Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Enabling a
Microelectronic
World
MODULE 1:
What is ELECTRICITY?
nucleus
Electrons
ATOM
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
Protons
(neutrons are also included
in the nucleus)
- +
+ -attract
+
protons
repel
External
force
(voltage)
There will be flow of free electrons
(electricity)
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
CURRENT (I)
It refers to the number of electrons passing a given
point in 1 second.
RESISTANCE (R)
The opposition to the flow of electrons or current
in the circuit.
Unit: Ohm
1 ohm of resistance will allow only 1 ampere of
current when the circuit is supplied with 1 volt.
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
RESISTANCE TO FLOW
OHMS LAW
The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal
conductor is proportional to the current through it.
V=IxR
Where:
V - voltage
I - current
R - resistance
POWER (P)
The amount of electrical work that voltage and current
has exerted in a circuit.
P=VxI
Unit: Watt
1 watt of power used in 1 second is equivalent
to 0.24 calories of heat energy.
EXERCISES
Sources: AC Generators,
AC outlet
Power plant
generates electricity
Transmission line
carries electricity
long distances
Transformer steps
up voltage for
transmission
Distribution line
carries electricity to
house
Neighborhood
transformer steps
down voltage
Transformer on pole
steps down voltage
before entering
house
FREQUENCY (f)
Defined as the number of complete cycles that
occurs in one second.
Unit : Hertz (cycles per second)
1 second
PERIOD (T)
The amount of time it takes to complete a single
cycle.
T=1/f
Unit : seconds
Period (T)
EXERCISES
MODULE 3:
RESISTORS
They are specifically designed to limit the current.
Symbol:
Potentiometer
Fixed resistor
Rheostat
Variable Resistor
RESISTOR PARAMETERS
Resistance Value - refers to the amount of opposition a
resistor offers to the flow of current,
expressed in ohms.
Tolerance - refers to the maximum change in resistance
from the nominal or rated value.
Power Rating - refers to the continuous power, in watts,
that a resistor can dissipate at temperature
as high as 70 degrees Celsius.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR) - indicates
how resistance changes with temperature. It
is expressed as a percentage change in the
nominal value at 25 degrees Celsius for each
degree Celsius or in ppm/degree Celsius.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTORS
A. Fixed Resistors
1. Carbon Composition
Fine granulated carbon (graphite) is mixed with clay and
hardened. The resistance depends on the proportion of
carbon to clay; the higher this ratio, the lower the resistance.
Resistance:
1 ohm - 100 Mega ohm
Power Ratings:
1/8 to 2 Watts
TCR:
high (>500ppm/C)
2. Film Type
Composed of a resistive material deposited evenly onto a highgrade ceramic rod. The resistive film may be carbon (carbon film),
nickel chromium (metal film), a mixture of metals and glass (metal
glaze), or metal and insulating oxide (metal oxide).
Carbon film
Metal film
3. Wirewound Type
These are made from wrapping resistance wire around a
ceramic or other high-insulating cylinder. The assembly is
then covered with enamel glaze and baked.
They are used in circuits which carry large currents, or in
circuits where accurate resistance values are required.
4. Resistor Networks
Resistors in various configurations packed in the dual-in-line
package (DIP) or single-in-line (SIP) and are used for integrated
circuits. DIP typically contains 14 to 16 pins.
5. Chip Resistors
This type of fixed resistor is in the category of SMT (surface
mount technology) component. It has the advantage of a very
small size for compact assemblies.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTORS
B. Variable Resistors
1. Single-turn Potentiometer
It is used as gain, treble or bass control in an amplifier and
as brightness and contact control in TV receivers.
Resistance:
50 ohms and higher
Power Rating:
Between 2W and 3W
2. Multiple-turn Potentiometer
This is used in application that requires precise setting of
a resistance value.
3. Trimmer Potentiometer
This is used generally for one-time adjustment of resistance.
Available for single or multiple-turn units.
Resistance:
few ohms to 5 Mega ohms
Tolerance:
+/- 10%
Power Rating:
1W
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
LETTER CODING
Significant digits
5W 2K2J
Tolerance
Multiplier
Power rating
b
a
c
c
ab
Caution:
Never perform resistance measurements in a live
circuit. This will cause damage to an ohmmeter.
CAUSES OF FAILURES
A. Fixed Resistors
High temperatures
High voltages
B. Variable Resistors
High voltages
Accumulation of dirt, moist, foreign substances
to resistive elements
RESISTORS IN SERIES
I total = I 1 = I 2 = I 3 = = I n
V total = V1 + V2 + V3 + +Vn
R total = R1 + R2 + R3 + +Rn
P total = P1 + P2 + P3 + +Pn
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
I
total = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + + I n
V supply = V1 = V2 = V3 = =Vn
1
1
1
1
1
R total = R1 + R2 + R3 + +Rn
P total = P1 + P2 + P3 + +Pn
ACTIVITIES
CAPACITOR
It stores electricity, or electrical energy.
Symbol:
capacitor
Polarized capacitor
variable capacitor
trimmer capacitor
CAPACITOR PARAMETERS
Capacitance (C) - refers to the ability of the device to store a
certain amount of electric charge.
Unit:
Farad (F)
Ambient Temperature
- the variation in capacitance expressed as a percentage of its
specified value at 25 degrees Celsius is referred to as nominal
value.
Temperature Coefficient
- the change in capacitance per degree in temperature. It
generally expressed in parts per million per degree Celsius.
DC Leakage
- refers to the minute direct current that flows in a capacitor
at a specified direct voltage. Leakage is due to the presence
of a few free carriers of charge in the dielectric. For this reason,
a charge in a capacitor cannot be stored indefinitely, and it
ultimately leaks off.
Capacitive Reactance (Xc)
- the opposition in ohms, offered by a capacitor to the alternating
current.
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
CLASSIFICATION OF CAPACITORS
A. Fixed Capacitors
1. Mica Capacitors
These consists of alternate layers of metal foil and thin
sheets of mica. The metal foil forms the plate, with
alternate foil sheets connected together to increase
plate area. This mica/foil stack is encapsulated in an
insulating material such as bakelite-mica.
Capacitance:
1 pF to 0.1 microFarad
Voltage Ratings:
100 - 2500 Vdc
Temp. Coefficients:
-20 to +100 ppm/C
2. Ceramic Capacitors
These capacitors utilize ceramic dielectric, commonly available
in a ceramic disk form in a multi-layer radial-lead configuration.
Capacitance:
1 pF to 2.2 microFarad
Voltage Ratings:
6 Vdc
Temp. Coefficient:
200,000 ppm/C
3. Paper Capacitors
Made of flat thin strips of metal foil conductors that are separated
by waxed paper (the dielectric material).
Capacitance:
300 pF to 4 microFarad
Voltage Ratings:
up to 600 Vdc
(A) - construction
(B) - cardboard-encased capacitor
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
4. Electrolytic Capacitors
Used where a large amount of capacitance is required.
Capacitance:
up to over 200,000 microFarad
Voltage Ratings:
350 Vdc maximum
DC Leakage:
High
CLASSIFICATION OF CAPACITORS
B. Variable Capacitors
1. Air Capacitors
Variable caps with air dielectric are sometimes used as
capacitors in applications requiring frequency selection.
These capacitors are constructed of several plates that
are meshed together.
CAPACITOR OPERATION
Time Constant - the time it takes for the capacitor to charge to
approx. 63% of the applied voltage.
Charging Time - the time it takes for the capacitor to charge 100%
of the applied voltage.
Time Constant = R x C
Charging Time = 5 x time constant
Where, R = resistance, ohms
C = capacitance, Farad
If supplied by AC source
Capacitor will tend the current to lead the voltage by 90
degrees. A capacitor introduces an AC resistance called
the capacitive reactance (Xc) and also expressed in ohms.
Where; f = frequency
C = capacitance
= 3.14156
CAPACITOR TESTING
1. Decode capacitance value.
2. Select proper range of Ohmmeter.
Capacitance in microfarad Ohmmeter Setting
below 0.01 - 1
x 10K
1 - 50
x 1K
50 - 1000
x 10
1000 - above
x1
Good
Open
Shorted
Leaky
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
ACTIVITIES
INDUCTOR
A component that stores energy in the form
of a magnetic field.
It is a coil of wire on a former, and may have
a core of air, iron or ferrite. When an electric
current flows in the coil, a magnetic flux is
produced in the core.
Inductors are mainly used in tuned circuits and
to block high frequency AC signals (they are
sometimes called chokes). They pass DC easily,
but block AC signals, this is the opposite of
capacitor.
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
Symbol:
Fixed inductor
Variable inductor
Air-core inductor
Ferrite-core inductor
Iron-core inductor
Common Inductors:
NATURE OF INDUCTORS
Induce a voltage across itself with any change
in current in its windings.
Oppose any change in current in its windings.
Oppose AC and pass DC signals.
Store energy in the form of a magnetic field.
SELF-INDUCTANCE
When a length of wire is formed into a coil, it becomes
a basic inductor. Current through the coil produces an
electromagnetic field. The magnetic lines of force form
a strong magnetic field within and around the coil.
Facts on Inductance:
1. When there is current through an inductor, an
electromagnetic field is established.
2. An increase in current expands the field, and a
decrease in current reduces it.
3. A changing current produces a changing electromagnetic field around the inductor (coil).
4. The changing electromagnetic field induces a voltage
across the coil in a direction to oppose the change in
current.
INDUCTANCE (L)
A measure of a coils ability to establish an induced
voltage as a result of change in its current and that
induced voltage is in direction to oppose that change
in current.
Unit: Henry (H)
Where: L = inductance, Henry
N = number of turns
= permeability
A = cross-sectional area
l = coil length, m
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Core Material
Coils are wound on either non-magnetic or magnetic
materials. Air, wood,copper, plastic and glass are
examples of non-magnetic materials. Iron, nickel,
steel, cobalt, or alloys are ferromagnetic materials.
2. Permeability
Determines how easily a magnetic field can be
established.
3. Number of turns
The greater the number of turns, the greater will
be the inductance.
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
4. Cross-sectional area
A larger cross-sectional area means the core is
larger and there is more room for magnetic flux,
means more self-induced voltage (greater L).
5. Length of coil
The length of coil is inversely proportional to the
inductance. The compactness of the shorter coil
provides shorter distances over which magnetic
flux must span. As a result, the magnetic field is
stronger and more intense.
6. Inductive Reactance XL
The opposition to sinusoidal current in an inductor.
TEST PROCEDURES
Using an ohmmeter:
1. If ohmmeter reading is infinite, OPEN COIL.
INDUCTORS IN SERIES
INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL
USES OF TRANSFORMER
1. Power Supplies
2. Protection Circuits
3. Impedance Matching
TRANSFORMER RATINGS
1. Primary Voltage = 220-240V
2. Secondary Voltage = 12V,12-0-12,15-12-9, 6-3-0 V
3. Current Capacity (Icap) = 5A
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
Transformer are basically made up of from two coils
which are wound over a common core material formed
into a closed magnetic circuit.
Primary
Winding
Secondary
Winding
TURNS RATIO
The ratio of the number of turns in the secondary
winding (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary
winding (Np).
=
s
p
Ip
Is
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Air-core
Iron-core
Ferrite-core
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
1. Step-Up Transformer
Np < Ns
Rp < Rs
Ip > Is
Vp < Vs
2. Step-Down Transformer
Np > Ns
Rp > Rs
Ip < Is
Vp > Vs
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
3. Isolation Transformer
Np = Ns
Rp = Rs
Ip = Is
Vp = Vs
DEFECTS OF TRANSFORMERS
1. Open Primary or Secondary Winding
Infinite , no deflection
INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR
CONDUCTOR
Substance, body or material, which has more electrons
that are free to move
Has very low electrical resistance
Allows electric current to flow with ease
Example: Metals such as silver, copper, gold,
electrolytes, and ionized gases
INSULATOR
Substance, body or material that has a
characteristics that is extremely opposite
of that of a conductor.
With more than four valence electrons but
ideally, it has 8 valence electrons.
Example: Rubber, glass, paper, etc.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Substance, body or material that has a characteristic
in between a conductor and an insulator.
With 4 valence electron.
Example:
1. Elementary semiconductors
a. Silicon (Si)
b. Germanium (Ge)
2. Compound semiconductors
a. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
b. Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs)
c. Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
TYPES OF IMPURITIES
1. Pentavalent Impurities
Atoms with 5 valence electrons such as
antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), and Phosphorus (P)
They are called DONOR ATOMS.
2. Trivalent Impurities
Atoms with 3 valence electrons such as
boron (B), gallium (Ga), and indium (In)
They are called ACCEPTOR ATOMS.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
1. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
It is a pure semiconductor
Every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom
2. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A doped semiconductor
Result of adding an impurity atom to an intrinsic
crystal to alter / increase its electrical conductivity
Extrinsic semiconductor can be:
a. N-type - produced when pentavalent atoms are
added to the molten silicon, producing
an excess of electrons.
Majority carriers:
Minority carriers:
electrons
holes
Majority carriers:
Minority carriers:
holes
electrons
DIODE
A semiconductor device that let current flow
only in one direction.
Symbol:
Cathode (K)
Anode (A)
DIODE OPERATION
1. Forward Bias
2. Reverse Bias
DIODE RATINGS
1. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
This is the maximum reverse voltage that can be
applied to the diode. Exceeding this voltage will
break down, conduct and destroy the diode.
2. Forward Voltage (Vf)
For silicon diode, Vf = 0.7V
For germanium diode, Vf = 0.3V
DIODE TESTING
1. GOOD CONDITION
2. DEFECTIVE CONDITION
A. Open Diode when both combinations indicate
high resistance
B. Shorted Diode when both combination indicate
zero resistance
BLOCK DIAGRAM
AC SOURCE
RECTIFIER
FILTER
CIRCUIT
REGULATOR
LOAD
3. FILTER CIRCUIT
A section that removes the unwanted ac signal in a
pulsating dc signal, basically consists of capacitor
and inductor.
4. REGULATOR
A section that provides a constant voltage to the load
regardless of the input fluctuations.
5. LOAD
Last section of the dc power supply where the output
dc signal is taken.
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
1. Half-wave Rectifier
This type of rectifier employs a single diode that
conducts only in one direction.
2. Full-wave Rectifier
a. Center-tapped full-wave rectifier
FILTER CIRCUITS
REGULATOR
A circuit for maintaining an essentially constant
output voltage under varying input condition or
changing the load condition.
Vdc
0
0
Unregulated dc voltage
Regulator
Regulated dc voltage
SPECIAL DIODES
ZENER DIODE
A diode designed to conduct current when reversed
biased with a specific threshold voltage.
Application:
1. DC voltage regulators in power supply
2. Clipper circuits
Application:
1. Indicator lamps and readout displays
2. Seven-segment display
3. Optical coupling application often in
conjunction with fiber optics.
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
PHOTODIODE
Acts as a current generator in which the current is
directly proportional to the intensity of light.
Application:
1. Automation applications particularly as sensors
VARACTOR
Acts like a variable capacitor. A reversed-biased PN
junction that utilizes the inherent capacitance of the
depletion layer.
Applications:
1. Tuning circuits
2. FM modulators
3. Oscillators
4. Bandpass filters
5. Automatic frequency control
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
SCHOTTKY DIODE
A semiconductor diode formed by attaching a metal
conductor to a heavily-doped N-type semiconductor
material in order to have faster rectification.
Applications:
1. High frequency rectifiers
2. Radar systems
3. Schottky TTL logic for computers
4. Mixers and detectors in communication equipment
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
ACTIVITIES
TRANSISTORS
A three-terminal semiconductor device that is
capable of current and voltage amplification,
or gain, in conjunction with other circuit elements.
The basic principle of transistor operation is that
the voltage across two of its terminals controls
the current flow in the third terminal.
TRANSISTOR TESTING
A. Identification of the BASE TERMINAL and the
type of transistor.
INDICATIONS
1. GOOD INDICATIONS
Four pairs should indicate high resistance.
Two pairs should indicate low resistance.
FB base-emitter junction = low R
RB base-emitter junction = high R
FB base-collector junction = low R
RB base-collector junction = high R
collector-emitter (vice versa) = high R
2. DEFECTIVE INDICATION
When indications above were not met.
2005 Amkor Technology, Inc.
Amkor Confidential / Proprietary Business Information
JULY 2005, HR OD-T
ACTIVITY
AMPLIFIER
Circuits that are capable of producing a larger
signal using a smaller signal as a pattern.
Amplifiers may be classified according to
frequency range, methods of inter-stage
coupling used, bias point at which the active
device operates, voltage, current and power.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIER
1. Common Emitter Amplifier
The input signal is applied at the base terminal
The output signal is taken from the collector
terminal.
Exhibits high voltage gain (Av), high current
gain (Ai), and very high power gain (Ap)
ACTIVITY