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UNIVERSIDAD TCNICA FEDERICO SANTA MARIA

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Reading 1

The robotics revolution

Many of the robots in use today do jobs that are especially difficult for
human workers. These are the types of jobs that require great strength or pose
danger. For example, robots are particularly useful in the auto-manufacturing
industry where parts of automobiles must be welded together. A welding tool
used by a human worker weighs about 100 pounds or more and it is difficult to
handle. As mechanical supermen, robots may be called upon to do anything
from moving heavy components between workstations on a factory floor to
carrying bags of cement.
Spray painting is another task suited to robots because robots do not need
to breathe. Unlike human painters, they are unaffected by the poisonous
fumes. Robots are better at this task, not because they are faster or cheaper
than humans, but because they work in a place where humans cannot.
Third in the list of useful jobs for robots is the assembly of electronic
parts. Robots
shine at installing chips in printed circuit boards, because of a capability that
robots have that people dont. A robot, once properly programmed, will not put
a chip in the wrong place. This automatic accuracy is particularly valuable in
this kind of industry because locating and fixing mistakes is costly.
Earlier robots were usually blind and deaf but newer types of robots are
fitted with video cameras and, other sensing devices that can detect heat,
texture, size, and sound. These robots are used in space projects, nuclear
reactor stations, and underwater exploration research.
In their efforts to expand the range of robotic applications, researchers are
looking beyond traditional designs to examine a variety of potential models
from the biological world. The industrial arm is a classic example. Scientists
have been able to model robots to imitate the vertebrate spine of a snake in
order to paint the interior of automobiles. They have simulated the muscle
structure and movement of an elephants trunk in an attempt to create a
robotic arm capable of lifting heavy objects. Scientists have also emulated the
flexibility of an octopus where the tentacles can conform to the fragile objects
of any shape and hold them with uniform, gentle pressure. A variation of this
design can be used to handle animals, turn hospital patients in their beds, or
lift a small child.
The challenge of equipping robots with the skills to operate
independently, outside of a factory or laboratory, has taxed (PONER A
PRUEBA) the ingenuity and creativity of academic, military, and industrial
scientists for years. Simply put, robot hands like robot legs, or eyes, or
reasoning powers have a long way to go before they can approach what
biological evolution has achieved over the course of hundreds of millions of
years. Much more will have to happen in laboratories around the world before
robots can be compared to natures handiwork.

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In the meantime, the robotics revolution is already beginning to change

the kind of work that people do. The boring and dangerous jobs are now
assumed by robots. By the turn of the century, more and more humans will be
required for tasks that machines cannot do. There are some industrialists who
hope that in the future all their employees will be knowledge workers, no
longer standing on assembly lines but rather sitting at desks and computer
terminals to deal with information. These changes are already under way, and
their pace accelerates every year.
READING N 1
Synonyms or Opposites
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Task

jobs = works, tasks

difficult/easy
require= need
pose=position
useful / useless
heavy/ light
fume= smoke
faster / slower

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

cheaper/ more expensive

wrong/ right
accuracy = preciseness
kind of = type of
very expensive= costly
Fitted= equipped
researchers= investigators
abilities= skills
has achieved= has got

Summarize the reasons that certain jobs and environments are

suitable for robots by completing the table below.
Job or environment
Welding

Reason

Carrying components, etc.

Spray painting
Assembling components
In nuclear reactors, underwater,
etc.

Task

Fill in this table with details of the animals mentioned in the text.
1
2
3
Animal
Aspect
being
emulated
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Reason

READING 2
Study each of the passages and choose the best answers to the questions that
follow.
Ice ages, those periods when ice covered extensive areas of the Earth, are known
to have
occurred at least six times. Past ice ages can be recognized from rock strata that
show
evidence of foreign materials deposited by moving walls of ice or melting
glaciers. Ice ages
can also be recognized from land formations that have been produced from moving
walls of ice, (5)
such as U shaped valleys, sculptured landscapes, and polished
rock faces.

1. According to the passage, what happens during an ice age?

(A) Rock strata are recognized by geologists.
(B) Evidence of foreign materials is found.
(C) Ice covers a large portion of the Earths surface.
(D) Ice melts six times.
2. The passage covers how many different methods of recognizing past ice
ages?
(A) One
(B) Two
(C) Three
(D) Four
3. According to the passage, what in the rock strata is a clue to geologists of a
past ice age?
(A) Ice
(B) Melting glaciers
(C) U-shaped valleys
(D) Substances from other areas
4. Which drawing shows the type of valley mentioned in the passage that
results from melting glaciers?

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Present Perfect
Examples &
Exercises
* Form:

participle verb
Write- wrote written

to
have
+
past

I have just written a poem.

* Use:
1. An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present.
I have lived in Canada since 1984. (and I still do)
2. An action performed during a period that has not yet finished.
She has been to the doctor twice this week. (and the week isnt over
yet)
3. A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now.
We have visited London several times.
4. An action that was completed in the very recent past (expressed by just)

They have just finished their work.

5. An action when the result is very important but the time is not.
He has seen Harry Potter.

IMPORTANT TO KNOW:
We can use the Present Perfect with expressions like ever, never, JUST
once, many times, for, ago, several times, before, since, so far,
already and yet.
Has he she o it
Have I you we there
PAST TENSE: yesterday in 1989 last Monday -

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Practice 1:
Complete the sentence using the verb in Present Perfect or Past Simple Tense
as corresponds:
1.

Mr. Miller Has Seen that movie twenty times. (SEE)

2.

I think I Have Met him once before. (MEET)

3.

Radioactive rays Have damaged Madam Curies bone before. (DAMAGE)

4.

We have been to France two years ago.(BE)

5.

The government has become more interested in arts education.

(BECOME)

6.

In 1985 Simon Bell has began his computer business at the University of
Southampton. (BEGIN)

7.

Last year, the situation of the hydrocarbon industry have improved to

some extent. (IMPROVE)

8.

My English has really improved since I moved to Australia. (IMPROVE)

9.

Have You ever had many major problems while working on this project?
(HAVE) *grammatical Ever, sale arriba

10.

Like Finland, Norway also has showed strong growth last year. (SHOW)
pasaodosimple

11.
12.
13.

They went to New York last summer. (GO)

Susan has seen that film in Miami several times. (SEE).
You _____ ______________not ____IMPROVED____________ your English yet.
(improve)

14.

My family ___ _________________ London last week. (VISIT)

Practice 2:
Write a paragraph about Technology and its effects in our daily lives. Use
Present Perfect
Tense.
READING 3
Study each of the passages and choose the best answers to the questions that follow
Blood plasma is a clear, almost colorless liquid. It consists of blood from which the red
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and white blood cells have been removed. It is often used in transfusions because a
patient generally needs the plasma portion of the blood more than the other
components.
Plasma differs in several important ways from whole blood. First of all,
plasma can be mixed for all donors and does not have to be from the right blood
group, as whole blood does. In
addition, plasma can be dried and stored, while whole blood cannot.
1. All of the following are true about blood plasma EXCEPT that
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

it is a deeply colored liquid

blood cells have been taken out of it
patients are often transfused with it
it is generally more important to the patient than other parts of whole blood

2. Which of the following is NOT stated about whole blood?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

It is different from plasma.

It cannot be dried.
It is impossible to keep it in storage for a long time.
It is a clear, colorless liquid.

COMPOUND NOUNS
The language of computing in English contains an ever-increasing number of
compound nouns, that is, a group of two or more nouns which act as a single
noun.
Examples:
memory capacity an address bus an arithmetic unit
information systems a bar code scanner
It is important to be able to recognize how such compounds are formed in order
to understand what they mean.
The exact relationship between the words depends on the particular
expression, but all these expressions have one thing in common: the last word
in the chain says what the thing is, while the preceding word or group of words
describes the thing. So when we read compound nouns, we have to start with
the last word and work backwards.
Examples:
An address bus is a bus dedicated to address information.
The memory capacity of a computer is the capacity of its memory.

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A large number of possible meanings can be expressed by compound nouns.
For instance, the first noun or group of nouns can tell us what the second noun
is made of, what it is for, or what it is part of.
1 Material: the first noun tells us what the second consists of.
Examples:
a silicon chip (a chip made of silicon)
a ferrite ring (a ring made of ferrite)
2 Function: the first noun tells us what the second noun is for.
Examples:
an address bus (a bus dedicated to address information)
an input device (a device for inputting)
an arithmetic unit (a unit which performs arithmetic functions)
3 Part: the second noun refers to a part of the first noun.
Examples:
a computer keyboard (the keyboard of a computer)
a monitor screen (the screen of a monitor)
a program feature (a feature of a program)

4 Activity or person: the second noun refers to an activity or person related

to first noun.
Examples:
computer programming (the programming of computers).
a computer programmer (a person who programs computers)
systems analysis (the analysis of organizational systems)
a systems analysis (a person who analyses organizational systems)
5

Multiple nouns: sometimes a compound noun will join together with one
or more other nouns to give an expression that has three or four words, In
such cases, It is important to examine the expression very carefully to
break it into its constituent parts. The secret, as always, is to read the
expression from time back towards the front.
Example:
4
3
2
1
a document-image-processing program (a program which
processes images of documents)
Note: some expressions are written separately, while others are joined by
hyphens. There are no clear rules for this. Sometimes you will see the same
expression written in different ways in different texts.
Example:
document-image-processing program
However, it is important to be consistent within a single text.

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Exercise 1
A device that scans bar codes is called A bar code scanner.
What is the name given to:
1

a unit that gives a visual display of information on a screen?

a device that plots graphs?

a device that reads magnetic cards?

a device that prints using a laser as the light source?

a unit that holds magnetic disks?

a device that prints using a jet of ink?

the rate of transmission of data?

a package for making presentations using multimedia?

a program which processes data in batches?

10

the process for the conversion of disks for computers?

11

the market for keeping tools, tires and rings for cars

Exercise 2
Using the explanations in Exercise 1 us models, write short simple
explanation of the following items:
1

un input device .

an optical character reader

a graphics stylus

a document sorte

Exercise 3
Turn into Compund Nouns
1.

Two vacancies for physicists of basic grade.

2.

An examination into the results of a research on solid state.

3.

A fellowship for research for a post-doctoral in summer.

4.

Council for the research in Natural Environment.

5.

The leader of the team for the research in digital cartography.

6.

The digital cartography research team leader

7.

A study on the effects of the last earthquakes in our region.

8.

A survey on the consequences of the financial crisis in the world.

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8.

Three scholarships for second year engineering students.

9.
Device for the measurement of the speeds of the new engines.
10.A research about scientific and technological development.
11.A certificate for sports development in enterprises.
12.A book about engineering in industry and operation system for foreign
people.
13.Three meetings about magnetism and good choices for maintainance.

READING 4
Elizabeth Cochrane Seaman was an American journalist at the turn of the
century who
wrote for the newspaper New York World under the pen name Nellie Bly, a
name which
was
taken from a song Nelly Bly. She achieved fame for her exposes and
in
particular for the bold and adventure some way that she obtained for her
stories.
She felt that the best way to get the real story was from the inside rather
than as an
outside observer who could be treated to a petrified version of reality.
On one occasion she pretended to be a thief so that she would get arrested and
see
for herself how female prisoners were really treated.
On another occasion she faked mental illness in order to be admitted to a mental
hospital to get the real picture on the treatment of mental patients.
(5)

1. Which of the following is NOT true about Nellie Bly?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

Nellie Blys real name was Elizabeth Cochrane Seaman.

Nellie BIy was mentally ill.
The name Nellie Bly came from a song.
The name Nellie Bly was used on articles that Seaman wrote.

2. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as something that Nellie Bly did to
get a good story?
(A) She acted like a thief.
(C) She pretended to be ill.
hospital.

(B) She got arrested by the police.

(D)
She worked as a doctor in a mental

Drawing
READING 5

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Probably the most recognized board game around the world is the game of Monopoly.
In
this game, players vie for wealth by buying, selling, and renting properties; the key to
success in
the game, in addition to a bit of luck, is for a player to acquire monopolies on clusters of
properties in order to force opponents to pay exorbitant rents and fees.
(5)
Although the game is now published in countless languages and versions, with foreign
locations and place names appropriate to the target language adorning its board, the
beginnings
of the game were considerably more humble. The game was invented in 1933 by Charles
Darrow,
during the height of the Great Depression. Darrow, who lived in Germantown,
Pennsylvania, was
himself unemployed during those difficult financial times. He set the original game not as
might
(10) be expected in his hometown of Germantown, but in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the site of
numerous
pre-Depression vacations, where he walked along the Boardwalk and visited Park Place.
Darrow
made the first games by hand and sold them locally until Parker Brothers purchased the
rights to
Monopoly in 1935 and took the first steps toward the mass production of today.

1. The French version of Monopoly might possibly include a piece of property

entitled
(A) Atlantic City, New Jersey
(B) Germantown, Pennsylvania
(C) Boardwalk
(D) the Eiffel Tower
2. It is implied that Darrow selected Atlantic City as the setting for Monopoly
because
(A) it brought back good memories
(B) his family came from Atlantic City
(C) the people of Germantown might have been angered if he had used
German town
(D) Atlantic City was larger than Germantown
3. Parker Brothers is probably
(A) a real estate company
(B) a game manufacturing company
(C) a group of Charles Darrows friends
(D) a toy design company

Graphs
In engineering, graphs and charts are a common way of giving information.
They allow a great deal of data to be presented easily in visual form.
Task I

Label the following graphic displays with correct term from this
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list:
- graph
- bar chart

- pie chart
- bar chart (column chart)

Task 2
Study the graph which shows typical daily load curves for a power station.
Answer these questions about the graph for
1 When is the peak load?
2 When is there least demand?
3
When is the load 65% of capacity?
4 What is the load at 1 p.m.?
Language study Describing graphs
Look at the period 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. We can describe the change in load in two
ways:
1
The load rises.
2
There is a rise in load.

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We can make our description more accurate like this:
3
The load rises sharply.
4
There is a sharp rise in load.

Study this table of verbs and related nouns of change. The past form of
irregular verbs is given in brackets.

Direction
Up

Down

Level

Verb
Climb (ed)

Noun

go up (went up)
Increase (ed)
rise (rose)
Decline (ed)
Decrease (ed)
Dip (ped)
Drop (ped)
fall (fell)
go down (went down)
Do does not change
Did not change
It remains constant
They remain constant
It remained constant

increase
Rise
decline
decrease
Dip
Drop
Fall
no change

These adjectives and adverbs are used to describe the rate of change
Adjective
NOUN
Slight
Gradual
Steady

+ VERB
Adverb
Slightly
Gradually
Steadly

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Steep
Sharp
sudden
Fast

Steeply
Sharply
Suddenly
Fast

may

Task 3
Study this graph which shows the load at weekends.

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Write sentences to describe the load during these periods

Saturday, 8 a.m. to noon.
The load increases stepwise
1 Saturday, 6 p.m. to 10 p.m.
The load decreases
2. Saturday, noon to 5 p.m.
the load decreases the Saturday noon a 4 p.m, after increases until 5p.m
3. Saturday, noon to 1 p.m.
The load remains constant
4. Sunday, 2 a.m. to 8 a.m.
The load remains constant
5. Sunday, noon to 3 p.m.
6. L
6. Sunday, 5 p.m. to 10 p.m.
Task 4
Look at Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Make comparisons of these periods. For example:
Sunday, 4 a.m. to 8 a.m./weekdays at the same time.
On Sunday the load remains constant between 4 p.m. and 8 a.m but on
weekdays it rises sharply.

1 Sunday, noon to 3 p.m./Saturday at the same time.

2 Weekdays, 10 p.m. to 11 p.m./Saturday at the same time.
3 Saturday peak load/Sunday peak load.
4 Sunday, noon to 1 p.m./the rest of the week at the same time.
On Sundays and weekdays the loads remains constant but in
weekdays the load is higher than sundays

MODAL VERB EXERCISES

May(posibilidad de poder)
can(poder accion)
could(poder pasado)
must (debes) might(posibilidad
remota)
should(deberias, consejo, expectativa)
will(podria
de
algo futuro)
EJ:
CAN
Can you play basquetball?
May
May you give me your place?

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Could
When I was child, I could run faster
Must
You must get early to the class
Might
Today it might rain in Valparaiso
Should
You should study for the exam
If my father buy the tickets, I will go to the concert
Modals and Related Expressions
1. Teds flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours. He _should_____ be
exhausted after such a long flight. He __may___ prefer to stay in tonight and
get some rest.
2. If you want to get a better feeling for how the city is laid out, you
___should_____ walk downtown and explore the waterfront.
3. Hiking the trail to the peak _____may____be dangerous if you are not well
prepared for dramatic weather changes. You___should_/must___ research
the route a little more before you attempt the ascent.
4. When you have a small child in the house, you ____must not_____leave small
objects lying around. Such objects _____may____ be swallowed, causing
serious injury or even death.
5. A: ____Can____you hold your breath for more than a minute?
B: No, I cant.
6. Jennys engagement ring is enormous! It _____may/ should_____have cost a
fortune.
7.

Please make sure to water my plants while I am gone. If they dont get
enough water, they ____will_______die.

8.

I ___could______ speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in

Egypt. But after we moved back to Canada, I had very little exposure to the

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language and forgot almost everything I knew as a child. Now, I
__can____just say a few things in the language.
9. The book is optional. My professor said we ______should_______ read it if we
needed extra credit.
10. A: Where is the spatula? It ___must___ be in this drawer but its not here.
B: I just did a load of dishes last night and theyre still in the dish washer. It
___must_____ be in there. Thats the only other place it _____should______ be.
11. You ____should_____ take your umbrella along with you today. The
weatherman on the news said theres a storm north of here and it
____will______rain later on this afternoon.
12. ____May___we pull over at the next rest stop? I really _____must______use
the

bathroom

and

dont know

if

____can

(habilidad

fisica

de

aguantar)______ hold it until we get to Chicago.

Word study Common verbs in engineering

Study this list of common verbs in engineering. They all have the sense of
make something happen.
Lower
Raise
Heat
release
compress
reduce
increase

make
make
make
make
make
make
make

low
high
hot
free
smaller volume
smaller
larger

Task 5
Fill in the blanks in these sentences with suitable verbs from the list above.
1 When thermoplastics are ____________ , they soften.
2

If a gas is _______________, it heats up.

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3

Refrigeration preserves food by

its temperature.

A heater ____________ the temperature of the water.

The rising piston _______________

Designers try to __________________the weight of a structure.

When the push button is ______________, the valve spring

the fuel mixture.

pushes up the spool.

8

Pumping fluid into the main cylinder gradually ____________the

jack.

Aerodynamic design _____________________wind resistance.

10 The motor starts up slowly. then gradually _____________speed.

11 At intermediate substations, power is ______________________to
11 kV for light Industry.
12 When the child ________ the handle, the seat swings back under
the weight.
READING 6
Another program instrumental in the popularization of science was Cosmos.
This series, broadcast on public television, dealt with topics and issues from
varied fields of science. The principal writer and narrator of the program was
Carl Sagan, a noted astronomer and Pulitzer Prize-winning author.
1. The paragraph preceding this passage most probably discusses
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

a different scientific television series

Carl Sagans scientific achievements
the Pulitzer Prize won by Carl Sagan
public television

2. The paragraph following this passage most likely contains information on

what?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

The popularity of science

The program Cosmos
The astronomer Carl Sagan
Topics and issues from various fields of science

READING 7
When a strong earthquake occurs on the ocean floor rather than on land, a tremendous
force is exerted on the seawater and one or more large, destructive waves called tsunamis
can be
formed. Tsunamis are commonly called tidal waves in the United States, but this is really an
Line inappropriate name in that the cause of the tsunami is an underground earthquake rather

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than
(5) the oceans tides.
Far from land, a tsunami can move through the wide open vastness of the ocean at a
speed of
600 miles (900 kilometers) per hour and often can travel tremendous distances without
losing
height and strength. When a tsunami reaches shallow coastal water, it can reach a height of
100
feet (30 meters) or more and can cause tremendous flooding and damage to coastal areas.

1. The paragraph preceding the passage most probably discusses

(A) tsunamis in various parts of the world
(B) the negative effects of tsunamis
(C) land-based earthquakes
(D)the effect of tides on tsunamis
2. Which of the following is most likely the topic of the paragraph following the
passage?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

The causes of tsunamis

The destructive effects of tsunamis on the coast
The differences between tsunamis and tidal waves
The distances covered by tsunamis

READING 8

(5)

(10)

Chamber music received its name because it was originally intended to be performed
in
small rooms in private homes rather than huge concert halls or theaters. Today it has
evolved into
small ensemble music in which each performer in the ensemble plays an individual part.
The compositions written for this type of performance can easily be classified into three
distinct periods, each with its style of music and instrumentation. In the earliest period
(14501 650), the viol and other instrumental families developed considerably, and
instrumental
music took its first steps toward equal footing with vocal music. In the second period
(16501750), trio sonatas dominated. These ensemble compositions were often written
for two.
violins and a cello; the harpsichord was also featured in various compositions of this
period. In
the modern period (after 1750), the preponderance of chamber music was written for the
string
quartet, an ensemble composed of two violins, a viola, and a cello.

1. Where in the passage does the author discuss the modern definition of
chamber music?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

Lines 23
Lines 45
Lines 89
Lines 911

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6. Click on the sentence in paragraph 2 that describes the first of the three
periods of compositions for chamber music.
7. Click on the sentence in paragraph 2 that discusses which instruments were
used in ensembles for three instruments.
READING 9
It is common practice to coat metals such as iron and steel with a protective layer of
zinc or
an alloy made from zinc mixed with aluminum, cadmium, or tin in a process known as
galvanization. The purpose of galvanization is to prevent the corrosion of the iron or
steel.
The most common method to galvanize metal is the hot-dip galvanizing process. In
this
(5)
process, the iron or steel is dipped into a hot bath of a zinc alloy to form a protective
coating
approximately .003 inches thick. Another method of galvanizing that is not as common is
the
process known as electrogalvanizing; in this process the metal is placed in a solution
composed of
zinc sulphate and water and is then charged electrically. This causes a thin layer of zinc to
coat
the metal.
(10)
Zinc is effective in galvanizing metals such as iron or steel in that zinc reacts more
easily with
oxygen than iron does. If iron is unprotected, it reacts with the oxygen in the air to form
iron
oxide, or rust, which leads to the corrosion of the iron. If, however, the iron is coated with
zinc, as
it is in the galvanization process, then it is the zinc rather than the iron which interacts
with the
oxygen to form zinc oxide, and the iron is not subject to corrosion.

1. Where in the passage does the author list the components of a zinc alloy?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

Lines
Lines
Lines
Lines

12
46
910
1112

2. Where in the passage does the author present the less routinely used
process of galvanization?
(A) Lines 12
(B) Line 4
(C) Lines 68
(D) Lines 1011
The sentence in paragraph 2 that explains how the hot-dip galvanizing process
is carried out.

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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
These are sentences which express what happens if certain conditions are
fulfilled. They therefore consist of two parts (which can occur in any order).
Example:
A.

a Condition clause (if or unless), a Result clause.

If ( Unless )--- (Present tense) , (Present tense)

(no obstacle)
(normal, usual)

If the supply of heat in a closed system increases, the temperature rises.

The temperature rises if the supply of heat in a closed system increases.
Unless care is taken, many avoidable mistakes are made.
B.

Sometimes the writer wishes to indicate other attitudes to the Result.

If (Present tense), a. WILL (futurity/ inevitability)

b. MAY (possible)
c. SHOULD (advisability)
Examples:
1
2

If the price of notebooks fall next year, I will buy one.

If the system crashes, we will lose all our latest data.

When the if-clause comes second, there is no comma between the two clauses.
Examples:
1
2

I will buy a notebook if the price of notebooks fall next year.

We will lose all our latest data if the system crashes.

C.

The writer thinks that the condition is not certain or unlikely to be fulfilled...
If
Past tense,
a) Would (Inevitable)
(only possible/hypothesis)
b) Might (only possible)

Example:
If all the ice in the world melted, the level of the sea would rise by
about 250 feet. and many people would die. (inevitable)
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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros

As with the simple predictions listed above, it is possible to express different

levels of certainty about the likelihood of the condition (in the if-clause) by
changing the tense of the verbs from the future and present forms to the more
remote past and conditional forms.
Examples:
1 If the price of notebooks falls next year, I will buy one. (The speaker
thinks it is possible that the price of notebooks will fall next year and, if it
does, he will buy one.)
2

If the price of notebooks fell next year, I would buy one. (The speaker
thinks it is unlikely that the price of notebooks will fall next year but, if it
does, he will buy one.)
14.If the system crashes, we will lose all our latest data. (The speaker
thinks it is possible
that the system will crash and, if it does, we will lose all our data.)
15.If the system crashed, we would lose all our latest data. (The speaker
thinks it is unlikely that the system
16. will crash but, if it did, we would lose all our data.)

The first form, as in sentences 1 and 3 [(If + present) + will] is known as

the first conditional. The second form, as in sentences 2 and 4 [(If + past) +
would] is known as the second conditional.

Exercise 1
Match the if-clauses (1 to 6) to the main clauses (a to f) to make complete
sentences.
1
If you never read computer
our
magazines..,
2

3..you would be able to access

bulletin board.

If you never back up your hard

22

4 it is unlikely that you will

HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros
have a
disk...
3
of

problem with computer viruses.

If you had a modem...

typefaces and fonts to choose

from
4
new

.6..we would have a bigger range

If you dont copy pirated software...

1.you will miss important

products.

5
6

If I knew more programming

languages...
If we bought a better printer...

.5. .I would get a better job.

.2. you will probably lose some

important files.

Exercise 2

Complete the sentences with the words below. Are the sentences first (F) or
second (S) conditionals?
would not post grows will be wanted look at leave
will get would need will be reduced - installed
1

If you___leave__ your Visual Display Unit (VDU) in direct sunlight,

it_____will get_____

damaged. (s)

If you____look at_______ your screen for too long, you ___will

get_____a headache.
3

If you _____wanted_______ to link your PCs with a mainframe,

you ______would need______to install a network.

If the market for portable computers _______grows_______ , prices _

__will be reduced____even more next year.

If we __installed____a fax machine and e-mail facility,

we____would not post______so many letters each day.

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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros
Now make up three first conditional and three second conditional
sentences of your own.
EXERCISE 3
Complete the following sentences, putting the verbs in parenthesis into the
right tense according to the instruction given in brackets in each case:
Would: cuando es inevitable
Might: es posible
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

If temperature rises to 180, water _________boils________ (no obstacle)

(boil)
If you drop a stone, it ________will fall_________ (inevitable)
(fall)
If devices do not work, we _________must revise______________ them.
(necessity)
(revise)
If scientists made errors, they ___________would cause__________
problems. (inevitable)
(cause)
If there is a variation in current, it ________may have___________an
adverse influence (possible)
(have)

If observations are not continued, it ________may result__________

in

negative

science.

(result)

(possible)
7.

Students _______ consult_________their notes, if they have any doubt (no

obstacle)
(consult)

8. If pressure ____ rises___________ , structural failure may occur. (rise) (No

obstacle)
Reading 10
RECYCLING DOMESTIC REFUSE
List some solutions for the problem of refuse
The consumer society produces more and more refuse. A number of solutions
to this problem have been proposed. In some countries refuse is burnt to
generate electric power. In Germany, producers must take back unwanted
packaging for recycling. In other countries, householders are asked to separate
out refuse so that it can be recycled more easily. This text describes an
experimental plant in Holland designed to recycle domestic refuse.
What is the rubbish? Give examples
The rubbish collected from households consists of a mixture of organic
materials such as kitchen waste, and inorganic materials such as glass and
plastic bottles, tin cans, and packaging.
In a scheme show the process of recycling

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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros
The rubbish is first passed through a hammer mill to shred it. The mill consists
of rotating steel arms which break up any large items to reduce them to a more
manageable size. Any items which may cause damage later in the process are
rejected at this stage.
The shredded mixture passes under an electromagnet which removes ferrous
metals. Much of this is tin cans. Almost all ferrous metals are recovered this
way.
After that, the residue is carried by conveyor belt to an air classifier. A
stream of air is blown though the classifier, which has a zigzag shape. Lowdensity material such as plastic, paper and some organic substances rise to the
top of the classifier. Higher density materials such as glass and non-ferrous
metals fall to the bottom and are discarded. These could be further separated
out using a range of processes. For example, and eddy current mechanism
could screen out aluminium waste. Froth flotation techniques could recover
glass.
The low-density portion is carried to a rotating drum where it is screened. Fine
organic materials pass though the screen leaving a mixture which consists
mainly of plastic and paper. The organic residue can be used for compost or to
make bricks.
The next stage is to separate the plastic from the paper. This was initially a
problem since both are similar in density. The solution is to wet the mixture.
The paper absorbs water and a s a result becomes denser than the plastic.
In the final stage, the wetted mixture is passed through a second air-classifier
where the lighter plastic leaves from the top and the denser wet paper from
the bottom. The recovered paper could be fed to pulp mills for further
recycling.
The remaining plastic is a mixture of thermosets and thermoplastics. It is not
easy to separate these out but the mixture can be melted and formed into
insulating materials for building.
Using the information in the text, complete the labelling of the flow
chart. Add these labels.
plastic and paper mixture
high density materials
shredded mixture
paper
fine organic materials

air classifier
rotating drums
ferrous metals
wetted mixture

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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros

Read the text again and complete the notes for the other stages.
Stage 1
Where?

Hammer mill

What happens? The waste is shredded

Why?

To reduce it to a maneageable size

How?

Using rotating steel arms to break up any large items.

Stage 2
Where? _____________________________________________
What happens? ____________________________________
How?

By magnetism

Stage 3
Where?

_____________________________________________

What happens? High and low density materials are separated

How?

By a current of air which carries low density material to the top

while high density materials fall to the bottom

Stage 4
Where? _____________________________________________
What happens? The low density portion is screened
Why?

______________________________________

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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros

Stage 5
What happens? ______________________________________
Why?

To give the paper and plastic different densities

Stage 6
Where? _____________________________________________
What happens? ______________________________________
How?

By a current of air which carries low density plastic to the top

while wet paper falls to the bottom

READING 11

Sources of Water Pollution

Towns and municipalities are also major sources of water pollution. In many public
water systems, pollution exceeds safe levels. One reason for this is that much
groundwater has been
contaminated by wastes pumped underground for disposal or by seepage from surface
water.
When contamination reaches underground water tables, it is difficult to correct and
spreads over
wide areas. In addition, many U.S. communities discharge untreated or only partially
treated
sewage into the waterways, threatening the health of their own and neighboring
populations.
Along with domestic wastes, sewage carries industrial contaminants and a growing
tonnage of
paper and plastic refuse (see solid waste). Although thorough sewage treatment would
destroy
most disease-causing bacteria, the problem of the spread of viruses and viral illness
remains.
Additionally, most sewage treatment does not remove phosphorus compounds,
contributed
principally by detergents, which cause eutrophication of lakes and ponds. Excreted
drugs and
household chemicals also are not removed by present municipal treatment facilites,
and can be
recycled into the drinking water supply.

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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros

Rain drainage is another major polluting agent because it carries such substances as
highway
debris (including oil and chemicals from automobile exhausts), sediments from highway
and
building construction, and acids and radioactive wastes from mining operations into
freshwater
systems as well as into the ocean. Also transported by rain runoff and by irrigation
return-flow are
animal wastes from farms and feedlots, a widespread source of pollutants impairing
rivers and
streams, groundwater, and even some coastal waters. Antibiotics, hormones, and other
chemicals
used to raise livestock are components of such animal wastes. Pesticide and fertilizer
residues
from farms also contribute to water pollution via rain drainage.

Dangers of Water Pollution

Virtually all water pollutants are hazardous to humans as well as lesser species; sodium
is
implicated in cardiovascular disease, nitrates in blood disorders. Mercury and lead can
cause
nervous disorders. Some contaminants are carcinogens. DOT is toxic to humans and
can alter chromosomes. PCBs cause liver and nerve damage, skin eruptions, vomiting,
fever, diarrhea, and
fetal abnormalities. Along many shores, shellfish can no longer be taken because of
contamination
by DOT, sewage, or industrial wastes.
Dysentery, salmonellosis, crvptosporidium, and hepatitis are among the maladies
transmitted by
sewage in drinking and bathing water. In the United States, beaches along both coasts,
riverbanks,
and lake shores have been ruined for bathers by industrial wastes, municipal sewage,
and medical
waste. Water pollution is an even greater problem in the Third World, where millions of
people
obtain water for drinking and sanitation from unprotected streams and ponds that are
contaminated
with human waste. This type of contamination has been estimated to cause more than
3 million
deaths annually from diarrhea in Third World countries, most of them children.

A.3.

CONNECTIVES INTRODUCING A CONTRAST OR A LIMITATION TO

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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros
AN IDEA PREVIOUSLY EXPRESSED.
but
however
nevertheless
yet
contrast

although
eventhough
in spite of
despite

whereas
whilst (while)
conversely
on the contrary

To operate efficiently markets should have the freedom to adjust themselves;

nevertheless some sort of control is needed to protect users.
Liability in a partnership is unlimited whereas in a company it is limited.

A.4

Although market research is a blunt instrument, it is very useful

Market research is a blunt instrument, yet it is very useful.
CONNECTIVES INTRODUCING ADDITIONAL INFORMATION.
and
and
besides
furthermore

moreover
apart from
in addition to
not only but also.

* The company is producing more and also attracting valuable person.

net
*
Not only the company is producing more, but it is also attracting
valuable personnel.
* Apart from (in addition to) the fact that the company is producing
more, it is attracting valuable personnel
N.B. All these sentences express the same kind of relationship, notice the
particular use of the expressions.
This industry has recently introduced mass production methods, besides it has
diminished costs and increased returns.
A government buys goods; moreover, it spends money to employ all kinds of
personnel to provide services to the population.
Write the sentences above using other connectives from the list and translate
them.
Below you have a list of other linking expressions appearing in the readings.
Translate them.
In order to ...........

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HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros
with the object of
with respect to .
in relation to ........
in accordance with ......
for instance ..
such as .....
in fact .
in effect ...........
Appendix Connectives
The main connectives are grouped below according to the similarity of their
meaning with the three basic connectives and, or, but. For information about
their use in sentences, you should look in a good dictionary.
1 enumeration
2 addition
a reinforcement
b equation

a listing

1 and

1 and

b transition
c summation
d apposition
e result
f inference

2 or

g reformulation
h replacement

3 but

i contrast
j concession

a Listing:

1 Enumeration indicates a cataloguing of what is being said.

Most enumerations belong to clearly defined sets:
first,
one,

furthermore,.
two,

30

finally,
three,

etc.

HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros

first(ly),

second(ly),.

third(ly),.

etc.

above all
mark the end of an ascending
order
last but not least
first and foremost
mark the beginning of a
descending order
first and most important(ly)

to begin/start with,
conclude,..
next,

If , unless
Thus
Or
Moreover

then,

in the second place,.

afterward,.

moreover,.

lastly/finally,.

conditional
conclusion or result
Alternative
Emphasis (ms aun)

2 Addition to what has been previously indicated.

a Reinforcement (includes confirmation):
also
again
harthermore
further
moreover
what Is more
then
in addition

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And to

HCW 311 Ingls Cientfico Tecnolgico II e HIW 311 Ingls para Ingenieros
besides
above all
too
as well (as)
b Equation (similarity with what has preceded):
equally
likewise
similarly
correspondingly
in the same way

32