Ch 22 Enzymes and Metabolism for the MCAT: Help and Review

Enzymes and the Environment

The substrate binds to an enzyme at the active site
Enzyme Active Site
Sometimes we like things just right. If it's too hot, we swelter under the sun. If it's
too cold, we shiver. If there's too much to eat, we hit a point where we can't swallow
another bite. But when we're hungry, there never seems to be enough food in the
house. It's not that we're nitpicky, right? It's just that we're human, and, after all, we
know what we like and we know what conditions suit us best.
We are not the only ones who value the perfect conditions. Plenty of animals and
other organisms do, too. And on a microscopic level, so do our cells. Even within our
cells, enzymes, the proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, like things just right,
too.
As a quick review, an enzyme works on a substrate, or substance or molecule on
which an enzyme functions. An active site is where a substrate binds an enzyme in
order to facilitate a reaction. Each enzyme works on a specific substrate in a specific
condition. These conditions are optimal for the enzyme - just like how the perfect
amount of sunshine and food keep us satisfied and happy.
Effect of Substrate Concentration
If you had two cookies in front of you, you could eat two cookies. If you had five
cookies in front of you, you could eat five cookies. However, maybe there were 100
cookies in front of you. Could you eat 100 cookies in one sitting? Probably not. At
some point, you'd become full, or saturated, and you wouldn't be able to eat one
more cookie at this time, no matter how many more were put in front of you.
The reaction rate increases until the point of saturation is reached
Enzyme Point of Saturation
Enzymes - well, they don't work on cookies, but they work on substrates. Therefore,
the substrate concentration in an enzyme's environment has a major effect on how
much work can be done. There's only so much substrate an enzyme can work on,
just like there's so many cookies that you could possibly eat. Let's say that one
enzyme works on one substrate at a time. Let's also say in a cell, there are ten units
of one type of enzyme but only four substrates for the enzyme to work on. In this
case, all the substrates will bind to an enzyme and the reaction rate will be low.

If you add a few more substrates in - say, like twenty at a time - then the reaction
rate will increase until the point where all the enzymes are currently busy catalyzing
reactions. The reaction rate will increase until all the enzymes available are working
on substrates. This is shown on this graph by the highest point of the curve. At this
point, the reaction rate will plateau and reach its maximum. Here, the enzyme has
reached a point of saturation. This point of saturation is when more substrate will
not increase the rate of reaction. The rate of reaction will not increase with a higher
substrate concentration unless the amount of enzyme also increases.
Effect of Temperature
Just like it affects us, temperature also affects enzyme function. Enzymes work
optimally at a specific temperature. Again, different enzymes might have different
optimum temperatures. Colder weather slows much of life down, and cold
temperatures will also slow the reaction rate of enzymes. When things heat up,
molecules move faster, similar to how we go outside or run around when the
weather starts to warm up in the spring. An increase in temperature usually means
more movement and a greater likelihood that molecules collide.
Higher temperatures can increase the rate of reaction between an enzyme and its
substrate, but only to a point. This temperature point of maximum function is called
an enzyme's optimum temperature. As you can probably guess, the optimum
temperature for enzymes in our body is actually our body's temperature!
If the temperature gets too high, it can distort the enzyme, making it unable to
function properly. In fact, if temperatures got too high, enzymes can become
denatured, or undergo a structural change in shape that inhibits function. If the
change in shape affects the active site, then an enzyme may no longer recognize a
substrate. With more enzymes becoming more non-functional, the rate of the
reaction decreases with an increase in temperature.
The reaction rate increases until the enzyme reaches its optimum temperature
Temperature Point of Maximum Function
Effect of pH
Enzymes are also affected by pH. Let's do a quick review of pH. Remember that pH
measures how acidic or basic a solution is. Acidic solutions have a pH below 7 and
contain more H+ ions. Vinegar and orange juice are examples of acidic solutions.
Basic solutions have a pH higher than 7 and contain more OH- ions, such as bleach
and baking soda. Neutral solutions have a pH of 7, having an equal concentration of
H+ and OH- ions. The wrong pH can interfere with an enzyme's bonds and shape,
possibly changing its active site. Here, the enzyme can also be denatured. Each
enzyme works at an optimum pH. The wrong concentration of H+ and OH- can
denature an enzyme and change the rate of reaction.

Different enzymes operate optimally at different pH. For example, your stomach is
an acidic environment. You probably know that from an occasional heartburn. Pepsin
is an enzyme secreted by cells in your stomach. It works in this acidic environment
to help you digest your food. Pepsin works really well in your stomach, but it's
inactive in other parts of your body. And that's a good thing, because you wouldn't
want pepsin getting to digest the rest of you as it makes its way into the other parts
of your digestive system.
Lesson Summary
In summary, enzymes work optimally in specific conditions that maximize their
reaction rate. Reaction rate will increase with higher substrate concentration until it
reaches a point of saturation, where all available enzyme is working on substrate.
Reaction rate is also optimum at a specific temperature and specific pH. At extreme
temperatures and extreme pH, an enzyme might be denatured, or undergo a
structural change in shape that makes it unable to recognize its substrate or
catalyze a reaction.
Lesson 4 - Glycolysis Pathway: Steps, Products & Importance
Cellular respiration creates chemical energy in the form of ATP from the food we eat and the air
we breathe. In this lesson, we'll learn about the first part of this process, glycolysis.

Cellular Respiration
When we're feeling tired or lethargic, sometimes all we need is some good food and some fresh
air. A little outdoor picnic not only lifts our spirits, it also literally energizes us, as well as our
cells. For a few lessons, we've done some dancing around cellular respiration, which is the
process that converts food into chemical energy. All of our cells are constantly performing
cellular respiration for us, and we can be reminded of this every time we sit down for a picnic
and breathe in the open air. This air is chock full of oxygen. In this lesson and future lessons on
cellular respiration, we'll walk through the steps that our cells take to use components in the
food we consume and the air we breathe.
Players and Stages of Cellular Respiration
But first let's step back for a reminder on the components of cellular respiration. The fancy
chemical formula for cellular respiration is C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 32 ADP yields 6H2O + 6CO2 + 32
ATP.

Chemical structure of ADP and ATP

ATP Molecule

C6H12O6, otherwise known as glucose, comes straight from the blueberry pie or whatever else
is on your picnic plate. It represents the organic compounds that are derived from our food. O2,
or oxygen, of course, is in the air that we breathe. You'll also remember that cellular respiration
yields water and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is removed from our bodies with every exhale.
Now, let's also take a second to review the final reactant in this equation, ADP, or adenosine
diphosphate. An ADP molecule has two phosphate groups. You'll recall that this ADP is like an
uncharged battery. The big goal of cellular respiration is to charge ADP to its fully energized
form, otherwise known as the product ATP, or adenosine triphosphate. ATP is simply an ADP
molecule with a third phosphate molecule.
Take a good look at this chemical structure, because this is what cellular respiration is all about.
ATP is the chemical energy that cellular respiration strives to make. It's essentially the chemical
currency of life, used to 'pay' for all the reactions that cost energy in the cell. It's the energy that
we get from our little picnic outdoors.
The last player in this chemical process we should remind ourselves of is not included in this
equation. In our cells, we also have nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, or NAD+, which is a
coenzyme. NAD+ collects electrons and carries them to another location. When NAD+ picks up
an electron, it becomes reduced and is now represented as NADH.
Now, creating ATP through cellular respiration is a long process. It occurs in three stages:
glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. In this lesson, we'll focus on
what happens during glycolysis and how this feeds into the other stages. Glycolysis is the first
stage in cellular respiration and happens in the cytoplasm.
Steps of Glycolysis
So to combine our players with the process, glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration
and uses the following molecules: glucose, NAD+, ATP, and ADP. Glucose is a six-carbon sugar.
We can represent glucose as a six-carbon sugar by using six blue circles, one blue circle for each
carbon. In glycolysis, glucose is broken down using ten enzymatic reactions to produce two
three-carbon molecules of pyruvate. Essentially, glucose is split in half and rearranged a bit.
In this process, we come away with some valuable products. Instead of going through the nitty
gritty of all the enzymes and chemical reactions involved, let's focus on some of the steps and
how they get us to the next stage of cellular respiration. Importantly, we need to know that we
use two ATP molecules to perform glycolysis. It may sound funny that we need to spend
chemical energy to make chemical energy, but think of it like an investment of money that
grows over time. You need to spend some chemical money to make some.
Glucose is transported into the cytoplasm of our cells. Here it's rearranged and receives two
phosphate groups from two different molecules of ATP, which then become ADP. Here the
addition of phosphate groups is represented by these two red circles. This is the energy
investment. This new six-carbon molecule is then divided into two three-carbon sugars, each

containing a phosphate group. These two molecules are identical, and what happens next
happens to both molecules.
One enzyme brings one NAD+ electron carrier and one phosphate group to each three-carbon
molecule. Each electron carrier picks up electrons, becoming reduced as NADH. The phosphate
group is added to the molecule.

Outcome of the glycolysis process

Glycolysis Final Step

In subsequent steps, two ADP molecules per three-carbon molecule come by to pick up all the
phosphate groups. This creates four ATP molecules total, or four units of chemical energy, and
leaves us with two molecules of three-carbon pyruvate.
Lesson Summary
Now, let's tally what happens during glycolysis, the first stage in cellular respiration. One
glucose molecule is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate in the cytoplasm. In the
process of creating two pyruvates, two molecules of ATP are used but four are created.
Therefore, our net chemical energy from glycolysis is two molecules of ATP. Two NAD+ electron
carriers collected electrons, producing two NADH + proton molecules.
The pyruvate will move on to the next part of this process, which is the citric acid cycle. The ATP,
of course, is usable energy for the cell. The NADH + proton molecules will be used later in
cellular respiration during the electron transport chain to help our cells make even more ATP.
At this point, we've taken the first step to using the food from the picnic and turning it into
chemical energy. In the next two stages of this process, we'll see how we can use oxygen and
electron carriers to create even more ATP to energize our cells.
Lesson 5 - The Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle: Products and Steps
The Purpose of the Citric Acid Cycle

Glycolysis breaks glucose down into 2 pyruvate molecules

Glucose Breaks Down into Pyruvate

In previous lessons, we started to learn about cellular respiration, the process that turns food
into chemical energy. We learned how this process begins to use the food we eat and the air we
breathe. It's a three-phase process, beginning with glycolysis, followed by the citric acid cycle,

and, finally, the electron transport chain. In this lesson, we'll learn how the products of
glycolysis feed into the citric acid cycle and how the products of the citric acid cycle ultimately
end up with the products of glycolysis in the electron transport chain.
In glycolysis, you'll remember that we broke down sugary glucose molecules from the food at
our picnic. One glucose molecule in glycolysis became two three-carbon sugars called pyruvate.
During this process, we also netted two ATP molecules, or units of chemical energy, as well as
two NADH + H+ molecules, or electron carriers.
Step Between Glycolysis and Citric Acid Cycle
Now, before we can get to the next stage of cellular respiration, the citric acid cycle, there's
some prep work that needs to be done. Before you barbeque your steaks at the picnic, you
probably want to thaw and season them first to get them ready to go. So let's get those
products from glycolysis ready for the grill.
Each pyruvate, which is produced in the cytoplasm, enters the mitochondria to be converted
into acetyl coenzyme A (acetyll-CoA). Remember that two pyruvates are created from glycolysis,
meaning two acetyl coenzyme A molecules are produced. Acetyl coenzyme A is a two-carbon
molecule.

Pyruvate oxidation converts pyruvate into 2 acetyl coenzyme As, 2 CO2 molecules, and 2 NADH
+ H+
Glycolysis-Citric Acid Cycle Link

Are you wondering where the third carbon from pyruvate went? It's found in a second product
of the reaction as a carbon dioxide molecule, which eventually diffuses out of the cell and into
your bloodstream. It's part of the same carbon dioxide that you exhale!
This preparation for the citric acid cycle is called pyruvate oxidation because the pyruvate is
oxidized, or loses electrons, to form NADH + H+. One NADH + H+ is produced per pyruvate. This
brings our total for this reaction to two acetyl coenzyme As, two carbon dioxide molecules, and
two NADH + H+. This reaction links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.
Citric Acid Cycle Steps
With two acetyl coenzyme A inside the mitochondrial matrix, we are finally able to start the
steps of the citric acid cycle, or second stage of cellular respiration. The citric acid cycle is also
known as the Krebs cycle. No matter what you call it, you'll notice the name fits the bill. This
stage of cellular respiration is a cyclical process of 8 different chemical reactions. While all the
reactions that occur are important, in this lesson, we're just going to focus on the reactions that
are essential to create products that are important to the next phase of cellular respiration.

To start, oxaloacetic acid, a four-carbon molecule, combines with acetyl coenzyme A from
pyruvate oxidation . The coenzyme A molecule separates, donating the acetyl group to
oxaloacetic acid so that it becomes a six-carbon molecule - this is called citric acid. Do you see
where the citric acid cycle got its name?

The citric acid cycle consists of 8 chemical reactions

Eight Steps of Citric Acid Cycle

Citric acid is oxidized by the electron carrier NAD+. In turn, NAD+ is reduced to become NADH +
H+. This reaction also releases a carbon dioxide molecule and turns the six-carbon citric acid
molecule into a five-carbon molecule.
Another reaction produces the same result, creating a four-carbon molecule, carbon dioxide,
and NADH + H+. Remember that this carbon dioxide is the same carbon dioxide that we exhale,
just like the carbon dioxide made earlier during pyruvate oxidation!
In a later step, this four-carbon molecule undergoes a change that eventually ends up
converting an ADP molecule to ATP. This is the only citric acid step that releases chemical
energy.
Through the last few steps, this four-carbon molecule is further oxidized by one more NAD+
and one FAD, another type of electron carrier, to become NADH+ H+ and FADH2. This fourcarbon molecule that results is familiar. We eventually end up back where we started! What
goes around comes around, right?
This cycle recreates the four-carbon oxaloacetic acid, which is ready to collect the second acetyl
coenzyme A from pyruvate oxidation and re-enter the citric acid cycle to complete the reactions
again. The wheel will keep turning, twice for each glucose molecule that entered the cell from
whatever you ate for dinner today.
Lesson Summary
Okay! So now for every glucose from the food we enjoy, we've taken two rides around the the
citric acid cycle, the second stage of cellular respiration, using products from glycolysis. Let's
see where we stand for the final stage of cellular respiration, the electron transport chain.
Two molecules of pyruvate were produced from glycolysis and converted into two molecules of
acetyl coenzyme A, two carbon dioxide, and two NADH + H+ molecules through pyruvate
oxidation, an intermediate step between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Each acetyl
coenzyme A proceeded once through the citric acid cycle. Therefore, in total, it created 6 NADH

+ H+ molecules, two FADH2 molecules, four carbon dioxide molecules, and two ATP molecules.
That's a lot of products!
Perhaps it didn't create a lot of chemical energy, but our reduced electron carriers from this
stage of cellular respiration have picked up lots of energetic electrons for the last step - the
electron transport chain - to help our cells create plenty more energy from our food! So just
stay tuned!
Lesson 6 - The Electron Transport Chain: Products and Steps
The Last Step of Cellular Respiration
Now, before you go to any big show, there's some preparation to be done. You can think of the
steps of cellular respiration as the opening acts to the main event. We've been doing a dance of
cellular respiration for a few lessons now, building up to the finale. Remember that cellular
respiration is the process that converts food into chemical energy. In this spectacular show of
how our cells perform this process, we opened up with glycolysis, followed by the citric acid
cycle. Collectively, these two acts of cellular respiration get us ready for the main event, the
electron transport chain. If you were an electron, this would easily be the most fun you've ever
had, and we'll show you why.
But first, let's recap. In cellular respiration, our cells use glucose and oxygen to produce water,
carbon dioxide, and energy - this is in the form of ATP.
Formula for cellular respiration
Formula for Cellular Respiration
Remember that we get glucose from the food we eat, like from that delicious pie from that
family picnic we attended when we were learning about cellular respiration.
In glycolysis, the sugar glucose was broken down into two pyruvate, or three-carbon sugars.
These pyruvate molecules were further modified through pyruvate oxidation before they
entered the citric acid cycle. The products of both glycolysis and the citric acid cycle combined
totaled four net ATP molecules and six carbon dioxide molecules. You'll notice this doesn't yet
account for all the products of cellular respiration. We still have to make water as well as
another 28 molecules of ATP. You'll also notice we haven't yet used the oxygen we breathe for
this process.
However, if you remember, the steps of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle collectively oxidized
carbon molecules, transferred electrons to electron carriers, and produced a whopping total of
ten NADH + H+ and two FADH2 molecules. Now these reduced electron carriers are poised to
donate these electrons to the fireworks of the show - the electron transport chain.
Steps of the Electron Transport Chain

If these electrons were all actors in cellular respiration, this would be their time to shine. The
electron transport chain is the third stage of cellular respiration.
Four protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane form the electron transport
chain. These complexes exist in a descending order of energy. Here the electron carriers come
along to drop off all their electron and proton cargo that they picked up during the glycolysis
and citric acid cycle stages. NADH + H+ and FADH2 become oxidized, donating electrons to the
first and second protein complex respectively. These complex proteins now become electron
carriers themselves and are now reduced. They become oxidized as they pass these electrons
down the electron transport chain. You can think of this like someone taking a slinky and
dropping it onto the first step of a staircase. The slinky will continue to move down the steps,
just like an electron moves down energy levels, until it hits the bottom.

Illustration of the electron transport chain

The Electron Transport Chain

Now, as the electrons are moving down the stairs, the protons donated from NADH + H+ and
FADH2 also are put to good use. They are pumped to the other side of the inner mitochondrial
membrane through the protein complexes I, III, and IV. They are moved by active transport
from the mitochondrial matrix to the space between the inner membrane and outer
membrane of the mitochondria. They do this by using the energy derived from the electrons
that flow down the electron transport chain stairs.
The last 'stair' of the electron transport chain is oxygen. You were wondering when we were
going to use that, right? A single oxygen molecule accepts two electrons and two protons from
the final protein complex. This produces a molecule of water. Why do all of us need oxygen? To
complete cellular respiration!
ATP Synthesis
Pumping all these protons outside across the inner membrane of the mitochondria creates a
high concentration of protons between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes and,
therefore, a concentration gradient of protons. In the last step of the electron transport chain,
an enzyme called ATP synthase is used. This is a channel protein in the inner mitochondrial
membrane. The protons flow through this pump at max speed, back into the mitochondrial
matrix; this causes part of the enzyme to spin in circles like a whirling dervish. This spinning
motion provides the final dance and song number of cellular respiration. ATP synthase
catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP, creating the last 28 molecules of ATP. How's that for a
final act?
Cellular Respiration Summary

Let's bring all this back to our formula for cellular respiration in order to summarize the
reactants and products from the process as a whole. One glucose molecule was broken down
in glycolysis to net two ATP molecules and electron carriers. Pyrvuate oxidation and the citric
acid cycle produced two more ATP molecules, more electron carriers, and six molecules of
carbon dioxide. Finally, in the electron transport chain, the electron carriers were used to
donate electrons and protons that turned oxygen molecules into water and created the
remainder of the 32 ATP molecules - all from one glucose molecule.
Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we learned how we took the products of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle and
used them in the electron transport chain, the third stage of cellular respiration.
Electron carriers are reduced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to NADH + H+ and
FADH2. These carriers then donate electrons and protons to the electron carrier proteins of the
electron transport chain. The final electron acceptor is oxygen. Together with oxygen, electrons
and protons form molecules of water.
In addition, protons are actively pumped to the other side of the inner mitochondrial
membrane, creating this proton gradient. These protons flow through ATP synthase, a channel
protein that uses this power to phosphorylate ADP to make ATP. The electron transport chain,
therefore, produces 28 ATP molecules as well as water.
Lesson 7 - Allosteric Regulation of Enzymes: Definition & Significance

Overview of Enzymes
Have you ever wondered what happens to a hamburger once it reaches your
stomach, how it dissolves into pieces smaller than the eye can see? The answer to
your question is enzymes. Enzymes are what change substrates into products. For
example, they change the hamburger into something your body can use, as well as
something small enough to get into its cells.
Enzymes are not only important in digestion, but many other bodily and cellular
functions as well, like respiration. Therefore, it's also important that they are
properly regulated. An unregulated enzyme may make too much of something or
nothing at all, both of which cases can have profound effects on how your body
performs. One key mechanism used to control enzymes is allosteric regulation.
Allosteric Regulation
Enzymes have an area called the active site, where they bind substrates, like the
hamburger, and turn them into products or food for cells. Many enzymes have other
areas called allosteric sites, located in a different place from the active site.
Enzyme with allosteric and active site

Enzyme showing active and allosteric sites

An allosteric site does not bind substrate, but instead another molecule that affects
the enzyme's regulation. When a molecule binds an allosteric site, it alters the
enzyme's shape, or conformation, which then changes how the enzyme functions.
Allosteric regulation induces conformational change.
Allosteric regulation changes enzyme conformation
To understand this concept more clearly, think about your kitchen lights. How do
you turn them on and off? Do you screw and unscrew the light bulbs every time you
want to change the lighting? No. You flick a switch. Imagine that the allosteric site
represents the light switch and that by controlling the switch, you control the light
bulb, or the enzyme's active site.
Allosteric enzyme regulation therefore is when a molecule binds a site other than
the active site and changes the behavior of the enzyme by changing its
conformation. In most cases, the binding of a molecule to the allosteric site acts like
a dimmer switch that can turn a light on, making it brighter or dimmer, or turn it off.
Just like the switch, allosteric molecules can activate, or turn on, the enzyme, as
well as increase, or turn up, the enzyme's activity. They can also lower, or turn
down, the activity of the enzyme, as well as inactivate, or turn off, the enzyme.
The activation state of an enzyme is often referred to as R, or the relaxed state,
where the enzyme is on, and its activity is turned up. In the T, or the tense state,
the enzyme is off, and its activity is turned down.
Enzymes are often found in Tense (T) or Relaxed (R) states.
Tense versus Relaxed state of enzyme.
One molecule may bind the allosteric site and make the enzyme change from the T
to R state, while a different molecule can bind the same enzyme and change it from
the R to T state. The state of the enzyme will also affect its function. An example of
this can be found in respiration, where a specific enzyme, phosphofructokinase-1, is
activated by adenosine diphosphate (ADP), but inactivated by adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
Allosteric regulators alter enzyme state.
Allosteric regulators alter enzyme state
Subunits in Enzymes

Enzymes are often made up of subunits, which can be individually or cumulatively

controlled by allosteric regulation. In enzymes with many subunits, binding of an
allosteric regulator to one subunit can make the other subunits more susceptible to
allosteric regulatory binding, which can more quickly increase or decrease enzyme
activity.
Multisubunit enzymes can be allosterically regulated.
Multisubunit enzyme is allosterically regulated.
In some cases, binding to the allosteric site causes a separation of a regulatory
subunit from the active enzyme section, or catalytic subunit.
Allosteric regulation can separate a catalytic subunit from regulatory subunit.
Allsoteric regulation can cause subunit separations
Significance of Allosteric Regulation
Allosteric regulation allows for a higher degree of enzyme control than could be
achieved through simply inhibiting or activating an enzyme. With allosteric
regulation, the activity of an enzyme can be more tightly regulated by
concentrations of, not only enzymes and substrates, but also other molecules that
are not affected by the enzyme. This leads to a change in the graphic nature of
enzyme activity, creating a sigmoidal or S-shaped curve rather than a simple
sideways half-U or hyperbolic shape.
Allosteric regulation produces an S-shaped, or sigmoidal, curve.
Allosteric regulation produces an S-shaped curve
Both feedback inhibition and covalent modification of enzymes are forms of
allosteric regulation. Feedback inhibition allows the cell to tell itself when to stop
making something. Covalent modification is the alteration of enzyme activity
through changes in covalent bonds, such as the addition or subtraction of a
chemical group like a phosphate, known as phosphorylation or dephosphorylation.
Because enzymes can be allosterically regulated, the cell can use a similar amino
acid sequence. This produces an almost identical enzyme with the same function,
binding the same substrates to produce the same products, but with different
molecules to control it. As a result, the cell is able to conserve its resources while
deferentially regulating how the enzyme functions.
Allosteric regulation permits differential regulation of similar enzymes.
Allosteric regulation allows for differential regulation of almost identical enzymes.

An example of this can be seen in the liver and muscles, where an almost identical
enzyme (glycogen phosphorylase), with the same function (conversion of glycogen
to glucose-1-phosphate) is allosterically regulated. In the liver, glucose binding to
the enzyme inactivates it. However, in muscle cells, the main inactivator of the
almost identical enzyme with the same function is not glucose, but ATP. Along the
same lines, adenosine monophosphate (AMP) activates the enzyme in the muscle,
but has no effect on the liver enzyme.
Lesson Summary
Enzymes bind substrates at the active site and form products. Molecules bind to and
affect enzyme behavior at allosteric sites by altering enzyme conformation.
Allosteric enzyme regulation is where a molecule binds an allosteric site, altering
enzyme conformation and thereby activating or deactivating the enzyme, or
increasing and decreasing its activity. Allosteric regulation is important because it
permits a more dynamic and complex control of enzyme activity, while allowing the
cell to use almost identical enzymes, thereby conserving its resources. In most
cases allosteric regulation changes enzyme conformation into one of two states: a
relaxed (R) active state or tense (T) inactive state.