Professional Documents
Culture Documents
II
by
Course Outline
Introduction.
observation,
control:
Horizontal
calculation
Levelling
and
and
Control;
traverse
adjustment.
Vertical
contouring.
Applications
in
surveying.
Mass
haul
diagram.
Practicals:
field
Course Assessment
Exam
Course
Work
CAT
Pass
Mark
Total
70
20
10
50
100
References
1. Awange,
J.L.,
and
Kiema,
J.B.K.
(2013).
Environmental
W.
and
Breach,
M.
(2007).
Engineering
Surveying.
suitable
examples
discuss
the
role
of
Lecture Outline
Part 1: Background
Basic Principle of Surveying
Datum Concept
Tenets of Survey Practice
Part 2: Traversing
Overview of Control Surveys
Concept of Traversing
Traverse Computation
Accuracy of Traversing
Part 3: Vertical Control
Introduction and Definitions
Principle of Levelling
Sources of Errors
Applications of Levelling
Part 4: Earthworks
Computation of Areas and Volumes
Mass Haul Diagrams
Part 1: Background
Datum Concept
accuracy
using
2)
Always
perform
more observations
independent
than
the
checks.
basic
needed.
3)
Make
minimum
Datum Concept
Basic problem in Surveying is to determine the position
(measure) of features on Earths curved surface and
is
reference
surface
in
geodetic
surveys.
Part 2: Traversing
Horizontal Control Surveys
Concept of Traversing
Traverse Computation
Accuracy of Traversing
provide
reference
Topographic
mapping
and
large-scale
plan
production.
Dimensional control of construction work.
Deformation surveys for all manner of structures,
both new and old.
The extension and densification of existing control
networks.
(1)
Traversing
(2)
Triangulation
(3)
Trilateration
(4)
Triangulateration
(5)
Classical methods
Modern approaches
Systems)
(6)
(7)
Concept of Traversing
(1)
(2)
(4)
(5)
(7)
Definition of Traversing
Traversing is a surveying technique used to
determine the planimetric positions (Easting and
Northing: EB and NB below) of control points or
setting out points using measured angles and
distances (DAB and Q below).
Types of Traverses
In traversing, the relative position of control
points is fixed by measuring the horizontal angle
at each point, subtended by the adjacent
stations, and the horizontal distance between
consecutive pairs of stations.
The liability of a traverse to undetected error
makes it essential that there should be some
external check on its accuracy. Hence, the
traverse needs to commence from and connect
into known points of greater accuracy than the
traverse.
a) Link traverse
Field Procedure
Reconnaissance is a vitally important part of any
survey project. Its purpose here is to decide
the best location for the traverse points.
In the first instance the points should be
intervisible from the point of view of traverse
observations.
If the purpose of the control network is the
location of topographic detail only, then they
should be positioned to afford the best view of
the terrain, thereby ensuring that the maximum
amount of detail can be surveyed from each
point.
Sources of Errors
The sources of error in traversing include:
(1)
(2)
(3)
targets,
directly
(centring error).
over
the
survey
point
Traverse Computation
Using
the
data
given
below,
compute
the
Bowditch
misclosure.
rule
to
distribute
the
Observations
At Tr29
Station
Observations
At Tr37
Tr28
97 11 10
Tr36
179 02 59
Tr10
279 15 11
Tr42
2154 58
Tr36
52 15 03
At Tr42
At Tr36
Tr37
201 54 58
Tr29
232 15 03
Tr43
234 55 58
Tr37
359 02 59
Tr41
120 32 05
Datum Bearings:
Tr29
Tr10
Tr42
Tr42
Tr28: 97 11 10
Tr29: 99 15 25
Tr43: 234 56 07
Tr41: 120 31 34
Datum Coordinates:
Station
Tr29
Tr42
N
78 674.77
78 849.21
(Metres)
E
92 174.20
92 258.63
Bearing Sheet
Station
At Tr29
Tr28
Tr10
Tr36
Observations
97 11 10
279 15 11
52 15 03
Orientation
Correction
00
+14
+07
At Tr36
Tr29
Tr37
232 15 03
359 02 59
+07
At Tr37
Tr36
Tr42
179 02 59
21 54 58
+07
At Tr42
Tr37
Tr43
Tr41
201 54 58
234 55 58
120 32 05
+07
Provisional
Bearing
Misclosure
Final
Bearing
97 11 10
279 15 25
52 15 05
52 15 10
-05
232 15 10
359 03 06
-09
359 02 57
179 03 06
21 55 05
-14
21 54 51
201 55 05
234 56 05
120 32 12
-18
+02
-38
234 56 07
120 31 34
Computation of Coordinates
N
Tr29 Tr36
52 15 05
78.959m
Tr36 Tr37
359 02 57
68.589m
Tr37 Tr42
21 54 51
62.019m
+48.339
-0.01
+68.580
-0.01
+57.538
0.00
(m)
N
(metres)
E
Tr29:+78 674.77
+92 174.20
+62.433
-0.01
Tr36:+78 723.10
+92 236.62
Tr37:+78 791.67
+92 235.48
Tr42:+78 849.21
+92 258.63
-1.138
0.00
+23.147
0.00
(m)
By Datum:
174.44 0
84.430
By Traverse:
174.456
84.442
-0.016
-0.012
Misclosure:
Accuracy of Traversing
Traversing is generally more accurate than
classical triangulation and trilateration.
Due to the weak geometry of a traverse, it
generally has only three degrees of freedom (that
is three redundant observations), it is difficult to
arrive at an estimate of accuracy.
Although there have been many attempts to
produce equations defining the accuracy of a
traverse, at the present time the best approach is
a strength analysis using variancecovariance
matrices from a least squares adjustment.
Overview of Levelling
The process of determining elevations (heights)
of points of interest above or below a reference
datum or differences in elevations.
For
most
practical
applications
only
the
difference in elevation between points of
interest and not absolute heights is often
required.
Used in all aspects of surveying, particularly for
engineering surveys, route surveys, construction,
etc.
Different methods may be used for estimating
heights
or
height
differences
including;
differential
levelling,
barometric
heighting,
trigonometric
heighting,
gravimetry
and
satellite positioning etc.
c)
d)
d)
a) Differential Levelling
c) Barometer
b) Trigonometric heighting
d) Gravimeters
e) Satellite Heighting
to the direction of
as shown by a plumbline
point. A level line is
by virtue of the shape
Basic Concept
2)
3)
Level Surface
A
(curved)
surface
orthogonal
to
the
plumb
line
everywhere.
More
correctly
an
equipotential
surface
for
which
Vertical Line
The direction of gravity
Therefore the direction indicated by a plumb
line
In general it deviates from a line emanating
from the geometric centre of the Earth
In reality it is curved, but this can be
neglected in small plane surveys
Horizontal Plane
A plane tangent to a level surface (orthogonal
to the plumb line).
The collimation axis (line of sight) of a levelling
defines
instrument is rotated.
horizontal
plane
as
the
Levelling Instruments
Level, Tripod, staff and tape
Change plate.
Types of Levels
Examples of Levels
Examples of Levels
levelling exercise.
The purpose of the test is find out to if the line of
collimation is parallel to the bubbles tube axis.
Levelling Procedure
A horizontal line of sight is established using some
form of levelling mechanism:
Spirit level tube
Swinging pendulum
A graduated staff is read through the telescope of
the level.
The elevation of points can be established by first
reading the staff on a bench mark.
The staff is then moved to the desired point, the
level is turned and the staff is read again.
HC = Elev + BS
Elev = HC FS
Height of Collimation
Applied when points of interest can be seen
Accuracy in Levelling
Many factors affect accuracy of ordinary levelling:
Reading of staff.
Bubble not being central.
Acceptable Misclosures
Maximum acceptable misclosure depends on class of
Precise levelling: 4K
2nd order levelling: 8K
3rd order levelling: 12K.
Ordinary levelling falls into this category. On rough
ground, allowance may be made for misclosures of up to
Precise Levelling
1)
2)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Sources of Errors
Equipment errors
(a)
Collimation error
(b)
(c)
Parallax
(d)
Defective staff
(e)
Defective Tripod
(b)
(c)
Nonvertical staff.
(d)
Booking error
(e)
(f)
(a)
Earth curvature.
(b)
(c)
Applications of levelling
Establishing vertical control.
To
establish
heights
of
points
during
road
crosssection,
sections/profiles
or
longitudinal
volumes
of
Part 4: Earthworks
Overview
Computation of Areas and Volumes
Mass Haul Diagrams
Overview
Estimation of areas and volumes is basic to
Overview (2)
Earthwork volumes are estimated to:
i)
ii)
iii)
Areas
a) Trapezoidal rule
Area (A) = w(h1 + h2
b) Simpsons rule
Volumes
Many volumes encountered in civil engineering appear, at
first glance, to be rather complex in shape.
Generally, estimation of volumes can be divided into
computation of volumes for prisms, wedges or pyramids.
(1) Prism
The two ends of the prism (Figure 9.17) are equal and
parallel, the resulting sides thus being parallelograms.
Volume = AL
(2) Wedge
Volume of wedge (Figure 9.18)
= L/6 (sum of parallel edges vertical height of base)
= L/6 [(a + b + c) h] (9.7a)
when a = b = c: V = AL/2
Mass-Haul Diagrams
Mass-haul diagrams (MHD) are used to compare
the economy of various methods of earthwork
distribution on road or railway construction
schemes.
By the combined use of the MHD plotted directly
below the longitudinal section of the survey centreline, one can find:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)