INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL LOOP COMPONENTS

A controller seeks to maintain the measured process variable (PV) at set point (SP) in spite of
disturbances (D). The major components of a control system include a sensor, a controller and a final
control element. To design and implement a controller, we must have identified a process variable we
seek to regulate, be able to measure it (or something directly related to it) with a sensor, and be able to
transmit that measurement as an electrical signal back to our controller, and have a final control
element (FCE) that can receive the controller output (CO) signal, react in some fashion to impact the
process (e.g., a valve moves), and as a result cause the process variable to respond in a consistent
and predictable fashion.
Following is the general closed loop control diagram-

For controlling any practical process one must know the following points of the particular process.
1)Control Objective
2)Process Variable
3)Measurement Sensor
4)Measured Process Variable (PV) Signal
5)Set Point (SP)
6)Controller Output (CO)
7)Final Control Element (FCE)
8)Manipulated Variable
9)Disturbances (D)
Example- Chemical reactors are vessels designed to contain chemical reaction. Chemical engineers
design reactors to maximize net present value for the given reaction. Designers ensure that the reaction
proceeds with the highest efficiency towards the desired output product, producing the highest yield of
product while requiring the least amount of money to purchase and operate. Normal operating expenses
include energy input, energy removal, raw material costs, labor, etc. Energy changes can come in the
form of heating or cooling, pumping to increase pressure, frictional pressure loss (such as pressure drop
across a 90o elbow or an orifice plate), agitation, etc.

Most commonly, reactors are run at steady state but can also be operated in a transient state. There are
two basic models used to estimate the most important process variables of different chemical reactors:
1) Batch reactor model (Batch)
2) Continuous stirred- tank reactor model (CSTR)
Following figure is the schematic of closed loop control for CSTR.

In above example I1 and I2 ingredients are mixed in tank and stirred at a controlled temperature.
Temperature of mixture is measured and compared with set point and the error signal is given to
controller and then controller sends output to final control element. Such manipulated variable is used
to bring the PV equal to SP. Disturbances disturb the process if any, generating and error for which the
controller takes the necessary corrective action.
Following are some other additional control loop components, which are normally part of the control
system.
1) Recorders
Recorders provide continuous records of measured variables with respect to time. Recorder charts use
the same scales that are used for indication but with an added coordinate to designate time. Recorder
types are dependent on their shape such as Circular Chart, Strip Chart etc. Circular Charts are normally
24-hour charts and must be replaced daily. Strip Charts normally last for 30 days at a standard speed of
0.75 / 1.0 inch per hour. Special purpose recorders such as X-Y recorder, event recorder, magnetic tape
recorder etc. are also available.
Both Circular Chart and Strip Chart recorders are calibrated to read directly in process variable units
that are familiar to operators. Standard circular chart diameters include 6,8,10 and 12 inches and with
speeds of 0.25 to 24 hours per revolution. Most charts are driven electrically though spring wound and
pneumatic drives are also available. Strip charts may be rolled or folded and are available in standard
lengths of 100 to 250 feet. Multi point recorders are often used when more than one variable is needed
on a common time and range basis. These records are needed for comparison, future use and as a
checkpoint to guide operators within specified tolerance limits.
2) Switches and Alarm and/ or Shutdown Functions
Alarm and shutdown functions represent abnormal situations and both are actuated normally by safety
switches. An alarm condition warns that a shutdown may be eminent. A shutdown is a situation in
which an alarm condition existed that was so serious that no time was available for corrective or
remedial action.

The switch is a device that measures the process variable at a particular value and operates (opens or
closes) when the preset value is reached. Switches may be directly connected to the process or they
may be actuated by transmitted signal. Set point for the switches are normally set by screwdriver or
knob and output contacts are available in SPDT (single pole double throw) contact form.
3) Solenoid Valves
A solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functional units a valve and a solenoid
(electromagnetic device). There are several types direct action, pilot operated, 2/3/4 way operated etc.
They come in several enclosures to suit various electrical classifications and there may be many
variations related to electrical, mechanical and operating characteristics. The function of solenoid valve
is to provide an on-off switching option in the system. They are frequently used in conjunction with
control valves to open or close the valve at predetermined conditions or limits.
4) Actuators
An actuator is a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system.
Actuator is device, which causes type like, hand wheel or lever. With the help of manual adjustment,
any position from fully open closed can be achieved. Other types of actuators are operated by
compressed air, hydraulics and electricity.

5) Positioner
A positioner is a type of air relay, which acts to overcome hysteresis, packing box friction, and effects
of pressure drop across the valve. It assures exact positioning of the valve stem and provides finer
control. There are many types of positioners. The basic principles of operation are similar for all types.
The instrument pressure (from an I/P, for example) acts on the input module, which controls the
flapper-nozzle system of the relay. Supply pressure applies to the relay and the output pressure of the
relay goes to the control valve actuator.
6) I to P converter
Current to Pneumatic Converter is used to convert the electronic/ electric standard signal of 4 to 20 mA
to pneumatic standard signal of 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2. It is used in the standard control loop since
majorities of the controllers are electronic and the control valve is pneumatically operated (pneumatic
diaphragm type). Following is the construction of I/P converter and working principle of it.