy supplied to
machine.
=

Output Wx M . A
=
=
Input
Py V . R

Where x = distance moved by load

y = distance moved by effort

1.7 Ideal machine: If there is no friction in the machine, then the output of a machine is equal to the
input.Such machine is called as an Ideal rnachine.
=

M.A
=1
V .R

The efficiency of Ideal machine is 10017

1.8 Reversible and Irreversible Machine: A machine is said to be a reversible machine, if it is capable of
doing the work in reverse direction after the effort is removed. The efficiency should be more than 50%.

A machine that is not capable of doing any work in the reverse direction after the effort is removed is
called a self-locking (or) Irreversible machine, for self locking machine its efficiency should not be
more than 50%.

1.9 Law of Machine: It gives the relationship between the load lifted and the effort applied. It is given by P =
mw+ c
Where 'c' is the minimum effort required to operate the machine and is equal to the frictional effort.

For Ideal machine C is equal to zero.

Ideal machine MA is equal to 1/m and maximum efficiency of lifting machine is

1
m x VR

2.0 Levers: A lever is rigid bar capable of rotating about a fixed point is called fulcrum. The purpose of lever
is to left heavier loads by applying a smaller effort.
2.1 Types of levers: Levers are three kinds.

A lever of the first kind or class consists of a fulcrum which is situated between the Weight and effort.
M.A can be less than, equal to, or more than 1.0 for a first-order lever.
Examples of first order lever crow bar, scissors, beam of Common balance, cutting pliers, see-saw etc.
A lever of the second kind consists of a weight situated in between the fulcrum and the effort.
In second class lever effort arm is more than load arm. M A is always greater than one.
Example of second order lever is Nut cracker, wheel barrow, lemon squeezer, foot bellows, punching
machine etc.
A lever of the third kind consists of an effort situated in between the fulcrum and the weight
in third class lever load arm is more than effort arm. MA is always less than one.
Examples for third order lever are, Human fore arm, fire tongs, nail cutter, forceps, stapler etc.,
3.0 Inclined Plane: An inclined plane is a smooth plane inclined at a certain angle ' ' with the horizontal.

1
sin

effort is parallel to plane M.A =

1
* The effort is parallel to base M.A = tan

4.0 Velocity ratio of a few simple machines:

D
d

Simple wheel and axle, VR =

2D
Wheel and differential axles, VR = d 1d 2

I system of pulleys; VR =2n

II system of pulleys ; VR = n

'D' is dia. of wheel, d-= dia. of axle.

d1= dia. of bigger axle, d2= dia. of smaller axle.
n = no. of moving pulleys.

III system of pulleys VR =2n-1

lz
Worm and- worm wheel VR = r n

l = Length of effort handle, r = radius of load drum, z = no. of teeth on worm wheel, n = multiplicity of threa

Screw Jack VR =

2 L
l

L = Length of effort handle, L = np = lead of screw, n = thread multiplicity, p = pitch of threads

Rack and pinion;

VR =

2 L
ZP

P = Pitch, I = length of handle, Z= no of teeth on pinion

5.0 Screw Jack: Screw Jack works on the principle of inclined plane. It is used to lift the vehicles up for
repairs and also for change of tyres and to lift heavy loads.

The screw threads follow a helix with helix angle . Helix angle tan = P/d
Effort (p) required to lift a load (w) is given by P = W Tan ( + ), where is angle of friction.
tan
efficiency of the screw jack is = tan ( + )

The maximum efficiency of a screw jack is given by max =

1sin
1+ sin

Efficiency of a screw jack is independent of the load lifted or the effort applied.
Screw jack is a self locking machine and square thread is used in a screw jack.

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

1.0 Refrigeration: It is the process of removing heat from a body and maintaining the temperature of body
is lower than that of its surroundings.
1.1 Heat pump: It is a machine, which extracts heat from a cold body delivers it to a hot body.
Refrigerator: It is a storage chamber, in which the heat pump works and keeps it cool.
1.2 Refrigerant: It is a substance which works in a heat pump to extract heat from a cold body and to deliver
it to a hot body.
1.3 Capacity of refrigerator: It is the rate at which heat can extracted from the cold body. This rate is
expressed in tonne of refrigeration.
1.4 Units of Refrigeration: A tonne of refrigeration is equal to the amount of refrigeration produced by the
melting of 1 tonne of ice in 24 hours.
When one tonne i.e. 1000 kg ice melts 24 hours, it produces a cooling effect at the rate of 210 KJ/min or 50
cal/min.
1.5 Coefficient of performance: The Coefficient of performance (C.O.P) is the ratio of heat extracted in the
refrigerator to the work done on the refrigerant.

COP =

Heat Extracted
Work done

ActualCOP
Relative COP = T h eoritical COP

The coefficient of performance is the reciprocal of the efficiency of a heat engine.

The value of C.O.P is always greater than unity.
2.0 Methods of Refrigeration:
2.1 Dry- Ice Refrigeration: Solid carbon dioxide is known as dry ice. It can be pressed into thin slabs or
flakes. Dry ice absorbs heat if flakes are placed in a container during transportation over a long period.
2.2 Air Refrigeration: This method involves compression and subsequent expansion of air. Thigh pressure is
allowed to expand adiabatically its temperature falls. The cool air is circulated in a cold chamber to remove
the heat of products placed in it.

Air refrigeration system is largely used in air conditioning system of air crafts.
Air refrigeration system works on reverted Joule's cycle or Bell Coleman cycle.
Air refrigeration has limited used because of low C.O.P and bulky equipment.

2.3 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System: It is a type of a mechanical refrigeration system in which a
suitable working substance, termed as refrigerant is used.

The refrigerant used, does not leave the system, but is circulated throughout the system alternately
condensing and evaporating.
Vapour Compression refrigeration system consists of four basic components namely Compressor,
Condenser, Expansion Valve and evaporator.

Operation of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

Compression process: .The dry state vapour at a low pressure is sucked from the evaporator during the
suction stroke of the compressor than the vapour is compressed to higher pressure and temperature.
Condensation process: The vapour under high pressure is delivered to the condenser. The vapour is
condensed into liquid form in the condenser using cooling medium such as water.
Throttling Process: high pressure liquid is expanded to evaporator pressure through a throttle valve.
Evaporation Process: The wet vapour of throttling passes through evaporator coils and absorbs heat from
products and gets evaporated.
* The condition of refrigerant in a cycle:
Before Compressor Low pressure dry saturated vapour
After Compressor

high pressure & high temperature vapour

After Condenser

high pressure liquid

After Expansion

valve low pressure wet vapour

The highest temperature occurs at compressor discharge.

The lowest temperature occurs after Expansion Valve.
In vapour compression refrigeration system, the refrigerant rejects heat in condenser.
Accumulator is placed in Vapour Compression refrigeration system between Evaporator and Compressor.
Accumulator is a device that drops liquid particles if present in vapour refrigerant leaving the evaporator.

The moisture in a refrigerant is removed by driers.

Drier is installed between condenser and Expansion valve. Driers are also Called Dehydrates.
A flash chamber is used in between the expansion valve and evaporator' td remove the flashed refrigerant,
Strainers are used to remove any foreign Matter from refrigerant.
Evaporative condensers are used when the water supply is limited. E.g. Ice plants, theatre air conditioning etc
Expansion devices-are used to regulate the flow of refrigerant.
2.4 Vapour absorption Refrigeration System : The idea of a vapour absorption refrigerator is to avoid
compression of the refrigerant.

A vapour absorption refrigeration system consists of evaporator, absorber, generator, condenser,

Expansion valve and a pump.
In a vapour absorption system two working fluids are employed, a refrigerant and an absorbent.
Most commonly Ammonia is used as refrigerant and water as absorbent It is also known as .aquaammonia.
The system is quiet in operation since absence of compressor.
Energy input generator is mainly heat which is a low grade energy,

2.3- Electrolux refrigerator:

There are no moving parts in Electrolux system. The pump may be omitted by the introduction of
hydrogen into the low pressure side.

The Electrolux refrigerator works on three fluids, (1) ammonia as a refrigerant (ii) Water as an absorbent
and (iii) Hydrogen as a pumping agent.
3.0 Refrigerants:
*A refrigerant is any substance which acts as a cooling agent by absorbing heat from another substance. It is
a working agent employed in a refrigeration system.
3.1 Properties of a refrigerant: An Ideal refrigerant should have the following properties.
* Low boiling and low freezing point.

* Stable over a wide range of pressures and temperatures.

*Height latent heat of vapourisation.

' Non toxic, Non flammable and non explosive.

Non Corrosive to metal.

* Low-specific heat in liquid state.

Refrigerants are classified into (a) Primary Refrigerants (b) Secondary Refrigerants
Primary Refrigerant: It is that which cools the substance by absorbing heat equal to its latent heat from
them.
R717 Ammonia (NH)

Boiling point (BP) is -33 C and freezing point is - 78 C

Toxic, slightly explosive and inflammable,
Ammonia should be used with Steel pipes and never with copper, Brass or their alloys.
Extensively used in cold storages, ice plants, food refrigeration plants etc..
R744 Carbon dioxide (CO2):

Boiling point is - 78 C and freezing point is - 57C.

Colourless, non-to and non-flammable.

Non explosive and non-corrosive.

Used in marine application and as dry ice.
heavier working parts needed becaute of high- operating pressure&

R764 Sulphurdioxide (SO2):

* Boiling point is - 10-C and-freezing point is - 75.5 C..
* Non-flammable, non explosive and highly toxic .
* Works at low pressures.
R-11 (freon 11) Trichloro fluoro Methane (CCl3F)
* Boiling point is - 24 C and freezing point is -111 C.
* non toxic, non-flammable-and non-corrosive.
It is used with centrifugal compressors.
It is used in 50 tonnes capacity air conditioning plants.
R - 12 (freon - 12) Dichloro Difluro methane (C Cl2 F2)
Boiling point is - 30 C and freezing point is - 158C.
Non-toxic, non-flammable and non-explosive.
Used in domestic applications and water coolers.
it is corrosive to magnesium or aluminum.
R - 22 (freon-22) Chlorodifluoro Methane (CH Cl2 F2)

Boiling point is - 40.76 C and freezing point is - 16.0 C

Used with reciprocating compressor in large units such as package units and central air conditioning
plants.
Azerotropes:

These are the mixtures of different halocarbons which behave like a compound.
R-500 is a mixture of 73.8% of R-12 and 26.2% of R-152.
R-501 is a mixture of R-22 and R-12 (75% + 25%)

R729Air:

Boiling point is - 194 C and critical temperature is - 140 C

Harmless, freely-available.
Equipment becomes bulky..
3.0 Air Conditioning:
Air conditioning is defined as the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, air circulation and
cleanliness of air within an enclosed space.
Psychrometer: Psychrometer is the stud of properties of mixture of air and water vapour. It is also called
Hygrometer.

Dry Air: Dry Air is a mechanical mixture of constituent gases which comprise atmospheric air excluding
water vapour.
Moist Air: Moist air is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. Water vapour in air is 'usually called moisture.
Humidity: The water vapour that is contained in or mixed with atmospheric air is the humidity.
Relative Humidity- : it is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a given volume of air to the mass of water
vapour required to saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature.
Absolute Humidity: Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapour present per unit volume of air.
Dry bulb Temperature (DDT): It is the temperature indicated by ordinary thermometer and is the direct
measure of sensible heat present in air.
Wet bulb Temperature (WBT): It is temperature indicated by thermometer whose glass bulb is\ covered by
a piece of wet cloth: It is a measure of enthalpy of air.
Humidification: Humidification is adding moisture to air keeping its DBT constant.
Dehumidification: Dehumidification is removal of moisture at constant DBT.

Cooling and dehumidification is usually done in summer air conditioning.

Heating and humidification is usually done in winter air conditioning.
Human Comfort:

Human comfort is mainly dependent on four factors namely (i) temperature (ii) humidity (iii) movement
of air
(iv) Purity of air.
* Human comfort conditions maintained by summer and winter air-conditioning system are (25. 1 C),
(50+ 5%) R H and (21 1 C), 50% RH (30% min) respectively.

THERMODYNAMICS

1.0 Review of fundamentals :

1.1Temperature: It is defined as the degree of hotness or the level of heat intensity of a body. A hot body as
a higher temperature and cold body as the lower temperature. Temperature of a body is measured in different
scale.
Conversion between various scales of temperature

C
100 =

F32
180

Temperature in Kelvin.

K 273
100

C= temperature in Celsius, F = Temperature in Fahrenheit, K=

._

At reading - 40 both centigrade and Fahrenheit gives same readings Thermometers and their ranges:

Mercury glass thermometer based on the expansion of mercury with increase of temperature. Its
approximate range is from 35 C to 350 C.

 Alcohol in glass thermometer is used for measuring temperature range is from - 80 C to 70 C.

Pentane is used in glass thermometer range is from - 200 C to 30 C.
Constant volume gas thermometer is suitable for measuring temperatures in-the range from -269 C to1600 C
Electrical thermometers are used to measure both low and high temperatures in the range from - 272 C to
1600 C
Pyrometer are used for measuring hi temperatures usually move 500 C.
Thermocouple thermometer can be used for measurement of a rapidly changing temperature. Approximate
range is from -250 C to 500C. .
Absolute Scale: A scale with - 273 C as zero and the magnitude of degree same as that of the centigrade
scale is called the absolute scale or Kelvin scale of temperature. It is denoted by 'K'.
K = C + 273
Absolute Zero: It is the temperature of - 273 c at which the pressure and volume of a perfect gas becomes
zero.,
1.2 Pressure: defined as force per unit area.
Units in mks is kgf/cm2 (or) kg/cm2 PSI= Pascal N/m2, (used for very small unit), or bar,
1 bar = 105 N/m2= 100 KN/m2 =100 K Pa.
Pressures also stated in mm or cm of mercury
Barometer is an instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
Manometer is an instrument used for measuring low pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure (Pat ) : This is the pressure exerted by air. Its value at mean sea level is 1.033 Kg/cm2
(or) 1.013 bar (or) barometric height of 760 mm of mercury.
Absolute Pressure (Pabs): Absolute zero of pressure will Occurs when molecular momentum is zero. Such a
situation can occur only when there is a perfect vacuum. The pressure measured from this level is called
absolute pressure.
Gauge Pressure (Pg) : Instruments and gauges used to measure the value of pressure, actually measure
difference between the fluid pressure and the pressure of fluid (generally air) surrounding the gauge.
P = Pabs - Patm
Vacuum Pressure (P.): When the pressure of fluid is less than atmospheric pressure. The gauge reads on the
negative side of atmospheric pressure. This pressure is known as vacuum.
P=Patm - Pabs
1.3 Heat: heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred by virtue of temperature difference.
*Units in Mks = Cal (or) Kcal, S.1= J (or) K.J
Calorie: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gm of water from 143 C to 15.5C
1 Cal = 4.2 J
Heat received or rejected by a body: The amount of beat received or rejected by a working body during the
process of heating or cooling is given by
Q=mc (T2-T1)
Where Q = heat gained or lost by the body in Kcal
m = mass of the body in kg. (T2-T1) = Temperature rise of body C or K.

C = Specific heat of substance Kcal/kg k.

1.4 Specific heat: Defined as the amount of heat required to rise temperature of a unit mass of any substance
through 1.
Specific heat at constant pressure Cp : The amount of heat required to raise temperature of a unit mass of
any substance through 1 at constant pressure is called specific heat at constant pressure.
Specific heat at constant volume Cv : The amount of heat required to raise temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through 1 at constant volume is called specific at constant volume.
Cp for air = 0:24 Kcal/kg K. Cv for air = 0.17 Kcal/kg K. The ratio of Cp/Cv is called adiabatic index (r)
for air r = 1.4
1.5 Mechanical equivalent of heat: The relation between the unit of work. This relation is denoted by "J'
and is known as Joule's equivalent or mechanical equivalent of heat. Q = W/J,

J = 427 kg kcal

2.0 Laws of perfect gases :

2.1 Boyle's Law : Temperature being constant, pressure of a certain mass of gas is inversely proportional to
its volume.
P

1
V

P1 V1 = P2 V2

2.2 Charle's Law: Pressure being constant, volume of a certain mass of a gas is directly proportional to
absolute temperature.
V1 V2
=
T 1 T2

V T

2.3 Gay Lussac Law: Volume being constant pressure of a certain mass of a gas is directly proportional to
absolute temperature
P1 P2
=
T1 T 2

P T

2.4 Avagadro's Law: Under identical conditions of pressure and temperature equal volume of all gases
contain same number of molecules.
One kg molecules of any gas at NTP occupies 22.4 m3 of volume and it contains 6x1023 molecules.
General gas equation: Both Boyle's law and Charles law are combined together, which gives a general gas
equation.
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1
T2
Characteristic equation of gas: It is modified form of general gas equation,
PV = MRT
R is known as characteristic gas constant. gas constant for air = 29.27 kg m/kg K in MKS
R= 0.287 KJ/kg K in SI

2:6 Universal gas constant (or) molar constant : It is the product of the gas constant and the molecular weight
of the gas.
Ru= MR

Where Ru is universal gas constant

M is molecular weight of the gas (kg. mole)

R is gas constant
The characteristic gas equation may be written in terms of molecular weight as PV = RT
The value of Ru is same for all gases.
The value of universal gas constant = 848 kg ml kg. m/kg.mole/K in MKS
Ru = 8.314 KJ/kg mole K in SI
2.7 Joule's Law: Internal energy of a gas is a function of temperature only and is independent of change in
pressure and volume.
Change in internal energy is proportional to change in temperature.
3.0 Latent Heat: The amount of heat absorbed during a change of state without rise in temperature is called
Latent Heat.
Latent heat of fusion of ice: The latent heat of fusion of ice is the amount of heat required to amen unit mass
of ice at 0 C into the water at 0 C. Value of latent heat of fusion of ice (L)
CGS System = 80 cal/gm

S. I System = 340 x 103 J/kg

Latent heat of Steam (or) Vapourisation of water: The latent heat of steam is the amount of heat required
to convert unit mass of water at 100 C into steam at 100 C.
Latent heat of steam in CGS system = 540 cal/gm
SI system = 2.26 x 106 J/kg
4.0 Thermodynamic Systems:
System is defined as a quantity of matter or region under study.
Surroundings: Everything external to the system is called surroundings.
Boundary: The system is separated from the surroundings is boundary.
Open System: Both mass and energy transfer take place across the system.
Closed system: Is a constant mats system, across the boundary of which only energy transfer take place.
Isolated System: Is a one in which there is no interaction either of energy or mass with the surroundings.
4.1 Thermodynamic Properties:
Intensive properties: There are independent of the mass in the system.
Examples Pressure, temperature, density etc.,
Extensive properties: These properties are related to Mass. If mass is increased, the value of the extensive
properties also increase.
Examples: Volume, weight, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy.
5.0 Laws of Thermodynamics:
5.1 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics: When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium separately with a third
body then they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. It is the basis of temperature measurement.

5.2 First law of thermodynamics- : When a system executes a cyclic process, the algebraic sum of work
transfer is equal to algebraic sum of heat transfer (or) the heat and Mechanical work are mutually convertible.
53 Second law of Thermodynamics : Kelvin plank statement "It is impossible to construct an engine
working on a cyclic process, whose sole purpose is to convert all the heat supplied to it into equivalent
work".
Clausius statement "Heat does not flow from a body at lower temperature to a body a higher temperature
without any external agency.
5.4 Thermodynamic processes:

Heat transferred during a constant volume process is equal to change in internal energy and work done is
zero.
Internal energy and temperature of a substance is Constant in an Isothermal process.
In a adiabatic process the system will not have any heat exchange with the surrounding.
Work done by the throttling or free expansion process is always zero.

Efficiency of heat engine:

Q1Q2
Q
=1 2
Q1
Q1

Where Q1 is the heat absorbed by engine from source. Q2 is the quantity of heat rejected to the Sink.

For cannot engine working between temperature T1 and T the efficiency is given by
=

T 1T 2
T
=1 2
T1
T1

6.0 Fuels and Combustion:

6.1 Fuel : A fuel may be defined as substance (containing mostly carbon and hydrogen) which on burning
with oxygen in the atmospheric air, produces a large amount of heat.

Wood, peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite coals are natural, solid fuels, coke, charcoal and
pulverized coal are artificial solid fuels.
Crude Oil is a natural liquid fuel, here gasoline, kerosene, paraffin and heavy oils are artificial liquid
fuels.
Natural gas is a natural gaseous fuel, coal gas, producer gas and mond gases are artificial gaseous fuel
6.2 Higher (or) Gross Calorific value: Heat liberated by unit mass or unit volume of fuel when burned
completely and products are cooled down to atmospheric temperature is called higher calorific value.

Higher calorific value of wild or liquid fuel can be determined by Bomb Calorimeter. The
Combustion of fuel takes place at constant volume in it.
Junkers gas calorimeter is used to determine higher calorific value of gaseous fuel.

6.3 Lower Calorific Value: When the heat absorbed or carried away by the products of combustion is not
recovered and steam formed during combustion is not considered, then the amount of heat obtained per kg of
the fuel is known as lower or net calorific value.

6.4 Combustion of fuels:

One kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of Oxygen for complete combustion and produces 11/3 kg of carbon
dioxide.

One kg of Carbon requires 4/3 kg of Oxygen and to produces 7/3 kg of carbon monoxide.
One kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg, of Oxygen and produces 9 kg of water or steam.
1 kg of methane requires 4 kg of Oxygen and produces 1/4 kg of carbon dioxide and 9/4 kg of water (or)
steam.
3
1 m of Carbon requires 1 m3 of Oxygen and produces 1 m3 of carbon dioxide.
The Volumetric analysis of dry fuel gases may experimentally be obtained by Orsat apparatus.
Atmospheric air consists of 23% Oxygen and 77% Nitrogen, by weight and 21% Oxygen and 79%
nitrogen by volume.
Petrol is distilled at temperature -65 to 220 C and Kerosene is distilled at 220 c to 345 C

Bituminous coal has the highest calorific value.

Transmission of heat:
Heat: Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred by virtue of temperature difference. Heat
always flow from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. This transmission of heat
follows three methods.
They are
Conduction: The transmission of heat in a body without movement of its particles. E.g. In solids
Convection: The transmission of heat from one part to another in a body by the actual movement of its
particles is called convection. E.g. In liquids and gases heat flow by the method.
Radiation: The transmission of heat from one place to another without any material or medium in between is
called radiation.
E.g. Earth receives heat from the Sun.
7.2 Thermal Conductivity:-The amount of heat "Q' transmitted by conduction in a body is
Q=

KA ( T 1T 2 ) x t
L

T T
Where 'A' is the cross sectional area, ( 1 2 ) is the temperature difference between the two faces.
'L is the length of the rod. t time of flow of heal ,'K' is the coefficient of thermal conductivity (or) Thermal
conductivity of the material.
Units C.G.S : Cal/s.cm/K

S.I: J/sm/ k (or) w/m K

7.3 Absorption of Heat: When radiant heat is incident on the surface of a body, a part of it is absorbed and
the remaining part is reflected. The process in which heat is absorbed by a body is called absorption of heat.
7.4 Absorptive Power: The absorptive power of a surface is the ratio of the amount of heat absorbed by a
surface to the amount of heat incident on it.
7.5 Reflecting Power: It is the ratio Of the amount of heat reflected by a surface to the amount of the heat
incident on it.
7.6 Emissive Power: The emissive power of a surface is the amount of heat radiation emitted per second per
uniarea of the Surface per 1 C excess of temperature over the surroundings.
7.8Transmitting Power: It is the ratio of the amount of radiation passing through it to the total amount of
radiation incident on it.

7.8 Black Body: A perfect black body is one which absorbs all radiations incident on it. A perfect black body
is a good absorber as well as emitter of heat.
Platinum black absorbs 98% and lamp black about 96% of the incident radiation.
7.9 Stefan Boltzmann Law: The rate of loss of heat energy by radiation per unit area of the surface of a
perfectly black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
E=

AT4 is called Stefan's constant a = 5.675 x 10-8 W/m2K4

7.10 Kirchorffs law of radiation: The ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power of all bodies is
the same and is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body.
7.11 Wien's Displacement Law: The radiation energy consists of different wavelengths. According to this,
the maximum wavelength energy is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the radiation.
m T = Constant
7.12 Newton's law of Cooling: The rate of cooling of a body is directly proportional to the mean excess of
its temperature over the surrounding.
8.0 Kinetic Theory of gases:

The pressure exerted by as gas is given by

P=

1
3

mnc-2

Where 'n' is the number of molecules of the gas per unit volume.
m is the mass of each molecule.
c-2 is the mean square velocity of the gas molecules.
9.0 Properties of Steam: Steam is vapour of water, and is invisible when pure and dry. It is approximately
acts like a gas.

Steam does not obey laws of perfect gases, until it is perfectly dry.
Sensible heat : Heat required to raise temperature of one kg of water, when heated at a constant
pressure from 0 C to the temperature of formation of steam.
'

Heat absorbed (or) sensible heat (h) = tsat Kcal

Latent heat of steam (or) Latent heat of Vapourisation: It is the amount of heat required to evaporate 1 kg
of water at its boiling point without change of temperature. It is denoted by L.
Total heat of steam = h + xL for wet steam ;

= h + L for dry steam

where 'x' is the dryness fraction.

Super heated Steam: When the dry steam is further heated at a constant pressure, thus raising its
temperature, it is said to be superheated steam.
* The total heat required for the steam to be superheated is total heat of dry steam and heat of super heat.
Hsup = h + L + Cp (Tsup Tsat)
The difference (Tsup Tsat) is known as degree of Superheat.
Dryness fraction or quality of wet steam: It is the ratio of the weight of actual dry steam, to the weight of
same quantity of wet steam, and is generally denoted by 'x'.

Ws
X = W s +W
Where Ws = Actual weight of dry steam. W =Weight of water in steam.
Triple Point: It is the point where three states of matter, i.e., Solid, liquid and vapour coexist in equilibrium.
The triple point of water is 273.16 K at pressure of 610.2 Pascals.
Critical Point: When the pressure and saturation temperature increases, the latent heat of steam is decreases.
It becomes zero at a point, where liquid and dry steam lines meet is known as the critical point. The
temperature corresponding to critical point is known as critical temperature and the pressure is known as
critical pressure.

For water, the critical temperature is 374 C and critical pressure is 225 kg/cm2 (or) 22.1 bar.
10.0 Steam Boilers:
10.1 A steam generator or boiler is, usually, a. closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to transfer the heat
produced by the combustion of fuel to water, and ultimately to generate steam.
* Boilers are mainly classified as fire tube and water tube boilers.

In fire tube or smoke tube boilers, the flames and hot gases, produced by combustion of fuel, pass
through the tubes which are surrounded by water.
Examples of fire tube boiler are simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler,
scotch marine boiler and locomotive boiler.
In water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes which are surrounded by flames and
hot gases from outside..
Examples of water tube boilers are Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Sterling boiler, Lamont boiler, Benson
boiler and Loffler boiler.
Cornish boiler has one large flue tube and Lancashire boiler has two large diameter flue tubes.
Locomotive boiler is a multi tubular horizontal internally fired and mobile boiler. There are about 157 thin
fire tubes and 24 thick or superheated tubes. The draught is produced by the exhaust steam from engine
which is discharged through the blast pipe to the stack or chimney.
10.2 Boiler Mountings: Boilers are provided with certain mountings which are essential for their safe
operation.

(a)

Water level indicators: It is the important fitting, which indicates the water level inside the boiler to
an observer.
(b)
Pressure gauge: A pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the boiler. The
pressure gauge is generally used is of Bourdon tube.
(c)
Safety Valves: This is a device attached to the steam chest for preventing explosions due to excessive
internal pressure of steam. The function of a safety valve is to blow off the steam when the pressure of steam
inside the boiler exceeds the working pressure.
They are four types :(i) Level safety valve (ii) Dead weight safety valve (iii) high steam and flow water
salty valve (iv) Spring loaded salty valve.

(d)

Spring loaded salty valves are mainly used for Locomotive and marine boilers.

Steam Stop Valve: It is the largest valve on the steam boiler. The main functions of a stop valve are
to control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main steam pipe and to shut off the steam completely when
required.
(e) Blow off cock: It is fitted to the bottom of a boiler drum, The principal functions of a blow off cock are to
empty the boiler whenever required and to discharge the Mud, scale or sediments which are accumulated at
the bottom of the boiler.

(f) Feed check valve : It is a non-return valve, its function is to regulate the supply of water, which is
pumped into the boiler by the feed pump.
(g) Fusible Plug: It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or the fire its object is to put off the fire in
furnace of the boiler when the level of water in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit.
10.3 Boiler Accessories: These are the devices which are used as integral parts of a boiler, and help in
running efficiently.
(a) Feed pump: A feed pump is used to deliver water to the boiler at high pressure.
(b) Super heater: Super heaters are used to increase the temperature of saturated steam without raising its
pressure.
(c) Economiser: An economiser is a device used to heat feed water by utilizing the heat in the exhaust flue
gases before leaving through the chimney. Its use results in saving of coal, and increase in evaporating
capacity.
Draught: A small pressure difference is required to cause the air required for combustion to flow through the
furnace and remove the flue gases. This pressure difference is called drought. Draught is either natural or
artificial.

Natural Drought is provided by a chimney or stack and the draught produced by a chimney due to the
difference of densities between the hot gases inside the chimney and cold atmospheric air outside it.
Mechanical or artificial draught is the draught produced by a fan, blower or steam jet.
If fan is located before the furnace is forced draught. It forces fresh air into the combustion chamber.
If fan is located near the chimney is induced draught. It sucks hot gases from the combustion
chamber, and forces them into the chimney.
Balanced draught is .a combination of induced and forced draught. It is- produced by running-both
induced and forced draught fans simultaneously.

Compressors

Free air is the air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location.

Standard air is the air at 20 C and 1 kg/crn2 and relative humidity 36%.
1 m3 of air at atmospheric condition weights approximately 1.3 Kg.
The most efficient method of compressing air is to compress it isothermally
The compressor capacity with decrease in suction temperature increase.
Aero planes employ the axial flow type of compressor.
Inter cooling in compressors results in saving of power in compressing a given volume to given pressure.
Cylinder clearance in a compressor should be as small as possible.
Optimum intermediate pressure in two stage compressor is geometric mean of two. i.e. P = P 1 P3
2

Mining industries usually employees compressed air motive power.

Reciprocating type air compressor is best suited for small quantity of air at high pressure.
Rotary compressor is best suited for large quantity of air at Low pressure.
The capacity of compressor will be highest when its intake temperature is lowest.
Gas turbine works on Brayton or Atkinsons cycle.
Gas turbine uses axial flow type of air compressor.
Kerosene is used is fuel in turbo jet engines.
A rocket engine for the combustion of its fuel carries its own oxygen.
In Jet engine the products of combustion after passing through the gas turbine are discharged into
discharge nozzle.
* Air craft units employ open type of gas turbine.

Fighter bombers use turbo jet type of engine.

Air fuel ratio in a Jet engine will be of the order of 60:1
Design of Machine Elements
1.0 Screw threads: A screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove a cylindrical surface.
The helical grooves may be cut either right hand or left hand.

The threaded portion engages with a corresponding threaded hole in the nut or machine part.
Screws have two general purposes in engineering. They acts as fastening to secure one member to
other member by to transmit power.

Terms used in Screw threads

Major diameter: It is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. The screw is specified by
this diameter. It is also known as outside or nominal diameter.
Minor diameter: It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. It is also known as core
or root diameter.
Pitch diameter: It is also called effective diameter. It is the diameter at one half of the thread depth.
Pitch: It is the distance between the two adjacent threads measured parallel to the axis of the screw.
Lead: The distance a screw thread advances axially in one turn.
Lead = pitch x no. of starts.
Crest: It is the top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
Root: It is the bottom surface of the thread.
Depth of thread: It is the distance between the crest and root of the thread measured normal to the axis.
Helix angle: The angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch diameter with a plane perpendicular to the
axis.
Thread angle: It is the angle between two flanks measured on axial plane.
Pitch
Spiral angle:

Spiral angle=

Pitc h
Pitc h Diameter

1.2 Forms of Screw threads: The following are the various forms of screw threads.
British standard with worth (B.S.W) thread: These are rounded V threads. The angle of thread is 55
.British standard pipe (B.S.P) threads with fine pitches are used for steel and iron pipes and tube carrying
fluids.
British Association (B.A) thread: These are rounded V threads. Angle of thread is 47 . These threads are
often used on screw for precision work.

American National Standard threads (USS threads) :These threads have V shape and included angle of
thread of 60 . The tops and bottoms of threads are flat.
Unified Threads: The thread form V shaped and angle being 60. The thread has rounded crests and roots.

Square threads: These threads are named so because of their shape. The depth and width of the thread is
equal to half the pitch. These are widely used for transmission of power in either direction. Because of higher
efficiency Such type of threads are usually found on the feed mechanisms of machine tools, valve spindle,
screw jack etc
Acme threads: It is a modification of square threads It is much stronger than square read and included angle
is 29.These threads are frequently used on screw cutting lathe, bench vice etc
Knuckle threads: These are square thread with corners rounded off, which make the threads capable of
1
1
withstanding great strain & rough use. Depth of thread = 2 pitch, radius at top and bottom = 4 x
pitch.
Buttress threads: The thread angle is 45.The front face is perpendicular to the axis of the screw. It used for
transmission of power in one direction only. The railway carriage couplings have buttress threads.
Metric thread: It is an Indian Standard thread and is similar to BSW threads. It has an included angle of 60.
1.3 Types of screw fastenings: Screw fasteners are used to fasten or hold parts together. These are allowed
the parts to be disassembled whenever necessary.
Through bolts: A through bolt is a cylindrical bar with threads for the nut at one end and head at the other
end. It is passed through drilled holes in the two parts to be fast end together and clamps them securely to
each other as the nut is screwed on to the threaded end.
Tap bolts: A tap bolt or screw differs from a bolt It is screwed into a taped hole of one the parts to be
fastened without the nut.
Studs: Stud is a round bar threaded at both ends. One end of the stud is screwed into a tapped hole of the
parts to be fastened, while the other end receives a nut on it.
Cap Screws: The cap screws are similar to tap bolts except that they are of small size and a variety of shapes
of heads.
Machine Screws: These are similar to cap screws with the head slotted for a screw driver. These are
generally used with a nut.
Set Screws: These are used to prevent relative motion between the two parts. They may be used instead of
key to prevent relative motion between a hub and a shaft in light power transmission members.
1.4 Locking Devices:
Jam nut or lock nut: A most common locking device is a Jam Lock or check nut. A thin lock nut is first
tightened down with ordinary force, and then the upper nut tightened down upon it.
Castle nut: It consists of a hexagonal portion with a cylindrical upper part which is slotted in line with the
centre of each face, the split pin passes through two slot in nut and a hole in the bolt. Castle nuts are
extensively used in automobile industry.
Spring lock washer: These are made from spring steel and may be split single or multi coil. The split type
washer has the edges of the split raised in opposite directions.
1.5 Designation of Screw Threads
Size designation of screw threads: According to the Indian standards, the size & the screw thread is
designed by the letter 'M' followed by the diameter and pitch, the two being separated by the sign 'X'.
Tolerance designation: This shall include

(a)A figure designating tolerance grade 7 for fine grade, 8 for medium grade and 9 for coarse grade.
(b)A letter designating the tolerance position as, H for unit thread,d for bolt thread with allowance and 'h
for bolt thread without allowance.
E.g:M1 0- 8d means, A bolt thread of l0 mm size of coarse pitch and with allowance on the threads and
normal tolerance grade
1.6 Tee headed bolt: It is used to damn work pieces on a machine tool table.
1.7 Eye bolt: It is used to lift heavy machines, like electrical motors.
1.8 Wing nut: It is used where adjustment required to be made frequently. It can be open by a thumb and
finger. E.g. hack saw rebate connected to frame by a wing nut.
1.9 Washer: It is a cylindrical piece of metal placed & low the nut to provide flat surfaces. It allows the nut
to be screwed or more tightly A washer is specified by its hole diameter.
2.0 Keys and Couplings:

A key is a piece of metal inserted between the shaft and hub of the pulley to connect these together in
order to prevent relative motion between them.

Keys are divided into five types, namely,

(i)
Saddle keys (ii) Sunk keys (iii) Tangent keys (iv) round keys and (v) Splines
i.
Saddle keys: These are provided fully in the hub only. These keys are used for light loads as there is a
tendency to slip under heavy loads.
ii.
Sunk Keys: These are provided half in the keyway of the shaft and half in the key way of the hub or
boss of the pulley. The sunk keys are of following types, Rectangular sunk key, square sunk key,
parallel sunk key, gib head key, father key and woodruff key.
Wood ruff key is an easily adjustable key. It is a piece from a cylindrical disc having segmental cross
sections.This key is largely used in machine tools and automobile construction.
Gib head key: It is a rectangular sunk key with a head at one end known as gib head. It is usually provided to
facilitate the removal of key,
The usual proportions of the gib head key are width, w =
d
4

d
4

d
and thickness at large end t = 6 , width W=

2w d

and thickness of key (t) = 3

6

Whered is the diameter of the shaft or diameter of hole in the hub.

Rectangular Sunk Key: It has rectangular cross section and having uniform taper on the top side is in 100.
Square Sunk Key: It has square cross section and tapered 1 in 100 on the top side. The width and thickness
d
are equal to i.e. W=t= 4
Feather Key: A key attached to one member of a pair and which permits relative axial movement is known
as feather key.
Tangent Keys: These keys are fitted in pair at right angles and each key is to withstand torsion in one
direction only. These are used in large heavy duty shafts.
Round Keys: The round keys are circular in section and fit into holes drilled partly in the shaft and partly in
the hub. These are usually considered to be most appropriate for low power drives.

Splines: Some times, keys are made integral with the shaft which fits in the keyways broached in the hub.
Such shafts are known as splined shafts.
Shaft Couplings: A coupling is a device used to make permanent or semi permanent connection between
two adjoining shafts.

Shaft couplings are used to provide for the connection of shafts of units that are manufactured
separately such as motor and generator, and to provide for misalignment of the shafts.
Couplings are divided into- two groups, (i) rigid coupling (ii) Flexible coupling.
3.1 Rigid coupling: Rigid coupling is a solid coupling; it is used to connect two shafts which are perfectly
aligned.

Sleeve or muff coupling, clamp or split muff or compression coupling, and flange couplings are rigid
type of couplings.
3.2 Flexible coupling: It is used to connect two shafts having both lateral and angular misalignment.

A universal or hooks coupling is used to connect two shafts whose axis intersects at a small angle. The
inclination of the shafts may be constant, but in actual practice, it varies when the motion is transmitted from
one shaft to another. Hooke's couplings are mainly found in the transmission from the gear box to the
differential or back axle of the automobiles.
4.0 Shafts: A shaft is rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to at another.

(i)

Bushed pin type coupling, universal coupling and Oldham couplings are flexible type of couplings.

Shafts are usually cylindrical, but may be square or cross shaped in section. They are solid or hollow
in cross section.
As axle is similar in shape to the shaft, it is a stationary machine element and is used for the
transmission of bending moment only
Spindle is a short shaft that imparts motion either to a cutting tool or to a work piece.
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required on alloy steel such
as nickel, nickel chromium steel is used.
A shaft may be a transmission shaft, such as counter shafts, line shafts, head shafts and all factory
shafts (or) a machine shaft such as crank shaft.
Length of standard shaft will not exceed 7 meters on the account of transport difficulties.
The twisting moment or torque transmitted by the shaft
T=

x
fs d3
16

where T =Twisting moment (or) Torque ,f s = Torsional shear stress, d =

diameter of the solid shaft_

(ii) For a hollow shaft T =

x
fs d3(1-k4) Where K = ratio of inside diameter and outside diameter of the shaft
16

= di /do.
di and do = outside and inside diameter of the hollow shaft.
(iii)

Power transmitted in watts by the shafts p = P=

2 NT
60

watt ; Where T =Twisting moment in N-m

N = speed of the shaft in r.p.m

(iv) Horse power transmitted by the shaft, P=
N = Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.

2 NT
4500

hp; Where T =Twisting moment in kg.f.m

5.0 Riveted Joints:

A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical portion of the rivet is called
shank or body and lower portion of shank is known as tail.
The rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates such as in Structural work, ship
building, bridges, tanks and boiler shells.
The material of the rivets must be tough and ductile. They are usually made of low carbon steel,
nickel steel, brass, aluminium and copper.

5.1 Types of rivet heads

The snap heads are usually employed for structural work, machine rivets and boiler plates.
The counter sunk heads are mainly used for ship building where flat surfaces are necessary.
5.2 Types of Riveted Joints:

Lap joint: A lap joint is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two plates are then riveted
together.
Butt joint: A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting and a cover plate is
placed either on one side or on both sides of the main plates.
5.3 Terms used in Riveted Joints:
* Pitch: It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to the centre of the next rivet measured parallel to the
seam.
* Back Pitch (Pb ) : It is the perpendicular distance between the centre lines of the successive rows.
* Diagonal Pitch (Pd ) : It is the distance between the centres of the rivets in adjacent rows of zig-zag
riveted joint.
Margin or Marginal pitch (m): It is the distance between the centres of rivet hole to the nearest edge of the
plate.
5.4 Failures of a Riveted Joint:

Tearing of the plate at an edge: A joint may fail due to tearing of the plate at an edge. This can be
avoided by keeping the margin, m = 1.5 d, whered is the diameter of the rivet hole.
Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets: The resistance offered by the plate against tearing is
known as tearing resistance or tearing strength. Tearing resistance, Pt = (P-d) t x ft
Shearing of the rivets: The resistance offered by a rivet to be sheared off is known as shearing
resistance.

Shearing resistance (Ps) = n

d2 fs (for single cover) =1.875 x n

d2 fs (for double cover)

Crushing of the rivets: The resistance offered by a rivet to be crushed is known as crushing resistance.
Crushing resistance, Pc = n.d.t. fc
5.5 Diameter of rivets: The diameter of a rivet hole (d) may be determined by using Unwin's empirical
formula, i.e., d = 6 t
(Where t is greater than 8 mm),
6.0 Cotter joints

A cotter is a flat wedge shaped piece of rectangular cross. Section and its width is tapered either on
one or both sides.
The taper varies from 1 in 48 to 1 in 24.
A cotter joisnt is a temporary fastening and is used to connect rigidly two co-axial rods,
It is usually used in connecting a *ton to the cross head of a reciprocating steam engine.

7.0 Fly Wheel

A fly wheel used in machines serves as a reservoir which stores energy during the period when the
supply of energy is more than the requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement
of energy is more than supply.
Fly wheel is a main part in I.C engines, reciprocating compressors and pumps.
Co-efficient of fluctuation of speed: The difference between maximum and minimum speed during a
cycle is called the maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of maximum fluctuation of speed to mean
speed is called coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed, Cs =

2( N 1N 2)
N1+ N2

N1 and N2 is maximum and minimum speed in rpm during a cycle respectively.