THEORY of STRUCTURES

Introduction
1.1. Design and Analysis
The function of all structures is to withstand stresses due to imposed loads,
temperature changes, shrinkage, etc. Buildings for example are subjected to dead
loads as well as wind forces, bridges carry moving traffic in addition to self-weight
and aircraft are subjected to self-weight, live loads, dynamic forces due to wind and
acceleration, etc. All of them must support the imposed loads safely and
economically. The task of the structural engineer is to propose a suitable structure, to
examine its overall stability and, finally, to calculate structural forces and
deformations. He may, then, have to modify the proposed structure if the originally
assumed dimensions and sections do not agree with the results of the forcedeformation calculations. This trial and error procedure, through which the engineer
puts together an acceptable structure, constitutes structural synthesis or design. No
attempt will be made to discuss design in this course
The subject dealing with the calculation of reactions ( i.e. forces and moments )
and deformations ( i.e., translation and rotations) in structures due to applied loads is
known as structural analysis. This alone constitutes the subject matter to be covered
in this course
1.2. Types of Structural Supports
All structures have to be supported suitably. The following three types of supports
are in common use
1.2.1. Supports for Plane Structures
a. Roller Support
Such a support offers no resistance either to the rotation of the supported
body about an axis perpendicular to its plane through C, or to its
displacement along the support-base. The only reaction possible at a
roller-support, therefore, is along the perpendicular to its base through C.
C

b. Hinged-support
This type of support permits free rotation of the body about an axis
perpendicular to its plane through C, but does not permit its displacement
either along or perpendicular to the base. The two possible reactions,
therefore, are along and perpendicular to the support base
C

c. Fixed Support
In a fixed support the body is rigidly attached to a base which, therefore,
allows it neither in-plane rotation nor translation in any direction. The
three possible support reactions are two reaction forces and one moment
C

1.2.2.
a.
b.
c.

Supports for Space Structures

Roller Support one reaction perpendicular to base
Hinged Support 3 reaction forces
Fixed Support 6 reactions: 3 reaction forces and 3 moment

It must be emphasized that the above-mentioned support reactions are only

possible reactions and are not necessarily always present. A particular reaction is
produced if, and only if, the applied forces tend to deform the body in a manner that
mobilizes the support-resistance.
1.3. Equations of Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is stationary or moves with a
uniform velocity relative to a frame of reference. For bodies in space any three
mutually perpendicular axes form such a frame, while for bodies in a plane the
reference frame is defined by the well-known rectangular coordinates.
z

x
A body in space has six degrees of freedom (displacement and motion
about its axis), six conditions have to be simultaneously satisfied for such a body
to be in equilibrium in space, hence:
Fx = 0

Fy = 0

Fz = 0

Mx = 0

My = 0

Mz = 0

A body in a plane has only three degrees of freedom, translations along

each of the two axes, Ox and Oy and an in-place rotation about an axis Oz
perpendicular to the plane of the body. Only three of the above equations are
therefore applicable to such a body. These are the three equations of equilibrium
in the x-y plane:
Fx = 0

Fy = 0

Mz = 0

These are normally written as

H = 0

V = 0;

M = 0

1.4. Free Body Diagram

When a body is in a static equilibrium under a set of forces every part of it
must also be in equilibrium. Similarly, if a cut is made at any place in the body
and a part of it isolated from the parent body, this part must be in equilibrium
under the forces acting on it and the internal reactions exposed at the cut.
W

W
H = Wcos

M = Wxsin
V = Wsin

1.5. Internal Reactions in Structures

W
C

HA

A
B
MA

HB

VA
VB
VC
W

MC
HC
MC
VC

HA
MA

A
VA

HB
VB

1.6. Compatibility of Forces and Deformations

The Equations of Compatibility
a. At support A
= 0

= 0

v = 0

A = 0

b. At support B
= 0

1.7. Classification of Structures

Structures may be classified in various ways. One of the classifications
categorizes them as plane or space structures according as their components lie
in a plane or in space. Another divides them into one dimensional, two
dimensional and three-dimensional structures.
For example:
One-dimensional structures Two-dimensional structures -

beams, arches
slabs, shell structures

Three-dimensional structures -

dams

Structures can be classified based on their inherent elastic behavior under

imposed loads. There are two classifications:
1. Statically determinate structures
2. Statically indeterminate structures
Statically Determinate Structures
Structures which can be completely analyzed by means of statics alone are
called statically determinate structures. Finding these reactions in such structures
involves only the application of the relevant equations of equilibrium and is
completely independent of all geometrical considerations. A determinate structure
has only as many support reactions as are absolutely necessary for its stability; the
removal of a single reaction makes the structure unstable.
Example:
W

De = degree of external indeterminacy

R = number of reactions = 3
N = number of equilibrium equations = 3
De = R N
When R N = 0 statically determinate

HA
MA

VA

VB
HA

VA

De = degree of external indeterminacy

R = number of reactions = 3
N = number of equilibrium equations = 3
De = R N
When R N = 0 statically determinate

Statically Indeterminate Structures

Structures, in which the external or the internal reactions ( or both) cannot
be determined by means of statics alone, are defined as statically indeterminate

( or hyperstatic or redundant ) structures. Obviously, the number of the unknown

reactions in such structures is greater than the number of the available equations
of statics
a. Externally Indeterminate Structures
Example

W1

W2

HA
MA

VA

VB

VC

VD

R = number of reactions = 6
N = number of compatibility equations = 3
( Fx = 0 ; Fy = 0 ; M = 0 )
De = R N = 3 Statically Indeterminate to the 3rd degree
Note: VB, VC and VD can be removed and the structure will still
be stable

HB
VB

HA

MA

VA
De = degree of external indeterminacy
R =5
N =3
De = R N = 2 Statically indeterminate to the 2nd degree
Note: HB and VB can be removed and the structure is still stable

More Examples

R = 4 ; N = 3 ; De = 1

R=6;N=3
C = 1 ( condition equation due to the
presence of the hinge)
De = R ( N+ C ) = 2

R = 6 ; N = 3 ; De = 3
R = 6 ; N = 3 ; De = 3

R = 7 ; N = 3 ; De = 4
R = 12 ; N = 3 ; De = 9

b. Internally Indeterminate Structures

Structures, which are externally determinate ( or are treated so for
purposes of this section) but in which the internal reactions cannot be
determined by statics alone are called internally indeterminate. An
externally indeterminate structure is necessarily internally indeterminate
also since the internal reactions cannot be found unless the external
reactions are known. Hence, for determining the internal indeterminacy of
an externally indeterminate structure its external indeterminacy has to be
accounted for in some way.
Internal Indeterminacy of Plane Frames

n=2;R=6;N=3
Di = 6
De = R 3 = 3
D=9

Let

10

n=6;R=9;N=3
Di = 18
De = 6
D = 24

n = 10 ; R = 12 ; N = 3
Di = 30
De = 9
D = 39

n = number of closed cells in the plane frame ignoring those next to

the foundation
Di = degree of internal indeterminacy = 3n
De = degree of external indeterminacy = R N
D = total degree of indeterminacy = Di + De
N = number of equilibrium equations ( 3 for plane frames)

Internal Indeterminacy of Plane Trusses

Let

j
m
r

= number of truss joints

= number of members
= number of support reactions necessary and sufficient for
the external determinacy and stability of the trussirrespective of the total number of external reactions

The following equation must hold for the truss to be internally

determinate
2j
= number of equilibrium equations ( FH = 0 ; Fv = 0 )
(m + r) = number of unknown reactions
For the truss to be internally determinate,
or

(m + r) = 2j
(m + r) - 2j = 0

It must be emphasized that mere satisfaction of the above equation does

not ensure internal determinacy of a truss. For example, the truss below
satisfy the equation (m + r) = 2j but is not stable since the portion B forms
an unstable mechanism

m = 21 ; r = 3 ; j = 12
m + r = 2j
24 = 24

Hence , for internal indeterminacy, the equation m + r = 2j must be

satisfied by the whole truss as well as by its different parts separately. In
other words, a truss that satisfies this equation is internally determinate
only if it is stable. In case the number of the equilibrium equation (2j) is
less than the number of the unknown reactions in the truss (m + r), the
truss is said to be internally indeterminate and the difference between the
unknown reactions and the equilibrium equations
( m + r 2j )
defines the degree of internal indeterminacy of the truss. If m + r is less
than 2j, the truss is unstable.
To summarize:
( m + r ) = 2j Truss is internally determinate if stable
( m + r ) > 2j Truss is internally indeterminate
( m + r ) < 2j Truss is unstable

m = 21 ; r = 3 ; j = 12
m + r = 24 ; 2j = 24
Truss is determinate and stable

m = 18 ; r = 3 ; j = 10
m + r = 21 ; 2j = 20
Truss is internally indeterminate 1st degree

m = 16 ; r = 3 ; j = 10
m + r = 19 ; 2j = 20
Truss is unstable
c. Externally-cum-Internally Indeterminate Structures
It is really the total (external plus internal) indeterminacy of a structure
that matters in a solution.
Truss Structures:
Let

m = number of members
R = total number of external reactions
j = number of joints
D = degree of total indeterminacy ( internal plus external )

D = m + R 2j

Examples

m = 10 ; R= 3 ; r = 3 ; j = 6
m + r = 13 ; 2j = 12
Internally indeterminate 1st degree
D = m + R 2j = 10 + 3 2x6 = 1
Total degree of indeterminacy is 1

m = 11 ; R= 4 ; r = 3 ; j = 6
m + r = 14 ; 2j = 12
Internally indeterminate 2nd degree
D = m + R 2j = 11 + 4 2x6 = 3
Total degree of indeterminacy is 3

m = 35 ; R= 8 ; r = 3 ; j = 18
m + r = 38 ; 2j = 36
Internally indeterminate 2nd degree
D = m + R 2j = 35 + 8 2x18 = 7
Total degree of indeterminacy is 7

Plane Frames
A similar equation may also be developed for rigid jointed frames.
The total number of joint equilibrium equations for such frame is 3j
since three equations (Fx = 0 , Fy = 0 , M = 0 ) can be written for each
of the j-joints. If m denotes the number of structural members, and R the
total number of external reactions, the degree of total indeterminacy D is
given by
D = 3m + R -3j

m = 30 ; j = 21 ; R = 9 ; n = 10

Di = 3 x 10 =30
De = R 3 = 6
D = Di + De = 36

D = 3x30 + 9 3x21 = 36

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