Engineering Design and

Construction
Course Notes
4/25/2013
The University of Sydney
Abraham Kazzaz

Table of Contents
1

Introduction to Engineering Design ................................................................................................ 3

1.1

What is Engineering Design?................................................................................................... 3

1.2

Engineering Design Sequence ................................................................................................. 3

1.3

What Makes a Good Design? .................................................................................................. 4

1.4

Effect of Minor Aspects on Design .......................................................................................... 7

1.5

Communication of Design to Building Contractors................................................................. 7

1.6

What are the Risks in Civil Engineering Construction? ........................................................... 8

1.7

What are the Risks in Civil Engineering Design? ................................................................... 10

1.8

Important Aspects of Reinforced Concrete Detailing ........................................................... 12

1.9

Movement Joints .................................................................................................................. 16

1.10

Reinforced Concrete Pit Construction .................................................................................. 17

Tunnel Engineering ....................................................................................................................... 20

2.1

Opera House Car Park ........................................................................................................... 21

2.2

Flat Arch ................................................................................................................................ 23

2.3

Crown Support ...................................................................................................................... 23

2.4

Sets for Crown Support ......................................................................................................... 32

2.5

Headings and Bulk Excavation .............................................................................................. 34

2.6

Structural Elements in Underground Structures .................................................................. 35

2.7

Tunnel Ventilation................................................................................................................. 36

2.8

Tunnel Portal Zones .............................................................................................................. 41

2.9

Driven Section Tunnelling ..................................................................................................... 44

Retaining Structures and Piling ..................................................................................................... 58

3.1

Retaining Walls ..................................................................................................................... 58

3.2

Drainage behind Retaining Walls .......................................................................................... 59

3.3

Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Retaining Walls .................................................................. 63

3.4

Reinforced Earth Retaining Structure ................................................................................... 66

3.5

Keystone Block Wall .............................................................................................................. 68

3.6

Gabion Caged Stone Wall...................................................................................................... 69

3.7

Crib Wall (Dead Man Wall).................................................................................................... 69

3.8

Piles ....................................................................................................................................... 70

3.9

Diaphragm Walls ................................................................................................................... 78

3.10

Pile Retaining Walls ............................................................................................................... 80

3.11

Wick Drains ........................................................................................................................... 86

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3.12
4

Retaining Wall at Collaroy Development .............................................................................. 87

Storm Water Drainage .................................................................................................................. 95

4.1

Storm Water Drainage Design .............................................................................................. 95

4.2

Construction of Drainage Systems ...................................................................................... 123

Pavements................................................................................................................................... 125
5.1

What Are Pavements .......................................................................................................... 125

5.2

Types of Pavements ............................................................................................................ 125

5.3

Rigid Pavement Joints ......................................................................................................... 135

5.4

Design of Road Pavements ................................................................................................. 147

5.5

Road Construction & Perfromance ..................................................................................... 149

5.6

Road Design Example .......................................................................................................... 151

Environmental Engineering......................................................................................................... 155

6.1

The Environment and Environmental Projects ................................................................... 155

6.2

Soils & Construction ............................................................................................................ 156

6.3

Nutrient Reduction Schemes .............................................................................................. 159

Timber Engineering ..................................................................................................................... 162

7.1

Types of Timber .................................................................................................................. 162

7.2

Natural Timber Properties .................................................................................................. 163

7.3

Engineered Wood Properties .............................................................................................. 166

7.4

Timber Design ..................................................................................................................... 168

7.5

Mixing Steel and Timber ..................................................................................................... 173

Crane Engineering ....................................................................................................................... 175

8.1

About Cranes....................................................................................................................... 175

8.2

Types of Cranes ................................................................................................................... 175

8.3

Design of Crane Base .......................................................................................................... 182

8.4

Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) and Legal Issues with Cranes.............................. 185

Marine Engineering ..................................................................................................................... 186

9.1

Civil Engineering in Marin Environments ............................................................................ 186

9.2

Pile Driving in Marine Environments .................................................................................. 187

9.3

Pile Socketing in Marine Environments .............................................................................. 190

9.4

Underwater Concrete Placement ....................................................................................... 191

9.5

Mooring Dolphins ............................................................................................................... 192

9.6

Gladstone LNG Gas Terminal .............................................................................................. 193

1 Introduction to Engineering Design

1.1 What is Engineering Design?
is simply the process of the process of gathering requirements from clients and relevant
external parties (such as regulatory bodies) and translating these into an idea that meets these
needs. The designer is concerned with mainly human factors like:

Aesthetics,
Functionality,
Fitness for purpose, and,
Quality.

Designers are less concerned with the implementation details; i.e. construction and constructability.
is concerned with the translation of these requirements into a technical
specification (plans, detailing and construction notes). Engineering design is concerned with more
than just aesthetics and fitness for purpose, it about ensuring that the design is compliant with legal
requirements, is safe, constructible and cost effective.
A thorough understanding of construction methods is necessary to ensure that the design minimises
construction time and resources, as well as using construction materials effectively. A relatively
miniscule proportion of engineering design is dedicated to calculations (5% or less) and a fare
greater fraction (95%) involves conceptualisation, logical reasoning, industry knowledge and
communication.
Engineering designs must meet 3 fundamental civil engineering requirements:

The designed structure must have the required ultimate capacity to stand up

to the most likely extreme events that a structure may be subjected to. The structure must
also have required strength to deal with service loads.
The structure must stand up to the elements as well as sustain the required

use without needing excessive maintenance.

The geometry of the structure must be in line with the required function as well as
keeping deflections and displacements within acceptable limits.

1.2 Engineering Design Sequence

Engineering Design Process: is the formulation of a plan to help an engineer build a structure with a
specific goal. There are several stages in the engineering design process:
1.

This is a rough design given to clients by the design company

which illustrates the initial idea for a project and is intended to be the basis of attaining the
clients approval for the construction approach adopted. This design is based on no to
limited design calculations.

E.g. Fence designer was contracted to design and build new gates for Parliament House in
Canberra. The contractor developed a simple plan with absolutely not engineering or
technical justification, using lightweight aluminium fencing with built in Para-webbing
(polypropylene webbing through the hollow aluminium sections) which would resist
dynamic loads rather than the aluminium elements. Based on this the project was approved.
The concept design was then sent to an engineer to be properly designed.
2.

This is a set of plans with greater detail, intended to be provided

to the construction company by the design company if design and construct (D&C) is
selected. This design allows tenderers of construction companies to price the construction of
the design. Again no verification of the design by calculations or code compliance is
necessary at this stage. This stage is skipped if separate design-only and build-only
companies are selected by the client.
3.
This is a set of plans produced by the design engineers that
have been subjected to the full design process with detailed calculation verification carried
out and code compliance which are ready for construction. This design is now given to the
construction company directly if D&C is used or alternatively given back to the client if
delivery is design-only. In the latter case the client is responsible for tendering to a buildonly company and providing the detailed design.
There are several risks associated with design which a design company will bear. These include:

Design errors,
Ambiguities, and,
Omissions.

If a separate design-only and build-only mode of delivery is selected, the design company will
demand a premium over the cost of delivering the design in order to cover the additional risks which
they bear. In addition the construction company may also demand a premium for the risk they bear
associated with ambiguities in the design and the tendering process. In addition some construction
issues cannot be isolated to just the designer or the builder and as such there will likely be a
significant risk placed on the client if things go wrong.
In contrast if a design and construct mode is selected the risks associated with design as well as
construction are borne by the tenderer company. As such a reduced premium is charged by the
builder and designer, resulting in a cost saving. In addition the risk borne by the client is reduced.

1.3 What Makes a Good Design?

For a design to be good it must satisfy 3 key requirements:
1.

The final design must perform the required function for which the

project was proposed.

2.
There must be some underlying problem which the project addresses and
the final design should completely solve that problem. A design which partially solves the
problem is not satisfactory.

3.

The design should efficiently use materials, resources and meet safety
requirements. It must solve the problem in the least complicated and most common sense
way.

Examples of good design include:

The wheel, one of the simplest of designs is a highly logical design taking

advantage of a pined circle, which satisfies transportation and many other needs and works
exactly as intended (spinning about its axis and allowing translation).
The tube is another example of a great design; being logical in the sense that it is

the most efficient way of moving fluids under pressure, is fit for purpose because it does
exactly that and satisfies the need for the transportation of fluids from one location to
another.
Reinforced concrete is highly logical because it combines

the compressive strength and low cost of concrete with minimal use of steel with high
strength and higher cost. It is also fit for purpose being a cheap, strong, durable and
effective construction material. Finally it satisfies the need for strong, cheap and efficient
building materials.
There was a persistent need for a large car park to service
the Opera House, Circular Quay and the Botanical Gardens. The Opera House car park met
that need very well, providing 1100 parking spaces. The car park is also fit for purpose,
servicing the needs of the area as intended without problems.
Its design is also highly logical; making use of a cylindrical exterior to resist the pressures
from surrounding rock, a donut shape with helical floors, rather than flat floors with ramps
to maximise the amount of car space and minimise space used for movement from one
floor to another, a ventilation system dug into the central rock rather than wasting car park
space, and many other logical solutions.

The Harbour Bridge satisfied the need for a link between

north Sydney and the city areas. It was also fit for purpose, having 6 lanes of traffic that
continue to ease congestion and offer a quick journey between the two areas. It is also a
highly logical solution, making use of the newly developed suspended deck steel arch
design at the time and the most durable and widely utilised construction techniques of the
time.

Examples of bad designs include:

The M5 tunnel was meant to satisfy the need for a motorway linking the
western suburbs and city to ease congestion. But design failed to fully satisfy this, having
insufficient capacity; having 4 lanes (2 in each direct) rather than 6. Even at the time of its
design this was insufficient to meet the needs of Sydney. As such it also did not fit the
purpose for which it was constructed.
It also did not have a logical design. The tunnel section running from Arncliffe to Bexley
should have had 3 tall stacks to expel pollution; one at each exit and one in the middle. This
5

would have made smog within the tunnel impossible and the tall stacks would have
prevented the surrounding suburbs from suffer poor air quality.
Defying logical design, the tunnel was built with only one exhaust outlet 1km away from it.
This would not be sufficient to prevent high pollution concentrations in the tunnel. In
addition an elevated stack was replaced with a ground level outlet, causing the air quality in
the surrounding area to deteriorate significantly.
The poor design of the tunnel can be attributed to the way in which the project was
funded. The M5 tunnel was built using only government funds and as such the project
expenditure was limited, preventing all necessary measures being implemented in the
design. Had the project been funded as a build, own, operate and transfer (BOOT) project
more funds would have been available, resulting in a far more satisfactory design.
With BOOT construction a non-government entity designs and constructs the motorway, it
owns it for a duration of 5 or more years during which it operates it and collects tolls
independently of the government. Finally upon the completion of the contract period
ownership of the motorway is transferred to the government.

Another example of poor design is a project commissioned by a

school in the Bankstown area. A gym and several science labs were to be constructed on
the grounds of a school in Bankstown. The architect who created the initial design placed
the gymnasium on the lower floor and the science labs above it. The gymnasium had to be
without columns and as such the beams supporting the floors above had to span 25m. In
addition science laboratories have large live and dead loads due to equipment as well as
significant pluming which would require significant service hole be made in the beams. For
a span of this nature with such live loads a conventional RC beam would have to be 3m
deep and a prestressed beam, 1.5m deep. This seems like a highly illogical design with
these beams costing more than $2.4 million alone, when the entire project budget was $3
million.
The architect ridiculously designed the structure with beams of 300mm depth. There was no
way on earth that such beams could support the structure above. In addition the amount of
services that needed to be run to the laboratories would have created too many
penetrations in the beams.
A far more logical design would have placed the science laboratories on the ground floor
and the Gymnasium above. Having small rooms on the ground floor allows walls and
column to be put in, reducing the spans of beams supporting the upper floor as well as
reducing their depths. In addition the significant amount of service pipes for the
laboratories could easily be run through the ground beneath. With a light weight roof, the
beams above the gymnasium could have been made with reduced depth.

1.4 Effect of Minor Aspects on Design

Sometimes certain trivial matters like architectural aesthetics make a design inefficient. This does
not make the design bad, but it also prevents it from being a good design. An example of this is the
Lane Cove Aquatic Centre. The design involved steel roof over the pool being supported by steel
columns at regular spacing around the exterior walls, between which masonry would be placed to
seal off the structure. The columns would have to be attached to the walls through welded rebar
connections embedded into the masonry.
The architect requested that the columns be constructed of CHS section with T sections welded
along their length against which the masonry would be built. Starter bars would have to be welded
to the flanges of these T sections to be embedded into the masonry.

This seems like an overly complicated design consuming an excessive amount of materials, labour
time, construction resources and project funds; (1) having to take a CHS and weld T sections on
either side (2) weld starter bars for the masonry. A much simpler, cheaper, faster and less labour,
material and resource intensive design would have involved using an SHS section for the column and
simply welding the starter bars directly to it. Sometime architectural aesthetics override logic and
functionality.

1.5 Communication of Design to Building Contractors

The design concept and required construction techniques are communicated to builders through a
variety of channels. These include:

These documents communicate the design of the structure in terms

of both components and materials graphically to builders. Several views including plan
(overhead), elevations (exterior side views), section (long/short) (side views cut through the
structure) and details (zoomed in images of particular elements of structure e.g. column-slab
connection) are used. It is best to show all information that builders need on the actual
drawings rather than the specifications because builders will often not read the
specifications.
There are 2 things that drawing must be in order to be good drawings:
7

1.

The drawings need to clearly define all aspects of the design in

such a way that only one interpretation is possible. Poor drawings have elements
which are not clearly defined or for which multiple construction interpretations are
possible. Multiple interpretations can lead to the incorrect measures being taken.
2.
Drawings need to minimise the scope for dispute
between designers and builders. In avoiding dispute over drawings, both parties will
avoid legal action being taken.
Most construction errors are due to either a lack of specification (where the builder is forced
to use their own discretion) or mistakes in the actual drawings. To avoid these situation
designers should ensure there are no mistakes, have their designs checked by others and
limit the scope for contractor discretion.

These are written requirements that need to be satisfied by builders

and other contractors. They contain information about materials to be used, construction
methods as well as requirements for services like lighting and air-conditioning. It is best to
avoid putting information that builder will use in this section, but information for specialised
services contractors can be put in this section because electricians, plumbers and airconditioning specialists will read and comply with the information.
These include things like inspections; where an

engineering will ensure that the most critical elements of a design are correctly
implemented as well as offering a means of verbally communicating the design with
builders, checklists which again ensure that the most important parts of the design are
correctly constructed and drawing the attention of builders to these areas, and many other
related items.
This channel is usually used at the beginning of a
project to communicate information in two directions between contractors and the
tenderer. A request for information is a standard process which aims to collect written
information about the capabilities of a supplier. These can take several forms:
o
This involved the client or tenderer inviting designers

to submit their design concepts, providing the potential contractor with some
background information about the site, requirements and other relevant
information.
This is a written invitation sent out to construction

companies to submit be part of the tender process for a particular project. A tender
design is provided to the potential contractors at this stage.
This is quite similar to the preceding request for
information but usually used by a construction company to recruit individual builder
or services contractors. Information about the particular segment of the project is
provided to the potential contractors.

1.6 What are the Risks in Civil Engineering Construction?

Some of the construction risks include:

Inadequate site investigation which means that corrective measures (which increase cost
and construction time) will have to be taken down the track.
Appropriateness of specification (if they are sufficiently detailed and/or correct).
Construction errors (due to design or construction workers).
Cost blow outs due to inaccurate cost estimation.

To manage these risks several strategies may be adopted:

It is important to use knowledgeable people on site to offer advice and to

use designers who are knowledgeable in construction methodologies. In this way

construction errors can be picked up and rectified immediately and designs will be in tune
with the needs of builders (avoiding misinterpretations and builder discretion).
A significant amount of risk can be reduced through the use of sub-

contractors for different parts of the project construction. Sub-contractors bear the
construction risks associated with their work rather than their employer (as would be the
case with an employee builder). In this way rectification of errors and ensuring satisfactory
quality becomes the responsibility of the sub-contractor.
Following the exact detail of the designs means that if something
should go wrong, the designer is at fault and not the builder. Deviating from the design
drawings opens up the construction company to increased risks. The cost savings from the
deviation from the design cannot offset the cost of the risks should they become reality.

An example of this is found in the case of the EG Harbord child care centre project lift shaft. A lift
shaft will always require increased depth below the ground floor. This is achieved by excavating a
rectangular lift sump to a depth of 1m or more which may be below the water table or in saturated
soil. A lift sump floor slab is then poured at the bottom of the excavation with starter bars added
around the perimeter. Once the floor slab has set the walls are then poured up to the ground floor
slab. Because the lift well is poured in two stages a gap exists between the slab and walls. If nothing
is done water will seep through and eventually flood the sump.

There are different ways of dealing with this problem which defines the type of lift sump:

The gap is not sealed and the water seeps through and is dealt with by having
a pump at the bottom of the sump which daws it away. The gap between the walls and slab
which allows water to flow through also exposes the starter bar portion in the gap to
moisture which can corrode it.
o
To deal with this hydrophilic water bars are used. This involves
placing donut shaped water bars over the starter bars after pouring the slab and
before pouring the walls. The water bar sits around the starter bar at the slab-wall
9

interface. As water seeps through, the water bar absorbs the water, swelling up and
preventing further water from penetrating.

The gap is sealed to prevent water from seeping in, protecting starter bars
from corrosion and preventing water ingress into the sump. This can be achieved in two
ways.
o
A back stop is a flat continuous strip of
plastic that has ribbing on the side in contact with the concrete to hold it in place.
The back stop is laid around the outside of the slab-wall interface prior to pouring
the concrete slab and walls. Where the back stop is discontinuous it should be
welded together to maintain continuity and keep a water tight seal.

This is similar to the back stop but is placed in the middle

of the slab-wall interface. The concrete slab is poured first, and the centre stop
placed on top. Holes are punctured in the centre stop so that the starter bars can be
passed through. Again where it is discontinuous, it should be welded together.

The construction error involved the use of a back stop. The back stop had been put on backwards so
that it could not bond properly with the concrete. The back stop also was not welded at the point
where it was cut. Had this not been picked up during an inspection of the site, the sump would have
leaked and this could have been disastrous.

1.7 What are the Risks in Civil Engineering Design?

Some of the main risks in civil engineering include:

Design errors,
A lack of specification that leads to builder discretion and possibly a construction error.
10

Ambiguity in the design can also lead to conflict between designers and builders.

To deal with these risks some strategies include:

A highly knowledgeable designer knows how to ensure their designs are

constructible, lack ambiguity and specify all necessary aspects.

Personal indemnity insurance reduces risks

further so that if a designer should make a mistake the cost of remedial work and
compensation is covered by the insurance provider. Further, many clients will not engage a
design contractor without proof of their personal indemnity insurance.
It is best to make conservative decision and assumptions during the
design process so that should something go wrong, sufficient capacity is still available. For
example in the design of the slab as part of Project H, the client requested that the slab be
designed for a 4.1 tonne forklift. After the design and construction had been completed, the
client had realised they miss read the weight of the forklift and in fact it should have been
14.1 tonne. But with recalculation, the conservative over design of the slab meant that it still
had sufficient capacity to deal with the 14.1 tonnes.
Another example is the design of concrete using charts. It is often a good idea to add on
small amount of additional steel because steel is cheap. In this way the concrete should have
a far greater than necessary strength capacity.

This refers to doubling up and having more

than one contingency in a design. That is, providing additional redundant elements to act as
backups. For example in the EG Harbord example a belts and braces approach would involve
using both the back stop and water bar, and not just the back stop.

An example of a design error is again the EG Harbord project. The site was an old service station with
the petrol tanks removed and filled with loose uncompacted fill. In an obvious mistake the design
engineer specified that auger piers be used. These are screw like piers that are driven (twisted) into
the ground until refusal. Obviously the uncompacted ground was too weak to resist against the piers
and provide sufficient strength, refusal could be reached.
As such sufficient strength could not be reached and the piers had to be removed. This was a
massive waste of funds and it should have been obvious to the designer loose fill could not provide
sufficient strength for auger piers. Wide and deep continuous footings should have been used for
such soft soil.
Designers also often take for granted that managers and tradespeople have experience with
standard construction methods and common sense. In reality they sometimes lack one or both so it
is important that engineers do not assume that they have both. Designers need to spell everything
out with full and strict specifications.

11

1.8 Important Aspects of Reinforced Concrete Detailing

There are certain projects where a large amount of reinforcement will have to be placed in a single
location with limited space. This is typically the case at beam-column intersections and bridge decks.
This can often lead to difficulties in the placement and compacting of concrete. In extreme cases this
may result in poorly compacted concrete or regions where concrete has not penetrated at all. The
first strategy to dealing with this problem is for designers and detailers to be aware of the minimum
spacing requirements between reinforcing bars.
In addition, designs with congested reinforcing can often confuse builders or builders may place the
reinforcement incorrectly leading to insufficient spacing between reinforcement. It is always a good
idea for designers and drafters to include detailed drawings and specifications of how reinforcing
steel is to be placed; making clear the spacing between bars, the order of reinforcement (i.e. which
should be top and which should be bottom steel) and the lapping and tying.
Furthermore, designers and drafters should ensure their designs simplify
construction and make the job of placing reinforcement as easy as possible to limit the potential for
error. For example in beams it might be better for the designer to use an open top stirrup with a
closer on top rather than a single piece of stirrup wire wrapped around the beam. This means that
the builder can get right into the beam, place the longitudinal steel carefully and then place the
closer on top when done. If a single stirrup wire was used, the job of placing longitudinal steel would
be awkward and would likely lead to errors in steel placement.

Another consideration is the reinforcing steel in

basement walls that will be poured directly against earth behind or walls poured directly against
existing structures. Because the vertical rebar is put in first and the rear face of the wall cannot be
access, the horizontal rebar should be drawn as the front steel. If it was drawn as the back steel,
builders could not access it in order to put it in and tie it off.

12

Cases where reinforcement in a wall is to extend into

adjacent corners should be given particular attention. Having a single bar with bent ends can be
quite problematic. If the dimensions are misread (such as the internal length misread as the external
length or vice versa) then the correct placement of reinforcement will be impossible.
There may be error in the
length so correct positioning
not possible

Double bent-end bar

A better way of dealing with this situation would be to use 2 L-bars with one very long end and lap
them or to use one straight steel bar with 2 short ended L-bars. In this way the distance between the
corners may be adjusted to ensure correct positioning every time even if manufacturing dimensions
are slightly off.
The internal distance
between the bent segments
can vary for perfect fit

2 long ended lapped L bars

2 lapped L bars with a long straight bar

Column-beam connections are another area of concern. Often the vertical bars in column are
specified to be continuous through a 90o bend into a beam. The correct method builders will use to
achieve this is to place a timber block of appropriate height at the edge of the beam formwork and
bend the vertical bars into a 90o angle by hand. Sometimes builders will be lazy and not use a timber
block or use a timber block of incorrect height. In such a case the angle may not be 90o and the

13

horizontal portion of the bars will not sit at the correct position in the beam formwork leading to
incorrect cover and effective depth.
Properly bent bars

Improperly bent bars

Timber block not

used

Timber block used

To avoid this uncertain situation and the reliance on the diligence of builders it may in fact be best to
use lapped L-bars to achieve a transition from vertical to horizontal reinforcement. This way the
angle will be perfectly 90o and the correct positioning of reinforcement will be guaranteed.
L-bar bars used

If the corner of a wall is simply reinforced with inner and outer L-bar reinforcement
it can easily resist forces imposed on that want to close the walls together, but it cannot resist
opening forces. The only resistance comes from the inner reinforcing bars which have limited
concrete cover. Moderate to large opening forces will cause the concrete at the inside of the corner
to spall off, removing any resistance for the reinforcement. The walls will quite easily move apart at
the corner like the pages of a book about the book spine.
Opening Forces
Cover will spall off and steel will
offer not resistance to opening

To resist the opening forces we use the 3 bar trick 3 bar laps are made. The outer reinforcing bars
are simply joined with an L-bar like the previous case, but rather than connecting the two inner steel
reinforcement bars together with a single L bar we now extend the inner steel to the outer steel and
lap each bar with the outer steel using L-bars. Hence the inner bars which resist the opening forces
will have a much greater cover of concrete so that spalling is no longer an issue and greater
resistance can be developed.

14

Inner reinforcement bars

extended and lapped with the
outer reinforcement using L-bars
or bent ends

The problem of opening forces also occurs in concrete stair cases where loads on the stairs cause the
stair-floor corner to want to open up. As such independent top and bottom reinforcement is
insufficient.
Cover will spall off and steel will
offer not resistance to opening

Cover will spall off and steel will

offer not resistance to opening

To avoid this problem we again use the 3 bar trick, extending the top and bottom steel at the ends
to meet the opposite steel.
Top reinforcement bars
extended and lapped with the
bottom reinforcement using Lbars or bent ends

Bottom reinforcement bars

extended and lapped with the
top reinforcement using L-bars
or bent ends

The three bar trick can also be used in masonry wall corners. It is now slightly different; the inner
and outer reinforcement steel for each wall is looped about the corner where vertical steel will
usually be placed. The vertical steel passes directly through the overlapping loops.
Inner and outer reinforcement
lapped at ends to form
overlapped loops around
corner vertical reinforcement

15

1.9 Movement Joints

Movement joints tend to be over used in most concrete structures. They often add unnecessary cost
and waste labour time. There is even scepticism about the extent to which movement joints are
mandated by the concrete code; being required every 25m for horizontal non-prestressed concrete.
This seems extremely excessive when contrasted with Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements
(CRCP) used beneath roads which require a movement joint every 15km. The use of additional
reinforcement can easily alleviate the need to use a movement joint.
Some of the typical movement joints used in column/wall supported slabs include:

Movement joints are used here at the interface between a slab and
column. A corbel is created on one side of a column which involves creating a flat topped
projection with significant reinforcement placed within it. A polymer based material is
placed onto the corbel and the slab rested on top of this. The slab resting on the corbel is
free to move independently of the column. This may be repeated at the next column to the
left for the slab on the left. The main issue with this approach is issues with the sliding
surfaces where too much friction may prevent motion or excessive movement occurs
allowing the slab to slide off the corbel.

Fixed Connection

Slab
Corbel

Polymer movement
joint allows
independent motion

Here the movement joint is created by pouring the column supporting

slabs in two sections. Essentially the column is split in two with the portion supporting the
left slab independent of that supporting the right stab. A small gap exists between the two
columns. A split column is usually achieved by pouring the first column section, then placing
a polystyrene strip, pouring the second column segment and then dissolving the strip with
acid to leave a 10mm movement gap. The two column sections can flex in opposite
directions; outward or inward (closing the gap). This is a better solution as there are no
sliding problems.

Fixed Connection

Slab

2 Colum Segments can bend

independently allowing slabs to
move freely

10mm gap made through

polystyrene strip that is
then dissolved away

16

1.10 Reinforced Concrete Pit Construction

An example of the construction of a reinforced concrete pit can be found in the Orana sewer pump
pit project. A deep pit had to be built in order to house a sewage pump beneath the ground.
Reinforced concrete was selected as the construction technique due to its versatility and low cost.
There were several steps in its design and construction.

The first step in the design process for this sewer pit was to determine how the earth pressure acting
on the walls would be accounted for. To simplify the problem two approaches could be used:

This
involved only considering the earth pressures acting on the walls in a plan view. The
maximum earth pressure, which would be that acting at the very bottom, was assumed to
be uniformly distributed along the height of the walls. Due to the connectivity of the walls
negative moments would be generated at and near the corners (bulging out) and positive
moments acting in the middle segment of the walls (bulging inwards).

Bending Moment Distribution

Peak Uniform Earth Pressure

This
involved only considering the hydrostatic pressure acting at the middle of the walls in
section view and assuming this was distributed throughout the length of the wall. Moments
considered would only be positive, ignoring the effect of having corners joining the walls.

Bending Moment Distribution

Peak Uniform Earth Pressure

17

The better approach, and the one actually used by the designers was the plan view pressure
distribution. This is because the section view would have ignored the effect of rigid corner
connections which would have meant insufficient reinforcement on the outer faces of the wall
would have been put in, possible leading to cracking.
Note that because the concrete was directly in front of the earth, the outer face of the concrete did
not require formwork. Only the inner (front) face of the wall had formwork applied to it as the
excavated soil face behind could support the concrete and provide it with the required shape.

The next issue that had to be addressed was uplift. Because the surrounding soil was saturated, if
the weight of the concrete was less than the weight of the removed water displaced, the structure
would float up and the surrounding soil would fill the space beneath, effectively ejecting the
structure form the soil. In addition a safety factor of 2-3 is employed so that the concrete structure
must weight 2-3 times more than the displaced water.
If this is not the case then concrete flares have to be used. This involves extending the edge of the
slab a small distance beyond the outer edge of the wall to create a lip all the way around the
structure. The lip grabs hold of the soil above (which has a triangular shape) increasing the weight of
the structure in the soil.
But over time the soil will flow around the flares and they will stop working. To prevent this, a lip is
created at the top of the wall around the exterior perimeter. This upper lip holds a small amount of
soil in place above the flare, stopping the complete flow of soil and keeping the flares effective.
Top lip retains a
portion of soil
above the flare
Soil segment
bearing down on
flare

Flare
s

Concrete Drop: The maximum drop for concrete pour is about 1m. Hence for deep walls like
the ones in the pit, the concrete has to be poured in through a tube down to the region
where it will occupy.
Vibrator Space: Also it must be ensured that during the design phase that sufficient space is
left between reinforcement to fit a concrete vibrator in so that air bubbles can be removed.

18

Durability: It must be ensured that sufficient concrete cover is provided at the faces of the
wall and slab to protect the steel from the environment. The cover depends on the
environment. For example the cover for this pit which will be exposed to sewage (highly
corrosive) will have to be very thick while for concrete exposed in air the cover is relatively
thin.
Pour Sequence: In terms of pour sequence there are two ways of pouring the slab and walls:
This involves pouring the slab first, possibly with a
back water stop or centre water stop put around the edge and inserting starter bars
with water blocks. If it is decided not to use water stops (i.e. wet sump) a sump
needs to be created at the bottom of the slab. This involves creating a rectangular
depression in the middle of the slab into which water flows and can be pumped out.
Once the slab has set and cured the front face formwork is attached to the slab and
the walls poured.

Sump

This involves having a shutter (form) at the top of the

Floating Shutter

Nut resists uplift

Top Face Slab
Form
Excavation Face

Anchor driven
into rock to resist
uplift

Front face wall

Form rests on slab
form

Excavation Face

slab as well as the front face of the walls. These forms are attached together at their
intersection. Together they form what is known as a floating shutter. Now if
concrete was poured in the shutters would simply float up and not give the concrete
the required shape. To stop this happening anchor bolts are drilled down into the
bedrock and grouted in before the placement of the shutters. A bolt is screwed on
the top (this will hold the slab shutter up), the slab shutter seated on top of this and
a second bolt screwed on (this will stop the slab shutter floating up).

Nut holds up top

face slab form

For the information of the reader this pit could have also been constructed in several different ways:

This involves pre-casting the entire concrete

pit structure off-site, transporting on site and simply placing it into an excavated hole,
19

covering the sides back up and compacting the fill soil. This is a highly cost effective and time
saving solution which works well where there is no existing piping. But if there is existing
piping, this cannot be used. In-situ cast concrete is better for situations where there is preexisting piping because it can be cast around them.
The wall around the slab at the bottom of the pit could

have been made out of reinforced concrete filled masonry. But the problem with this is that
the interface between adjacent block is not water tight which would allow water from the
surrounding soil to flow in, reducing the effective cover of the reinforcement relative to the
case of an equivalent reinforced concrete wall. These interfaces would have to be filled up
with water proof grout. In general this solution is not as durable as the reinforced concrete
options.
This solution involves fabricating a fibre glass shell that has the same
dimensions as the interior of the pit off site and transporting it on site. The shell is then
placed into an excavation which is actually bigger than it. The cavity around the fibre glass
shell is then filled with concrete so that the interior shell is encapsulated in a protective and
strong layer. Ribbing all the way around the shell along its sides grips the highly viscous
concrete, preventing it from floating up out of the concrete. This option results in a fully
water proof pit.
Fibre Glass Shell
Ribbing
Concrete
Encapsulation

Each of these options was found to be unsuitable, making in-situ cast reinforced concrete the most
suitable construction method. There were existing pipes which made precast concrete an unviable
solution. Also the lower durability of the reinforced masonry in a highly reactive environment like a
sewage pump made it unsuitable. Finally the Fibre glass option would be too expensive to cast and
transport on site.

2 Tunnel Engineering
Tunnels are underground passages that allow vehicles, air, fluid or other matter to be
transported under buildings, roads, rivers or hills. Examples of tunnels include:

20

M5
Eastern Distributor
Lane Cove Tunnel
North Side Storage Tunnel (used to divert waste water from North Shore waste water
treatment plant during periods of excessive rain, for later processing)
Cross City Tunnel
Harbour Tunnel

Tunnels have 2 components:

This is the region of the tunnel between the opening and some distance

down until the tunnel geology becomes uniform. These usually take the form of toughs or
slots cut through unstable earth material so that the beginning of the tunnel is open air, or
cut and cover sections where an open excavation is conducted, the tunnel formed in the
open pit and then covered again with fill.
This is the main body of the tunnel which is excavated by tunnel
boring machine (TBM) or road header.

Standards for the design or urban tunnels are set by PIARC (Permanent International Association of
Road Congresses) the world authority for road construction.

2.1 Opera House Car Park

As mentioned earlier the Opera house Car Park was an outstanding design. It sits within the
sandstone rock of the Bennelong Point cliff, directly beneath the Botanical Gardens. The
construction of the car park relied upon tunnel engineering techniques rather than conventional
open cut excavation and back fill upon completion because the botanical gardens above could not
21

be disturbed. It has a pedestrian access tunnel dug through the bottom of the cliff to give access to
the Opera House, and 2 vehicular access tunnel (one of entry and another for exit) through the same
side, joining up with Macquarie Street.

The floors have a double helix shape the first of its kind, with one spiral being for clockwise motion
to go down and another for anticlockwise motion to move up. 4 tunnels have been drilled through
the central rock core to link the upward and downward spirals at various locations. Each has an
angle offset so that the 4 tunnels do not lie directly parallel above one another as this would lead to
weakness in the rock above the lower tunnels.

Two other ventilation tunnels were excavated; an air intake tunnel was excavated through the cliff
face to the exterior while an exhaust tunnel was dug at a lower level, ending in an exhaust shaft
reaching the surface a fair distance beyond the cliff face.
The car Park outer shell was excavated using a flat arch for the roof and straight vertical walls down
to the foundations. The flat arch (crown) was excavated using a road header with low cost bulk
excavation for the remainder. The construction techniques used in the opera house car park and
other projects are discussed below.
22

2.2 Flat Arch

The roof (crown) is the key feature of the Opera House Car Park. It is almost flat with a span of up to
19m, which is actually the most appropriate shape for horizontally bedded strata. The flat arch
design is also appropriate because the surrounding rock is Hawkesbury sandstone which has
strength ranging from 15MPa to 40MPa; sufficient to enable the roof to support itself without
additional material.
The roof of the flat arch cavern is not supported with formed concrete, but is rather self-supporting
with the aid of tensioned rock bolts (Macalloy bars) that extend up to 7.5m and un-tensioned rock
bolts (un-tensioned dowels) that extend up to 4.5m embedded in the rock around the arch. The net
result is that rock layers are fixed together so that they acted as a single linear arch. This reason for
this is addressed by the concept of crown support.

The roof rock bolted roof surface is covered with a steel mesh, held in place beneath the rock bolt
plates and sprayed with shotcrete. This reinforced shotcrete layer prevents the dislodgement of
loose rock in regions between the rock bolts. The crown of the tunnel was excavated using a road
header because of its versatility in navigating tight turns and avoiding the noise and vibrations
associated with blasting. The crown was made with a 19m span and a height of just over 5m in order
to fit a caterpillar excavator for the rest of the excavation job.

2.3 Crown Support

If an opening with a curved roof is excavated into a jointed rock mass as
pictured, the loose material will want to slide out and fall from the arch.

23

Alternatively if the rock mass is composed of thin horizontal beds, then there is a risk that these
beds will separate (delaminate) and chunks will crack off and fall down.

This process will continue until stresses are redistributed such that all rock is placed in compression
and no further rock fall is possible. This is associated with an increase in height of the arch, with the
rocks ending up in a stalled state.
The arch line formed is called the natural arch and the distance between the natural arch and the
excavated opening depends upon the type of ground and the span of the arch. That is, the more
jointed and softer the ground is or the wider the span, the greater the distance will be. The rock
above the natural arch line is referred to as the supporting zone while the rock below is called the
supported zone.
Supporting Zone
Excavated Arch

Supported Zone

Natural Arch

This refers to the encasement of the excavation with an in suit poured

reinforced concrete lining. The reinforced concrete around the arch supports the loose material and
directs the loads down to the ground beneath the excavation. The rock above relies upon the
concrete for its stability. The concrete lining is continuously poured. This is achieved using a form
that travels on wheels, so that concrete can be poured, allowed to set and then the form is
transferred and further concrete poured before the initial segment cures. This technique results in a
fully waterproof tunnel that is almost always used for railway tunnels. Little to no deflection of the
roof occurs over the long term.

24

Although called temporary this crown support will last a very

long time. But over the long term it will continuously experience deflection increases, leading to the
name temporary. It does not provide water proofing and as such drainage will have to be
considered.
It is based upon the exploitation of the natural arch to support the artificial arch created by the
excavation. This is achieved through the use of rock bolts that extend into the supported arch zone.
Rock anchor holes are drilled all the way around the arch extending some distance into the
supporting region. Rock anchors are then placed into the holes and the portion of the bolt within the
supporting zone is grouted. The rock anchors grab hold of the natural arch, using it to hold up the
supported zone.
Each rock anchor is capable of holding up a triangular region of rock surrounding it. Having the
anchors spaced closely together ensures that these supported zones overlap. A small triangular zone
between bolts remains outside of this zone and if no action is taken will likely fall out. To deal with
this, steel mesh is placed beneath the rock anchor plates and is subsequently shot created. This thin
layer of reinforced shotcrete helps to support that small triangular zone between anchors.
Supporting Zone

Zone directly by
anchors

Zone directly by
anchors

Natural Arch
Zone not
supported by
Reinforce
Shotcrete
Shotcrete
(orange)

Zone not
supported by
anchors

Reinforcing mesh
(blue)

In horizontally bedded laminated rock, tension bolts can be used to make the distinct layers act as a
single piece of rock. Essentially the rock layers in the roof behave like a conventional concrete slab.
Reinforcing mesh embedded in shotcrete supported by the rock bolt plates takes on the role of
tensile reinforcement, preventing the cracking of the rock in tension. The tensile forces are
transferred to the steel mesh through the rock bolts. This scenario is designed in an almost identical
fashion to a conventional concrete slab.

25

Reinforcing mesh
(blue)
Shotcrete
(orange)

Another case in which rock anchors are often required involves tunnel excavations with a gradient in
horizontally layered bedrock. Steep gradients will cut across bedding planes and create wedges of
rock that are highly unstable, potentially cracking off their beds and falling down. Rock anchors are
used to hold the wedges in place and prevent their collapse.

Wedges
may fall

Rock anchors with

reinforced
shotcrete installed
to prevent wedge
fall

Note that in all case the stability of the excavation is dependent on the ratio of excavation span
(width of the arch) to the depth of cover rock above the excavation ceiling. The greater the depth of
rock above the more stable the excavation will be for a given span. If the depth of cover is too small,
such that insufficient rock material lies beyond the natural arch to support the imposed compressive
loads, then the excavation will become unstable and other means of strengthening will be necessary
such as permanent support excavation or complete removal of the rock matter above. As a guide the
span of the Opera House Car Park was 19m with in excess of 7.5m of cover which is one of the
highest span to cover ratios in the world.
In order to select the appropriate rock bolt it is necessary to determine
the load carried by each rock bolt. In the case where rock fragmentation is small, we find the weight
of rock bearing down on from both the previously mentioned triangular region directly supported by
it and the section of rock supported by the shotcrete.
Hence the region supported by each anchor is almost rectangular; extending from midway between
it and the adjacent bolts on either side in the plane of the arch and longitudinally along the length of
26

the excavation. If the spacing of anchors in the plane of the arch is , the anchor spacing in the
direction of the length of the excavation is and the distance between the bottom of the supported
zone and the natural arch is . The volume of the rock supported by one rock volt is simply
. The force acting on the rock bolt due to the supported rock is the product of this volume,
the density of the rock which is typically 2500kg/m3 and the factor safety safety which takes a
value of 1.5 to 3 depending on the severity of damage that would result from rock fall. The rock bolt
chosen needs to have a load bearing capacity greater than this.

Alternatively if a large piece (wedge) of rock is loose and is supported by rock bolts in the arch
supported zone, then the number of rock bolts needed for such a wedge with weight where each
rock bolts has a load bearing capacity of is given by the following. Note that in the case of a
supported wedge the factor of safety should be taken to be between 2 and 5 (not 1.5 to 3) due to
the greater damage that may be caused by failure.

The final design scenario to consider is sliding rock wedge in the vertical segment of the arch which
may slide out. Note that the rock anchors should be put in parallel to the direction of sliding rather
than perpendicular to it because they need to be in tension rather than shear (They have very low
shear strength). The weight of the rock wedge is assumed to be , the cohesive strength of the
sliding surface between the wedge and surrounding rock is and the friction angle of the sliding
surface is In terms of the geometry, the dip angle of the sliding surface with the horizontal is ,

27

the area of the sliding surface is

rock bolts is .

and the angle between the normal to the sliding surface and the

The factor of safety for this case is taken to be between 1.5 and 3 again. If the load bearing capacity
of each rock anchor is then the number of rock anchors required is given by the following
equation.

To rationalise this, the force acting down the sliding surface (inducing sliding) is the component of
weight in the sliding direction (factored up)
, less the friction force
caused by
the component of weight acting normal to the sliding surface
and less the cohesive force
(due to the wedge and surrounding rock being one rock mass) .

The force acting up the slope per anchor due to the full capacity of the bolts being exploited is
factored component of the tension force acting in the bolts up the slope
added with the
friction force
due to the component of tension acting normal to the sliding
surface
. The product of this with the number of bolts provides the total resistance force to
sliding.

Rock anchors come in a variety of forms and can be installed in a

number of ways. But the key items that are common to all rock anchors are the threaded anchor bar
at the exposed end, on to which an anchor plate, dome washer and bolt are attached. The bolt is
screwed onto the anchor bar, providing support to the dome washer and in turn the anchor plate, as
well as providing a means of tensioning the anchor bar.

28

The dome washer, butts up against the bolt and anchor plate, with the curvature allowing the bolt,
washer and bar arrangement to be at a different angle to the plate. This allows the plate to sit flush
with the rock face, even when the anchor is not perpendicular to the excavation face. The anchor
plate then makes contact with the rock face, allowing the compressive force to be distributed over a
larger area, as well as providing a means of supporting the steel mesh for reinforced shotcrete.

Anchor bar
Dome washer
Anchor bolt

Anchor plate can

move around
relative to the
anchor bar, bolt &
Washer

Note that in cases where additional support is required, conventional rock anchor plates will be
substituted with W-straps. These are corrugated strips which expand the supported area relative to
ordinary square plates. They can be lapped to create a continuous support strip or used in isolation.
They are usually used where the rock strength is low.

Some of the types of common anchor systems include:

The process of installation involves drilling a hole of the required

depth. The rock anchor is then prepared by attaching spacers to it which are hollowed out
circular disks that maintain the anchor bar in the centre of the hole. A 10mm grout tube is
29

then wrapped around the anchor bar starting from it tip and working its way to the plate
end. A small hole in the plate allows the grout tube to pass out of the anchor shaft. The rock
anchor is then put into the hole and grout pumped into the tube. Grout will then flow out of
the end and will fill the shaft from the top down.

Rock anchor
plate
(washer) with
hole for grout
tube

Grouted portion of
shaft
Grout tube

Grout Pumped in

Rock anchor bolt

If the rock anchors are to be tensioned the segment shaft in the supporting zone is grouted
only. If grout was extended into the supporting zone tensioning the bolt would not put the
supported zone into compression. But some anchor rods come with a smooth sheathing
with a greased interior around the bar in the supporting zone so that the entire shaft may be
grouted and the bar in the supported zone can still move freely.
Alternatively if the anchor is to remain un-tensioned then unsheathed anchors are used and
the entire shaft is filled, with the emanation of grout from behind the anchor plate indicating
this.

30

Note that the bond length refers to length of anchor bar embedded into grout which can
bear load, while the fee length is that which is un-grouted or has a sheath surrounding it.
The maximum bearing capacity of a rock anchor is dependent upon the diameter of the
grouted shaft , the length of the bar segment which is bonded within the supporting zone
and the adhesion strength of the bar in rock .

Once the grouting or adhesive has set and cured, the anchors may then be tensioned by
tightening the anchor bolt against the anchor plate .

This involves a slightly different approach to the installation of rock

anchors. After drilling anchor holes, one or more sausage-like resin bags are inserted all the
way to the end of the shaft. The anchor bar is then forced into the hole with the tip burst the
plastic bag and releasing the resin contents. The resin then set within 8 seconds bonding the
anchor bar to the surrounding rock. The bearing capacity equation for grouted anchors can
also be applied to chemical anchors. Once the adhesive has set and cured, the anchors may
then be tensioned by tightening the anchor bolt against the anchor plate.

31

The anchor bars used in this case are quite

different to those in the preceding sections. The resistance of the bar to pull-out comes from
the friction between it and the surrounding rock in the anchor hole. After drilling the anchor
hole, the Swellex bar is placed into the shaft. It has a hollow horse-sho shape. Grout is then
pumped into the hollow body of the anchor, causing it to expand and engage with the rock
in the shaft. As the grout sets the pressure remains high, maintaining pressure between the
anchor bolt and the rock and creating sufficient friction to hold it and the supported rock in
place. Once the grouting has set and cured, the anchors may then be tensioned by
tightening the anchor bolt against the anchor plate.

2.4 Sets for Crown Support

Sets are used to provide support to highly unstable regions of tunnels constructed using the
temporary support system where rock anchors are incapable of providing sufficient support for the
crown rock. This is usually the case when rock in the crown has two or more degrees of freedom,
capable of falling directly down and moving horizontally. This usually happens when the crown
changes height abruptly or where two tunnels meet.
An example of this scenario can be found in the Opera House Car Park where the access, linking and
ventilation tunnels meet the cavern. In the following illustration the chunk of rock at the top of the

32

access tunnel, adjoining the caver crown is highly unstable. It can quite easily fall down or move left.
Highly Unstable rock wedge likely to fall
Wedge
Cavern Crown

Access Tunnel

Unstable
region
requiring sets

Because rock anchors are unsuitable we now have to use an alternative crown support system called
sets. These consist of closely spaced steel UC (I section) frames composed of several sections welded
together which are linked together with steel packing (steel plates) which provide mutual support
between adjacent sets and between which reinforced shotcrete is placed to provide support to loose
material. Because there is a gap between the rock face and the sets, reinforced shotcrete is used to
fill this space. Sets are only used for short distances due to their high cost; only supporting the highly
unstable rock segment.
There are two ways in which sets can be constructed:

These are composed of two I section segments welded together

at the apex of the arch, forming an arch section which is in turn supported on vertical I
section segments parallel to the walls of the excavation and terminating at the base of the
tunnel. This type of set is used when the vertical rock walls of the excavation have
insufficient strength to support the arch load down to the base of the tunnel.

33

Highly Unstable rock wedge held up by sets

Arch segment of sets

Cavern Crown

Access Tunnel
Packing

Arch segment of sets

welded at arch peak
and to set legs

Vertical legs of sets

Reinforced shotcrete between sets

Vertical
legs of sets

Here the rock is strong enough to be able to transmit

the compressive forces from the arch segment of the set down to the tunnel base. Sets are
now terminated in recesses cut into the rock walls at the level of the spring line. The string
line is an imaginary horizontal line that links the point at which the tunnel goes from arch to
vertical walls in a horse shoe tunnel or the halfway point of a circular tunnel.

Sets only form an arch

(welded together at
apex)
Rock carries
vertical
compressive
forces

Sets
embedded
into rock
at spring
line

Spring line

2.5 Headings and Bulk Excavation

Tunnels and underground structures excavated using a road header or drilling and blasting are
usually excavated in several stages. First the crown of the tunnel is excavated which in turn is
excavated in several stages. The central portion of the crown is excavated creating a small tunnel
referred to as an initial heading. The initial heading is then expanded through further excavation to
produce headings on either side which form the crown. In the case of the Opera House Car Park, the
crown was excavated using a road header in 3 stages. First a central heading was made and this was
expanded on either side to produce the crown. The central height of the crown was made in excess
of 5m to enable subsequent low cost excavation equipment to be brought in.

34

Initial Heading

Crown is
completed

Heading is
expanded

Once the crown has been excavated the tunnel may be dug deeper. This involves successively
expanding the base of the tunnel with what are known as benches. The tunnel is expanded to a
certain depth and once a sufficient bench length has been achieved another bench is begun. The
process is repeated until the tunnel base is reached

Because road headers are extremely expensive to operate ($135/cubic metre) it was decided that
the road header should only be used be used for the crown of the main car park cavern, the
ventilation tunnels, access tunnels and the 4 linking internal tunnels. The remainder of the
excavation; the bench excavation, would be undertaken using low cost bulk excavation instead
($80/cubic metre). The bulk excavation was carried out using a bulldozer fitted with an impact ripper
and an excavator fitted with a hydraulic impact breaker to break down the rock.

2.6 Structural Elements in Underground Structures

It is always a good idea to ensure that a structure built underground is independent of the
excavation face. Engagement of a structure with the rock surrounding it can be quite problematic.
For example if a concrete structure like the Sydney Opera House Car Park was permanently fixed to
the vertical walls of the excavated cavern at multiple locations along its height then the concrete
would want to shrink beginning soon after and continuing for a long time after construction, but
because the rock is already consolidated, the shrinkage is prevented.
This places enormous stresses on the structure that may in fact cause it to crack or deform
significantly. It is far better to make the structure free from the surrounding walls and roof, letting it
sit directly upon foundations at its base. In this way the structure can shrink and move
35

Structure free to
shrink

Structure wants to
shrink but cant

independently of the surrounding rock, avoiding excessive shrinkage stress and not placing
additional stresses on the rock faces around it.

Teeth Engage
with Rock Face

Independent
of Rock Face

The circular building was also built as 4 quarters to allow for motion of the structure under the
subsidence of the footings. Movement joints where put in at the interface between the independent
sectors of the building.

2.7 Tunnel Ventilation

There are two methods of ventilating a tunnel during construction:

Here ventilation ducting supplies fresh air to the construction area

and exhaust air is allowed to escape by itself through the tunnel and out through the
opening. This is a very cheap option because the positive air pressure means that collapsible
plastic sheet ducting can be used. But the main problem with this system is that dust is
distributed down the tunnel making the air quality pour behind the excavation works.

Ducting

Here ventilation ducting carries exhaust air from the excavation

area under negative pressure and allows fresh air to flow from the opening through the
tunnel. Because the ducting is under negative pressure flexible plastic ducting cannot be
used. Prefabricated steel ducting has to be used which is quite expensive. But this system
has one important advantage which is that dust is sucked away immediately from the
excavation area and not allowed to flow down the tunnel. The air quality in the tunnel is
much better than the preceding case.

Ducting

36

There are also 4 types of tunnel ventilation system used during service. These include:

This is suitable for small tunnels with low traffic volume which
is often the case in rural areas. The flow of traffic is used to drive fresh air in and expel
exhaust air out. The air flows in the direction of the traffic. Many of these tunnels have
mechanical fans which are activated during a fir to increase the ventilation flow rates.

This is similar to natural ventilation, but now

mechanical fans are added in to help drive the air along the length of the tunnel at a much
faster rate. No ductwork is necessary as fans are simply attached to the ceiling. These are
usually used in rectangular tunnels where there is insufficient space to run ductwork or short
circular tunnels.

Long tunnels with longitudinal ventilation are often compartmentalised. This means that at
regular intervals along the tunnel air intakes and exhaust extraction outlets are put in. This is
done to ensure that the concentrations of pollutants like carbon monoxide do not reach high
levels as would be the case with non-compartmentalised tunnels. Sometimes the air intake
and exhaust are put in close proximity to each other, as is the case with the M5 tunnel.

Exhaust air should flow

this way but doesnt

Intake

Compartment 1

Exhaust

When the intake and exhaust are put closely together short circuiting occurs. Rather than
the exhaust outlet sucking air from the left portion of the tunnel and the intake blowing air
down the right of the tunnel, the air brought in by the intake is directly taken by the exhaust
without flowing down the tunnel.

Air short
circuits

37

Compartment 2

Fresh air should flow

this way but doesnt

Exhaust air now flows

this way

Intake

Compartment 1

Exhaust

To avoid this, the ducting for the exhaust and intake are extended a great distance
longitudinally along the length of the tunnel to avoid the short circuiting problem.

Extended ducting
prevents short
circuiting

Compartment 2

Fresh air now flows

this

Here a single duct carrying mechanically driven air

is placed either above a suspended ceiling over the roadway or below the roadway slab. It is
referred to a partially ducted because either the supply or exhaust air is ducted but not
both. There are two possible scenarios:
o
Here fresh air is forced into the tunnel through a cavity
beneath the roadway slab. Regular openings in the duct along the length of the
tunnel allow the fresh air to enter the roadway envelope. The exhaust air then
travels along with the traffic through the roadway envelope to the exits of the
tunnel.

Here exhaust air sucked out through a cavity above the

suspended ceiling. Regular openings in the duct work allow the exhaust air to be
sucked from the roadway envelope. Supply air then travels along with the traffic,
coming in from the tunnel exits.

This is referred to as fully ducted ventilation

because both the supply and exhaust are ducted in the tunnel. Fresh air is forced into the
38

tunnel through a cavity beneath the roadway slab and exhaust air is sucked out through a
cavity above the suspended ceiling. Regular openings in the ducts along the length of the
tunnel allow the air to be circulated.

Rather than circulating longitudinally along the length of the tunnel, air flows transversely
along the tunnel, which means air has a shorter distance to travel and can be circulated
more frequently. This ventilation system is used in longer tunnels that have large amounts of
air that need to be replaced or heavily travelled tunnels that produce high levels of
pollution.
The Opera House Car Park in fact used a similar system, having ducted supply and exhaust air. Ducts
were produced by excavating notches in to the rock around the exterior surrounding rock and
interior rock wedged at centre of the structure, at regular intervals and stretching the entire length
of the structure. These were then covered with a perforated concrete membrane.
The excavated vent shafts were not lined with the excavated face becoming the envelope for the
vents. The shafts at the centre of the structure were used as exhaust vents (called exhaust risers)
and the shafts around the exterior were used as supply vents (called air droppers). Air would flow
along the Air would flow from the exterior edge of each floor towards the centre of the structure.
The air droppers and air risers were then linked to ventilation tunnels linking them to the air intake
and outlet at the bottom of the cliff.

Air droppers
excavated into
exterior rock
Air risers
excavated into
interior rock

Flow of air

39

Flow of air

When excavating ventilation tunnels the key parameter is the area of the tunnel. Because the
excavation and support of the crown of a tunnel is extremely expensive it is far better to have a
narrow but tall ventilation tunnel rather than a wide and short tunnel.

Ventilation
Tunnels with
same area

Cheaper

More expensive

The factors affecting the design of ventilation systems and the size of air compartments include:

Allowable concentrations of pollutants like carbon

monoxide, nitrous oxide and other harmful gases.
i.e. the number of cars per metre/kilometre of the tunnel.
The slower cars move the more ventilation that has to be provided. This
is linked to the traffic density.
i.e. the mix of cars and truck.
This refers to the condition of vehicles passing through the tunnel.

Older vehicles will tend to require better ventilation due to higher emissions.
Steeper tunnels will cause cars to burn more fuel and emit more

exhaust so more ventilation will be required.

The area of the tunnel determines the maximum air
velocity in the tunnel. Air will move faster through a tunnel with smaller area, meaning that
the air will be circulated faster and replenished more quickly.

There is generally no requirement for ventilation of a rail tunnel to control air quality. There is
however, a need for a ducted fire product extraction system which is able to target a particular
location.
In conjunction with semi and full transverse ventilation systems, single point
extraction is also used to increase the airflow potential in the event of a fire. This involves creating
additional exhaust vents and outlets with fans which only activate in the event of a fire, helping to
suck away toxic smoke.
Alternatively some of the newer ventilation systems are capable of providing sufficient extraction
potential without the need for additional extraction ducting and outlets. This is achieved through
oversized extraction ports, ducting and exhaust outlets combined with fans whose capacity can be
significantly scaled up. This option is in fact far cheaper.

40

2.8 Tunnel Portal Zones

Portal zones of a tunnel often have insufficient cover relative to the driven zone and as such
different techniques have to be used to excavate and stabilise this tunnel segment. Some of the
common techniques used to excavate and support the portal zone include:

Here the rock/earth over the portal zone is simply

removed creating a trough like entrance to the tunnel with high walls which are usually
reinforced concrete lined and there is no cover. The open excavation continues until a point
is reached where the rock/earth cover is deep enough for the stability of the tunnel. From
here on in tunnel boring or road heading begins.

If the unstable layer of rock or soil cannot be removed due to there being
an existing structure above or for example in the case of the cross city tunnel exit in the
domain protected trees being on top then the canopy tube technique needs to be used.
The process involves using thick walled hollow steel tubes being driven into the soil above
the crown of the tunnel to be excavated or drilled and inserted if rock material is present.
These tubes usually extend 15m and are placed close together in an arch formation around
the crown of the tunnel, referred to as a pipe canopy. In soil and soft rock the tubes are
jetted into the ground. This involves forcing high pressure water down the end to the tube,
driving away soil matter and allowing the tube to move deeper into the ground.
Pipe
Canopy

Thick-wall
Steel Tubes

The ground matter beneath the tube is then progressively excavated, with sets with legs (as
previously described) placed beneath the tubes to support them. Typically 1m of tunnel is
excavated and a set put in before excavation continues and the process is repeated.

41

Set put in

Tubes driven in to
where crown will be

1m Excavated

Set put in

Pipe
Canopy

Sets supporting
pipe canopy
Process is repeated
If the portal zone and unstable material extends beyond one length of steel tubing, then the
tubing is inserted at an upward incline relative to the tunnel excavation level so that a new
array of tubes can be inserted at the end of the first. The process is repeated until the driven
section is reached.
Inclined tubes to allow
subsequent tubes to be
inserted

Sets

The tubes are hollow with perforations along their length. Once put in, concrete is pumped
down the tubes to penetrate the surrounding ground and give it some stability, as well as to
strengthen the tubes and provide them with additional rigidity.

This is a simple technique of constructing shallow tunnels or portal

segments where a trench is excavated (open cut excavation)before or after putting in side
walls, the tunnel casing (usually reinforced concrete) constructed and then covered up
again with fill. This technique is usually used for soft soil conditions. There are two methods
of constructing such a tunnel:
o
Here an open cut trench is excavated all the way to the
foundation of the tunnel after creating supporting walls for the earth matter on
either side using slurry wall technique or contiguous bored piling. The tunnel base,
walls and roof are then constructed within the supporting walls using in situ cast
concrete or precast concrete segments. Once the tunnel is complete, the trench is
then carefully filled and the surface restored to its original condition. This technique
is used where disruption of the surface is not a problem.

42

This method is used where disruption of the surface is to

be minimised. The process starts with the creation of side walls for the tunnel that
extends from the surface or just below the surface to the foundations of the tunnel.
The walls can be made using the slurry wall technique or contiguous bored piling.
Once the walls are in place the soil within the tunnel area is excavated down to the
bottom of the tunnel roof (not all the way down to the foundations). A tunnel roof is
then poured in such a way that it is supported by the adjacent walls. Once the
tunnel roof slab is complete, the trench is covered up again and the surface is
restored. The tunnel beneath is then excavated without disturbing the surface any
further. The tunnel floor slab is poured and the tunnel made ready for use.

Note that when such tunnels are created, the soil surrounding them will inevitably be saturated.
Water ingress into the tunnels means that pore water pressure in the area above the tunnel will
43

drop. This induces subsidence of the ground above. An excellent example of this was the Easter
distributor tunnel beneath Surry Hills.

2.9 Driven Section Tunnelling

There are two techniques commonly used for the construction of the driven section of a tunnel:

A road header is an excavation device used to excavate short tunnels, segments of tunnel with sharp
turns or small cross section tunnels in hard rock. This piece of equipment is easy and quick to
procure and has a moderate service cost. It is composed of a rotating bit (a single bit rotating
perpendicular to the excavation face or two bits rotating parallel to the excavation face) with sharp
spring loaded picks which pick away at the rock surface.

The road header bit is attached to a boom which can be moved up and down to cut the height of the
cross section of the tunnel. The boom is then attached to a cabin with a crawler undercarriage (like a
dozer) which allows it progress forwards and turn. By rotating on its tracks (tracks stay stationary
while chassis rotates) the road head is able to cut from left to right.
44

Attached to the front of the cabin, below the boom is a pilot platform (an inclined wedge shaped
pan) which covers the front tractors. As the bit cuts away rock material, debris falls onto the pilot.
Large sweeping arms moving side to side on the pilot push the debris towards the centre of the pilot
into a hole in the pilot.
Beneath the hole is a conveyor belt that that extends some distance behind the rear of the road
header. The conveyor belt carries the debris away to the rear of the road header. It is also inclined so
that the cut material can be loaded directly into a dump truck. The conveyor is flexible, being able to
bend a significant amount as it continues to work (much like baggage conveyors at the airport which
can navigate tight turns) allow the road header to make tight turns in the tunnel

A tunnel boring machine is piece of equipment used to excavate tunnels in variety of mediums
ranging from hard rock through to soft muddy soil which have a circular cross section. Tunnels
produced using TBMs can range in size from 1m using a micro-TBM through to over 19m using a
large scale TBM. TBMs are typically used for long tunnel construction (in the case of large scale
TBMs) due to their low running costs, but have a high procurement cost and long procurement
period, making them unsuitable for small tunnels. Micro-TBMs can be efficiently use for both short
and long tunnels and have a significantly lower excavation cost than alternative techniques.
Three types of TBM are used for different ground conditions:

This type of machine is typically used for excavating into rock material. It has
an advancement rate of up to 250m per week. At the excavation face, the tunnel boring
machine has a large circular cutting head with diameter equal to that of the tunnel to be
excavated. The large cutting head rotates against the excavation face under significant
pressure at speeds of 1-10rpm driven by a series of hydraulic motors sitting right behind is
along its circumference (called a rack). The cutting head has a series of cutting wheels and
teeth at its face with the teeth picking bits of rock away and the cutting wheel grinding the
rock chunks into small pieces (without a hammering action). Holes in the cutting head face
allow the disintegrated rock to enter the chamber behind.

45

Shield
Cutting Head
Cutting Wheels

Cutting Teeth

Holes Allowing
Rock Debris to
Enter
The shield then sits directly bending the cutting head. It is a cylindrical steel casing that helps
support the overbearing rock before it is stabilised. Behind the cutting head and within the
shield lies the spoil chamber. The rock matter that enters through the cutting head ends up
at the bottom of the spoil chamber. A screw conveyor (also called Auger) picks up the rock
material at the bottom of the chamber and elevates it on to a belt conveyor that stretches
up to 15m along the body of the TBM. Debris from this conveyor is taken out of the tunnel
using a cassette system which will be discussed later.

Behind the shield is a rock drilling platform beneath a steel cage. The cage protects worker beneath
from falling rock matter. The rock drill is used to drill holes and install rock anchors in the newly
excavated tunnel crown.

46

Cutting
Head

Shield

Rock Drilling
Platform

Protective Cage

Grip Actuators for Gripper Pads

Forward/Backward
Motion

Gripper Actuators
for Exerting
Pressure against
Tunnel Wall

The Tunnel Boring Machine is propelled Forwards using a set of 2 or more grippers. The grippers are
large pads with a curved face that grip the tunnel surface and allow the TBM to push forward.
Hydraulic actuators exert pressure against the grippers and move them as well. Each gripper has 2
sets of hydraulic actuators attached to them; one running diagonally called the propulsion cylinders
which move the grippers backwards and forwards, and another directly behind them called grip
pressure cylinders which exert pressure on the grippers against the tunnel wall.
To move forward, the grippers are pushed firmly against the tunnel wall and using the propulsion
cylinders the TBM pushes against the grippers. The net effect is the TBM propelling itself forward
against the walls of the tunnel much like a worm. The TBM slowly moves forward as the cutting head
continues to rotate, allowing it to continuously excavate.
TBM Propelled
Forward

Pressure Exerted
Against Gripper
Pads on Rock and
Pads Push Back

Eventually the propelling cylinders reach their full range of motion. The gripper pressure cylinders
need to be released before retracting the propelling cylinders, the gripper pressure cylinders are
then reengaged and the propulsion process is repeated. In TBMs with only 2 grippers, retractable
legs called walking devices or leg support just behind the grippers. They are lowered to the floor
before removing the pressure off the grippers. They ensure that the TBM does not simply fall to the
ground when the grippers are released. Once the Grippers have been reset and the pressure against
the walls reapplied, the walking devices are then retracted.

47

Some models have 4 grippers which removes the need to use supporting legs. First 2 grippers are
released, reset and reapplied while the other two maintain the TBM in the correct position. The
process is then repeated with the other 2 grippers.
Behind the TBM a second conveyor called the main conveyor transports the spoil from the TBM
conveyor along the length of the tunnel. Hangers are progressively embedded in the tunnel ceiling
as the tunnel expands. The main conveyor belt sits on rollers attached to the hangers. More hangers
are necessary for the top portion of the belt (which is carrying the spoil) than the bottom (returning
to the TBM empty). The front of the belt is attached to the TBM and moves forward with it.

48

TBM Conveyor

TBM

Hangers

Main Conveyor

The convey belt is able to expand with increasing excavation length through an ingenious system
called a cassette located at the starting end of the tunnel. The main conveyor belt is in fact long
enough to span the entire length of the tunnel, but is shortened to the required length by wrapping
it in a zigzag fashion on rollers within the cassette. These rollers are attached to vertical frames.
Moving the frames apart shortens increases the length of belt stored in the cassette and reduces the
length of belt in the tunnel. Moving the frames closer together increases the length of the main
conveyor belt, allowing the main conveyor to progress along the length of the tunnel as the TBM
moves forward. Conveyors with cassettes can quite easily span tunnels of up to 2.1km. The spoil can
then be loaded directly into dump trucks from the conveyor belt outside the tunnel.

TBM Conveyor

TBM

Hangers

Cassette

Main Conveyor

Bringing Closer Together

Increases Belt Length

This machine is used for

the excavation of tunnels in soft cohesive soils which contain a significant amount of clays
and silts. Because the soft soil is incapable of supporting itself and flows like a fluid from high
pressure to low pressure, allowing the excavation face to be exposed to external air
pressure, would mean that the soil would flow all over the place in the TBM and the
excavation face would likely collapse. To avoid this, the excavation face is kept under high
pressure.

The cutting head used in the balance earth pressure TBM is quite different to that of the rock
TBM. Chisel like teeth are used with an absence of cutting wheels (because there is no hard rock
to grind). These teeth scoop away the soil, allowing it to flow into the openings in the cutting

49

head. The openings in the TBM are much larger, taking on a vane shape (openings the size of a
sector of the cutting head).
Shield
Cutting Head
Vane Openings
Chisel Like Teeth

The spoil chamber behind the cutting head is now completely sealed except for an outlet to the
auger conveyor to maintain pressure at the excavation face. The auger maintains pressure in the
spoil camber through the slow extraction of soil matter. Because the soil is fluid like and highly
viscous (due to the clay/silt), it helps to seal the auger prevent a loss of pressure. Careful control
of the auger speed (controlling the extraction rate) helps to maintain the required face pressure.
Thus the pressure created by the advancement of the TBM head is balanced with the loss of
pressure due to the extraction of soil by the auger, leading to the name balance earth pressure.

Pressure Sealed Spoil Chamber

Pressurised Auger
Carefully Controlled
Extraction Rate to
Maintain Pressure

A TBM conveyor belt much like that described in the previous section carries the spoil from the
auger outlet to the end of the TBM. There the main conveyor is used to take the spoil from the
TBM conveyor and transport it along the length of the tunnel. The main conveyor used for this
type of TBM is exactly like that used for the rock TBM. A cassette system is again used to allow
the main conveyor to expand along with the advancement of the TBM.
The shield in this type of TBM is slightly longer to cover the entire auger and support placement
assembly. The newly excavated tunnel walls are incapable of supporting themselves. As such
another type of support system must be used (can no longer use rock anchors). The freshly
excavated tunnel surfaces are lined with precast concrete segments. These curved segments are
laid around the circumference of the tunnel and fastened together to form a ring like lining.
Adjacent rings are then fastened together to create a continuous structural lining. The precast
concrete lining holds back the soil around the tunnel and provides a spring board against which
the TBM can push to propel itself.

50

The concrete segments are put in place by the lining erector which sits right behind/around the
screw auger assembly. It consists of a clamp placed along a circular track capable of moving
through a full 360o angle around the tunnel walls. The clamp can pick and place the lining
segments using suction. The lining segments are put in place starting at the bottom and working
around the tunnel. Once a lining segment is put in place it is manually fastened to the segment
behind it and the segment adjacent to it. The lining segments are brought in to the lining erector
through a conveyor.
Previously
Installed Lining

Lining Erector
Segments
Being Laid

Lining Segment
Conveyor

Curvature (bends) can be introduced into the tunnel by varying the width of the lining segments.
The segments along one side of the lining ring are shortened (typically no more than 50mm)

51

X - 50mm

Short Side

relative to the opposite side of the ring. This will cause the tunnel to bend towards the shorter
side.

Rather than using grippers like the rock TBM, the balance earth pressure TBM propels itself
forward using placed against the vertical face of the newly laid lining segments. The jacks extend
pushing the TBM forward. Once the jacks reach their full range of motion several jacks are
retracted and a lining segment put in their place. The process is repeated until a full ring of
segments has been formed. The jacks are then extended to propel the TBM forward and the
segment laying process repeated once the full range of motion is reached.
Propulsion
Jacks

Previously
Installed Lining

Lining Erector
Jacks Retracted
to Lay Segment

Segments
Being Laid

Lining Segment
Conveyor
This type of TBM can be used

for the excavation of soils of varying hardness which are grainy and easily separable from
slurry (with minimal clay/silt content). Again exposure of the cutting face would lead the
excavation face to collapse and the pore water to rain out of the soil, which necessitates the
maintenance of high positive pressure at the excavation face.
This is again achieved through having the cutting head and spoil chamber sealed off from
outside pressure. The cutting head used for this type of machine is similar to that used for
earth pressure balance TBMs. It has chisel like teeth with large vane like openings.
52

Shield
Cutting Head
Vane Openings
Chisel Like Teeth

Pressure at the excavation face is provided hydraulically by means of bentonite slurry which
is kept under high pressure. The TBM works by using the cutting head to loosen the soil and
its rotation to mix it with the bentonite slurry. A large wall within the cutting chamber called
the submerged wall cuts the chamber in two. A gap exists at the bottom of the wall linking
the region behind the cutting head to the rest of the cutting chamber.
Bentonite slurry fills the entire region directly between the cutting head and submerged
wall; called the cutting chamber, and extends through the bottom of the zone behind the
submerged wall called the pressure/working chamber. Pressurised air is pumped into the
top of the working chamber, creating an air cushion that extends down to just above the gap
in the submerged wall. This air cushion is in fact responsible for regulating the pressure of
the slurry at the excavation face.
Bentonite slurry is pumped in through a supply line just above the slurry-air interface. The
spoil mixed with slurry sitting at the bottom of the cutting chamber is then pumped out
through an extraction line to the outside of the tunnel. There a separating plant takes the
spoil and slurry mixture, separates out the spoil, and directly the cleaned slurry back to the
supply line to be recirculated. The separated spoil can then be taken offsite.

53

Bulk Head
Cutting
Head

Cutting
Submerged
Chamber Wall

Working/
Pressure
Chamber
Slurry in
Working
Chamber

Air Cushion

Air Supply
Line
Slurry
Supply Line
Spoil/Slurry
Extraction
Line

The tunnel is lined in the same way as that mentioned in the earth pressure balance TBM,
using precast concrete lining segments. They are also placed using a lining erector that
works in exactly the same way as that mentioned. It sits directly behind the working
chamber bulk head. In addition the TBM is again propelled through the use of jacks, which
push against the newly laid lining segments. The propulsion process is the same as that
previously mentioned for earth pressure balance TBMs.

54

Previously
Laid Lining
Lining
Erector
Lining
Segments
Being Laid
Propulsion
Jacks
Note that for all 3 TBMs it is impossible for the operator to gain access to the excavation face.
Hence visual inspection and adjustment of excavation procedure is not possible. Hence remote
monitory has to be used with information for inspection and decision making coming from:

The speed of the TBM advancement,

The torque needed to drive the cutting head,
The pressure exerted on jacks to propel the TBM forward, and,
The pressure in the spoil/working chamber if applicable.
This is variation on the preceding tunnelling case. A

micro TBM using one of the slurry pressure balance technique to construct a tunnel for running
underground pipes of diameters around 1m. The process involves:
1.

An entry (launch) shaft for the TBM to be lowered

into is made using bulk excavation equipment like an excavator down to the required depth.
The shaft must be large enough to fit the micro-TBM. In a similar way an exit (reception)
shaft is created for the TBM to be hauled out.

55

2.

The TBM which is sitting within the jacking mechanism

is lowered into the entry shaft and positioned in the correct direction for tunnel excavation.
A concrete backing block is placed behind the jacking system. The TBM then begins to
excavate the tunnel. The jack behind the TBM exerts pressure on the backing block,
propelling the TBM forward as it excavates.

3.

Once the jack reaches its full range of motion, it is

retracted, leaving a gap between it and the TBM in the entry shaft. A precast concrete pipe
segment is then lowered into this gap. The jacking system then pushes the pipe segment
forward, driving it through the excavated tunnel and propelling the TBM forward. Once the
full range of jack motion is reached, the jack is retracted and another pipe segment inserted
and the process repeated. This continues until the TBM reaches a direction change shaft or
an exit shaft. Note that the slurry supply and extraction tubing is run through the concrete
pipe segments.

4.

These are shafts dug at the same time as the entry and
exit shafts which allow the pipe to change direction. Once the TBM reached a direction
change shaft, it is rotated in the shaft to the new tunnelling direction. The jacking system is
then moved to the direction change shaft and the previously mentioned pipe jacking process
is repeated. Note that now the jack pushes against the pipe segments that were previously
laid. There should be sufficient friction between these and the ground to prevent slipping of
the piping behind.
56

57

3 Retaining Structures and Piling

3.1 Retaining Walls
Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil at unnatural slopes; associated with a change
in ground elevation that induces a slope greater than the angle of repose of the soil. Retaining walls
must resist the lateral pressures exerted by the soil which are generated as a result of the soil
wanting to return its natural slope angle.
There are two scenarios that require the use of retaining walls, with each demanding a different
retaining solution. They include:

This refers to the situation where soil is excavated at an angle

that exceeds its angle of repose and as such requires external support in order to maintain
this elevation. In addition the type of retaining structure adopted here is dependent upon
the type of material; whether it is:
o
This material can be full excavated without
o

collapse and so a retaining structure is installed after excavation is complete.

This material will collapse if excavated
without support and so a retaining structure is first installed and then excavation
can begin.
This refers to the situation where soil (not already present at the

site) is to be placed at an angle that exceeds its angle of repose and as such requires external
support to remain at this elevation. The type of retaining structure here now depends upon
whether settlement is acceptable or unacceptable.
The loads imposed on retaining structures can be analysed in two ways:

Here the soil is assumed to be fully saturated and as such to behave like a fluid; imposing lateral
loads on the retaining wall. The hydrostatic pressure is zero at the top of the wall and a
maximum at the bottom with a value of
. In this equation
is the pressure
coefficient in the soil which describes the extent to which the soil behaves like a fluid; taken at
its worst case (water) as 1, is the saturated bulk unit weight of the soil and is the height of
the soil retained. The equivalent point load acting on a retaining wall is
from the bottom of the retained soil layer.

1

2

58

and acts at

This approach involves only considering a wedge of soil slipping and exerting a force against the
wall. The worst case scenario is a wedge with angle of 70o slipping along the failure plane at this
angle. A sum of forces based on the pore pressure forces ( and ), cohesion forces ( and )
and the weight of the wedge can yield the resultant force on the retaining wall.

70

When designing a retaining structure it must generally be designed to resist:

The active earth pressures should not be able to cause it to slide in front of the

slope. This is typically resisted through having a lip at the foot of a cantilever dam, a
foundation in the soil for gabion cages, tie back anchors for face panels or a significant
amount of the crib wall being embedded in the soil behind.
The retaining wall should resist the overturning moment created by the earth

pressure acting on one side. This is typically resisted through having a heel/toe for a
cantilever dam, a slant for gabion cages which employs their self-weight to resist
overturning, tie back anchors for face panels or a significant amount of the crib wall being
embedded in the soil behind.
There must be sufficient strength in the ground below the structure
to support its weight and resist the forces imposed by rotation and sliding.

3.2 Drainage behind Retaining Walls

In order to prevent the soil behind a retaining structure becoming completely saturated and
imposing significant water pressures on the retaining structure drainage systems are typically
installed behind the wall. This allows the designers to reduce the design loads, simplifying the
design, reducing materials and lowering cost. The drainage is typically placed at the very bottom of
the retained earth material to allow gravity to force the water into the drain. Drainage consists of
perforated tubing laid along the length of the retaining wall and directed to a nearby stormwater
drain inlet. But the Major disadvantage with drain coils is that they cannot be unblocked with a
plumbers eel once they become blocked.
There are several types of drainage systems used for retaining structures. These include:

Drain coil consists of circular tubing laid along the subsoil area to be drained.
It is made of black plastic with a corrugated structure which makes it both strong and
flexible. It has fine rectangular openings made vertically around the inward corrugating
segments. Drain coil can quit easily be bent around corners, be placed in unevenly dug
trenches and be intersected with multiple drain coil tubes. The plastic tubing must be
covered with a fabric sock to prevent fine bits or soil blocking the drainage holes along the
tubing. It can easily be placed beneath roadways, foundations and behind retaining walls.
59

If the soil being drained contains a lot of clay then the fabric sock will not be able to prevent
blockage of the drain. To deal with this, a geo-fabric must be placed over the soil face, aggregate
placed over this and the drain coil placed within the aggregate. This will stop the clay from
penetrating and blocking the drain coil.

The versatility of drain coil means that when multiple drain coils need to be connected at an
intersection there are two ways of going about this:
o

The drain coils can simply laid out on top of one another at the intersection so that
the discontinuous drain empties its contents on top of the continuous drain coil with
the water flowing through the apertures from one to the other.

Use plastic joints specially designed for drain coil which is obviously a more costly
and time consuming process but will ensure that the intersection empties as
expected every time

60

These are much like traditional PVC pipes which have closely spaced slots
or holes cut into them at regular intervals along their length to allow subsoil water to drain
in. This drainage system is strong like drain coil but is not flexible. A fabric sock covering is
not necessary. The major advantage is that PVC pipes can be unblocked with a plumbers eel
if they become blocked.
The pipes come in length of up to 6m. The pipes are connected together using splice
connection and intersection connection like conventional plumbing pipes. Because they are
rigid corners are created by cutting the pipes and putting in corner joints. In addition the
trenches must be perfectly straight and flat to be able to install this drainage system.

These are thin rectangular prisms made of hard plastic

with a frame internal structure that has circular openings along its faces and throughout its
body. The plastic cell is almost hollow allowing water to flow in and travel along it. The cells
are placed adjacent to one another behind the retaining wall to form a continuous drain.
The drainage cells are wrapped in a geo-fabric before being put into the ground to prevent
blockage. The key advantage with this system is that it is extremely quick and easy to install,
but once blocked it is impossible to unblock this type of drain. In addition corners are quite
easy to deal with but the trenches need to be flat to fit them correctly.

61

Is another linear drainage system that may be used behind the retaining
structure to transport subsoil water along the length of the retaining wall to a storm water
drain. It consists of a corrugated plastic plate that resembles the shape of egg cartons which
is then wrapped in a geo-fabric sock. It is typically 25-40mm thick and 100-150mm wide and
supplied in long rolls like drain coil. Again this is a very flexible system that can quit easily
deal with corners and uneven trenches. Once blocked this system is impossible to unblock.

This is an area drainage solution which is typically used behind shotcrete walls
and can also be used to boost the capacity of drainage system behind other retaining
structures. Essentially it is plastic sheet with closely spaced nibs which create a gap for water
to flow through. Geo-fabric is then glued onto the tops of the nibs.
Cordrain typically comes in 900-1200mm wide rolls which are put up over the entire area
behind the retaining structure or shot create. The fabric face is place in contact with the
supported soil. Cordrain is used to allow water to flow from the soil face, down the inside of
62

the wall but not to transport the water longitudinally along the wall length. As such it is used
in conjunction with some other drainage solution such as those previously mentioned. The
longitudinal drainage system is placed at the bottom of the Cordrain and helps to take away
the collected water.

3.3 Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Retaining Walls

Cantilevered retaining walls are made of steel reinforced in situ cast concrete, in the Shape of an L.
These walls act like cantilevered beams, taking the horizontal earth loads down to a structural
footing. There the horizontal earth forces are converted into vertical forces acting on the ground
below/above the footing.
There are two types of reinforced concrete cantilever walls:

Here the base of the wall extends forwards forming

what is known as a toe on the non-earth side. The horizontal forces exerted by the retained
soil try to overturn the wall about the far end of its foot, creating a moment about this point
that wants to lift the wall up over the far end of the toe. The weight of the retaining wall acts
vertically within the foot, creating an opposing moment. The balance of the over turning
moment (with a safety factor of 1.5-3 applied to it) with the restoring moment produced by
the weight force ensures that the retaining wall remains stable. Hence the weight force is
used to resist rotation.
The horizontal earth pressures also tend to want to cause the dam to slide. This is resisted
through friction of the foot with the ground (due to the wall weight) and a lip at the end of
the toe which is a down turn that digs into the soil and prevents horizontal motion.

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The strength of the retaining wall and its ability to retain the soil behind is dependent upon
the flexural strength of the wall and base. The maximum bending moment is induced at the
intersection of the wall and base and hence there should also be significant resistance in the
corner.
This type of wall requires a significant amount of drainage to prevent water pressures
building up and causing its failure. This typically involves lining the earth face with geo-fabric
to prevent fines like clay clogging the drainage system, The placement of granular back fill
which allows water to flow freely into the drain and the use of some sort of longitudinal
drainage system like drain coil, strip drain, Atlantis cells or slotted PVC at the bottom of this
drainage layer. As an alternative to putting in gravel to improve drainage, the earth face of
the dam can be lined with Cordrain extending all the way to the longitudinal drain.

This type of retaining wall is suitable for:

o

Retained fill where settlement may be acceptable or unacceptable. (if settlement is

unacceptable then the drainage system may be modified or removed to prevent
consolidation).
Retained cut where the cut material is stable so that the face of the earth can be
excavated without collapse and then the retaining wall put.
This type of retaining wall has a base which

extends from the bottom of the wall into the retained soil (not out of it) forming what is
known as a heel. The horizontal forces exerted by the soil on the wall tend to want to rotate
the retaining structure about the corner such that the heel end rises over the corner.
Vertical forces on the heel cause by the eight of the soil above and the weight of the heel
64

itself tend to want to rotate the wall in the opposite direction about the corner. The balance
of the moment created by the factored horizontal earth pressures with the moment
produced by the weight of the soil above the base and the weight of the heel maintain
stability of the wall. Hence rotation of the wall is resisted through the weight of the soil
above the base and the weight of the heel.

The earth pressures again try to slide the retaining wall. This is resisted by the friction of the
heel of the dam with the soil above and below it (attributed to the weight of soil above it
and its self-weight). The increased weight placed on the base due to the additional soil layer
means that the friction is far greater than the preceding type of cantilever wall. As such a lip
at the end of the heel is not necessary but is sometimes put in.
Again the strength of the retaining wall comes down to the flexural strength of the wall and
base as well as the ability of the corner to remain rigid under the imposed moments.
This type of wall also requires a significant amount of drainage to prevent water pressures
building up and causing its failure. This typically involves lining the earth face with geo-fabric
to prevent fines like clay clogging the drainage system, The placement of granular back fill
which allows water to flow freely into the drain and the use of some sort of longitudinal
drainage system like drain coil, strip drain, Atlantis cells or slotted PVC at the bottom of this
drainage layer. As an alternative to putting in gravel to improve drainage, the earth face of
the dam can be lined with Cordrain extending all the way to the longitudinal drain.
The type of retaining wall is only suitable for fill that is to be retained because the heel has
to be inserted below the soil. It would be higly ineffeiicent to use this design for an
excavation to be retained.
Note that in these two cases the wall and base are poured separately. The base is typically poured
first followed by the wall. When the base is poured, an elevated section is always created where the
wall will sit using a shutter on either side, rather than pour the entire thing flat. This is done to
ensure that the construction joint between the base and base and wall is elevated to leave enough
room for the drain to sit beneath. If the construction joint sits at or below the level of the drain then
water will flow directly out of the joint and not flow into the drain.
65

3.4 Reinforced Earth Retaining Structure

This is a type of retaining system for soil that uses artificial reinforcement imbedded into soil or rock
to stabilise a wall at the face of the soil that holds it in place. Effectively the earth is used to support
a wall system that in turn supports it.
This type of retaining structure is only suitable for fill to be retained for scenarios where settlement
is acceptable or unacceptable. It uses a wall at the face of the soil to be retained composed of
precast block that fit together called face panels. The face panels are designed such that they can
tolerate differential movement back and form over one another but are prevented from moving side
to side (to prevent gaps opening up in the wall face). Tie back anchors are driven into the soil behind
each face panel, all the way through the unstable wedge and into the stable material behind. Each
face panel is then bolted to one of these tie backs.
Forward movement of the soil is resisted by the face panels which in turn rely on the tie back for
support. Friction between the tie back and stable portion of soil (due to the self-weight of the soil)
holds them in place. The face panel wall has no strength of its own the strength of this system is
associated only with the tie backs.

A linear drainage system encapsulated in an aggregate surrounding with a geo-fabric separating it

from the soil like that previously described must be placed behind the face panel wall. But a
drainage system is not necessary if perforated face panels are used. Holes in the face panels allow
ground water to flow out of the face of the reinforced earth wall.
The tie back system used depends upon the material being retained:

66

These are similar to those mentioned in the tunnelling topic. They may

be used if the stable layer of ground behind the area to be filled in is rock. They are usually
grouted into place.
These are typically long bars grouted into the stable region
behind the unstable wedge which is composed of soft soil. They are quite similar to rock
anchors but are specifically design for soft soil.

These are long flat plates that are laid out within the fill material. They have ridges
along their length which allow them to support the face panels and the soil itself through
friction with the soil.

Here steel meshing is placed in layers within the soil. The longitudinal and lateral
elements restrain horizontal movement of the unstable soil through friction in the stable
region of soil.

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3.5 Keystone Block Wall

Keystone walls are made up of large block elements called keystone blocks which sit atop one
another to form the retaining wall. The retaining wall typically sits on a foundation of aggregate
placed into a trench dug below the foot of the soil to be retained. The aggregate helps to distribute
the load of the wall on the ground and improve drainage.

The keystones have a system of pegs inserted between successive block which lock the wall together
vertically. The wall is built at a slant towards the retained soil. The weight of the slated bricks pushes
the wall against the retained soil, preventing movement of the soil. The wall itself does not have any
strength, but rather the weight of the bricks leaning on the soil is what creates restraint. In addition
a tie back system similar to that used for face panel walls may also be utilised. In this case the
restraint of soil is provided by both the weight of blocks and the tie back system.
A linear drainage system encapsulated in an aggregate surrounding with a geo-fabric separating it
from the soil like that previously described must be placed behind the face panel wall. This system is
suitable for:

Retained fill where settlement may be acceptable or unacceptable. (if settlement is

unacceptable then the drainage system may be modified or removed to prevent
consolidation).
Retained cut where the cut material is stable so that the face of the earth can be excavated
without collapse and then the retaining wall put.

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3.6 Gabion Caged Stone Wall

Gabions cages are rectangular box shaped cages made of thin wired steel mesh (similar to chicken
mesh) which may be filled with rocks. These may then be stacked and tied together with steel wire.
They are usually laid in an inclined fashion towards the earth being restrained or laid vertically in a
stepped fashion. The stepped gabion cage wall has the added advantage of being able to be climbed
by workers, removing the need for ladders and platforms.
They are typically built directly on the ground and constructed by first laying a row of gabion cages,
typing them together, filling them with stone, closing and tying off their tops and then repeating the
process until the correct height is reached. Mobilisation is likely to occur soon after construction
where the baskets deform slightly due to the settlement and rearrangement of the rocks inside.
The slant of the gabion cages towards the soil to be retained means that the weight of the cages
pushes against the earth, preventing it from moving. Hence movement of the retained soil is
prevented by the eight of the gabions alone. The strength of the wall (resistance to sliding and
rotation) is based on the strength of the wire basket material and the ties used to join them
together.
No drainage system is required because the rock matter inside is free draining, allowing water to
simply exit through the case of the retaining wall. This system is suitable for:

Retained fill where settlement is acceptable. Settlement will always occur and cannot be
controlled.
Retained cut where the cut material is stable so that the face of the earth can be excavated
without collapse and then the retaining wall put.

3.7 Crib Wall (Dead Man Wall)

Crib walls are constructed using cribs, long pieces of precast concrete with a rectangular cross
section and downturn at one end. Construction of the wall begins with the creation of a trench
below where the wall will sit which is subsequently filled with gravel to form the wall foundation.
The cribs are then laid at right angles to one another in a repeating rectangular fashion one on top of
the other, creating a wall composed of rectangular crib towers. The crib wall and the region behind it
are then filled in.

69

The crib wall is typically laid with an angle of 1 in10 slanting towards the earth to be supported. Its
inclination means that the weight of the cribs and wall infill is used to push against the earth behind.
Hence the movement of the earth is restrained by the weight of the crib wall and the soil infill.
The crib wall does have some strength attributed to the interlocking nature of the cribs (because of
the downturn/lip that locks them together). The strength of the wall is dependent upon the strength
of the concrete components.
No drainage system is required if this system is used due to the gaps in the wall which allow water to
flow freely through the wall face. This type of retaining wall is suited to:

Retained fill where settlement is acceptable. Settlement will always occur and cannot be
controlled.
Retained cut where the cut material is stable so that the face of the earth can be excavated
without collapse and then the retaining wall put.

3.8 Piles
These are long slender elements embedded some distance into the ground which may be
used to:

Piles of this nature are used as part

of the foundations of a structure to carry the loads imposed down to ground strata capable
of bearing them. The ground takes these loads through:
o
where the contact between the end of the pile and the earth
o

beneath is used to support the loads.

Friction between the pile and the vertical ground matter surrounding
it resists the loads imposed on the pile.

This scenario arises when piles are used as a retaining

structure or part of a retaining structure. These are often called pile walls. The active earth
pressure imposed by the soil being retained induces a force in the top section of the pile
which tries to push it outward is resisted by the active earth pressure in the bottom section
of the pile which exerts a restoring force. In addition a passive earth pressure on the right
side beneath the retained soil pushes against the pile into the retained soil, being resisted
by the active pressure on the right side in the bottom section of the pile.

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Piles can be constructed and installed in several ways:

These are piles which are driven into the

ground using a pile driver, which can be likened to a hammer striking a nail. Repeated
dynamic loads are imparted to the piles causing them to displace deeper into the
ground. Driven piles are considered to be tested for vertical load bearing (checked they
have sufficient bearing capacity) because of the method of installation. The amount of
force needed to displace the pile is determined in order to drive it in; and this is in fact
the strength.
Contractual specification of satisfactory driven piles is through what is known as a pile
set. This is typically specified as the minimum number of blows imparted to a pile with a
specific weight or the maximum displacement after a final blow of specified weight.
When this criteria is met, the driven pile is seen to be acceptable.

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Driven piles can take the form of:

o

Timber piles are made from the trunks of tall trees. This is a

very cheap pile solution but it suffers significantly from rotting, termite attack
and animal attack. Where a single timber pile is not long enough timber piles
can be joined (spliced) using a steel collar to connect the two.
Steel piles typically take a pipe shape or some sort of beam
section shape (like an H-pile). Steel piles may be protected from corrosion
through a Teflon coating. Where a single steel pile is not long enough, steel
pipes can be spliced by welding piles together. Some of the typical cross
sections include:

This type of pile resembles a UB section. It can be used as a

foundation pile or as part of a soldier pile wall. A soldier pile wall is
made of spaced out H-piles driven in front of the soil to be retained at
regular spacing. Timber, steel or reinforced concrete lagging
(longitudinal members with rectangular cross section) are stacked up
between the soldier piles, resting against the flanges of the piles.

This type of pile has a hollow circular cross section. It can

be used as part of a foundation system or a soldier pile wall as
described above.

These are piles made out of sheets and formed into

intricate shapes which can be used to form a continuous sheet retaining
wall. They come in a variety of shapes with ends which link with the
ends of adjacent piles. They are driven in one after the other, with the
linking bits attached as they are driven. They are typically used for
temporary structures like coffer dams (they are used to create a
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rectangle or circle in a river from which the water pumped out in order
to allow construction) but can also be used in permanent structures like
soil retaining walls. Because they link up perfectly they create a sealed
wall that prevents water getting across making them ideal for coffer
dams.

Gives

Gives

The sheet piles can also be welded together to create close cross
section for driving in hard earth or where additional lateral load bearing
is required. Cutting and welding of piles can also be used to change the
direction of the pile wall or to seal off the intersection of two walls
intersecting.
Gives

Gives

Gives

Gives

Gives

These are piles composed of precast

reinforced concrete. They are often prestressed and can come in a
variety of cross sections including square, octagonal or round. These
piles have a reinforcement arrangement that resembles that of
conventional columns with rebar around the perimeter and stirrups
around these. This type of pile offers good all-round performance,
typically used for vertical load bearing situations. These piles are joined
by a cast in screw joint.

73

This type of
pile requires a hole of the size of the pile be dug into the ground before a reinforced
concrete pile is cast into it. This type of pile can be used for both load bearing footing
piles and retaining walls.
But because these piles are not driven into the ground they are not considered tested
and their capacity must be verified through either ultrasonic testing, load bearing
testing or both. Specification of standard to which these piles are to be built in the
contract is set through the refusal for the bored pile. That is, piles are to be bored to a
depth at which the auger bit cannot drill any further.
There are three ways in which such piles can be produced:
o

This is the typical scenario use in hard rock to

moderately hard soil. An auger is used to bore a hole of the size of the pile into
the ground. The hole extends a sufficient depth (socketing) into a sufficiently
strong layer. The auger is then removed from the hole, a reinforcing cage put in
and the shaft filled with concrete to form the pile
If there is a significant amount of water in the soil which is likely to ingress into
the hole or the soil is likely to collapse then a steel casing (cylindrical tube) is
placed into the hole as the auger digs. The casing surrounds the auger bit and as
it bores deeper, the casing is lowered as well.
Eventually the auger and casing reach the bottom and then the auger is
removed leaving the casing. The reinforcing cage is lowered in and concrete
pumped in. Once the concrete has been poured, the casing may be removed
leaving the concrete pile. The pressure created by the concrete is sufficient to
hold back the water and support the walls of the shaft.

This type of pile is used in soft

soil that cannot support itself. The technique varies slight from the above pile
forming method. A hollow cored auger is used to bore a hole the size of the
pile. It is bored down to sufficient depth.
74

Once the boring is complete, the auger is not retracted and is kept in the shaft
to support the sides and prevent them from collapsing. Concrete is then
pumped through the hollow core of the auger but down to the bottom of the
shaft. As the level of the concrete rises, the auger is retracted slowly. The
concrete below the auger generates sufficient pressure to prevent the sides
caving in.
Once the concrete as reached the surface and the auger is removed, a minimal
amount of reinforcement is lowered into the wet concrete (a large amount
cannot be put in because this would cause the concrete to overtop the hole).
o

This technique of piling is typically

used for the casting of reinforced concrete piles that will carry vertical footing
loads. It results in a pile with an expanded bulbous base. The advantage of the
expanded base is that the vertical end loads are distributed over a much larger
area, increasing the bearing capacity of the pile. There are two ways in which a
Franki pile can be produced:

Rather than boring out

soil material and having to remove spoil, a hole for the pile is created by
laterally displacing the soil. This has the advantage of removing the
need for spoil disposal and the added benefit of ensuring the soil
around the pile is thoroughly compacted, boosting the bearing capacity
of the pile.
The Franki pile system consists of a steel tube placed in contact with the
ground surface which is filled with a small amount of concrete or
aggregate (1). A heavy hammer plug is placed atop the concrete,
forming a watertight seal with the steel tube. The hammer is then
raised and dropped onto the concrete/aggregate. This creates a gigantic
pressure in the concrete which drives the soil apart. This is repeated
many times and as the hole gets deeper the steel tube moves down (2).

When the desired depth is reached (3) the pipe is held stationary and
the hammering continued. Repeated hammering in the one place
75

causes the base and sides of the shaft bottom to expand, creating a
mushroom shaped end.
The hammer and tube are then retracted leaving the concrete at the
bottom. A steel rebar cage is then lowered in (4) and further concrete
pumped in until the shaft is completely filled (5).

A technique similar to that mentioned in the

standard bored pile is used. But now a franki-ended borer (auger) (1)is
used. It essentially has collapsible blades at its end which can be
opened to create an expanded shaft diameter.
The auger is used to bore the main segment of shaft (2)with the blades
retracted. Once the depth required is reached, the blades at the end of
the auger are opened as it continues to bore (3). This creates the
expanded bottom. Once the bulbous shape is formed, the blades are
again retracted (4) and the auger removed from the hole. A reinforcing
cage is lowered in and concrete poured to form the Franki pile.
4
2

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These are technically not a

pile, but are actually used to improve the bearing capacity of extremely soft
soils. A virbro-placement machine uses a high pressure stream of fluid to
produce a hole. Once the desired depth is reached, aggregate and stones are
introduced through the boring tube. As it is retracted and aggregate is placed, it
vibrates helping to compact the aggregate material.

This type of pile is not driven nor is its hole bored, but its hole is in fact excavated using
excavation equipment. The best example of this type of pile is the barrette pile. This is a
rectangular shaped pile which can be made to any width (and thickness determined by
the equipment used). This type of pile offers massive vertical load bearing capacity as
well as high moment capacity. The hole for the pile is made using the same equipment
as that used for diaphragm walls.

A diaphragm wall excavator is used. It consists of a pair of excavation buckets rigged to

a crane that are first lowered into the ground, brought together scooping up soil
removed from the excavation and the contents dumped elsewhere. The process is

77

repeated creating a shaft with rectangular cross section. A reinforcement cage can then
be lowered in and concrete pumped in to fill the shaft.
Note that if the soil material is incapable of supporting itself or there is risk of significant
water ingress then bentonite slurry will be pumped in as the shaft is excavated. When
excavation is complete the reinforcing cage is lowered into the bentonite filled shaft.
Concrete is then pumped via tubing to the bottom of the shaft. As the concrete rises the
bentonite is pumped out from the surface, until eventually the shaft is completely filled
with concrete.

Screw piles are a steel pile used

specifically for foundations which screws into the ground. They consist of a hollow
circular tube with helical steel plates welded to the pile shaft. Screw piles are wound
into the ground much like a screw into wood using specific rotary power heads which
can be attached to arrange of equipment. Once embedded to the tight depth (or
refusal) the hollow pump shaft is filled with concrete. Atlas piles are a specific type of
screw pile with very high strength, allowing them to be driven to depth of up to 30m.
They were used on the Eastern distributor project to act in tension to resist the uplift of
the tunnel.

3.9 Diaphragm Walls

Diaphragm walls: These are typically used as retaining structures in soft ground conditions where the
ground material is unstable and would collapse if excavated without some support structure. They
are typically used for basement and cut and cover tunnel construction. The idea here is to create a
wall that extends all way below the level of desired excavation, before excavation begins. In this way
the material within the wall boundaries can be excavated while the soil on the other side is retained.
An example of the use of diaphragm walls in tunnelling is the M5 tunnel where it meets the Princess
Highway, and where it goes under the Cooks River. An example of diaphragm wall use in basement
construction is the Barangaroo development.
Diaphragm walls are constructed by first excavating a slot up to 900mm width using the previously
described diaphragm wall excavator. A pair of excavation buckets rigged to a crane are first lowered
into the ground, brought together scooping up soil removed from the excavation and the contents
dumped elsewhere. The process is repeated creating a shaft with rectangular cross section. As the
excavation proceeds, Bentonite slurry is pumped into the hole to replace the excavated soil which
maintains pressure within the shaft, preventing collapse and ingress of ground water.
78

Once the full depth of the wall has been excavated the diaphragm wall excavator is removed from
the bentonite filled pit. Reusable end blocks are then lowered into the shaft at its two ends. These
create a male and female key at the ends of the wall which allow it to lock in place with adjacent
wall slots once they are cast. A water stop is placed at one end to make a water tight seal between
wall slots. Only one water stop is put in because the other side will have another slot cast adjacent
to it, which already has a water stop added to it.

Removable
Shutter

Water Block

Slot Hole

Removable
Shutter

The reinforcement cage is then lowered into the bentonite filled pit. Concrete is then pumped
through a tube down to the bottom of the pit. As concrete is poured in from the bottom, bentonite
is pumped out from the top. This continues until all the bentonite has been replaced by concrete.
The bentonite is stored ready for the excavation of the next slot.
Note that initially every second slot is excavated, leaving an un excavated slot between each. This
allows the first 2 slots sufficient time to attain strength before the soil between them is removed. If
they were excavated sequentially the concrete would have insufficient time to set. Once every
second slot is complete, the intermediate slots are excavated and poured. Because the intermediate
slots are in contact with the keyed ends of the keyed ends of the adjacent slots no shutters are
necessary.
Diaphragm walls result in the highest quality surface finish of any other cast in situ retaining wall for
unstable soil. The installation of water stops between adjacent walls provides far superior water
tightness relative to secant pile walls. The higher cost of site establishment means that in general
diaphragm walls are for deeper retaining structures and where long straight wall sections are

79

required (like cut and cover tunnels). Hence in general diaphragm walls are made deeper than
secant and contiguous flight auger (CFA) walls.

3.10 Pile Retaining Walls

Many of the piling options discussed above can be utilised for producing retaining walls. These walls
can be broken down into two general categories:

These are retaining walls produced using piles driven (hammered) into the ground as previously
discussed. These walls are suitable for:

Retained cut where the cut material is unstable stable so that the face of the earth cannot
be excavated without collapse. The retaining wall has to be driven in, all the way into the
ground, and once the retaining wall is in place, excavation can begin.
Retained fill where the wall is first driven in and then the fill material put in behind it.

Typically drainage is not required because these walls have significant strength to resists the forces
exerted by saturated soil. The pile walls are driven to a significant depth below the bottom of the
soil layer to be retained. Horizontal motion of the retained soil is resisted through the cantilever
action of the portion of the piles outside the ground.
The forces and moment generated are then transferred to the embedded portion which is
supported by the surrounding soil. In some cases a tie back is added so that part of the movement is
supported by the retained soil. Alternatively, strutting may be placed behind the cut section/unfilled
section of the wall, butting up against another pile wall on the opposite side or held in place by
anchors embedded into the ground. In this case the strutting walls also resist a portion of the
horizontal movement. The strength of the wall comes primarily from the flexural strength of the
piles making up the wall.

There generally 2 types of driven pile walls:

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These were previously discussed as being made out of sheets

formed into intricate shapes with interlocking bits at their ends which could be driven
together to make a continuous and watertight retaining wall. They are usually used for
temporary structures used during construction, the most notable of which is their use in
coffer dams.
Coffer dams are temporary enclosures built within or across a body of water to allow the
enclosed area to be pumped out, creating a dry work environment for construction at or
beneath the ground. Sheet piles are typically driven into the ground beneath the body of
water to form a rectangular or circular enclosure. They are driven to a depth sufficient to
provide the piles with enough strength to resist the hydrostatic pressure of the surround
water. Once the enclosure is complete, it is essentially water tight.
Water is then pumped out of the enclosed area. Once the water level within drops to a
certain level, struts are installed in the upper portion of the wall. These are straight or
diagonal members that brace opposite walls of the enclosure against each other. The
hydrostatic pressure on one side is used to help resist the hydrostatic pressure on the other
side. The water is then continuously pumped out until the enclosed area is dried out.
Because water will still ingress through the soil beneath, pumps have to be kept on to keep
the enclose area free of water.

When construction is to proceed across a river it is usually to conduct construction in stages.

Coffer dams are constructed such that they do not occupy the entire river, leaving a space
for the water to flow through and river traffic to move about. Once construction within the
coffer dam is complete, it is deconstructed and moved to the next construction location
where further construction can proceed. In this way the river is allowed to maintain flow
without blocking river traffic.
A good example of the use of sheet pile wall coffer dams is
the construction of the M5 tunnel beneath the Cooks River. A relatively cheap bridge across
the river was the initial plan but there was a fear that the lighting poles of the bridge would
interfere with aircraft landing at the nearby Sydney Airport. So instead a more costly tunnel
had to be built beneath the Cooks River.

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It was constructed in 3 segments across the river, with 3 separate coffer dams built in 2
phases. Initially 2 sheet pile wall coffer dams were constructed at the two embankment ends
of the river, leaving a gap in the middle for water and marine vessels to pass through. Widely
spaced out CHS strutting was but in place to brace the walls. A large spacing was used to
allow cranes to operate in between the struts.

Coffer
Dams 1
&2
The two coffer dams were pumped dry of water. 3 diaphragm walls were then excavated
and cast into the ground below to a depth far exceeding the bottom of the tunnel to be
built. The increased depth of walls ensured that there was sufficient friction between them
and the surrounding ground to resist the buoyancy force of the tunnel. The material
between walls was then excavated to the depth of the bottom of the roof slab of the tunnel.
The roof slab was then cast across the 3 diaphragm walls. Fill was then returned over the
roof slab and water was allowed to fill up the dam again, before the sheet pile wall was
removed. The excavation of the interior of the tunnel was then conducted staring at the
sides beneath the river banks and working in towards the middle with a floor slab cast in
place.

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While the side portions were being excavated a third coffer dam was constructed in the
middle of the river overlapping where the first two dams were. Again the water was pumped
out, the diaphragm walls continued across and the roof slab put in.

Coffer dams 1 &2

removed and 3 put
in
Princess Highway/North Shore Rail Tunnel: The crossing of the princess highway over the
north shore rail tunnel required a sheet pile wall be driven through the soft ground above
the tunnel and into the rock below. The sheet pile walls were driven very close to the tunnel
casing with only a small rock segment in front of the wall toe. The large overturning forces of
the earth being restrained eventually cracked off the rock in front of the toe and led to the
collapse of the wall. In sufficient rock in front of the wall toe was the cause of the accident.
Sheet Pile Walls
Insufficient rock
at front of toe

Soft Soil

Rock

This could have easily been prevented by moving the walls outwards so that a larger chunk
of rock was supported the front of the wall toe, or alternatively the walls could have been
left in the same position and additional support provided through the use of tie back
anchors into the rock.
Sheet Pile Walls
Anchors Driven
into Rock

Insufficient rock
at front of toe

Soft Soil

Rock
Sheet Pile Walls
Walls Moved
Outward

More rock at
front of toe

Soft Soil

Rock

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A soldier pile wall is made of spaced out steel H-piles,

steel circular piles or precast concrete piles driven in front of the soil to be retained at
regular spacing. Timber, steel or reinforced concrete lagging (longitudinal members with
rectangular cross section) are stacked up between the soldier piles, resting against the
flanges of the H pile, at the or behind the circular steel pile and precast concrete piles. Note
that sometimes pre-cambered lagging is used with a bend created in it during production so
that rather than bowing out under soil pressure it actually straightens out.

These walls are only suitable for cuts to be retained in unstable soil matter that would collapse if
excavated without a retaining structure. Prior to excavation of the cut, holes are bored or excavated
in the location where the wall will be, reinforced piles or wall slots will be cast, forming a retaining
wall out of piles or flat keyed slots.
Typically drainage is not required because these walls have significant strength to resists the forces
exerted by saturated soil. The pile/diaphragm walls are cast down to a significant depth below the
bottom of the soil layer to be retained. Horizontal motion of the retained soil is resisted through the
cantilever action of the portion of the piles/wall outside the ground.
The forces and moment generated are then transferred to the embedded portion which is
supported by the surrounding soil. In some cases a tie back is added so that part of the movement is
supported by the retained soil. Alternatively, strutting may be placed behind the cut section/unfilled
section of the wall, butting up against another pile wall on the opposite side or held in place by
anchors embedded into the ground. In this case the strutting walls also resist a portion of the
horizontal movement. The strength of the wall comes primarily from the flexural strength of the
piles/wall slots making up the wall.

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Examples of pile walls include:

These walls are constructed in much the same way as

the previous walls, except that the piles are cast in place rather than driven. An auger is used
to dig a hole for standard reinforced concrete piled to be cast in. The piles are typically
bored at 1.5-2.4m spacing. Concrete or steel lagging may be installed between the circular
piles.

These were discussed in the preceding section on diaphragm walls.

This is a non-water tight type of retaining wall constructed
using CFA (contiguous flight auger) piles (standard cast in place bored piles). A row of closely
spaced (almost touching) piles are bored and reinforced concrete cast within. Pile diameters
used here range from 400mm to 900mm and can be cantilevered or have tie-backs
anchoring them into the soil to be retained.
This type of piling is advantageous in places where vibration and noise is to be minimised.
Such walls may be water proofed and have shotcrete applied to them. The construction
process involves first boring and casting every second pile and once this is complete the
intermediate piles are bored and cast. This gives the piles enough time to set so that
removal of adjacent soil does not cause them to collapse.

85

Secant pile walls are similar to contiguous pile walls (tangent pile
walls) except that the piles actually overlap rather than tough each other. This is achieved
through making the centre spacing less than the diameter of the piles. Because the piles are
in direct contact with each other the wall is able to resist the inflow of ground water (being
almost watertight).
This type of piling is again advantageous, in places where vibration and noise is to be
minimised. It also offers greater strength and stiffness than contiguous pile walls. The
construction process also requires that every second pile be cast first. This set of piles has no
reinforcement cast into it (or reinforcement like an I-section that is far away from the sides).
Once the piles begin to set and before they are completely solid (i.e. they are still in a chalk
like state) bore holes are made in the intermediate spaces. But because the spacing is less
than the hole-diameter, the auger cuts away a segment of concrete from the two adjacent
piles in the process. Reinforcement is then put into the shafts and concrete put in. Because
some of the concrete is bored away, this type of retaining wall tends to waste quite a bit of
concrete.

3.11 Wick Drains

Deep deposits of soft impermeable soils (like clayey soils) will typically consolidate when significant
loads from a structure for example are placed on them. Over the long term the pore water is
pressured out of the soil, taking a long time to flow out. As it flows out the soil settles. If nothing is
done about this before construction then the structure built will settle a significant amount and may
even experience differential settlement.

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To prevent consolidation from happening after a structure is built, it is typically induced prior to
construction. There are two ways to do this:

The ground is loaded up with a significant weight at the surface and left to
consolidate for a period of between 1 to 2 years. Essentially a really large load (much greater
than will ever be imposed by a structure) is placed on top of the soil to squeeze out the pore
water.
This is a different approach which involves boring deep closely spaced
holes all over the site. Wick drains are then placed into the holes. The wick drains draw out
the moisture from within the soil and channel it up to the surface where it can be pumped
away. The water is drawn out much faster than is possible with preloading.

The predecessor to wick drains was lime piles. This essentially involved putting in long
columns of lime into the bored holes, where the lime would absorb the water and after a
period of time would be removed from the holes.

3.12 Retaining Wall at Collaroy Development

An excavated rock/soil face over 10m high at Collaroy is to be stabilised. It consists of moderately to
heavily weathered Hawkesbury sandstone with a 1m deep cover of loose soil at the top. A retaining
structure is to be constructed to prevent the collapse of excavated face. The excavation face is quite
uneven and has a varying height along its length. The system installed must maintain adequate
drainage from the excavation face and soil above.

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The aim is to develop a retaining system that will prevent the collapse of the excavated face and the
soil above. Some of the options to choose from include:

This includes reinforced concrete contiguous

(tangent) piled walls and secant piled walls. These two options are unsuitable as they should
have been installed prior to excavation. In addition, the great height and length of the
excavation make this option extremely costly. Another alternative is to use a soldier pile wall
and add infill behind it. This again is an extremely costly option. Thus pile walls have been
eliminated as a potential option.
This option is again unsuitable because sheet piles would be too

difficult and costly to drive into rock (which is what the site ground it like).
Gabion cages are an effective solution for small to moderately high

walls. If they were used on a wall as tall as this they would have to have a massive base and
would likely be a very costly and ineffective solution.
This option involves placing steel mesh against
the rock face and inserting deep rock bolts to hold it up. This is a very effective solution for
retaining the rock portion of the wall. But it cannot support the soil above the wall. In
addition the steel mesh alone would require a large number of anchor bolts which would
make this option difficult and costly.

Rock
Anchors

Mesh

88

Precast reinforced panel could be placed directly in front of the

excavation face and held in place through tie-backs into the rock like the mesh. Because the
reinforced concrete is strong the longitudinal spacing between rock anchors can be
increased relative to the mesh case. But the key problem here is that the height of the
excavation face varies significantly along its length, making single height precast panels
unsuitable. In addition this option is very expensive.

Rock
Anchors

Precast Concrete Panel

It would also be possible to cast a cantilevered retaining wall with a

foot; either in two pieces as discussed previously or in one piece. If cast in one piece the
shutter for the front face of the wall would have to be held in place with rock anchors. The
excavation face of the wall would not need a form. The problem with this technique is that it
is time consuming and extremely expensive.

Rock
Anchors
Shutters

Cast In-Situ Reinforced Concrete

This option involves using concrete blocks

with embedded horizontal and vertical reinforcing steel which are then filled with concrete.
If the reinforced masonry wall was to support the excavation alone it would need a gigantic
trench footing with e section of 500mm by 500mm. The size of the footing could be reduced
if it is anchored to the rock through rock anchors along its height. This option was actually
considered for the project and was in fact a good option but was later dropped due to a
blow out in cost.

89

Massive Base

Reinforced Block-work

Rock
Anchors
Reduced Size Base

Reinforced Block-work
This involves putting in short posts at the top of the wall

which are attached to the rock excavation face through rock anchors to retain the soil at the
top. Essentially these posts can be made out of 2 channel sections placed back to back with
steel plates welded in between the two. Holes in the steel plates allow them to be bolted to
rock anchors. In this case the soldier posts would extend a short distance into the rock
section of the wall.
Two anchors could be used for each post; a small one at the bottom which only needs to
support shear (because the bottom of the post is compressed against the rock face due to
the moment generated by the soil) and another anchor which is much long put in at the top
of the post, extending through the soil diagonally and ending up a significant distance into
the rock beneath the soil (this needs to be long to get through the soil and because there are
pull out forces due to the moment from the soil pressure).

Soil
Rock
Long Anchor
Short Anchor
Soldier Post
This option alone could retain the soil above but could not support the rest of the wall.
Hence this could not be used as the only solution.

This was quite similar to the mesh and vegetation

option. Reinforcing mesh could be installed against the rock face using rock anchors and
then it could be topped with shotcrete. Alone, this could only retain the rock and not the
soil.

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Shotcrete
Rock
Anchors

Mesh

This is in
fact the best option, being quick, easy, cheap and fully supportive of the excavation. This
involved installing the reinforcing mesh from top to bottom of the wall (including the soil
segment) with rock anchors, followed by the installation anchored soldier posts at the top
and finally shotcrete was sprayed over the entire wall including the top. The shotcrete at the
bottom at the bottom was not really necessary and as such non-structural shotcrete was
used there, with the thickness significantly less than that at the top covering the soldier
posts and reinforcing steel at the soil layer.
Shotcrete

Soil
Rock

Soldier Post

Long Anchor

Mesh

Short Anchor
Thus the option selected was anchored soldier posts with reinforced shotcrete. To design this
system there were several elements to consider:

To design the anchor posts it was assumed that hydrostatic pressure of the soil could be used. As
such a triangular distribution of soil pressure with a maximum pressure given by
. In
this equation
is the pressure coefficient in the soil which describes the extent to which the soil
behaves like a fluid; taken at its worst case (water) as 1, is the saturated bulk unit weight of the
soil and
at

is the height of the soil retained. This is equivalent to a point load of

acting

from the top of the soil layer.

2
3

1

2

The tension in the top anchor is assumed to be and the bottom anchor . The distance between
the anchors is taken to be and the angle of the anchors is . Taking moments about the bottom
91

anchor the tension force in the top anchor is

1 ). A Sum of forces can be used to find the

force in the bottom anchor. The force on the bottom anchor is negative indicating compression and
so the anchor takes no force due to the soil pressure. The bottom anchor need only be designed to
take the shear force due to the weight of the soldier post and to support the unstable wedge of rock
in the excavation face.
2
3

1

2

3
(
3

0
1)
(
3

1)

( )
3

Columns of rock anchors are evenly spaced along the length of the wall, to support the reinforced
shotcrete and holdback the excavation face. The reinforced shotcrete between the columns of
anchors will in fact have to resist a parabolic bending moment due to the presence of the rock
anchors. The maximum moment will be at the middle between adjacent rock anchor columns. To
design the shotcrete in between we can compare the situation to slabs supported on columns. The
bending moment actually looks very similar.
Anchors
Rock
Shotcrete

Max
Moment

Zero
Moment

92

Mesh

We can make the assumption that the rock face is simply supported, which would result in the worst
case scenario of maximum bending moment in between anchors and zero moment at the anchors.
Positive
Movement
Inducing
Tension in
Shotcrete Face
Alternatively we can assume that the rock face behaves like a continuous slab; experiencing hogging
(negative moment) at the anchors which are like the columns and sagging (positive moment) in
between anchors. In this case the presence of hogging moments lifts up the bending moment
diagram, reducing the maximum positive moment.
Positive &
Negative
Movements;
Inducing Some
Tension in
Midspan Face
If we were to design the concrete in this way we could ignore reinforcement near the anchors
because there the shotcrete face will be in compression. But we will have to consider significant
tensile reinforcement in the centre region between anchors because the shotcrete face will be in
tension.
To avoid having to design for tension we could then assume that the rock anchors are tensioned so
that further compression is induced at the anchors, resulting in additional negative moments which
shift the moment diagram further into the hogging zone. We can assume that the anchor tension is
great enough to cause the entire bending moment diagram to shift down into the negative moment
zone. This can be thought of as the case of slabs which are hinged at midspan so that they are in
complete tension. In this case the shotcrete is in complete compression at its face so that no tensile
reinforcement is necessary. Hence the shotcrete will have non-structural reinforcement embedded
within it. This significantly reduces the cost of the reinforced shotcrete.
Negative
Movement
Inducing
Compression in
Shotcrete Face

It was decided that because the soil was no too deep and limited water would be flowing through
the rock vertical strip drains at regular intervals would be sufficient behind the shotcrete. The
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vertical strip drains were placed behind the shotcrete steel mesh prior to the tightening of the
anchor bolts in small niches in the rock. A horizontal strip drain was then placed at the bottom to
take away the water to nearby storm water inlets.

94

4 Storm Water Drainage

4.1 Storm Water Drainage Design
Storm water drainage: refers to the drainage system designed to drain excess rain and ground
water from artificially sealed impervious ground coverings like concrete pavement and from the
roofs of structures. The system is designed to channel this water to local government built storm
water drains and channels. The rate of discharge from these systems is regulated so that such
communal drains are not overloaded during severe storms.
Note that those involved in structural design and construction bear a higher risk than storm water
designers because loads and capacity of a structure can quite clearly be established at the point of
collapse of s structure, so that blame can easily be placed on the engineer.
However storm water design is far lower risk because it is extremely difficult to prove that the actual
storm which hit a property was that for which the drainage system was designed. E.g. a drainage
system might be designed for a 1 in 100 year storm. If a storm hits and it fails, then it is difficult to
prove that the storm was less severe than the design storm. In addition the maintenance state of the
system at the time of the storm is not usually known e.g. it is not known whether garbage has
blocked the system or not.
The design sequence for storm water drainage design involves:

This essentially entails rainfall catchment analysis; the investigation of the types of storms that are
likely to hit the site of the development under consideration and the amount of run off that is likely
to be generated. Through this analysis it is possible to obtain the worst case rain flow rate into the
system and the duration of that flow for a given recurrence interval of storm.
The rational method of hydrological analysis is typically used for storm water drainage analysis. This
approach relies upon complex physical and hydrological theory to predict the attributes of storms
which are likely to hit a region rather than on historical data as in the case of the empirical method.
Identification of the worst case storm that a storm water drainage system is designed to handle is
based upon 3 concepts:
o

FREQUENCY: The frequency of a storm refers to how often it is statistically likely to occur. Storms
which occur more often are less severe than those which hit less often. For example a once in
50year storm is likely to be far more destructive than a once in 1year storm. Frequency of a
storm can be specified in three ways:
Average recurrence interval (ARI): This designation states the period in years between
the storm events. For example an ARI20 refers to a storm which occurs once in 20years.
Annual probability of exceedance (APE): This designation states the probability as a
percentage of a storm of the given severity or greater occurring in a given year. The
percentage when converted into a ratio gives the period between storms. For example
an APE 1% (1/100) storm will occur once in 100years and an APE 2% (1/50) storm will
occur one in 50 years.

95

o
o

Frequency: This is the simplest designation and simply states the period between
storms. For example a storm with frequency of 50 years occurs once in 50years.
Note that for the same size catchment and storm duration, the intensity of and severity of a
storm will be greater for a storm with a longer recurrence interval than a shorter one.
INTENSITY : This refers to average rate of rainfall during the storm in millimetres per hour.
DURATION : This is the length of time that a storm will last. It is the time elapsed between first
precipitation and the cessation of rainfall in hours. Typically a short duration storm that lasts for
several minutes will have a high intensity while a long duration storm that lasts for many hours
will have a low intensity. The worst case in terms of rain water flow into a storm water system
will be an intermediate storm with duration of about 1hour, with moderate intensity. This will
lead to the largest volume of rain water in the system.
To better understand the concept of storm severity and the relationship between duration and
the catchment size a simple example will be used. Consider a large catchment area that feeds
into a river. The river is fed by a series of streams/creeks. Suppose that we are interested in
designing a downstream dam. We need to know the worst case (largest) flow of water through
the river from a storm. To do this we test two cases:

SHORT DURATION STORM :

We assume that a storm hits a confined region of the catchment area of the river. We
assume that a stream runs through this confined storm zone from A to B. The worst storm
that can hit will have the same duration as the time taken for a drop of water to flow from A
to B. Thus on this scale the worst storm would be a short duration storm with high intensity.

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LONG DURATION STORM:

We now assume that a large storm hits the entire catchment area of the river. We assume
that the river runs across the region from A to B. The worst storm that can hit will have the
same duration as the time taken for a drop of water to flow from A to B. Thus on this scale
the worst storm would be a long duration storm with low intensity.

Hence when we compare these two cases together the concentrated storm will generate a rapid
increase in flow rate but due to the small area of the catchment the relative size of this
increased flow will be quite small. The larger storm will generate a slower increase in the flow
rate but because it covers a larger area the increase in water flow will be far greater. Hence the
long duration storm for this case would be the more severe case.
Traditionally storm water systems are designed by first selecting a storm frequency. For most urban
storm water systems the frequency of the storm is taken to be 100years (the maximum for which
hydrological data is available). Then a series of storm durations are tested out, to find the worst
case for the site drainage system. The rainfall intensity associated with each of these storm
durations is obtained from either:

97

RAINFALL INTENSITY-FREQUENCY -DURATION CHARTS : These are graphical charts for each city like
Perth and Sydney. There are several curves with each representing a storm frequency. The
duration of the storm can be found on the horizontal axis in hours while the associated intensity
in mm/h can be found on the vertical axis.
To use these charts:
i. Select the chart appropriate to the region in which the site lies.
ii. Select a curve associated with the storm frequency for which the drainage system will be
designed. The most conservative choice would be the once in 100 year curve (number
7).
iii. Select a duration for which the design will be tested.
iv. Read off the corresponding intensity for the curve selected.

INTENSITY- FREQUENCY-DURATION TABLES : These are similar to the preceding charts, except that the
data is now in tabular form. These tables are usually produced by local councils for specific
suburbs rather than for an entire city.
To use these tables:
i. Select the table appropriate to the suburb in which the site lies.
ii. Select a column associated with the storm average recurrence interval for which the
drainage system will be designed. The most conservative choice would be the 100 years.
iii. Select a duration row for which the design will be tested.
iv. Read off the corresponding intensity for the column and row selected.
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The easiest way to manually determine the flow rate of water into the catchment from a storm is to
use the peak flow rate formula. In it:
27

is the maximum rate of run off in litres per second (L/s),

is the coefficient of runoff a dimensionless quantity that quantifies the proportion of
rainfall that ends up as runoff. For impermeable surfaces like concrete almost the water
becomes run off with coefficient values close to 1 while permeable surfaces like bear sand
will have a coefficient close to 0.5. The value of the coefficients varies with the rainfall
intensity. The greater the intensity, the less chance the ground has to absorb the water and
the higher the coefficient.

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It must be noted that these coefficients are open to argument as water falling on an already
saturated pervious catchment will not be absorbed and so the coefficient will be higher than
its stipulated value. It is usually best to adopt a conservative design and choose the
coefficient to be 1.
The runoff coefficient can be obtained from the following two charts. The chart on the left
represents the coefficient of runoff for rural areas while that on the right is for urban areas.
After selecting the appropriate chart it is then necessary to select a curve associated with
the type of ground material at the site of interest. The predicted rainfall intensity is then
selected on the horizontal axis and the coefficient value read off the vertical axis. Note that
this process can be significantly simplified by simply assuming a value of 1 and not using the
charts.

the rainfall intensity in mm/h that was discussed earlier, and,

the area of the catchment in hectares (10,000m2). To obtain the flow into a single drain,
the catchment area feeding that drain must be used. That is, for the peak flow rate for a
single pit/drain the graded area feeding that drain should only be considered. If the full
site area is used instead this will produce the flow rate into all drains; likely to be useful for
calculating the total discharge into the council stormwater drain.

100

Site grading involves essentially involves the delineation of catchments on the site to be developed.
It entails shaping a site so that several catchment zones are created, allowing water to flow into
drains at the lowest point of each. The shaping is done in a way to suit a storm water drainage
design, so that water flows towards where drain pits will be located. There are also several other
factors that dictate how a site should be graded:

Landscape design,
Architectural levels (i.e. finished floor levels for buildings),
Access levels (i.e. exterior ground level and building floor level at entrance should differ by
no more than 150mm),
Existing infrastructure location and requirements about its surrounding ground level (e.g.
gradients of driveways across a footpath should have gradients of no more than 5%, or the
site should slope down towards the adjacent street to allow excess runoff to flow down the
road).

There are several key principles to abide by when determining site grading:
1. RUNOFF INTO DRAINS
The run off in each catchment should flow towards the drainage pit. The ground around each
drain should slope down towards it.
2. OVERLAND FLOOD PATH
The site should have an overland flow path for relief when the pits and pipes of the drainage
system fail. That means that the overall site should slope down towards an adjacent street; with
each of the catchments cascading towards the street. The overland flood path often moves over
the driveway and footpath into the adjacent road. The roadway acts as a large drain in the event
that the drainage system fails. Note that ordinarily during storm all water should flow through
pits and pipes. Water is only allowed to flow onto the street in the event of a once in 100year
storm or worse.
3. FREEBOARD AROUND BUILDING
The external paved area around a building should meet the building slab with a freeboard of
approximately 150mm. That is the external floor level directly adjacent to the building should be
150mm below the finished floor level (FFL) of the building slab. This is especially important near
openings to the structure. It is critical to have the exterior ground level below the building level
so that water can drain away from the building and in the event of a drainage system failure the
water does not immediately back up into the structure.
4. PONDING
The external paved areas surrounding drainage pits should allow ponding should the storm
water system fail. That is once the drainage pit is blocked the catchment area around it should
be sloped in such a way that a large amount of water can be held back and not allowed to flow
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away. Hence the catchment acts like an above ground detention pond. Note however the
maximum ponding level is set by council and is taken as 200mm in important areas like a car
park but may be up to 500mm in less important areas. This means that the height difference
between the peak in the catchment and the lowest point should not exceed the limit set by
council. One the limit is reached the grading should ensure that water leaves through the
overland flood path discussed above.
5. AS2890 OFF-STREET PARKING COMPLIANCE
The gradients created by site grading should meet the requirements of AS2890 in areas where
vehicles will be parked or driven on site. There are limits on the maximum fall of the ground in
the lateral and longitudinal direction to the parking bays as well as for ramps, circulation aisles,
driveways.
1. Parking bays: Parking bays are allotted spaces for parking which are clearly marked out.
o Parallel to the angle of parking the maximum gradient is 5% (1 in 20).
o Perpendicular to the angle of parking the absolute maximum gradient is 6.25%
(1 in 16) however it is desirable to keep this below 5% (1 in 20).
2. Ramps: These are inclined surfaces that allow vehicular movement between different
surface levels.
o For ramps more than 20m long the maximum grade is 16.7% (1 in 6).
o For ramps less than 20m long the maximum is slightly higher at 20% (1 in 5).
o The change in grade of a ramp should not exceed 12.5% (1 in 8) to avoid cars
scraping their bottoms.
3. Circulation Aisles: These are the lanes on the site through which vehicles must pass to
reach a parking bay.
o The gradient across the aisle and along it should not exceed 5% (1 in 20).
4. Driveways: These are paved areas that allow vehicles to go from the street, on to the
property and to the circulation aisles/parking bays.
o For the portion cutting across a foot path (from the frontage of the roadway to
the property line) the gradient should not exceed 5% (1 in 20).
o For domestic driveways the gradient along and perpendicular to the driveway
should not exceed 5% (1 in 20).
o For vehicle queuing area in the driveway the maximum gradient in any direction
is 10% (1 in 10).
6. EARTHWORKS VOLUMES
It is usually best to grade the site in such a way that the earthworks volume is balanced. In this
way the cost of transporting import soil on site and disposing of spoil can be avoided.
A bad example of site grading is that of the Callala bay primary school. The school was built on land
that had not been properly graded. Essentially the site lay in a deep depression, with the school floor
levels below the level of the ponding water in the depression. Hence the school is constantly
flooded. A solution to this problem would have been to import soil material to the site, to raise the
grand level and turn the depression into downward sloping ground towards the roadways.
Alternatively the school ground levels could have been raised to prevent water getting in.

102

A good example of site grading is the Parramatta Road Reese plumbing facility.

The external area is graded such that the ground there slopes downwards towards
Parramatta; allow excess runoff to drain directly into the street. This is evident from the fact
that the right of the property starts out at a height of about RL 7.85-8.4m and gradually
declines down to 7.8m on the far left just before meeting the roadway footpath. Although
there is a slight dip in the middle of the external area the height grading is such that the
water will want to flow away to Parramatta road in the vent that the external pits block up
and the depression begins to fill op with ponding water.

The external area meets the building slab with a freeboard of 150mm. The building FFL is
8.00. The contours closest to the building have a height of about 7.85m which gives a height
difference of 150mm below the building level.

103

The central part of the external area is graded so that water ponds if the drains should fail.
This adds to the capacity of an onsite detention tank, only allowing water to flow over in the
very worst of circumstances. The maximum depth of this pond is 150mm.
This is evident from the fact that at the centre (its lowest point) the RL is 7.65m and at the
right it rises up to 7.90mwhile at the left it only rises to 7.85m; hence the water would only
really reach 7.85m before flowing away. Thus the difference between 7.65m and 7.80m is
150mm.
Should the water continue to flow past the 150mm mark, an overland flood path is created
with water moving along the driveway onto Parramatta road. Note however that even at its
peak, the water only rises to 7.80m which is still below the building floor level so water will
not back up into the structure.

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This process entails the allocation of pits to each of the sub-catchment areas. Sub-catchment
analysis, using the hydrological information on storm flow rates into the sub-catchment areas. Based
upon this the pit and pipe sizes are determined. This is essentially a trial and error design in which
pipe sizes and pipe gradients are tested out to achieve the right flow rate out of the system. The
local council will stipulate strict regulations on the maximum allowable flow rate from the system.
To do this:
1. Establish the sub-catchments on the site using the previously outlined procedure.
For example in the following Adelaide car park 6 sub-catchment zones are established. The
ones at the top slope down towards their centre, while those on the bottom fall down
towards the kerb gutter. The reduced level (RL) of the centre of the top catchments (their
lowest point) is 3.5m while at the kerb gutter (the lowest point of the bottom catchments)
the RL is 3.4m.

2. Put in the drainage pits at the lowest point of each sub-catchment. Attach pipes and
detention tanks if appropriate between the pits all the way to the storm water outlet.
In the preceding example 6 pits are put into the car park one at the lowest point of each of
the sub-catchments. Pipes are laid down between them as shown. The pits at b, g and h are
at RL 3.5m while c, d and e are at RL 3.4m. The invert, the outlet to the council storm water
drain is at f and lies at RL 0m.
3. The system is then exposed to a variety of storm scenarios.
The worst case storm will have a duration equivalent to the time it takes for water to flow
from the highest end of the catchment to the lowest end as previously mentioned. For the
car park example the highest end could be considered point and the lowest point . The
water will flow overland from to and from there flow through the drainage system to .
The distance a-b (half-length of diagonal) is 2
3
while the piping distance
is 2
0
0 2
1 0 . The water may be assumed to flow at 0.1m/s over
land and 1m/s through the pipe. Thus it should take

105

3 0

for the water to flow from

a to b and
0 12

1 0

for the water to flow from b to f. Thus the total time is 00

and so the worst storm will be that that lasts 0.125hr.

4. The system is then adjusted (changing pipe sizes, locations of pits, size of detention
tanks) until the discharge from the drainage system is within the permissible site
discharge rate (PSD) set by the local council.
Using the rainfall intensity duration charts for Sydney with a recurrence interval of 10 years
the intensity of the storm comes out to be 75mm/h for the duration above. The pavement is
assumed to be sealed concrete so the runoff coefficient is 0.9. The area of the subcatchment feeding drains b, g and h is 0
0 2 00
02
while the area of the
catchment feeding drains c, d and e is
0 2 0
0 02
. The flow rate of rain
water into these drains is simply the following.
27
27

27 0
27 0

7
7

02
0 02

7
7

Hence the flow through each of the pipes is the following.

7
17
103

7
7
17
7
7 103
7
7 1 1

The hydraulic gradient of each of these pipes is simply the slope of these pipes. That is, it is
simply the height difference between the ends over the length (run) of the pipe. For pipes bc, g-d and h-e the height difference is 3
3
0 1 while their lengths are 25m.
01
2

0 00

The pipes c-d, d-e and e-f shall be assumed to lie in a straight line such that the point c is the
high point at 3.4m while point f lies at 1m. The total distance between the pipes is 150m.
3

1
1 0

0 01

To determine the pipe size required the following chart is used. The pipe diameter can be
obtained knowing the hydraulic gradient and discharge flow rate through the pipe as is the
case in this example. To use this chart:
i. On the vertical axis locate the hydraulic gradient of the pipe and follow the
horizontal line associated with it. This is simply the slope of the pipe, the
fraction of height change (difference in RL of each end) over horizontal run
length of the pipe.
ii. On the horizontal axis locate the flow rate in L/s. The scale is logarithmic so
care should be taken in locating the flow rate. Follow the associated vertical
line to the intersection with the hydraulic gradient line.

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iii. At the intersection locate the nearest diagonal lines. Those running in the
direction parallel to a forward slash (/) represent the pipe diameter while
those running parallel to a back slash (\) represent the water velocity in the
pipe. If the intersection point is between two of the diameter or velocity
lines, take the larger value of the two.

For example to determine the pipe diameter necessary for pipes b-c, g-d and h-e which have
flow rates of 47L/s and hydraulic gradients of 0.004 we find the intersection as follows. The
intersection coincides with a pipe diameter of 375mm.
This may be repeated for all the pipes.
Pipe
b-c, g-d and h-e
c-d
d-e
e-f

Diameter (mm)
375
375
450
750

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Note that this example has ignored energy losses associated with the drain pits. The change
in direction and discontinuity in elevation of the pipes would lead to energy losses which
would lead to reduced flow rates. As such energy loss coefficients are applied to the
hydraulic gradient, which may be obtained from the following table. For simplicity they will
not be used in the example.

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STORM WATER DETENTION : In this section storm water detention was briefly mentioned.
Storm water detention is primarily used in urban areas. It is necessitated because
catchments within these areas are covered with impermeable coverings like concrete so that
less water can be absorbed by the ground and the rate of storm water runoff increases
significantly.
If nothing is done about the issue the increased rate of run off can quickly overload the
storm water infrastructure within the urban region. It can also lead to the damage of natural
waterways in which storm water is channelled. These environments cannot cope with the
unnaturally large flow rate of water generated by human development.
Thus local councils often strictly set the maximum discharge rate from developments into
the storm water system. The allowable discharge rate is set at that which would have
occurred on the property had no development taken place. Thus the discharge into streams
and rivers is kept at the natural rate. This is often achieved through stipulating a permitted
site discharge (PSD) which is a formula that dictates the maximum rate of discharge into the
council storm water drain or site storage requirement (SSR) which specified the minimum
volume of detention tank/system.
To achieve this rainwater detention tanks are used. These act like a giant funnel, with a small
orifice at the bottom only letting out water at a small discharge rate, equivalent to that of
predevelopment run off. During a storm the inflow of water from all the impervious surfaces
may be greater than the discharge rate. When this happens the water level in the funnel
rises until the discharge stops. The water detained continues to flow out at the fixed
discharge rate until the funnel is emptied.
Detention systems may be:

Below ground:

Here a detention tank is placed underground, beneath a drainage pit. All drainage pits
and pipes feed their collected water into the detention tank.
STANDARD DETENTION TANK
A standard detention tank consists of an inlet pipe from the pit and pipe system at the
top of a large tank with a small orifice outlet at the bottom which feeds out to the
council drain invert. During a storm water will flow in rapidly from the top. The small
orifice will restrict the rate of discharge so that if the inflow rate is sufficiently great the
tank will begin to fill up. Once the storm subsides the tank will empty out slowly.
Note that this type of detention tank is highly inefficient as the peak discharge rate is
only reached when the water height reaches the top of the tank. Hence that means that
this type of system is missing out on ejecting a significant amount of water early on that
could potentially lead to the system overwhelmed at a later stage. Hence to compensate
for the slow increase in discharge rate to the peak rate the tan needs to be made very
large.

109

HIGH EARLY DISCHARGE (HED) DETENTION TANK

A high early discharge detention tank is able to attain its peak discharge rate much faster
than a standard tank. This means that more of the storm water that fall earlier on can be
ejected, so that there is less chance of the tank being overwhelmed. As such the tank
can be made much smaller.
The high early discharge rate is achieved by having:

Smaller main tank.

High early discharge (HED) chamber in the main tank. This is achieved by building a
weir in one corner of the tank with masonry block work. The height of the weir
remains below the ceiling level of the tank.
A pipe from the pit and pipe system which goes directly to the high early discharge
chamber.
A discharge orifice at the bottom of the high early discharge chamber which control
the rate of discharge into the council drain invert.
A flap valve at the bottom of the weir. The flap remains closed when there is water
pressure in the HED chamber. When the HED chamber is empty and there is water in
the main part of the tank the flap opens letting the water discharge into the orifice.

110

During a storm, water will poor directly into the HED chamber, with the flap closed. With
a smaller chamber relative to the preceding tank, the water level rises faster, allowing
the peak discharge rate to be reached earlier on.
Eventually when the HED chamber becomes full water spills over the weir into the main
part of the tank. Once the storm subsides, the HED chamber empties its contents
through the orifice. When it is empty, the water pressure from the main part of the tank
forces the flap open and the stored water exits through the orifice.
The following is a hydrograph the compares the runoff water from a development into
the council storm water drains using no detention, standard detention and high early
discharge detention. The use of no detention results in a run off flow rate that peaks
very quickly to a value that is significantly greater than that permitted by council and
lasts for a very short time.
Water detention acts to flatten out and prolong the runoff discharge so that the flat
peak is at or below the level permitted by council. It can be seen that the HED system
reached the peak discharge rate abruptly while the standard detention system reaches
the peak more gradually.
The required volume of the detention tank is the area between the runoff curve without
detention and the curve for the respective detention system. For the standard detention
system the area is that bounded by ABFEA while for the HED discharge it is ABFEDA.
Thus the HED system requires a smaller volume detention tank because the area
associated with it is much smaller. Thus HED is by far the more efficient system.

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Above Ground Detention

In above ground detention the depression surrounding a drain pit is used to hold excess water.
Should the drainage system fail and the underground detention tank fill up, additional water
detention volume can be achieved by allowing the water to pond in the depression above
drainage pits. Hence ponding of water adds to the capacity of a detention system. A good
example of this is a sports field which is usually made in a depression to take excess water from
surrounding development and help detain it. It must be note that above ground detention
cannot be used with HED detention tanks. The setup of the system prevents above ground
detention from being properly used.
A good example of a detention system is that used in the Parramatta road Reese facility. A below
ground rainwater harvesting and storm water detention tanks with high early discharge are used.
Dirty ground water from the pits and pipes feeds directly into the HED chamber of the detention
tank which water coming off the roof through down pipes feeds into the rainwater tank.

The dirty water flowing in from the pits and pipes will flow in much the same way as explained
previously. However the flow of water into and from the rainwater tank is a bit different. Water will
flow from the roof downpipes into the rainwater tank. Once the rainwater tank is full water will flow
through the overflow pipe towards the HED chamber. If the HED chamber is not already full the
112

excess water will flow through the tube, into the HED chamber and out the orifice. If however the
HED chamber is full, water will not flow into it from the rainwater tank and instead water will flow
over the rainwater tank weir into the main part of the detention tank. Thus the water will be stored
until it can be released slowly after the storm has subsided. The operation of the rest of the tank
remains the same as that previously mentioned.
Note that in the total detention capacity of the Rees facility is the volume of the underground
detention tank, plus the volume of water that can be ponded above ground in the depression at the
middle of the external area.

HYDRAULIC DESIGN SOFTWARE : Much of the hydraulic design process can be quickly and easily done
using software packages like Drains, HEC RAS and 12D. Drains is suitable for pipe and pit flow design
however it does suffer from inaccuracy problems while HEC RAS is less suitable for this and more
suitable for large areas, the assessment of flooding impacts and open channel flow. Finally 12D is a
large scale drainage software suitable for the design of council roadway storm water drains.
The process of sub-catchment analysis with Drains involves:
1. Setting up the drainage network:
a. Catchments are set up at the location of each of the pits in the system. These
represent the sub-catchment areas that feed each of the pits. These are
represented by blue hexagonal elements on the display screen. Dummy catchments
may be established to represent the water inflow from structures.
When created a dialogue box will come up asking the user to enter in the impervious
area, the pervious area, the permeability and related properties.
b. Pits are then set up in the problem at each of the catchment areas. These are
represented by black square elements. Dummy pits may be established to represent
the overflow of water into the adjacent roadway.

113

c. Pipes are then put in linking the pits. These are represented by solid black lines.
When created a dialogue box will come up in which the slope and diameter can be
entered.
d. Discharge into council drains is represented by blue diamonds.

e. Overland flow paths are added between the pits of the drainage system and the
dummy pit representing the adjacent roadway. The overland flow path is
represented by black dashed lines. These paths are only activated once the drainage
system pit is full.

114

f.

Finally detention systems are put in which are represented by black triangles. When
activated a dialogue box will come up asking the user to enter the ponding depth for
sub-catchment areas and the volumes of below ground tanks.

2. The system is then run for a broad range of storms. Data for the local area can be
entered into the software from tabulated local storm data provided by councils. Once
the data is entered in a dialogue box can be brought up to select the shape, duration and
frequency of a storm.

3. The system is then run and the discharge into the council drain pits and overland flow
paths monitored. The model is then run, adjusting the pipes, pits and detention tanks
until the discharge rates meet regulations.
A hydrograph showing the rate of discharge with time into the council drain is created.
The black line represents the inflow rate into the system from the storm while the grey
line represents the outflow from the system.

115

A chart can also be produced showing the water level in the detention tank with time.

In addition a chart can be produced linking the water level to the volume of water in the
tank. Thus combining these two charts the volume detained in the tank can be tracked
with time.

4. Once the requirements are met (that is the maximum outflow rate from the system is
within council PSD and the volume detained meets the council SSR) the results and data
are then printed to prepare the detailed drawings for the drainage system.
HEC RAS software, rather than modelling the behaviour of a closed drainage system is capable of
modelling the behaviour of an open channel like a street.

The software is able to take in the design of something like a roadway, with the plan put in
as shown in the left screen shot. It can also have the cross section entered in at several
points from which it can extrapolate the entire cross-section as shown in the right screen
shot.
116

It can show the water peak pater level in each section of the channel, illustrating the area
below water in blue on each of the channel sections.

It can also show the peak water levels along a long section of the channel. Using this
information it is possible to set the appropriate height for architectural floor levels to avoid
water getting into the property.

It can also create a 3D model which shows the progression of the water height with time at
any location within the channel. This can also be animated into a video.

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SUBSOIL DRAINAGE : Another related concept to hydraulics is the use of subsoil drainage. Here drain
coil is often run alongside precast concrete pipes in the trench for the pipe. The purpose of the drain
coil is to prevent the soil above and around the pipe for becoming completely saturated, which may
increase the load placed on the pipe from the back fill and reduce the strength of the backfill
material upon which the pipe is supported. In this way subsoil drainage leads to lower design loads
for the pipe and a cheaper drainage system, and less maintenance in the future. The drainage coil is
run close to and parallel to the precast concrete pipe. The drain coil is in fact terminated in the pit
which the pipe empties into. Thus the water from the soil is transferred to the remainder of the
drainage system.

Structural design involves the determination of loads which will be placed upon the pipes. These
include:

Long term loads from the backfill.

Long term loads from traffic across the top.
Short term loads from construction loads (e.g. trucks, excavators, dozers, etc. moving across
the top).

Typically the most sever load case is associated with construction loads and as such the pipe class
should be chosen so that the pipe has sufficient bearing capacity to take that load. Also it must be
noted that concrete slab pavement is poured over the top of the pipes which should protect them
from the long term traffic loads.

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Once the peak design load on the concrete pipe is determined it is then necessary to select the
appropriate pipe class. Pipes are manufactured in a range of classes with each class representing the
strength of the pipe.

STANDARD STRENGTH PIPES: These are used in typical applications where there will be limited
traffic over the top and where the back fill is not too deep. These come in 3 classes:
o Class 2: This is the weakest pipe available. It can withstand a line load of 2 tonnes
per meter placed along its centre line at the top of the pipe before cracking.
o Class 3: It can withstand a line load of 3 tonnes per meter placed along its centre line
at the top of the pipe before cracking.
o Class 4: It can withstand a line load of 4 tonnes per meter placed along its centre line
at the top of the pipe before cracking.
HIGH STRENGTH PIPES : These are used in applications where there will be massive loads
placed on the pipes during construction, or where there will be lots of heavy traffic over the
top, or where significant backfill will be placed on top. These come in a further 3 classes:
o Class 6: It can withstand a line load of 6 tonnes per meter placed along its centre line
at the top of the pipe before cracking.
o Class 8: It can withstand a line load of 8 tonnes per meter placed along its centre line
at the top of the pipe before cracking.
o Class 10: It can withstand a line load of 10 tonnes per meter placed along its centre
line at the top of the pipe before cracking.

The design of the fill material surrounding the pipe typically entails:
1. Bed: A thorough compacted sand bed is places at the bottom of the pipe trench. The pipe
bottom sits flush on top of this compacted sand bed.
2. Compacted select fill: Specially selected fill material is then placed between the bottom of
the pipe and just below or up to the haunch line (horizontal line across centre of pipe). As
such this is often referred to as haunch support. This fill should be highly angular like road
base or crushed concrete. The angularity helps the aggregate to sit closer together and
reduce the load concentrations around the pipe. Note that using rounded aggregate is to be
avoided as the aggregate will lead to load concentrations along the pipe surface. Once put in
place the fill should be thoroughly compacted.
3. Ordinary compacted fill: Above the compacted select fill ordinary fill is put in. The fill type
can be of a lower quality than that of the select fill and can contain some rounded
aggregate, but it should not be completely rounded. The ordinary fill should be compacted
after being put in. The height of this layer must extend at least 150mm above the very top of
the concrete pipe.
4. Backfill: Finally backfill may be put in all the way to the surface level. This may be spoil
material that is available on site or may be imported from elsewhere.

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An excellent example to illustrate where pipe structural design can go wrong was a storm water
drain put in at Rouse Hill. Soon after the completion of the drain, it began leaking into the souring
ground. The problem was attributed to cracking which was due to two design flaws:

The engineer had selected a pipe class with inadequate strength for the loads put the pipe.
The engineer had selected the pipe based upon the long term backfill and traffic loads. The
engineer had ignored the load case associated with construction in which heavy equipment
would move across the pipe. As such after being back filled, the pipe began cracking under
the load of construction equipment passing over it as the job was being completed.
Rounded aggregate was used instead of angular aggregate for the fill material. This would
have led to incomplete compaction and significant stress concentrations at the exterior
surface of the pipe which would have led to further cracking.

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Once the hydraulic design and structural design are complete drawings for construction are
produced. These include:

Plans: These are plan views which show:

o The placement of pits.
o The placement of pipes between pits.
o The location of detention tanks if appropriate.
o The grading of the external areas of the site.
An example is that of the Reese plumbing facility plan previously used:

Long Section: These are section views of the drainage section showing:
o Chainage of piping (horizontal distance).
o Pit-pipe-invert (the bottom of the pipe where it meets the pit) locations.
o Downstream and upstream invert heights.
o The slope of the pipes.
An example is that of the Reese plumbing facility plan previously used:

Typical Cross Sections: These are section views through critical points within the drainage
system. They may for example show:
o Connection of pipes within pits.
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o
o

The subsoil drainage system.

The detention systems.

In addition to drawings it is often useful to include a pit and pipe table. Essentially the pits and pipes
are tabulated for ease of construction.
1. The pit numbers/letters are located in the first column. A row is skipped between each pit to
allow the details of the pipe between them to be entered.
2. The pipe diameter and length are entered into the next two columns. These details are put
into the spaces adjoining the two pits.
3. Next the pit surface level is put in; with the data put into the rows of the pits (not the pipes
in between).
4. Finally the upstream invert level (USIL); which is the level of the bottom of the pipe at the
higher end at the point where it meets the first pit (usually the pit in the row above), and the
downstream invert level (DSIL); which is the level of the bottom of the pipe at the lower end
at the point where it meets the second pit (usually the pit in the row below). This data is
entered into the row related to the pipe (between the pit rows).

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4.2 Construction of Drainage Systems

There are several issues when it comes to construction of drainage systems:
1. The trenches for pipes should be prepared in accordance with the manufacturer
specifications this can involve the use of:
a. A trench floor: The pipe sits directly on the bottom of the excavated trench. This is
suitable when the soil/rock has significant strength and is heavily compacted.
b. Prefabricated concrete cradles: These are concrete blocks with a flat surface at the
bottom which site flat on the trench bottom and a curved top onto which the pipe
sits. This technique is quick and reliable however it requires that the trench be
perfectly flat and at the right level. This technique has little tolerance for
imperfections in the trench floor.
c. Sand bags: Here sand bags or sand is placed at the bottom onto which the pipe will
sit. This is the most flexible method allowing the surface to be adjusted easily.
However there are issues with settlement of the sand.
2. Pits and pipes should be laid in sequence staring at the downstream end.
3. The backfill and surrounding fill of the pipe should be used in accordance with specifications
from the manufacturer. The fill should be of the right type, have sufficient strength and be
compacted correctly and to the right consistency.
There are several types of precast pipes which dictate how they are connected:

FLUSH JOINTED PIPES : These pipes have flat ends which butt up against each other when
segments are joined. Ideally the vertical faces of the pipes should be flush with one another
123

and make contact, however small gaps are allowable to enable the pipes to curve around
corners. This type of pipe connection is not sealed and if leakage is to be prevented external
bands (EB) made of plastic are placed over the connection to seal it off.

SPIGOT SOCKET JOINTED PIPES: This type of joint is also called a rubber ring joint (RRJ). Each
pipe end has a spigot; a narrow end which fits into a socket; the wider end. The joints are
water tight without needing additional external bands due to the rubber ring found on the
inside of the socket. It seals off the connection and prevents leakage.

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5 Pavements
5.1 What Are Pavements
PAVEMENTS: This refers to the durable surface material and supporting base material which is
intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic. Pavements are used to construct roads, car parks,
airports, industrial areas and wharves.
The design and construction of pavements is based upon establishing a layered structure so that
layers closer to the surface have better load bearing capacity while those further down are better
able to distribute the loads over a wider area. Hence the idea behind pavements is to take the
concentrated stresses beneath for example wheels and help distribute them over a broader area so
that the stresses in the layers below is much lower, preventing the stress from exceeding the
material strength.
The bearing capacity of the pavement materials is based upon:

Inter-particle friction.
Particle interlock.

The pavement materials used should also be resistant to moisture in their environment. That is, their
bearing capacity should remain unaffected by the level of moisture.

5.2 Types of Pavements

Pavements are generally categorised into two groups; flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This
classification scheme is not a reflection of the function or performance of the pavements, but rather
simply describes the properties of the constituent materials. Hence this classification is not all that
useful.
o

RIGID PAVEMENTS : These are pavements made of rigid concrete panels at the surface. These
panels distribute the load of the surface traffic over a large area to the material layers
beneath. Most of the load distribution work is done by the concrete pavement with little
done by the base and sub-base. As the name implies, the panels cannot move vertically
relative to one another. If this were to happen then the pavement is said to have failed.
This type of pavement has several disadvantages:
o
o
o

Has a very high capital cost for construction.

The concrete must be left to cure fully before traffic is allowed on the pavement.
It is less driver friendly than flexible pavements because:
The rough aggregates put into the concrete which are meant to enhance
traction and prevent slipping can be polished away, leaving the road very
slippery when wet.
When car tires speed across the top, a significant amount of noise is
generated. The noise is far greater than that of some types of flexible
pavements.
Because these pavements often have continuous cracks/joints induced in
them along their length, drivers often use the cracks as guides on where to
125

drive. The cracks can often distract the driver away from driving within the
road markings causing them to drive between cracks instead.
The concrete pavement is heavily effected by high and low temperatures. Thus
joints need to be put in to allow the concrete to expand significantly and contract
significantly. However these joints are often difficult to put in and cost a lot as well.

Aside from these disadvantages this type of pavement is often used because of two key
advantages:
o
o

It is relatively maintenance free if installed correctly and all joints are sealed up
properly. Thus maintenance costs are brought down significantly.
They offer great performance for roads with short radius turns. Other flexible
pavements often suffer significant cracking that this system if installed correctly
avoids.

The construction process starts with the preparation of the road base. The base and subbase must be thoroughly compacted as much of the load bearing work is done by these
layers. This involves laying down small portions of the layer compacting and repeating the
process till the top of the layer is reached.
Once the road base is prepared, the reinforcing may be continuously put down (with bar
chairs already attached to its bottom) using a paving machine. A continuous roll of mesh laid
down as the paving machine moves along.

This may then be followed by the pouring of concrete by a concrete paving machine. It
essentially moves along a pours thick even layer of concrete in a continuous fashion. It also
screeds the concrete and embeds grooves at the same time to improve traction.

126

Alternatively the reinforcing may be laid down by hand and the concrete poured in the
conventional way and screeded by hand. This is far too time consuming and is usually used
on small jobs.
Once poured the concrete needs to be allowed to cure. To prevent the premature
evaporation of water and the halting of the curing process spray on curing agents may be
used. Alternative plastic sheeting or wet hessian may be placed on top, but this is a more
expensive and time consuming process.
There are essentially 3 types of rigid pavement:
1. Plain concrete pavement (PCP): Here the top layer of the pavement is
simply plain concrete with no reinforcement. Plain concrete will have a
strong tendency to crack and as such a large number of longitudinal
and transverse joints will have to be put in/created to prevent
unwanted cracking.
a. The concrete pavement layer is usually quite thick with a
depth of 230-250mm. This layer usually has a water proofing
seal put on top to prevent water ingress through the cracks
and joints. If water was to get in to the layers beneath it could
potentially reduce the bearing strength of the base and subbase layers.
b. This sits atop base layer of lean mix concrete which is about
150mm thick. Lean mix concrete is concrete with low cement
content and the main constituents being sand and aggregate.
This provides an additional mechanism for load distribution.
c. This then sits on top of the sub-base layers which are made up
of select fill usually imported to the site with high bearing
strength (as represented by a high California bearing ratio
(CBR) which is greater than 10%). The top part of this layer; the
upper 150mm, is usually lime stabilised (to increase its bearing
capacity), while the bottom 150mm is plain select fill.
d. This then sits atop the subgrade; the material of the existing
ground.

127

2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete: Here the top layer of the pavement is a

reinforced concrete layer with steel reinforcing embedded in it. As
such the concrete layer can be made thinner and fewer longitudinal
and transverse joints need to be put in/created. This has the benefit
of less concrete consumption as well as a lower chance of water
ingress.
a. The concrete layer now has a smaller depth of just 200230mm. The reinforcement used is usually F82 mesh. Again a
sealant of the same nature as that mentioned will have to be
put on top to seal up cracks and prevent water ingress.
b. This sits atop base layer of lean mix concrete which is again
about 150mm thick.
c. This then sits on top of the sub-base layers which are made up
of select fill usually imported to the site with high bearing
strength (as represented by a high California bearing ratio
(CBR) which is greater than 10%). The top part of this layer;
the upper 150mm, is usually lime stabilised (to increase its
bearing capacity), while the bottom 150mm is plain select fill.
d. This then sits atop the subgrade; the material of the existing
ground.
3. Continuously reinforced concrete (CRC): This type of concrete pavement
has a significant amount of reinforcing embedded into it so that few
joints are needed. As such with few joints this type of pavements is the
least maintenance intensive, reduces the joint installation/creation costs
and leads to the lowest chance of water ingress. Thus this is usually the
best type of rigid pavement.
a. The concrete layer has a depth of 200-230mm. The
reinforcement used is usually N16 bars. Again a sealant of the
same nature as that mentioned will have to be put on top to seal
up cracks and prevent water ingress.
b. This sits atop base layer of lean mix concrete which is again
about 150mm thick.
c. This then sits on top of the sub-base layers which are made up of
select fill usually imported to the site with high bearing strength
(as represented by a high California bearing ratio (CBR) which is
greater than 10%). The top part of this layer; the upper 150mm,
is usually lime stabilised (to increase its bearing capacity), while
the bottom 150mm is plain select fill.
d. This then sits atop the subgrade; the material of the existing
ground.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS: These are pavements in which the surface of the pavement
is quite flexible, and able to achieve relative vertical motion. As such the surface layer offers
limited rigidity. It is incapable of adequately redistributing the concentrated stresses over a
larger area. Much of the distribution work is done by the base and sub-base materials. The
surface layer which may be composed of asphaltic concrete (AC) or bituminous seal (chip
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seal) merely protects the base and sub-base from moisture and traffic. Since the surface
layer is highly flexible joints are not needed.
Flexible pavements come in 2 forms:
1. ASPHALTIC CONCRETE (AC): This is a material which is batched like concrete in a plant and
sent out to site in trucks in a hot molten state. Asphaltic concrete is similar to standard
concrete in that it contains sand and aggregate, but rather than cement the binder used is
bitumen.
The first step to laying down asphaltic concrete is to first prepare the road base. The base
and sub-base must be thoroughly compacted as much of the load bearing work is done by
these layers. This involves laying down small portions of the layer compacting and repeating
the process till the top of the layer is reached.
Once the road base is prepared, a thick layer of asphaltic concrete is poured out of the back
of a truck and spread out evenly. The asphaltic concrete is laid down using a paving machine.
The asphaltic concrete truck pours its contents into the front hopper of the paving machine.
The machine then ejects a flat slightly compacted even layer of asphaltic concrete. The
paving machine and truck proceed forward as the pavement surface is laid.

It must then be rolled with a smooth drum steel roller at the right time after it has been laid
to ensure it has been compacted adequately. A steel drum roller needs to be used in order
to get a nice smooth and flat surface. The timing of this process is critical, if it is rolled too
early it will still be too hot and it will not become compacted, and if it is rolled too late it will
be too cold and it again wont be compacted. Once the asphaltic concrete has cooled traffic
can move across it immediately.

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There are several advantages to the use of asphaltic concrete including:

o

Its economy as it is far cheaper to lay-down than concrete pavements on a per

square metre basis.
o It can be trafficked much earlier on than concrete pavements. That is, it is ready for
traffic on it much earlier than concrete pavements.
o It is also far more driver friendly as:
It doesnt have joints which can confuse drivers.
Its black colour provides good contrast for road markings.
It produces significantly less noise when tyres pass over it.
It however has some disadvantages which include:
o High maintenance costs as these pavements are not as durable as concrete and will
need regular maintenance.
o This type of pavement is highly inappropriate for short radius turns in which
shrinkage or expansion is likely to cause significant cracking. Because the pavement
is restrained on either side of a turn, it has no choice but to crack in the event of
expansion or contraction.
There are several different asphaltic concrete pavement designs each of which serves the
same purpose. This is a sign of the confusion in pavement design.
o

Full depth asphalt:

A thick layer of asphaltic concrete of thickness 280-350mm is laid
on top. A thicker layer of asphalt is needed because less and lower
strength road base material is used, necessitating the surface layer
to bear more of the load.
This sits on a base of 150mm free draining aggregate.
The sub-base is made up of select fill with a high bearing strength
(CBR of 10% or greater).
Finally this sits on top of the existing subgrade material of the site.

Deep strength asphalt over cemented sub-base:

A thinner layer of asphaltic concrete of thickness 150-225mm is
used at the surface. This is because a stronger based material is
used.
This sits atop a base of cemented fill. This essentially involves
mixing some cement into the soil fill to improve its strength
characteristics.
This then sits on a 150mm sub-base of free draining aggregate.
Finally another 150mm sub-base layer of select fill is added with the
same strength as that previously mentioned.
Finally this sits on top of the existing subgrade material of the site.

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Deep strength asphalt over blast furnace slag:

An even thinner asphaltic concrete layer of 100mm is used at the
surface. The reduction is facilitated because high strength blast
furnace slag is used as the base material. However the smaller
thickness means that a sealant must be put on the surface of the
road to prevent the ingress of water.
As mentioned the base is made up of a thick layer of blast furnace
slag with a thickness of 300-400mm. This is a waste produce from
the burning of coal in furnaces which has very good bearing
strength.
A 300mm sub-base of select fill is then placed beneath this.
Finally this sits on top of the existing subgrade material of the site.

Deep strength asphalt over lean mix concrete:

A slightly thicker asphaltic concrete layer of 150-200mm is used at
the surface.
This sits atop base layer of lean mix concrete which is again about
150mm thick.
This then sits on top of the sub-base layers which are made up of
select fill usually imported to the site with high bearing strength (as
represented by a high California bearing ratio (CBR) which is greater
than 10%). The top part of this layer; the upper 150mm, is usually
lime stabilised (to increase its bearing capacity), while the bottom
150mm is plain select fill.
This then sits atop the subgrade; the material of the existing ground.
2. BITUMINOUS SEAL (BS): This is another type of pavement in which bitumen is used.
The seal is made of a thin layer of bitumen with rough aggregates embedded within it.
Essentially once the road base is prepared a hot liquid bitumen layer is laid down with a
small thickness. Angular aggregate of 7-14mm size is then spread over the top and rolled
into the bitumen.
The first step to laying down asphaltic concrete is to first prepare the road base. The base
and sub-base must be thoroughly compacted as much of the load bearing work is done by
these layers. This involves laying down small portions of the layer compacting and repeating
the process till the top of the layer is reached.
Once the road base is prepared the bituminous top layer is applied using what is known as a
truck mounted kettle. Essentially the truck has a large heating chamber in which bitumen is
melted down using gas burners. The molten bitumen is then sprayed out the rear through a
line of spray nozzles. The use of gas burners means that this technique of road pavement
can be used in remote locations. However due to the flammable nature of bitumen it can
quite easily ignite leading to a significant safety hazard.

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A thin layer of bitumen is sprayed initially which becomes the primer layer, helping the
bitumen layers above stick to the road base. This is then followed with further layers of
bitumen which form tack coats.
Stone chippings (highly angular aggregate) are then spread over the top tack coat. This is
done using a dump truck moving in reverse, gradually tipping out its aggregate contents with
a cockerel spreader attached to its rear. This is an attachment that only allows a thin evenly
spread stream of shippings to fall out the rear.

The stone chips are then rolled into the bitumen using a rubber tyred roller. A rubber tyred
roller is necessary because its wheel can deform to ensure even compaction of the uneven
surface. A smooth drum roller would not be able to do this, leaving some areas
uncompacted.

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Once the bitumen has cooled it is possible to allow slow moving traffic across. High speed
traffic is to be avoided until the bitumen has cured and attained full strength. Once cured
loos stones are broomed off which usually takes place after several days.
There are several advantages to the use of bituminous seal:
o
o

o
o
o

It is the lowest cost pavement type.

Like asphaltic concrete it is very driver friendly:
It doesnt have joints which can confuse drivers.
Its black colour provides good contrast for road markings.
It produces significantly less noise when tyres pass over it.
It only requires a short term interruption of traffic and can take full traffic within a
few days.
It is the most common road construction technique in Australia used for most
regional roads. However it is rarely used within Sydney.
It is quite a flexible technique in that the roadway can be made thin with just one
coat (a single layer of bitumen 10-14mm thick then a layer of stone 7mm thick) or
two coat (a layer of bitumen 10-14mm thick then a layer of stone 7mm thick then
another layer of bitumen which is then topped with another layer of stone).

There are again several disadvantages as well:

o

High maintenance costs as these pavements are not as durable as concrete and will
need regular maintenance.
o This type of pavement is highly inappropriate for short radius turns in which
shrinkage or expansion is likely to cause significant cracking. Because the pavement
is restrained on either side of a turn, it has no choice but to crack in the event of
expansion or contraction.
o These roads may also cause windscreen damage to vehicles travelling on them as
stones may become loosened with time and be flung into windscreens at high
speed.
3. SEGMENTED PAVEMENT : This is a type of pavement made up of interlocking concrete blocks
laid in a repeating pattern. This type of pavement is generally designed and considered to
be a flexible pavement; however it does not completely fit within this category. The base
and sub-base layers are designed using the same procedure as that for flexible pavement.

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When pavers are laid closely they effectively lock each other in place, preventing the
rotation of pavers. They can also use this lock up to transmit lateral loads.
There are several advantages including:
o
o
o

o
o
o
o

Segmented pavement is a cost effective solution in low speed areas. Produced in mass
product factories the pavers have low cost and consistent strength and dimensions.
When properly constructed and maintained the pavement is very durable and can last
for a very long time.
This type of roadway has a large tolerance for deflections, as even if it were to deflect
significantly, it would still be considered to have not failed (rigid pavements are
considered to have failed if there is a small amount of deflection).
The maintenance costs for this type of pavement is very low.
These roadways can be opened up to traffic immediately after the laying is
completed.
Openings for buried services can be easily made, and they provide excellent covers
around trees, allowing air and water to reach the roots.
They can easily be recycled.

But there are also disadvantages which include:

o
o

They are only appropriate for low speed up to 70km/h.

The spaces between pavers allow large amounts of moisture down into the base and
sub-base. Hence this has the potential to reduce the strength of the layers beneath.
The base and sub-base materials need to be carefully prepares to prevent complete
failure.

To lay this type of pavement the process starts with excavating down to the subgrade that will
be used. Generally the weaker the subgrade, the greater the thickness of pavement.
Immediately above the subgrade a capping layer is put in. This is usually composed of granular
material which is intended to protect the subgrade from loss of strength. Once compacted it
should prevent water from weakening the subgrade.
This is then topped with a sub-base material which usually has considerable strength.
Unbound granular material is often used for this, but sometimes cement may be mixed in to
the sub-base fill to create a cement bound layer with greater strength. The road base is then
placed over this, forming the main structural layer. This tends to be the thickest layer.
Finally just below the paver layer and above the road base a laying course is put it. The pavers
sit directly on top of this layer. The manufacturer recommends that a layer of fine sand be
used. However this may not be advisable as the case of Arundel Mall in Adelaide illustrates.
The paves surface was regularly cleaned with a high pressure washer which eroded the sand
and led to the failure of the pavement. Instead it is recommended that the pavers be laid on a
bed of mortar which has a ratio of 6 parts sand to 1 part cement to prevent loss of laying
course. In some light reinforcing mesh may be added to the laying course to further
strengthen it.

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There are generally 3 types of pavers:

o

CATEGORY A: These pavers have curved edges, dented in both the longitudinal and
lateral directions. This allows them to lock together what is known as a herringbone
arrangement, resembling a wave pattern. The final pavement has the best interlock
able to resist separating loads in the longitudinal and lateral direction of the paver.
CATEGORY B: This type of paver has curved edges in the longitudinal direction. This
allows them to lock together in a stretcher arrangement. The final pavement is only
able to resist longitudinal separation.
CATEGORY C: These are undented pavers with straight edges. They are laid out in a
basket weave pattern. They have no resistance at all to separating forces in any
direction.

5.3 Rigid Pavement Joints

Joints are extremely important for rigid pavements. There are several types of joints typically used:
1. CONTRACTION JOINTS : Concrete as it dries tends to want to shrink. For large pieces of
concrete like road pavements the concrete is effectively restrained due to the friction of the
pavement with the underlying road base. Thus tensile stresses are induced which may
exceed the concretes strand and it will inevitably crack. If nothing is done the cracking will
occur randomly in the transverse and longitudinal directions.

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In addition other stresses are caused by temperature and moisture gradients within the
concrete slab which leads to warping and the overall tensile stresses. Again if nothing is
done, these stresses will also lead to random transverse and longitudinal cracking.
This cracking cannot be stopped, however the location and how those cracks form can be
controlled. Contraction joints are an attempt to control the manner in which the concrete
cracks in the transverse and longitudinal direction.
There are three ways in which this can be done:
o

Jointed unreinforced pavements: Transverse joints are put in at a spacing of 5m

with or without dowels at the joints. Longitudinal contraction joints are put in at
spacing of 3-5m. There are two types of these pavements:
PLAIN CONCRETE PAVEMENT (PCP): Here transverse joints do not have dowels.
Advantages of this system include:
o Lowest cost of any other concrete pavement.
o It is the simplest construction technique.
Disadvantages of this technique include:
o Large amounts of noise are generated because lots of
closely spaced joints have to be made.
o There is no backup (like steel reinforcement) to safeguard
against unforseen cracking.
o It cannot be used where there is likely to be differential
settlement of the pavement.
PLAIN CONCRETE PAVEMENT WITH DOWELS (PCP-D): Here transverse joints have
dowels put in.
Advantages of this system include:
o Dowels reduce both the joint deflections and stresses on the
base and sub-base at the joint locations.
o This system is favoured internationally for roads which take
axle loads over 10tonnes.
Disadvantages of this technique include:
o The alignment of dowels can easily go wrong.
o There is no backup (like steel reinforcement) to safeguard
against unforseen cracking.
o It costs 5% more than the PCP system but has the same
design life.
o It cannot be used where there is likely to be differential
settlement of the pavement.
Jointed reinforced pavements [with dowels] (JRCP-D): Transverse joints are put in at
a larger spacing of 10-15m because the steel reinforcing can help redistribute cracks
a further distance. Dowels must be used with the joints because they are now
spaced much further apart and are likely to be larger. Longitudinal contraction joints
are put in at spacing of 3-5m.
Advantages of this system include:

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There is now a backup from the steel reinforcement to

safeguard against unforseen cracking.
o It is suited to piecemeal construction where there is likely to
a lot of stopping and starting again.
o Dowels reduce both the joint deflections and stresses on the
base and sub-base at the joint locations.
o This system is great where there would otherwise be
differential settlement.
Disadvantages of this technique include:
o The mesh and dowels can hinder the placement of concrete.
o The mesh complicates the slip-forming (continuous forming
by pouring concrete in a continuous fashion).
o It costs 20% more than the PCP system but has the same
design life.
Continuously reinforced concrete pavement: If sufficient steel is put contraction
joints need not be put in as the steel is design to hold together hairline cracks that
form at a spacing of 1.5-3m.
Advantages of this system include:
o This is the system with the lowest maintenance requirement
if constructed properly.
o Stresses on the base and sub-base are reduced further
which means lower quality road base materials can be used.
o This system is great where there would otherwise be
differential settlement.
Disadvantages of this technique include:
o Slab repairs in the event of damage are difficult.
o It is very difficult to recycle the materials from this type of
pavement when it is removed.
o It costs 25% more than the PCP system but has the same
design life.

Steel fibre reinforced concrete pavement (CFCP): The concrete used in this type of
pavement contains a large volume of small steel fibres which are mixed in during

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batching. The large amount of steel fibres controls shrinkage cracking, reducing the
need for contraction joints.
Advantages of this system include:
o Excellent performance and widespread us of this
system in slabs with sharp angled slopes.
o It works well where traffic detectors need to be
embedded into the pavement; where mesh
reinforcement would be unsuitable. .
Disadvantages of this technique include:
o The addition of steel fibres has the tendency to
increase the curling of the slabs (bending if the slabs
up or down.
o It costs singificantly more than the PCP system but
has the same design life.
Cracking in unreinforced and unjointed concrete usually occurs in two stages:
o
o

Initial cracking: takes place soon after the concrete has begun to dry. The cracks
tend to be transverse cracks that occur every 10-50m in the pavement.
Final cracking: is achieved after the concrete has completely dried out. This often
results in transverse cracks spaced at about 5m apart and longitudinal cracks spaced
at 3-5m apart.

Hence it makes sense to put in contraction joints just before the concrete begins to dry out
which is about 5-6hours after pour. The transverse joints are spaced at 5 which take care of
both initial and final transverse cracking and longitudinal joints are put in at about 3-5m to
take care of final longitudinal cracking. Note that road lanes tend to be 3-5m which means
that longitudinal joints can be put in where lanes will be which avoids confusing drivers.
The process of creating contraction joints involves using a concrete saw to make a 3mm
wide groove that extends down a quarter of the depth of the slab. This acts as a guide for
later cracking so that as the concrete shrinks a crack is formed directly below the groove and
not elsewhere.

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Once the crack has formed, the top of the first cut is widened to 10mm and a polymer
sealant put across the top. The reason the top is widened is that the sealant can expand by
30%, so that if a 3mm gap was used it could only expand 1mm while with a 10mm gap it can
expand about 3mm. This way the slabs will never pull apart and break the seal. It is
necessary to seal the joint because if left un sealed, water could infiltrate down through the
crack, weakening the base material below the pavement, potentially leading to the road
failure.
For transverse joints there are 2 ways in which they can be made:
o

Un-dowelled joints: This type of joints essentially has no dowel placed within it to
prevent differential vertical movement and to transfer wheel loads from one slab to
another. A rough crack is induced below the cut groove caused by the presence of
aggregates. The interlock of aggregates across the joint provides a means of
preventing differential settlement and transferring imposed loads.
Hence this type of joint relies upon the aggregate interlock for load transfer. It must
be noted that this mechanism is only effective when the joint opening is 1mm or less
wide. This is usually the case with transverse joint spacing of up to 5m and low to
moderate traffic load and frequency. High traffic frequency or loads lead to a loss of
efficiency of this load transfer mechanism. Also note that this type of joint is only
appropriate in unreinforced concrete pavements.

Dowelled Joints: This type of joint uses relies upon a dowel to transfer wheel loads
between slabs and prevent differential vertical motion. This system is appropriate
where there is heavy traffic, the road base is inappropriate for un-doweled joints,
where the climatic conditions are extreme or where joints will be spaced greater
than 5m apart. It can be used in reinforced and unreinforced slabs.
A dowel; a smooth surfaced rod, is embedded into the concrete centred about the
joint, at half of the depth of the slab. One end of the dowel has a bond breaking
agent applied to it (extending a further 25mm past the halfway point). The bond
breaking compound prevents the concrete from sticking to one side of the rod,
allowing the tow pavement segments to slide past one another. For unreinforced
slabs as follows the dowels are put in at every transverse joint which is at every 5m.

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In the case of a reinforced slab the reinforcing should be terminated 75mm away
from the joint on each side. The joints are usually a further distance apart as about
10-15m.

For longitudinal contraction joints there exists only one technique. Deformed rebar is typically put
across the joint; centred at the joint and at half the depth of the slab. The rebar typically has a
diameter of 20% of the depth of the slab. The rebar is used rather than a dowel because it will allow
a much smaller gap to open up. If dowels were used the two sections of road could potentially move
significantly apart, creating a massive gap. This is not so much a problem in transverse joints.

2. EXPANSION JOINTS : Concrete tends to expand significantly during hot weather. often the gaps
created in the closely spaced and well maintained contraction joints by contraction just
after construction is sufficient to give the concrete space to expand freely. However if there
are insufficient contraction gaps or they have not been maintained adequately (so that dirt
has blocked the gaps) expansion joints are needed. They are also needed where the
pavement meets other solid objects such as where it passes by other pavements at
intersections or adjacent to buildings.
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Expansion joints typically involve cutting wide gap of about 10mm all the way through
pavement slabs. A soft sponge like filler material is put in to the gap which is capable of
compressing significantly and returning to its original shape. The filler prevents the joints
from becoming blocked up. Again a sealant is put in to the top of the gap to prevent water
infiltrating through the gap.
Loads are transferred across from slab to slab and differential vertical movement prevented
through:
o

Dowel expansion joints: Here a dowel is put in to the slab, centred about the joint
and at half the depth of the slab. A bond breaker is applied to half the dowel length
with an additional 25mm to create a free moving end. A dowel cap is placed over the
end with bond breaker prior to the concrete being poured on. The dowel cap creates
a space for the dowel to move into the slab, providing some expansion space.

Thickened edge expansion joints: This is typically an old technique for which the
dowel expansion joint is more favoured. Essentially the ends of the pavement
nearest to the expansion joint are thickened significantly, about 50-75mm thicker
than the rest of the slab. The thickening makes the ends of the slab stiffer allowing
the concentrated wheel load to be borne without excessive deflection. The
thickening extends 3.5m away from the expansion joint end towards the centre of
the slab.

3. CONSTRUCTION JOINTS : Construction joints are used to divide up the pavement into suitable
lengths and widths for constructability. Pavement equipment will have a limited width and
in many instances construction will be restricted to one lane at a time to allow traffic to use
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the other(s). This necessitates the use of longitudinal construction joints. In addition
interruptions to paving runs at the end of each day, poor weather or other factors mean
that transverse construction joints have to be formed.
For transverse construction joints there are two options which may be used:
o

Non-contraction Joint Construction Joint: This is used in reinforced and

unreinforced pavements to cut off transverse runs of pavement. This type of joint is
rigid and does not act as a contraction joint. It is typically formed by allowing the
reinforcing to proceed continuously across the joint I there is any and a deformed
rebar is put in to hold the two slab segments together. The edge of the slabs may be
keyed to provide additional vertical load transfer capability but this is not necessary.
Since the joint will not open up there is no need for a sealant at the top.

Contraction Joint Construction Joint: This again can be used in reinforced and
unreinforced concrete pavements. The construction joint now doubles as a
contraction joint. A dowel may be put in, in place of the rebar, with bond breaker
applied to one side (which extends a further 25mm past the middle). The reinforcing
is terminated 75mm away from the joint. The joint may be keyed for additional
vertical load transfer capability but this is not necessary. Because the joint will now
move apart, a groove is cut and sealant put in to prevent water ingress.

For longitudinal contraction joints there exists two techniques:

o

Non-contraction Joint Construction Joint: Deformed rebar is typically put across the
joint; centred at the joint and at half the depth of the slab. The rebar typically has a
diameter of 20% of the depth of the slab. The rebar is used to prevent the opening up of
a gap. This again cannot act as a contraction joint. The joint may be keyed to provide
further vertical load transfer capability but this is not necessary.

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Contraction Joint Construction Joint: Deformed rebar is typically put across the joint;
centred at the joint and at half the depth of the slab. The rebar typically has a diameter
of 20% of the depth of the slab. The rebar is used rather than a dowel because it will
allow a much smaller gap to open up. If dowels were used the two sections of road could
potentially move significantly apart, creating a massive gap. This is not so much a
problem in transverse joints.

Jointing is extremely important for corners and curved segments of pavement such as that at
intersections and cul-de-sac. The construction of these differs slightly based upon whether
reinforced or unreinforced paving is used.
o

INTERSECTION:
o Unreinforced: Here the pavements will all have to be broken up into 5m by 5m
squares. Transverse contraction joints will be put in perpendicular to the pavement
for each road and a longitudinal contraction joints through the centreline of the
roads. The outside edges of the pavement will have isolation (expansion) joints put
in.

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The slab segments at the curved corner in the case of a T-intersection and the
segments across the interface of an angled intersection will all have to be
reinforced. Note that for these segments it is best to use 2 keyed expansion joints or
(second best) just one doweled joint and a keyed joint on the other side as (worst)
two dowel joints will prevent the motion of the concrete.

Reinforced: Here the pavements will no longer have to be broken up so closely as

the pavement can be jointed every 10-15m. Transverse contraction joints will be put
in perpendicular to the pavement for each road and a longitudinal contraction joints
through the centreline of the roads. The outside edges of the pavement will have
isolation (expansion) joints put in. Because there are now no little corner segments
the issue with dowelled joints preventing motion is avoided.

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CUL-DE-SAC:
o Unreinforced: Here the pavements will all have to be broken up into 5m by 5m
squares. Transverse contraction joints will be put in perpendicular to the pavement
for each road and a longitudinal contraction joints through the centreline of the
roads. The outside edges of the pavement will have isolation (expansion) joints put
in.

The slab segments at the curved ends and the neck of the cul-de-sac will all have to
be reinforced. Note that for these segments it is best to use 2 keyed expansion joints
or (second best) just one doweled joint and a keyed joint on the other side as
(worst) two dowel joints will prevent the motion of the concrete.

Reinforced: Here the pavements will no longer have to be broken up so closely as

the pavement can be jointed every 10-15m. Transverse contraction joints will be put
in perpendicular to the pavement for each road and a longitudinal contraction joints
through the centreline of the roads. The outside edges of the pavement will have
isolation (expansion) joints put in. Because there are now no little corner segments
the issue with dowelled joints preventing motion is avoided.

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An example of where pavement jointing can go wrong was the Collaroy development pavement.
Cracking way found to occur outside of saw cut contraction joints soon after drying. This cracking
was unexplainable as the undesired cracks occurred just centimetres away from the saw cuts and
the cracks ran almost parallel to them.

The only rational explanation was the fact that the designer had requested that the concrete be
dumped directly from the back of the concrete truck to where the pavement was being poured. This
would have involved, removing the bar chairs under and around the truck, and replacing them
behind the truck as it proceeded forwards.

Instead of this the concreter decided to pump the concrete and in doing so would have added water
to the mix and pumping additives. These could have potentially weakened the concrete significantly,
causing it to crack undesirably. Note however the cracks do not prevent it from being functional.
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5.4 Design of Road Pavements

The design of pavements is one of the most confused and confusing areas of civil engineering. The
area is poorly understood and as such most pavements designs are complicated with many layers
and poor justifications for these layers. Cost effectiveness is often forgotten and designs usually
involve conservatism overkill. This field of engineering leaves the designer with very low risk as there
isnt much that can go wrong and in the case it does, it cannot be blamed on the designer (much like
storm water drainage design).
The design of the roadway (that is the depth of each layer chosen) is governed by:
o

LAYER BEARING CAPACITY: This is the load bearing capacity of each layer used in the pavement.
It is typically measured using the California bearing ration (CBR).
o CBR: this is a design parameter (not a construction phase compaction control test)
which is a measure of the resistance to deformation. It is typically conducted in a lab
environment. It is the ratio of the load put on a penetrometer to achieve a certain
penetration depth in the layer material to the load that must be put on the test
material (crushed limestone) to achieve the same penetration.
TRAFFIC : This is the number of vehicles that pass by for a given period.
o Equivalent Standard Axel (ESA): The equivalent standard axel (ESA) is used primarily
in the design of flexible pavements. This represents the load of one axel of weight 910 tonnes passing over the road. The figure is often quoted as ESAs per day, but to
use the design charts it must be converted to ESAs over the design life by
multiplying the daily figure by the design life in days.
o Maximum Axel Load: This is the maximum axle weight that will pass over the road
during a single day. This measure is used in the design of rigid pavements. Note that
in the charts the loads of different axles types are grouped for approximately equal
stress development in the pavement (e.g. 2.5 tonnes on a single standard axle is
equivalent to 4tones on a double tyred single axles and 8 tonnes on a double tyred
double axle).
DESIGN LIFE : This is the anticipated period in which the roadway will remain in service. This s
typically 40 years or more.

The design of a pavement usually starts with the selection of the number of layers in the pavement
and the material for each pavement. In doing so the strength of each material is determined for
design purposes in a laboratory to produce the CBR for each layer.

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To determine the thickness of each layer:

FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT :

1. Design Traffic: Determine the ESAs over the entire design life of the roadway. This
is done by taking the daily ESA value and multiplying it by the design life expressed
in days. Locate this value on the horizontal axis. Be careful as the scale is logarithmic.
2. CBR: Select a curve that corresponds to the strength CBR of the layer beneath that
being designed. If an intermediate value of CBR is required, use an imaginary line
between the two values on the chart.
3. Thickness: The design thickness of the material above this layer is obtained by
finding the intersection of the design traffic value and the CBR curve and taking this
to the left vertical axis. This value represents the thickness of the material above the
bottom of this layer in millimetres. To obtain the thickness of just this layer deduct
the thickness of the layers above from this value.
4. Repeat this entire process for each layer of the pavement.

For rigid pavements:

1. Axle load: From the problem determine the maximum axle load for each day, based
on a certain type of axle. Locate the corresponding value and axle type on the
horizontal axis at the bottom.
2. Daily repetitions: Next determine the likely number of repetitions of this load for
each day. Select a curve corresponding to the number of repetitions from the large
portion of the curve on the right.
3. Intersection: At the intersection of the axle load and daily repetitions curve draw a
horizontal line across to the left of the chart.
4. CBR: For the layer being design determine the CBR. Locate the CBR value on the top
horizontal axis in the top left corner.
5. Thickness: locate the intersection of the horizontal line drawn earlier and the CBR
value. At this point locate the nearest thickness curve in the left portion of the chart.
If the intersection occurs between curves, interpolate the value between them. The
curve value chosen represents the thickness of the layer.
6. Repeat the process for the remaining layers.

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5.5 Road Construction & Perfromance

Roadway construction typically starts with some excavation of the site down to a level where the
subgrade is of sufficient quality. Sub-base material may then be put in, possible with some of the
sub-base containing treated (to increase its strength) subgrade material. This is topped off with base
material and the road surface.
The roadway surface will tend to be formed with a concave down parabola shape to ensure that
water that does fall on to it, flows towards the kerb. In some locations the roadway surface be be
flat, but sloped down to one side to ensure that the water flows to one of the kerbs, however this
arrangement is inferior.

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At the sides of the road concrete kerbs are put in to link the roadway to the adjoining median strip.
The kerb has an L shape with the horizontal top surface sloping in on the corner of the kerb. This
ensures that water that does flow down to the kerb from the roadway, flows down the kerb to the
nearest storm water drain and not back on to the road.
Directly behind the kerb, beneath the median strip a sub-ground drainage system is installed. It
essentially involves putting in a rectangular section drainage trench that extends from the side of the
road base to the bottom of the sub-base. The trench is filled with single size gravel or no fines
concrete (in which fine aggregate is omitted, leaving it with a honey comb structure when it set) to
allow free draining.
Corrugated perforated pipe is put into the bottom of the drainage trench. Note that slotted PVC
would be too time-consuming to put in for long stretches of roadway. The drainage pit allows water
to drain out of the base and sub-base layers to prevent their saturation and the loss of their
strength.
Services are run directly beside the drainage trench under the median strips. PVC conduits are put in
during the construction of the roadway. Telecommunications and possibly power cables are run
through these conduits.

Note that there could be several reasons which explain the suboptimal performance of a road
pavement under traffic:

150

o
o

INADEQUATE THICKNESS : The model used to establish the design traffic and loads could have
underestimated their true values leading to inadequate thickness of layers. Alternatively the
traffic that runs on the road could have changed so that more traffic or larger loads are
imposed on the road than what it was designed for.
STRUCTURAL /JOINTING ISSUES : There could be problems with the placement of joints or the
installation of dowels/slab thickening which leads to poor performance of the joints.
Alternatively there could be problems with the reinforcement of the slabs.
EMBANKMENT STABILITY : There could be stability issues with the embankment on which the
roadway is built. The angle of the embankment may be inappropriate or there may not be
enough drainage causing a loss of soil strength.
INADEQUATE SPECIFICATION: The requirements from the owner (e.g. government) may not
have been adequate and as such the road was built with insufficient properties to meet the
needs of the traffic on it.
FAILURE TO ACHIEVE THE SPECIFIED QUALITY : The quality of design or quality of work on the
roadway may have been poor leading to performance problems.
UNEXPECTED FAILURES : There may be problems that were not foreseen during design or
construction causing poor road performance. For example failure of a council drain below
the roadway due to poor maintenance can cause the roadway to dip significantly.

5.6 Road Design Example

1. Determine the thickness design for a flexible thin surface pavement using the following data:
o The roadway has a 25 year design life.
o There are 2000 ESAs per day.
o The surface will be 40mm AC10.
o The base will be DGB20 imported fill with CBR 40%.
o The sub-base will be DGB40 imported fill with CBR 20%.
o The subgrade strength is 2% CBR.
First of all the thickness of the top layer is already set. It will be asphaltic concrete with chip size of
10mm and 40mm thickness. The subgrade is irrelevant to the design as it is assumed to extend
indefinitely beneath the pavement.
This just leaves the design of the base and sub-base. To start the design process we will be using the
flexible pavement chart. For that we will need the total ESA traffic over the life time:
2
1

2000

10

For the base the CBR of the layer beneath is 20% and the design traffic is 1
10 which gives a
thickness of about 250mm above the bottom of the base. We shall assume that the asphaltic
concrete has no bearing strength and as such the base must be the full 250mm.

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For the sub-base the CBR of the layer beneath is 2% and the design traffic is 1
10 which gives a
thickness of about 825mm of material above the bottom of this layer. Thus if we deduct the
preceding layer (of 250mm) we get that this layer should be 600mm deep.

Thus the design of the pavement is as follows:

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2. Now review the design on the basis that the subgrade can be cement stabilised at 5% cement by
weight at a thickness of 300mm for $10 per square metre with an improvement in the bearing
capacity from CBR 2% to CBR 6%. Sketch a modified design and comment on the cost saving if
DGS40 material cost $70 per cubic metre.
Because the CBR ratio of the layer directly beneath the base remains DGS40 with a CBR of 20%, the
thickness of the base is the same at 250mm. What will now change is the thickness of the sub-base.
It now sits on CBR 6% material and not CBR 2%. With a design traffic of 1
10 and CBR 6% the
thickness of material above the bottom of the DGS40 layer becomes 450mm. Hence depth of this
layer (less that above which is 250mm) becomes 200mm.

Hence the design becomes the following:

Hence if the original design was followed with a 600mm thick DGS40 layer would have
been 70
0
) $42 per square metre. However if the cement stabilisation is used this
layer is reduced to 200mm thickness with a cost of 70
0 2 ) $14 per square metre.
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Adding on the cost of stabilisation the total cost of the new method is (add $10 per square metre) is
$24 per square metre. This gives a cost saving of $18 per square metre. However this savings is likely
to be larger because the cost saving of the reduced amount of subgrade that needs to be disposed
of.
3. Using the Rigid Pavement Design Chart determine the thickness of 30mPa concrete required for
the same traffic the previous problem.
To begin, the ESAs must be converted to maximum axle loads. One ESA is the equivalent of a singe 9
tonne axle. Thus the peak axle load is taken as 9 tonnes which corresponds to the last line of loads.
With 2000 ESAs per day, the number of repetitions is above 30 and so the 30 and above repetitions
line is selected on the chart.
With a concrete pavement it shall be assumed that the roadway will be laid directly above the
subgrade. The subgrade has a CBR of 2% so this is selected in the left portion of the chart. When the
intersection of the axle load and repetitions line is extended horizontally to the CBR ratio, the closest
thickness line is 190mm. Thus the thickness of the pavement above the subgrade must be 190mm.

4. How reasonable is the example data used in the example shown on the design chart; i.e. what
should the attitude taken by a designer be to a request for a reduction in the estimated axle load
from 9 to 7 tonnes for a 40 year life.
In the example an axle load of 9 tonnes was used which would be the load generated by something
like an over-sized semi-trailer with a double wheeled axle. But it should be noted that the reduction
in axle load down to 7 tonnes would only reduce the necessary thickness slightly. The cost reduction
would not be worth the loss of conservatism and the potentially large risks faced.

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6 Environmental Engineering
6.1 The Environment and Environmental Projects
ENVIRONMENT : The environment is defined as different things by different people:

Civil Engineers: To civil engineers the environment would be considered to be the air, soil
and water that could be potentially affected by civil infrastructure and developments.
Environmental Planners: To environmental planners and architects the environment is
considered to be the world and everything in it.
Government: To government departments like the Department of Environment and
Conservation and the Land and Environment Court take a similar view to environmental
planners viewing everything as part of the environment.
Investment banks: View the environment as a means of making a profit, through
environmental infrastructure, carbon credits, polluting permits and the like.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS: Again this defined in different ways by different people:

Civil Engineers: To civil engineers environmental projects are those which control, reduce or
eliminate pollution of:
o Air: like noise reduction, vehicle emission controls and industrial air pollutant
mitigation.
o Water: for example measures to control surface water and ground water to prevent
pollution from nutrients, soil (silt) and contaminants or the control of or dealing with
industrial spillage.
o Soil: such as the reducing the pollution cause by and suffered by soil through
hydrocarbons or waste dumping.
Environmental Planners: To environmental planners and architects all projects are
considered to be environmental projects in the sense that every project has an
environmental aspect.
Government: To government departments like the Department of Environment and
Conservation and the Land and Environment Court take a similar view to environmental
planners viewing all projects as environmental projects in the sense that every project has
an environmental aspect.

The environmental planning process often involves the generation and lodgement of documents
which illustrate the potential environmental impacts of a project during and after the construction
phase determined through environmental assessment (EA) and the mitigation measures adopted in
order to remain within governmental regulations.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): This is document used in large projects which
typically takes the form of volumes.
Statement of Environmental Effects (SEE): This is document used for small to medium
projects which is typically 10 pages long.
Report on Environmental Factors (REF): This is a document used for very small projects
which is typically obtained in a pro-forma format from a local council, simply filled in and
submitted to that local council. It is usually 2 pages long.
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6.2 Soils & Construction

Changes in land uses from rural, open space or bushland to other forms have the potential to:

Cause dramatic disturbances to the soil,

Destroy vegetation,
Alter natural drainage pathways,
Affect the environment and value of areas on the site and areas surrounding the site.

During the land disturbance phase of a development and the period after hundreds of tonnes of soil
can be eroded from the site and be deposited onto nearby areas or into downstream waterways.
The pollutants and ecosystem disturbing nutrients can piggy-back on to the soil particles and ruin
surrounding natural environments.
The development and construction industries have a responsibility to control the erosion of soils,
reduce pollution from sediment and dispose of construction waste appropriately. The Soils and
Construction Handbook (volume 1) produced by Land-com is a guide for developers and builders on
how to deal with soil and water issues related to development. It provides guidelines on allowable
limits and techniques for dealing with the issues.
Examples of ways in which soil and water issues are dealt with include:

STORMWATER DETENTION FACILITIES (LONG TERM ): Stormwater detention tanks help control
runoff from a property that would otherwise carry away pollutants to nearby natural
environments. They also prevent excessive runoff rates which would otherwise erode soil
material and flood waterway ecosystems.
SOIL REMEDIATION (LONG TERM ): This involves the cleansing of soil from industrial
contaminants. For example prior to the use of land on which a service stations and
refineries were built requires soil cleansing. The steel tanks often rust and leak,
necessitating the removal of hydrocarbons from the soil. In addition asbestos may have to
be removed from sites in which asbestos has been used as a construction material, or
added to the soil.
ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS (LONG TERM ): Often projects will have to cut through
environmentally sensitive areas which need to be protected. To do this the alignment of a
roadway may for example be changed to avoid the sensitive area. Alternatively if the
roadway is to cut through the sensitive area the roadway embankment may be constructed
using a crib-wall retaining structure. In this way the embankment is free draining whilst also
providing a place for vegetation to grow (between the cribs).

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In addition to safeguard the neighbouring sensitive areas from disturbance during

construction and the effects of storm water down the track, the stormwater and services of
the roadway are run through its centre rather than at its side. The roadway must also slope
inwards rather than outwards and a V-drain put in at its centre. In this way the ground on
either side of the roadway is left undisturbed, rather than having to clear it.

CONSTRUCTION P HASE EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL (SHORT TERM ): During excavation, soft
loose earth may be exposed. To prevent wind and water erosion of the earth and its
transportation to waterways and surrounding lands several measures are often adopted
such as the wetting of the earth and use of geotextiles.
An example of this is the Hornsby development of a roadway which complied with the Blue
Book for construction phase environmental protection measures. A natural open channel
drain was made on the development to hold back storm water from the
excavation/development area. The process involved excavating a shallow trench, laying
down some geo-fabric, putting rock material to hold it down and planting in native
vegetation.

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In addition trees near the roadway area were protected during the construction phase
through slats placed around their trunks. This was intended to protect them against
disturbance from machinery and workers.

DEVELOPMENT EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL (LONG TERM ): This involves the use of
measures to control the erosion of soil and the deposition of that soil and pollutants on
neighbouring areas and in waterways. One of the ways in which this is done is through a
stormwater water quality facility.
An example of the use of a water quality facility is a development at Roseville. The RTA and a
private owner applied to have a forested area to be turned into a residential zone with 11
subdivisions. The local council, Kuringai council rejected the proposal. The RTA and private
owner took the matter to the Land and Environment Court and won. However Kuringai
council was set in charge of determining the environmental measures to be taken.
Opposed to the project, the council seized this opportunity to enforce the most costly
measures in order to make the project uneconomical. They requested an unnecessary water
quality facility be put in to treat the runoff before letting it out into a nearby creek. However
the number of trees and damage to the forested area to build this facility and its associated
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channels far outweighed the benefit from the facility. It was a self-defeating environmental
measure.
The water quality facility consists of a:

Gross Pollutant Trap (GPT): This is the first stage of the water quality facility. It
consists of a small pond in which the water running off the property is channelled. It
contains a large grate that holds back debris like plastic bags and cans. The gross
pollutant trap holds back rubbish from the rest of the system to be removed during
maintenance. It also separates and holds back oils from the water flowing in.
Littoral Zone: The water from the GPT flows into another pond called the littoral
zone. In it macrophytic vegetation like reeds are planted, which act as screens
filtering out moderate to fine particulate matter and absorbing most of the nutrients
out of the water.
Sediment Pond: This is a large pond in which the water is left still. Fin particulate
matter and the remaining nutrients are allowed to settle out of the water to the
bottom of the tank.
Detention Pond: The sediment pond also doubles as a large open tank with a small
lower outlet orifice with a controlled release rate. During a storm water flows
rapidly into the detention pond, filling it up. If this rapidly flowing water were
allowed it could pose an erosion problem downstream. As such the fast moving
water is collected and released at a sustainable rate.

6.3 Nutrient Reduction Schemes

Water rich in nutrients coming off agricultural properties can quickly end up in nearby waterways.
When it does go in, the excess nutrients cause an overgrowth of vegetation and algae which can clog
up the river, absorb much of the oxygen in the waterway and lead to the killing of fish. In addition
water that comes off hydroponic farms may contain significant quantities of vegetation pathogens
which can lead to the destruction vegetation in the waterway.

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An excellent example of a scheme that aimed to reduce the nutrient content of agricultural runoff
was that of the EPA South Creek Nutrient Offset Scheme. In this project 605 farms had
environmental audits in which of various types had runoff control measures mandated upon them to
reduce the amount of nutrients and pathogens in the water. The Department of Environment and
Conservation (DEC) funded these control measures.

HAR FARM: The HAR farm was livestock farm positioned beside the Hawkesbury River. The
livestock would receive their water directly from the river, with the animals walking down
into the river riparian zone (the river bank). They would subsequently defecate there with
storm water runoff sweeping it into the river. This lead to nutrient rich material ending up in
the river, causing algae to overpopulate the river system. This caused the depletion of
oxygen in the river and the killing of fish.

To deal with this a fence was put up at the boundary of the riparian zone to prevent the
livestock from getting near the river. Then piping was put in to pump water from the river to
troughs where the animals could drink from. Waste water was then channelled through a
water quality facility before being pumped back into the river.

EL-BUSTANI F ARM: This was a hydroponic farm in which large volumes of water were pumped
to the farm and large volumes of waste water pumped back into the river. The issue with the
waste water being pumped back into the river was that it contained large amounts of
sediment which would disturb the river system in addition to vegetation pathogens which
could kill the native flora.
To deal with this water a waste water quality facility was put in. The system started with an
ultraviolet lamp water disinfectant. Ultraviolet light was constantly beamed onto outgoing
water to kill the pathogens contained in it. The water would the flow into a settling pond
which acted as a sand filter, removing the sediment within it. Finally the water would then
flow into a constructed wetland where reed vegetation was used to extract the majority of
nutrients from the water before it was allowed to flow into the river.

SYDNEY WATER CORPORATION: In its environmental audit Sydney water was found to be
releasing large amounts of nutrients, sediment and pollutants into the river. Rather than
160

electing to put in mitigation measures (which would have been extremely costly) Sydney
Water pays a fee to the Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) for a license to
continue to pollute. However this comes with strict monitoring of the levels of pollutants
released with increases above the license levels resulting in harsh fine penalties.
WATER RECYCLING : With the nutrient and pollutant reduction schemes provided by the DEC,
many farms were also provided with water recycling as a bonus. Essentially these systems
involve establishing catchments to capture the water to be recycled and storing this water
for processing. The water is then pumped to nutrient extraction and pathogen removal
facilities before being recirculated on the property.

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7 Timber Engineering
7.1 Types of Timber
TIMBER: Timber is a highly economical building material for low rise construction. It is also
sustainable when sourced from timber plantations. But it also has problems which include termite
attack, instability in its shape and structural defects like knots which are inherent in the material.
Timber can be produced as:

Natural wood products: This is timber which is in its natural form. It may be seasoned or
unseasoned.
Engineered wood products (EWP): This is timber which is produced from a range of wood
derivatives like strands, fibres particles or veneers which are bound together with some
adhesive. This type of timber is able to avoid the issues with shape stability and natural
defects. Examples include:
o LVL (laminated veneer lumber) [commercial name Hyspan]: This is a wood product
which is made of multiple thin layers of wood assembled with adhesives to form a
rectangular section. It has a similar appearance to plywood. The commercial name
for this is Hyspan with its predecessor called GluLam.

Hyjoist: This is a cleverly manufactures timber beam which resembles an I beam. It

consists of a narrow 3ply laminated timber web which is glued to a set of flanges
which are typically 50-90mm wide. The web is finger jointed to the flange with an
adhesive. The depth of the beam ranges from 200-300mm.

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7.2 Natural Timber Properties

Timber grades: The strength of structural timber is described in terms of grades. Each grade
represents a group of timber which possesses similar physical properties. There are various grading
systems used.
Timber can be graded; that is assigned a grading, based upon:

VISUAL STRESS GRADING : Here the timber is assigned a grade based upon the species of the
timber and its quality from visual inspection. The process starts with looking up the timber in
table H2.3 in AS1720, the timber design code and determining the strength or joint group
and from that looking up the appropriate working stress in the timber.
MACHINE STRES GRADING : Here the timber is assigned a grade based upon measurements
taken during the processing of the timber. As the timber is being machined, its resistance to
the process is measured and in doing so an estimate of its strength can be determined.
Using this it can be allocated to a stress grade.

Stress grades (F-grading): The stress grade indicates the basic working stresses and stiffness based
on bending to be used for structural design purposes. It is the maximum stress a piece of timber can
take in bending before it begins deflecting unacceptably. For example the basic working stress in
bending for F7 grade timber is approximately 7MPa.
There are 8 stress grades in Australia. The grade is designated by the letter F (for force) followed by a
number which represents an approximate of the working stress in MPa. The stress grade of the
timber is often indicated on the piece of timber using a particular colour marking corresponding to
that stress grade. AS1720 the timber deign code provides a table (Table H2.1) in appendix H which
lists the maximum working stress for each stress grade. Of particular interest in this course is the
bending stress column which shall be used for examples. This table can be used for the design of
timber in bending, tension, compression and shear.

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Machine grade pine (MGP-grading): This is a system similar to the preceding which is just for pine
timber. Instead of being based upon the bending strength of timber it is based upon the modulus of
elasticity. There are 4 grades MGP10, MGP12, MGP 15 and A17 with the larger the number the
greater the stiffness. The number in fact represents the modulus of elasticity, for example MGP 10
has a modulus of 10,000MPa and MGP15 has modulus of 15,000MPa. The working stresses for MGP
timber can be obtained from table H3.1 from AS1720. Of particular interest is the working bending
stress column.

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Strength groups: This refers to the classification of timber into groupings based upon the ultimate
strength of the timber material. Timbers with the same ultimate strength are grouped together.
There are two sets off strength groups:

SEASONED : This set of strength groups is applied to timber that has been seasoned (i.e. kiln
dried). There are 8 groups with each grouped designated by the letters SD followed by a
number between 1 and 8. SD1 has the highest strength while SD8 has the lowest strength.
UNSEASONED: This set of strength groups is applied to timber that has not been seasoned
and still possesses all its moisture. There are 7 groups with each designated by the letter S
followed by a number between 1 and 7. S1 has the highest strength while S7 has the lowest
strength.

The ultimate stress of each of these strength groups can be found in table H2.2 of AS1720. Note that
these categorisations are used for the design of bearing, shear and tension and not specifically
bending. Bending capacity should not be designed using ultimate state, but rather it should be done
with working stress.

JOINT GROUP: This is a classification scheme of timber for the purpose of joint design (where different
pieces of timber meet).There are 2 sets of groupings; one for seasoned and another for unseasoned
wood. In each set there are 6 groupings with each group designated by the letter J in the case of
unseasoned wood or JD in the case of seasoned wood followed by a number between 1 and 6.
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Note that the strength group and joint group grading of timber can be determined by simply
knowing the species of timber and whether it is seasoned or unseasoned. Table H2.3 lists the
strength group, joint group and density of each species of Australian timber, for both seasoned and
unseasoned states.

DURABILITY : This refers to the resistance of the timber to attack from fungi, insects, termites and the
environment. The way the timber is cut can determine its durability:

HEARTWOOD: is wood found on the inside of the tree. It is far more resistant to insect attack,
fungal attack and environmental decay.
SAPWOOD: is wood found in the outer 50mm of the tree. It has a light colour and is not very
durable.

AS1720 uses 4 classes to describe the durability of timber:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Class 1: is very durable with a service life over 25 years.

Class 2: is durable with a service life of 15-25 years.
Class 3: is moderately durable with a service life of 5-15 years.
Class 4: is non-durable with a service life of less than 5 years.

7.3 Engineered Wood Properties

The properties of engineered wood products like Hyspan LVL can be found in the manufacturer data.
For design purposes there are two tables in the manufacturer data:

Ultimate state: This shows the ultimate strength of the material. It is not to be used for
bending design.
166

Working stress: This shows the maximum working stress in the fibres of the beam. Of
particular interest is the bending working stress which should be used for bending design.

Note also for bending design the second moment of area and section modulus can easily be
obtained from manufacturer tables for each type of section.

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7.4 Timber Design

To design timber in bending there are 3 approaches:
1. First principles: This is based on the approach set out in AS1720. The process involves:
a. First establishing the working loads on the timber beam. From this the design
working moment

can be calculated (possibly using

).

b. Next obtain the working bending stress for the timber; either using the F-grade or
MGP grade tables in AS1720.
c. Determine the section modulus for the beam; from either the manufacturer data
or first principles (by determining the value [
12] and dividing this by the
distance from the neutral axis to the most extreme fibre which gives
).
d. Calculate the design capacity moment
using the product of section modulus ,
the working bending stress and the following reduction factors (from AS1720):
i.
ii.

: This is the capacity reduction factor which is taken as 0.9.

: This is a modification factor taken as 0.65 for a 25 year design life.
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iii.
: This is another modification factor taken as 1.15.
iv.
: This is another modification factor taken as 1.0.
v.
: This is another modification factor taken as 1.0.
vi.
: This is another modification factor taken as 1.0.
e. Finally it is endured that the capacity moment exceeds the design moment.
2. Span tables: This involves looking up the maximum span for a particular section in a
particular application and ensuring that the design span is less than the maximum allowable
span. These tables are usually produced by the manufacturer and are based on AS1170
design standards.
a. First locate the able appropriate to the application. For example a hyspan beam will
be designed as a floor bearer supporting the loads from the top floor roof which is
sheet metal with a ceiling. To do this we look at the bearers supporting single or
upper storey load bearing walls table and the section on sheet roof and ceiling.

b. We then determine whether the span we are interested in designing is a:

i. Single span: The beam terminates outside this span.
ii. Continuous span: The one piece of beam continuous for another span or
more one or two of the ends of the current span.
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iii. Overhang span: This is a span which cantilevers. The overhand span must be
half or less of the span behind it which is supported at both ends.
Based on the type of span which we are designing we select a portion of the table to
look. For example we shall assume that the bearer is a single span and so we will
use the top half of the table only.

c. Next we determine the load widths of which there are two:

i. FLOOR LOAD WIDTH (FLW): This is obtained using the diagram preceding the
table. For example, for bearers this diagram precedes the table above. It
shall be assumed that we are designing bearer B and Y and Z are both 2.1m.
Thus the FLW is given by

170

21

i.

ROOF LOAD WIDTH (RLW): This is obtained using the diagram preceding the
table. For example, for bearers this diagram precedes the table. It shall be
assumed that we are designing for a trussed roof in which the side length
of the roof is 5m. Thus the RLW is 5m.

Hence in the table we work in the second column under floor load width and the
fourth column under the corresponding roof load width.

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d. Finally we read of the necessary section dimensions by matching the required span
with those in the column. We choose the section row which has a span greater than
or equal to the necessary span. In our example we shall assume we need a 5m span.
Thus we will need a 450x63mm section.

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3. DesignIT Software: This is a cheap design software package that can be used for designing
Hyspan, Hyjoist and other non-engineered (natural) timbers of both soft and hardwood
varieties. It is a fast, efficient and cheap solution. The software chooses an appropriate
section based upon:
a. RIGIDITY RATIO (RR): This is the ratio of the chosen section modulus to the necessary
modulus to achieve a certain set maximum deflection. For safety this should be
about 1.5; that is the chosen section modulus should be 1.5 times the necessary
modulus.
b. CAPACITY RATIO (CR): This is the ratio of the chosen section working strength to the
necessary working strength. Again an ideal ratio is 1.5; meaning that the chosen
section has 1.5 times the strength necessary.

7.5 Mixing Steel and Timber

Sometimes it makes sense to use steel elements within a structure with a timber frame. For
example, rather than using a large number of thick pieces of timber in wall frames studs to support
levels above it might be wiser to use a small number of steel UC columns and reduce the thickness of
the wall frames (which now only support the wall and no floors above).
It may also be wise to use steel members as sporting beams where large open spaces without
walls/columns are to be used. Timber would otherwise be incapable of supporting large spans, so
steel is used for beams which support the roof or floors above.

The first choice for these steel beams would be UB sections. However if fixtures will be hung from
the beams (like folding doors) then it makes sense to use a PFC section instead. This is because
sections of the UB flange would have to be cut out in order to attach threads and bolts to the beam
(to ensure the load is centred) whereas with PFC sections the thread and bolts can be slung directly
from the bottom flange (with the load centred).

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8 Crane Engineering
8.1 About Cranes
CRANES: A crane is a piece of construction equipment used to lift materials, move them horizontally
and lower them. It is used to transport heavy and large items on site quickly and safely. There are
two reasons why a crane is typically used:

Because of the speed with which heavy and large items can be transported onsite.
To reduce the incidence of workplace injuries attributed to lifting heavy and large objects.

The location of the crane on site depends upon:

The location of lifting platforms; where items are to be lifted from.

The way traffic will be running on and near the site; which influences the path that the crane
can take.
The location of hoardings; which are structures or fences erected on or adjacent to the site
to create a barrier between the construction zone and the public domain.
The areas that need to be covered by the crane; the crane will usually be placed in the area
which best allows it to cover the entire site.
How the crane is to be erected and dismantled. The crane will be placed in a location in
which it is easy to put together and take down; with enough room for a mobile crane to put
in and take down the crane parts.
The size of the crane; which is dependent upon the funds available and the weight of the
items being lifted.

The construction planning for a crane in addition to the selection of a suitable location involves:

Planning how traffic onsite and near the site with be dealt with when the crane is in
operation.
Selecting the right size crane. It must be determined whether the full jib (the segment of the
crane which extends horizontally/at an angle from the cabin of the crane which lifts the load
at its end) length is required. The shorter the jib the greater the load carrying capacity of the
crane. It is possible to use only part of the full jib length of a crane. The jib length is typically
selected as short as possible to maximise the load carrying capacity of the crane.
The type and size of crane selected also depends upon the budgeted amount that can be
spent on procuring the crane.

8.2 Types of Cranes

There are several parts to a crane:

BASE: This is the support structure beneath a crane which allows its loads to be transmitted
to the ground or some structure beneath. There are 4 types of crane bases:
Mass Concrete Pad: This is the cheapest and most widely used type of crane base. A
large square pad with large thickness is poured into an excavated zone. The concrete
is heavily reinforced with a frame to which the crane tower will be bolted embedded
within the concrete. Note that if the ground in which the pad is poured is too soft it
may be necessary to create piles beneath the concrete pad. In this case a moment
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about the base will mean that one pile will act as a compression pile (experiencing a
downward force) while the other will act as a tension pile (experiencing uplift which
is resisted through friction/adhesion with the surrounding soil). If the moment
should be reversed the tension and compression piles will switch.

If the crane is located near a shoring wall (with soil anchors going past the area
where the piles will be put in) care must be taken not to drive the piles through the
shoring anchors. This would threaten the stability of the shoring wall.

Ballasted Base: This type of base is used when the crane sits on top of a concrete
surface or on a flat hard rock surface. Temporary precast concrete pads are laid
down, a steel base put on them and further precast concrete ballast weights placed
on the steel frame. The ballast weights on top help to hold down the base frame and
stop it from overturning when the crane is installed.

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Rock Anchor Base: This is used when the crane will site on hard rock material with
sufficient strength and there isnt a lot of space to put in a large base for the crane.
This is a very expensive technique and is used as a last resort. The base consists of a
steel frame sitting directly atop the rock. It is rock bolted to the ground below to
prevent it overturning when the crane is put in.

Base on top of Existing Building: This is used where the crane needs to sit on top of
a building. The crane base frame sits on top of large transfer beams that transmit
the load of the crane base to the nearby columns of the building. This is again a
costly technique and is used in exceptional circumstances. The residual load bearing
capacity of the building must be determined and its use closely controlled (to
prevent live loads exceeding what they should be).

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TOWER: This is the tall vertical portion of the crane which extends from the crane base to the
crane jib. It consists of multiple steel frame segments made up of a braced steel frame. The
segments are bolted together to form a single tower unit. The tower may be fixed in the
case where the sluing unit (ring) is at the top of the tower, or may rotate as a whole with the
jib when the sluing unit is at the bottom of the tower.

Some cranes are actually self-climbing. Note that climbing of the crane should only be done
on a non-windy day. The process of self-climbing involves:
1. A jumping frame is attached to the tower of the crane during first erection. The jumping
frame consists of a set of jacks within a supporting frame with one face free of bracing
and completely open. In front of the open face there is a track that extends from its top
2. The crane first picks up a segment and places it into the jumping frame track.
3. It then picks up a second frame segment which will act as a counter balance.
4. The jacks push up one segment of the crane against another, opening up a gap in the
tower.
5. The segment attached to the track is then slotted into the gap and bolted into place. The
crane is now one segment taller.

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Note that a crane may be free standing when its height is below a limit set by the
manufacturer data (and in accordance with AS1418 Design Code for Cranes). In this situation
the moments acting on the base generated by the crane self-weight, wind acting on the
crane, and the load being lifted is below the maximum moment capacity of the base.
When the height of the crane rises above this threshold the moment acting on the base is
greater than the base capacity and as such the crane needs to be tied to a building. The
crane tower is tied to a building to provide lateral restraint and in doing so reduce the
effective length of the tower and the moment generated at the base.

TIE BACKS: The crane is tied to a building through tie backs. These are steel members which
extend from the crane tower and are bolted to the floors of the building being built. In some
cases the tie level will not line up with the building floors in which case the ties need to be
staggered.

Alternatively the crane tower may actually be built up within the elevator shaft of a building.
In this case the tie backs are bolted to the walls of the elevator shaft. Note that putting a
tower crane in an elevator shaft makes the dismantling of the crane very difficult when the
project is completed.

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SLUING RING: Sluing is the motion of the crane rotating in the horizontal plane about its base.
This crane motion is made possible by the sluing ring. The sluing ring may be placed at the
bottom of the crane in which case the tower is fixed to the jib and the two rotate
simultaneously. In this case counter-balance ballast weights (made out of precast concrete)
are placed close to the bottom of the tower. These weights create a restoring moment
which is designed to balance out the moment created by the weight of the jib and a load at
the very tip of the jib.

Alternatively the sluing ring may be placed at the top of the tower between the tower and
the jib. In this case the tower is fixed and the jib (and cabin) rotates relative to the tower.
The counterweight ballast is now placed at the other end of the jib in the case of a
hammerhead crane or behind the cabin in a luffing crane.

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JIB: The jib is the long crane element which sits atop the tower, allowing the loads to be
lifted at some distance away from the tower. The jib is slightly different for different types of
cranes.
HAMMER HEAD CRANE: This crane has a fixed jib which remains perpendicular to the
tower at all times. The front part of the jib (the longer part) contains the lifting
trolley which moves back and forth along a track mounted to the job, and has a
pulley system for lifting. The rear section of the job extends a small distance behind
the tower, with counterweights attached to its end.

The hammer head has several advantages which include:

i. Less moving parts; so that maintenance and installation is cheaper and

simpler.
ii. It is lighter than other cranes.
iii. It is very efficient to operate.
iv. It is easier to manoeuvre than other types of cranes.
v. It has less risk associated with its operation as it is easier to operate and has
fewer parts.
However there is one major drawback to the hammer head crane and that is its
inability to luff. This is the ability of the jib to be moved up and down to clear
obstacles. As such the crane must have no obstacles within the range of swing of its
jib. In addition when there are cranes in close proximity the climbing of the cranes
must be synchronised so that their jibs are never in the same horizontal plane (to
avoid collision).
LUFFING CRANE : This crane has a pivot jib which has its bottom is hinged against a
machinery deck on the tower. Jib cables attached to the top of the jib and running
along a gantry frame to the machinery deck allow it to be pivoted and and down in
the vertical plane. The machinery deck houses a cabin which sits directly behind the
jib, a system of cable pulley for the jib and lifting weights and a motor/engine
mounted behind that. Counterweight ballast is placed at the very end of the
machinery platform.

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The luffing crane has several clear advantages over the hammerhead crane:
i. The jibs ability be retracted in the upright position allows the crane to have
obstacles in its range of swing. As such it is highly appropriate for built up
urban areas and tight spaces.
ii. It also has greater vertical reach which means that the crane can reach
higher, with a shorter tower than an equivalent hammer head.
iii. When the crane has to climb its climbs do not need to be synchronised with
those of nearby cranes.
But this type of crane has several disadvantages which include:
i.
It is much heavier than the hammer head
ii.
It far more complex with many moving parts.
iii.
It isnt as efficient as the hammerhead crane.
iv.
It is extremely difficult to erect.
v.
It is also difficult to operate.
Remote Control Cranes: It should be noted that some cranes can in fact be remote controlled. This
tends to be the case for smaller cranes where the operator can clearly see what is going on with the
load being lifted from ground level near the crane. However for larger cranes they tend to be nonremote controlled as the crane driver must be within the elevated cabin to be able to see the entire
job site and the location of the load being lifted. However this is not without problems as the crane
operator is heavily reliant on radio communication with the dogman (a person on the ground
directly below the item being lifted) who can sometimes provide incorrect information or distract
the operator.

8.3 Design of Crane Base

Crane base design involves taking into account the limit state loads in two modes of operation:

IN SERVICE : This is the state of the crane when it is lifting it maximum load and the load is at
the furthest point of the jib. The loads considered under this analysis include:

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The moment due to the self-weight of the crane at full height after all tower
segments have been put in.
The moment due to the weight of the counter-weight ballast put on the crane.
The moment due to the weight of the maximum load the crane can carry with the
load at the far end of the jib.
The moment caused by wind pressure on the crane for a wind speed at which the
crane is allowed to operate.
OUT OF SERVICE : This is the state of the crane when it is not lifting any load and the sluing
brake is removed so that the jib is able to slew to the downwind position. The loads
considered include:
The moment due to the self-weight of the crane at full height after all tower
segments have been put in.
The moment due to the weight of the counter-weight ballast put on the crane.
The moment caused by wind pressure on the crane for a worst case wind gust for
the region in which the crane is being operated.

Note that most cranes tend to be overbalanced so that when the crane is out of service the
counterweights induce a large backward moment on the crane base. But during service the
counterbalancing moment is reduced or eliminated by the load being carried.
Note also that the effect of the peak wind gust can be ignored during the in service state as
operation of the crane would be halted if the wind speed was to exceed that allowable during
operation.
In general the out of service moment will be the most critical design state. However for small cranes
the erection loads on the crane may be the most significant. It must be noted that for the in service
state:

In short cranes the moment induced by the self-weight far exceeds the wind moment
because the low height ensures that wind pressures do not contribute significantly to the in
service moment.
In taller cranes the moment induced by the wind exceeds that due to the self-weight
because the greater height attracts greater wind pressures, to the extent that the wind
pressure becomes more severe than the gravity loading.

There are two ways in which the base moment can be determined for design purposes:
1. USING MANUFACTURER DATA: For each model of crane the manufacturer will typically provide
a table listing the base moment for different heights of the crane (which is set during
installation). There are two things to keep in mind:
a. These tables are generated using a design code for wind and gravity loads specific to
the manufacturers country which may not meet the combination factors set out in
Australian standards or the necessary wind speeds.
b. These tables use obscure units like deca-newtons (daN) which represent 10N,
i.e. 1
10 .
For example the following table shows the manufacturer data for a Potain crane. The left
side shows the in service design parameters while the right shows the out of service
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parameters. Each row represents potential heights to which the crane jib may be set. There
are 3 things that can be determined from this table:

a. The in service base moment: This is obtained by summing the wind moment (found
in the third column of the in service section of the table) and the self-weight
moment (found in the fourth column of the in service section). For each height the
design base moment is simply the sum of the two moments.
For example for a 19.6m tall crane the wind moment from the third column is
22,740daNm (deca-newton metres) which is equivalent to 227,400Nm while the
self-weight moment from the fourth column is 48,137daNm (deca-newton metres)
which is equivalent to 481,370Nm. This gives a total base moment of 708,770Nm.
The self-weight seems to contribute more to the moment than the wind as stated
for short cranes like this.
For example for a 52.6m tall crane the wind moment from the third column is
91,792daNm (deca-newton metres) which is equivalent to 917,920Nm while the
self-weight moment from the fourth column is 48,137daNm (deca-newton metres)
which is equivalent to 481,370Nm. This gives a total base moment of 1,399,290Nm.
The wind seems to contribute more to the moment than the self-weight as stated
for tall cranes like this.
b. The out of service base moment: This is obtained by summing the wind moment
(found in the second column of the out of service section of the table) and the selfweight moment (found in the third column of the out of service section). For each
height the design base moment is simply the sum of the two moments.
For example for a 19.6m tall crane the wind moment from the third column is
68,392daNm (deca-newton metres) which is equivalent to 683,920Nm while the
self-weight moment from the fourth column is 33,503daNm (deca-newton metres)
which is equivalent to 335,030Nm. This gives a total base moment of 1,018,950Nm.
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c. The maximum lift: The maximum load that can be lifted by the crane is simply the
difference between the in service and out of service self-weight columns.
For example for a 19.6m tall crane the in service self-weight (second column on the
in service side) is 35,960daN which is equivalent to 359,600N while the out of
service self-weight (first column in the out of service section) is 30,960daN which is
equivalent to 309,600N. Thus the difference between the two and maximum
allowable load is 50,000N.
2. USING AS1418 (CRANE DESIGN CODE): This is the more laborious but safer option. The
standard will dictate what loads are to be taken into account and what combination factors
to use for in service and out of service for each of the loads. For the wind loading the wind
speed and pressure on the crane is determined in accordance with AS1170.2 (Wind Design
Code).

8.4 Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) and Legal Issues with Cranes
There are several issues that workers on a site with a crane may face. Examples of these include:

THE CRANE FALLING DOWN: There have been several incidents where a crane part has broken
off and crushed workers. An example of this is a mobile crane in the ACT where bolts joining
the boom to the sluing ring failed causing the boom to fall and kill a worker. The accident
was attributed to broken bolts, missing bolts and fatigued bolts in the sluing ring. This
accident could have been avoided if the operator/owner had regularly inspected the entire
crane.
SLUING BREAK LEFT ON : Negligence on the part of the crane operators often leads to the
situation where the sluing break is accidently left on when the crane is out of service. The
crane should be left un-braked to allow it to swing about like a wind vane should a large
wind gust hit. When a large wind gust hits and the sluing break is on, the resistance to the
wind increases with the generated force potentially large enough to topple the crane over.
ITEMS BEING LIFTED FALLING: There are certain cases where items being lifted by a crane have
not been adequately secured, leading them to fall on to workers below. An example of this
was a modified form shutter which had been extended with lifting eyes placed at its top
right and left ends. The workers failed to put in sufficient bracing in the shutter and when it
was lifted the inward force between the two lifting eyes led the shutter crumble and fall
onto workers below.

There are also legal issues with cranes, associated with whether permits are needed to pass over
adjacent properties. Under Australian law people can own the land on the property; however the
airspace above is common property. Thus permission from the land owner is not necessary to swing
over the property. However from a safety point of view it is important to tell the owner and gain
permission before swinging over another property.

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9 Marine Engineering
9.1 Civil Engineering in Marin Environments
Construction within a marine environment imposes several distinctions over other land based
construction.

MATERIALS: Marine environments tend to be much harsher than land based environments.
Hence different materials need to be used or additional measures taken to protect
conventional materials. For example:
o Steel: Steel tends to corrode quite rapidly in marine environments, especially in salt
water. As such there are several ways in which to deal with the issue of accelerated
corrosion:
Additional cross sectional area: Section can be designed with additional
cross sectional area to compensate for the material which will be eaten
away through corrosion. With this strategy no further measures are
necessary.
Paint: The steel such as that used for the railings on jetties may be painted
to protect it from corrosion. It must be noted that this isnt a very effective
measure as the paint can wear away quickly, negating the protective effects
and necessitating repainting.
Plastic encasement: This is applicable to steel piles and pier supports which
may be encased in HDPE plastic. A gap is left between the plastic and the
steel tubing to allow the steel to expand without cracking the plastic.
Denso-wrap: This is a bitumen based tape which is wrapped around the
steel parts to be protected, effectively sealing them off from the
surrounding environment. This may be especially useful for steel located
within the splash zone of a marine structure.
Trilaminate Polyethylene: This is a polymer based coating that is similar to
painting except for the fact that it is far more durable.
Epoxy cover with stainless steel sheath: This is a composite protection
system in which the epoxy protects the underlying steel while the stainless
steel protects the epoxy from abrasion.
Alternatives: The last measure could be to use corrosion resistant materials
in place of steel like stainless steel or aluminium. However it must be noted
that these materials are far more expensive than steel.
o Concrete: Concrete is like a sponge, absorbing moisture and chloride ions from the
marine environment. As such the reinforcing in the concrete tends to corrode. This
then leads to spalling and further reinforcement corrosion. To deal with this there
are several strategies:
50MPa Concrete: Only high strength concrete should be used in marine
applications, with strength of 50MPa or more.
Extra Reinforcing Steel: Additional reinforcing steel must be put in to create
redundancy which will compensate for steel corrosion.
Steel Stress Limitation: The peak stress within the steel reinforcement
should be limited to a working stress of 150MPa. This helps to reduce
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cracking which would likely allow moisture and chemicals to reach the
reinforcement.
No Prestressing: Prestressed concrete should not be used in a marine
environment. This is because the stresses in the steel exceed the allowable
maximum and such concrete can fail in a sudden and unpredictable fashion.
Silane coating: This is a polymer coating that can be placed on the outside
the concrete which effectively seals it off and prevents the ingress of
moisture and chemicals.
Stainless steel reinforcing: This is the most expensive solution and involves
using stainless steel reinforcing which effectively eliminates the problem of
reinforcing corrosion.
Fibreglass reinforcement: This is a less expensive solution which involves
using composite fibre glass reinforcing rods. The commercial name for this
system is v-rod. These composite rods have high strength (slightly lower
than that of steel) with complete corrosion resistance.
o Timber: Timber is a highly durable material that works well in marine environments.
To be able to use the timber it must be:
Durability class: It must have a high durability class of 1 or 2 to survive the
water environment.
Hardwood: It must be hardwood as soft wood has large pores that can allow
the timber to absorb moisture and accelerate its decay.
Chemical treatment: The timber should be chemically treated to prevent its
early decay.
PILES: For land based applications the most common types of piles used include:
o Precast concrete piles: These piles are typically driven into the ground. They are
highly unsuitable for marine environments due to the fact that they are highly prone
to cracking and failing. Cracks in a marine environment are disastrous as the
reinforcement will corrode quickly.
o Bored piles: These are piles like CFA piles which are bored, then have concrete
poured into the holes with reinforcement added in. These piles are again unsuitable
for marine environments. This is because marine environments tend to have softer
soils which call for very deep piles. Pile boring is highly uneconomical for deep piles.
o Driven Steel Piles: These are steel piles like tube piles which can be driven down to
great depth. Thus they are the ideal solution because they are highly economical for
deep foundations.

9.2 Pile Driving in Marine Environments

The process of driving the piles involves:
1. Setting up a pile driving platform.
a. Onshore: If piling onshore a land pile driver is used. An adequate support structure for
the pile driver must be established. If the ground material is sand then little needs to be
done to be able to support the equipment. However if the material is mud with little
bearing capacity then the ground must be stabilised through the introduction of
additives like cement or lime into the soft ground to improve the bearing capacity.
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b. Offshore: If piling is to be done in an area covered by water (i.e. piling over water) the
process involves using a crane barge with a pile driver attached to the head of the crane.
The pile driver consists of a vibrating hammer.

The process involves floating the crane into position. It is then necessary to stabilise the
barge so that it is unaffected by the tide and waves. This involves setting down anchors
at all four corners of the barge which hold it in the correct position. This helps to prevent
the movement of the barge in the horizontal direction

Jacks are then used to lower supports beneath the barge which engage the sea/river
bed. Hence the crane barge is now independently supported off the water surface. It is
no longer affected by the tide nor the vertical bobbing motion associated with waves.

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2. The steel pile is then lowered into position and the pile driving head attached. The pile is initially
vibrated down through the top layers of sea/river bed. Once it has reached a sufficient depth it
is then hammered to set. The pile is continuously hit with a falling weight within the hammer.
An excellent example of this was Iron Cove Bridge. The bridge supports were positioned within the
river. The supports were placed upon a group of driven tube steel piles. The steel piles were put into
place and driven using the barge mounted pile driver mentioned.
The crane barge had a set of four mooring winches at its corners to which anchors were attached.
These helped to prevent lateral motion of the barge during piling. The barge however did not have
jack supports and had to rely upon a water ballast tank, in which water could be pumped around
within cavities in the barge to achieve vertical stability as the tide came and went. The piles were
driven to a significant depth in two rows at the location of each support.

Once a set of piles for a support had been driven in they were precisely surveyed. Based upon the
results a steel pile cap was fabricated. It must be noted that because there is some variability in the
positioning of piles, the survey had to be done for each set of pile supports and a specific pile cap
fabricated.
The pile cap consisted of an open topped box with holes cut into the bottom where the pile
locations were. The pile cap was then lowered over the steel piles. The piles were then welded to

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the steel pile cap and the excess length of steel pile cut down to this connection. The empty pile cap
was then filled with reinforced concrete.

Note that it is possible to drive tube piles through rock beneath the water. The rock needs to have
low to moderate strength. If the rock is too strong driven piles will no longer be an option and an
alternative technique will have to be used.
An example of pile driving into rock is that of the construction of a ferry wharf at Milsons point in
Sydney Harbour. Steel piles were driven into the water covered rock. A land based pile driver was
used and was set up on the shore, driving into the water beyond it.
It was critical that the pile was not driven too hard. If it was driven down too hard, the toe (tip) of
the pile would buckle. The circular end being hammered into the ground would crumple and it
would no longer be able to be driven further. Hence insufficient depth would be reached and there
would be a possibility of the pile lacking lateral load resistance and possibly bearing capacity.
This scenario of driving piles too hard is comparable to the case of the sheet pile wall driven into
rock at the Princess Highway New Southern Rail Crossing. There the pile was driven in too hard and
as such the toe buckled. When it did, it could not be driven further and as such was assumed to have
reached set. But in reality it lacked the necessary depth to resist lateral loads of surrounding soil,
and so it collapsed.

9.3 Pile Socketing in Marine Environments

Sometimes it is not possible to drive piles in a marine environment as the rock beneath the water is
too strong. In such a case it may be necessary to use pile socketing rather than pile driving. These are
bored piles where a shaft is excavated for the pile and reinforced concrete put in. an example of
where this was used in the Karilpa Bridge in Brisbane.
The shaft can quite easily be excavated using a canister drill. A canister drill as the name implies has
a cylindrical shape for excavating shafts. The drill is rotated as 5 percussion bits at its end break of
the rock within the shaft. The canister drill has a hollow shaft through it which extends to the cutting
face. Compressed air is blown through this tube forcing debris up to the surface around the body of
the canister drill.

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As the canister drill proceeds down the shaft, a steel sheath (tube) is lowered behind it to stabilise
the shaft and prevent the ingress of water. Once the shaft excavation is complete, the canister drill is
withdrawn and the steel sheath lowered completely.

The shear encased shaft has concrete pumped to its bottom. As concrete is pumped in, water within
the chamber is pushed out the top, until the concrete completely displaces the water. The concrete
is allowed to overflow to ensure that the water spoiled top layer is pushed out of the shaft. Steel
reinforcing may then be lowered into the concrete.

9.4 Underwater Concrete Placement

The placement of concrete beneath the waterline involves the use of coffer dams. An example of a
project that involved the placement of concrete beneath the water line was an offshore sewage
treatment plant in Queensland.

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Initially the area where the treatment plant was to be placed had a coffer dam constructed around
it. A sheet pile wall was driven around the area to some depth. Strutting was installed and the water
pumped out of the coffer dam.
Once all the water had been removed and the seabed exposed, boring equipment was brought in to
install reinforced concrete piles. The piles were bored, the concrete poured and reinforcement put
in. Once the piles were completed a concrete slab was poured on top which would act as the
treatment plant base. Then wall forms were put in and the walls poured. Once the concrete had
cured, the coffer dam was removed and water was allowed to flow around the facility.

9.5 Mooring Dolphins

A mooring dolphin is an offshore structure to which ships are moored (tied to) when they cannot
approach (possibly because they are waiting to dock). The mooring dolphin consists of raked
(angled) piles which are typically steel tube piles that are driven into the sea/river bed. The driving
process is similar to that described in the previous section. A dolphin is then attached to the tops of
the piles with an impact absorbing buffer attached to it.
When a ship is moored to a dolphin, ocean currents will cause it to hit into the buffer imparting a
lateral load to the dolphin. When this happens the rear pile will act as a compression pile; being
forced down while the front pile will act as a tension pile; experiencing uplift.

Alternatively the ship may try to pull away in which case it imparts a reverse lateral force. The from
pile will then be the compression pile and the rear pile will be the tension pile.

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9.6 Gladstone LNG Gas Terminal

This project required marine engineers to construct a loading and unloading dock in order to enable
the construction of an LNG facility on the shoreline in a remote area in Queensland. The brief
involved the construction of a platform on the shoreline where cargo ships could dock to unload
building materials and equipment.
Thus the platform would have to be constructed off the shore line in deep water and extend all the
way to the shore. A load-on-load-off (LO-LO) platform had to be made this was simple a flat dock
area where ships could moor and containers could be lifted off the ships and placed onto the
platform. A roll-on-roll-off (RO-RO) platform had to be constructed beside the LO-LO platform. This
consisted of a pair of tracks onto which cargo could be rolled off the side of a ship. A causeway
would then link the platforms to the facility.

This docking terminal was constructed on soil mudflats which were incredible weak (very low load
bearing capacity) and with acidic tendencies. When exposed to the air the soil would react to form
sulphuric acid. Thus it needed to be treated to ensure the safety of workers. This involved adding
lime to the mud and rotivating it in.
To deal with the weakness of the soil, crushed rock material was barged in from the nearby town of
Bundaberg. This helped to increase the load bearing capacity of the shoreline and raise its level for
the beginning of construction.
A sheet pile wall was driven into to where the rear of the LO-LO platform lies. This formed the rear
wall for the platform. The front vertical wall of the LO-LO platform and the supports for the RO-RO
rails were then produced by driving H-piles to great depth until they reached the underlying rock.
Closely spaced H-piles were used to produce a continuous wall.
Ties were then put in linking the H-piles to the sheet pile wall. In this way the lateral loads from the
material beneath the LO-LO platform could be transferred to the sheet pile wall which was
completely beneath ground.
The cavity between the H-pile wall and the sheet pile wall was then filled with the same crushed
rock material described above. The LO-LO area was then topped with a concrete slab to form the
dock surface and the rails installed on the RO-RO H-piles.

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The ties had plastic conduits placed around them prior to installation. The purpose of this was to
create a gap between the fill material and the anchors so that as the fill settled the ties were not
forced down (which would induce additional stresses in them).

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