A Project Report On

SOLARIZED ELEVATOR
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR
AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
by
MOHD SHAHBAZ ALI

(160312736314)

MOHAMMED HASHAM

(160312736315)

MOHD ABDUL AZEEM

(160312736323)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE

OF
Mr. G. ANANTH RAO, M.E
Asscociate Professor
DCET

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DECCAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Affiliated to Osmania University
Dar-Us-Salam, Nampally, Hyderabad, Telangana-500001
2015-2016

A Project Report On
SOLARIZED ELEVATOR

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
by
MOHD SHAHBAZ ALI

(160312736314)

MOHAMMED HASHAM

(160312736315)

MOHD ABDUL AZEEM

(160312736323)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE

OF
Mr. G. ANANTH RAO, M.Tech
Asscociate Professor
DCET

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DECCAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Affiliated to Osmania University
Dar-Us-Salam, Nampally, Hyderabad, Telangana-500001
2015-2016
2

DECCAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to Osmania University)

Dar-us-Salam, Hyderabad -500 001.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Academic year 2015-16

MAJOR PROJECT

CERTIFICATE
This

is

to

certify

that

Mohd

Shahbaz

Ali

(160312736314),

Mohammed Hasham (160312736315), Mohd Abdul Azeem (160312736323)

of

B.E. (IV/IV) 2nd

SEMESTER, B.E has successfully completed the

MAJOR PROJECT in SOLARIZED ELEVATOR during the academic year

2015- 2016.

GUIDE

H.O.D.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We take immense pleasure in thanking Dr. Col. Munshi, Head of the
Department, for having permitted us to carry out this project work.
We take this opportunity to express our profound gratitude and
deep regards to our internal guide, Mr.G.Ananth Rao, Associate
professor for his exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant
encouragement throughout the project work. The blessing, help and
guidance given by him time to time shall carry us a long way in the
journey of the life on which we are about to embark.
The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of
guidance and assistance from many people and we are extremely
fortunate to have got this all along the completion of my project work.
Whatever we have done is only due to such guidance and assistance and
we would not forget to thank them.
We are thankful and fortunate enough to get constant
encouragement, Support and guidance from all teaching staffs of
Department of Mechanical Engineering which helped us in successfully
completing our project work. Also, we would like to extend our science
for their timely support.
Finally, yet importantly, we would like to express our heartfelt
thanks to Almighty, classmates and friends for their blessings and
constant encouragement without which this project work would not be
possible.
MOHD SHAHBAZ ALI
MOHAMMED HASHAM
MOHD ABDUL AZEEM

ABSTRACT

Energy neither be created nor be destroyed it can be converted from one form to another, In
this system we are using electrical energy which is obtained by solar panel.
This system mainly consist of SOLAR PANEL and DC MOTOR, motor is bidirectional
which runs in both direction (clockwise and anti clockwise). The motor shaft is connected to
pulley which is attached to elevator by rope, as the motor rotates pulley also rotates and
hence elevator also moves relatively up or down.

Solar energy is converted into electrical energy through SOLAR PANEL which made up of
silicon semiconductor, hence it reduces the cost of the system which is the big advantage.
Solar panel works on principle of PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT, it consists of semiconductor
like silicon crystalline cells. Solar energy contains photons is when these photon strikes the
semiconductor they get absorbed into it. The energy of photon transferred to electron hence
electron moves which generates electricity in the circuit. A Battery is connected to solar panel
to store the energy through the solar power controller to control the fluctuations of energy
further this electricity is given to DC MOTOR which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy and this energy further utilized to run the elevator up and down by means
of pulley.

LIST OF FIGURES
3.1:- Sun-Earth Geometry.....................................................................................................18
3.2:- Solar radiation atmospheric mechanisms.....................................................................19
3.3:- Latitude

, hour angle and suns declination ...................................................20

3.4:- Tropics and northern hemisphere.................................................................................20

3.5:- Variation of declination angle.......................................................................................21
3.6:- Suns zenith, altitude and azimuth angles.....................................................................21
3.7:- drawing shoeing angle incidence, zenith angle, solar altitude angle, slope and surface
azimuth angle for a tilted surface..........................................................................................23
3.8:-p-n junction with applied voltage..................................................................................30
3.9:- diagram of a photovoltaic cell......................................................................................31
3.10:- current (I) voltage (V) characteristic of solar cell...................................................32
3.11:- cross section of a silicon cell......................................................................................33
3.12:- cross section of a polycrystalline silicon cell.............................................................34
3.13:- stand-alone PV system................................................................................................35
3.14:- V-I characteristic of PV module.................................................................................36
3.15:- P-V characteristic PV module....................................................................................36
3.16:- Angle of Incidence to Solar Cell.................................................................................37
4.1:-Solar charge controller...................................................................................................39
4.2:- Solar charge controller kit............................................................................................40
4.3:-Installation of Solar Charge Controller..........................................................................41
4.4:- Nylon Pulley.................................................................................................................50
4.5:- Various ways of rigging a tackle...................................................................................51
4.6:- Rope and Pulley System...............................................................................................51
4.7:-Pulley working System..................................................................................................52
4.8:- Movable Pulley System................................................................................................52
4.9:- Rope Hook....................................................................................................................54
4.10:- Steel Rope...................................................................................................................54

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1:- Outline View of Solar Panel...............................................................................56

Table 4.2:- Technical Characterstic of Solar Panel...............................................................56
Table 4.3:-Battery Specifications..........................................................................................57
Table 4.4:-Motor Specifications............................................................................................57
Table 4.5:-Shaft Specifications.............................................................................................57
Table 4.6:-Pulley Specifications............................................................................................58
Table 4.7:-Rope Specifications.............................................................................................58

CERTIFICATES.............................................................................................................III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................................IV
ABSTRACT

.................................................................................................................V

LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................VI
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................VII

CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................10
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 NEED FOR ELECTRICITY.......................................................................................14
2.2 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES.............................................................15
3 PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR ENERGY
3.1 PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR RADIATION.......................................................................18
3.1.1 EMPIRICAL EQUATION FOR ESTIMATING THE-AVAILABILITY OF SOLAR RADIATION.....................................................18
3.1.2SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENTS............................................................26
3.2 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
SYSTEM.............................................................................28
3.2.1 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND DOPING..............................................28
3.2.2 PHOTON ENERGY........................................................................................29
3.2.3 EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELLS.....................................................................32
4 COMPONENTS, SPECIFICATION & DESCRIPTION
4.1 COMPONENTS
4.1.1 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER.......................................................................
..................................................................................................................39
4.1.2 BATTERY ....................................................................................................42
4.1.3 MOTOR.........................................................................................................47
4.1.4 SHAFT...........................................................................................................48
4.1.5 PULLEY.........................................................................................................50
8

4.1.6 ROPE.............................................................................................................53

4.2 SPECIFICATION
4.2.1 SOLAR PANEL SPECIFICATION..................................................56
4.2.2 BATTERY..................................................................................57
4.2.3 MOTOR....................................................................................57
4.2.4 SHAFT......................................................................................57
4.2.5 PULLEY....................................................................................58
4.2.6 ROPE........................................................................................58
4.3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
4.3.1 CONSTRUCTION.......................................................................59
4.3.2 WORKING................................................................................60
4.3.3 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES...............................................60
4.3.4 APPLICATIONS.........................................................................61
4.3.6 RESULT....................................................................................61

5 CONCLUSION & FUTURE PROSPECTS

5.1 CONCLUSION....................................................................................62
5.2 FUTURE ...........................................................................................62
6 REFERENCES.................................................................................63

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar
power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight
into a small beam. Photovoltaic convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic
effect.[1]
The International Energy Agency projected in 2014 that under its "high renewable"
scenario, by 2050, solar photovoltaic and concentrated solar power would contribute about 16
and 11 percent, respectively, of the worldwide electricity consumption, and solar would be
the world's largest source of electricity. Most solar installations would be in China and India.
Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and
medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote
homes powered by an off-grid rooftop PV system. As the cost of solar electricity has fallen,
the number of grid-connected solar PV systems has grown into the millions and utility-scale
solar power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built. Solar PV is rapidly
becoming an inexpensive, low-carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun.
Solar power is arguably the cleanest, most reliable form of renewable energy
available, and it can be used in several forms to help power your home or business. Solarpowered photovoltaic (PV) panels convert the sun's rays into electricity by exciting electrons
in silicon cells using the photons of light from the sun. This electricity can then be used
to supply renewable energy to your home or business.
To understand this process further, lets look at the solar energy components that
make up a complete solar power system.

Solar panels

10

Solar panels, also known as modules, contain photovoltaic cells made from silicon
that transform incoming sunlight into electricity rather than heat. (Photovoltaic means
electricity from light photo = light, voltaic = electricity.)
Solar photovoltaic cells consist of a positive and a negative film of silicon placed
under a thin slice of glass. As the photons of the sunlight beat down upon these cells, they
knock the electrons off the silicon. The negatively-charged free electrons are preferentially
attracted to one side of the silicon cell, which creates an electric voltage that can be collected
and channeled. This current is gathered by wiring the individual solar panels together in
series to form a solar photovoltaic array. Depending on the size of the installation, multiple
strings of solar photovoltaic array cables terminate in one electrical box, called a fused array
combiner. Contained within the combiner box are fuses designed to protect the individual
module cables, as well as the connections that deliver power to the inverter. The electricity
produced at this stage is DC (direct current) and must be converted to AC (alternating
current) suitable for use in your home or business.
Inverter
The inverter is typically located in an accessible location, as close as practical to the
modules. In a residential application, the inverter is often mounted to the exterior sidewall of
the home near the electrical main or sub panels. Since inverters make a slight noise, this
should be taken into consideration when selecting the location.
The inverter turns the DC electricity generated by the solar panels into 120-volt AC
that can be put to immediate use by connecting the inverter directly to a dedicated circuit
breaker in the electrical panel.
The inverter, electricity production meter, and electricity net meter are connected so
that power produced by your solar electric system will first be consumed by the electrical
loads currently in operation. The balance of power produced by your solar electric system
passes through your electrical panel and out onto the electric grid. Whenever you are
producing more electricity from your solar electric system than you are immediately
consuming, your electric utility meter will turn backwards!
Net meter

11

In a solar electric system that is also tied to the utility grid, the DC power from the
solar array is converted into 120/240 volt AC power and fed directly into the utility power
distribution system of the building. The power is net metered, which means it reduces
demand for power from the utility when the solar array is generating electricity thus
lowering the utility bill. These grid-tied systems automatically shut off if utility power goes
offline, protecting workers from power being back fed into the grid during an outage. These
types of solar-powered electric systems are known as on grid or battery-less and make up
approximately 98% of the solar power systems being installed today.
Other benefits of solar
By lowering a buildings utility bills, these systems not only pay for themselves over
time, they help reduce air pollution caused by utility companies. For example, solar power
systems help increase something called peak load generating capacity, thereby saving the
utility from turning on expensive and polluting supplemental systems during periods of peak
demand. The more local-generating solar electric power systems that are installed in a given
utility's service area, the less capacity the utility needs to build, thus saving everyone from
funding costly additional power generating sources. Contributing clean, green power from
your own solar electric system helps create jobs and is a great way to mitigate the pollution
and other problems produced by electricity derived from fossil fuel. Solar-powered electrical
generating systems help you reduce your impact on the environment and save money at the
same time!
ELECTRO MAGNETISM
Both motors and generators run because of something called electromagnetic
induction. Discovered by Michael Faraday, this is when a voltage is induced by a changing
magnetic field. With electromagnetic induction, an electric current can be produced in a coil
of wire by moving a magnet in or out of that coil, or by moving the coil through the magnetic
field. Either way, voltage is created through motion.
The amount of voltage induced depends on the number of loops in the coil of wire, as
well as the speed at which the magnet is moved through the coil. A greater number of coils
means a greater amount of voltage is induced. Similarly, the faster the magnet is moved
through the coil, the more voltage you get.

12

What does this have to do with motors and generators? Well, a generator produces electricity
by rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field, and in a motor, a current is passed through a
coil, which forces it to spin. In both cases, Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction is
employed, allowing you to produce electricity in your house and then use it to vacuum your
floor, wash your dishes in the dishwasher, keep food fresh in your refrigerator and so much
more.
Remember before how we said that a motor and a generator are the same device, but
producing opposite results? What we mean here is that the flow of electricity is reversed, not
that the machine itself operates in reverse. So, you can't just take a generator and turn it into a
motor by 'reversing' the components of the machine. Likewise, with an electric motor you
can't just flip a switch that makes the components operate in reverse to produce electricity.
Instead, what you have to change is the direction the electricity flows: inward for a motor and
outward for a generator.
Alternating and Direct Current
Motors and generators are generally either AC or DC. The type of current utilized in
the device depends on whether you are more concerned with efficiency or cost. For example,
AC motors and generators are more efficient, but also cost more. Most of the electronics you
use, like your cell phone and tablet, rely on AC power because of its efficiency. Most hybrid
and electric cars also use alternating current. In This System were using DC MOTOR

13

Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 The Need for Electricity in Underprivileged Countries and a Possible
Solution
Not all countries possess all the commodities that are available to humanity. These so
called underprivileged countries lack amenities such as; abundant food, clean water,
medicine, wealth, education, and a healthy environment. The World Bank and other
institutions believe that the lack of access to clean and efficient energy services is a factor
involved in underprivileged countries from gaining more resources Assistant with higher
living quality, such as wealth . There are a few new forms of advanced energy, but
electricity has been proven to be one of the cleanliest and most efficient forms.
One possible solution to unreliable or nonexistent central electricity distribution
systems is to have distributed generation system (DG). A distributed generation system is
characterized by the fact that the electricity is produced locally rather than externally. DG
is often used in underprivileged countries; however, usually in the form of small
generators that run on different types of fossil fuels. The use of renewable types of DG is
preferable, since they provide a more sustainable and healthier environment. The most
common DG options include; solar, wind, and thermal.
In comparing the various forms of renewable DG, five factors must be considered:
location, ease of installation, reliability, capacity, and cost. Thermal power is a location
dependent, high cost option whereas wind has a lower cost but is unreliable due to
changing wind conditions and requires regular mechanical maintenance.
Solar power

has a relatively lower cost, easy to install and maintain, and for

underprivileged countries near the equator, ideal for the location

However the problem with solar power is that it is directly dependent on light
intensity. To produce the maximum amount of energy, a solar panel must be
Page 14

perpendicular to the light source .Because the sun moves both throughout the day as
well as throughout the year, a solar panel must be able to follow the suns movement to
produce the maximum possible power. The solution is to use a tracking system that
maintains the panels orthogonal position with the light source. There are many tracking
system designs available including passive and active systems with one or two axes of
freedom.
The goal of our project was to design an active, dual axis, solar tracker that will have a
minimum allowable error of 10 and also be economically feasible to market towards
underprivileged countries. We started by examining the prior work done in solar tracking
methods to determine our course of action. From there we designed and tested several
mechanical and electrical options and chose the ones with the most desirable characteristics.
Finally, we built our final tracking system, tested and compared it to ensure that we met our
original goal.
As we all know there is either scarcity of conventional energy or there may no supply and
it may be costly at some times and huge challenge of pollution, whatsoever, were are in
urgent need of an alternative to the conventional energy source which are discussed
below[2].

2.2

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

The production of electricity and per capita consumption is the indication of the

standard of living of people in a nation. Energy is a key input in the economic growth.
The growth of a nation largely depends on the availability of the energy. The energy
consumption in the world has been increasing at an alarming rate for the past few decades.
The conventional energy resources such as coal, wood, diesel, petrol, natural gas etc., are
depleting. It has been estimated that the conventional fuels may last for 5 6 decades
only. To meet the major part of energy demand in future, every nation is making efforts to
find NCES such as solar, wind, tidal & geothermal.
Energy is defined as the capacity of a substance or a body to do work. Similarly,
energy resources are the main sources of energy from which the energy can be extracted and
utilized for mankind.[2]
Page 15

Energy and Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the branch of energy which deals with conservation of heat into work or
vice versa.

Energy Parameters
The energy parameters are measured using the yardstick of gross domestic product (GDP).

Energy Intensity: It is defined as the ratio of energy consumption & GDP.

Energy Intensity = Energy Consumption / GDP

Energy elasticity: It is defined as the growth in energy requirement per GDP

Energy Elasticity = Growth in Energy requirement / GDP

GDP (Gross Domestic Product): It is the value of all finished goods & services
produced in a given period

Energy Audit
Energy audit is an official survey/study of energy consumption/ processing/ supplying
aspects related with an organization, system, process, plant, equipment.

The objectives of the energy audit are to recommend steps to be taken by the
management for:

Improving the energy efficiencies.

Reducing the energy costs, and
Improving the productivity without sacrificing quality, standard of living/ comforts
and environmental balance.

The energy audit is officially recommended by the management and is carried out by the
energy audit group headed by the energy auditor.

Page 16

Energy Audit is usually carried out in following three stages within certain
agreed time frame:

Simple walk Through energy audit.

Intermediate energy audit.
Comprehensive / Exhaustive energy audit.

The procedure of energy auditing is dictated by the size, complexity and recurring energy
costs of the plant.
For energy intensive processes/ plants, thorough comprehensive energy audit and high
investments in energy conservation measures are justified.[2]

Page 17

CHAPTER 3
PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR ENERGY
3.1 PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR RADIATION:
The sun is a hydrodynamic sphere of intensely hot ionized gaseous matter (Plasma)
continuously generating energy by thermonuclear fusion reaction. Most of the energy is
generated by the fusion or hydrogen to helium. This energy produced in the core is
transferred to the surface and subsequently radiated to space.

Fig3.1: Sun-Earth Geometry.

The solar constant Isc is the energy from the sun, per unit time, received on a unit
surface are, perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation and at the earths
mean distance from the sun, outside the earth atmosphere.
The constant has an universally accepted value of 1367 W/m2.
EXTRATERRESTRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL REGION SOLAR RADIATION:
Extraterrestrial solar radiation: it the measure of solar radiation that would be received in
the absence of atmosphere. The distance between the sun and earth varies due to elliptical
motion of the earth. Accordingly, the extraterrestrial flux also varies, which can be
calculated (on any day) by the equation

Page 18

Where n= is the day of the year, Isc = Solar Constant.

Terrestrial solar radiation: the radiation received on the earth surface is called terrestrial
radiation and is nearly 70% of the extraterrestrial radiation.

Fig3.2: Solar radiation atmospheric mechanisms.

Beam Radiation (Ib): Solar radiation received on the earths surface without change in
direction.
Diffuse Radiation (Id): The radiation received on a terrestrial surface (Scattered) from all
parts of the sky dome.
Total Radiation (IT): The sum of beam and diffuse radiations (Ib+Id) is referred to as total
radiation. When measured at a location on the earths surface, it is called solar insulation at
the place. When measured on a horizontal surface, it is called global radiation (Ig)
Irradiance (W/m2): The rate of incident energy per unit area of a surface is termed
irradiance.

Page 19

Albedo: The earth reflects back nearly 30% of the total solar radiation energy to the space
by reflection from clouds, by scattering and by reflection at the earths surface. This is
called the albedo of the earths atmosphere system.

SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY:

Fig3.3 : Latitude
Latitude ( ): The latitude

, hour angle and suns declination .

of a place is the angle subtended by the radial line

joining the place to the centre of the earth, with the projection of the line on the equatorial
plane. Conventionally, the latitude for northern hemisphere is measured positive.
Declination (): Declination is the angle subtended by the line joining the centers of the
earth and the sun with its projection on the earths equatorial plane. Declination occurs as
the axis the earth is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle 66 o, as shown below.

Page 20

Fig3.4: Tropics and Northern Hemisphere.

The declination angle changes from a maximum value of +23.45 O on June 21 to a maximum
of -23.45O on DMEmber 22. The declination is zero on two equinox days, i.e. March 22 and
September 22.

Where n= the total number of days counted from January till date of calculation.

Fig3.5: Variation of declination angle.

Hour angle (): Hour angle is the angle through which the earth must rotate to bring the
meridian of the point directly under the sun. it is the angular measure of time at the rate of
15O per hour. Hour angle is measured from noon, based on local apparent time being
positive in the afternoon and negative in the forenoon.

Page 21

Fig3.6: Suns zenith, altitude and azimuth angles (northern hemisphere).

Altitude angle (): It is a vertical angle between the direction of the suns rays and its
projection on the horizontal plane.
Zenith angle (z): It is the vertical angle between the suns rays and the line perpendicular
to the horizontal plane through the point. It is complimentary angle of the suns altitude
angle.
z + = /2
Surface azimuth angle (): It is an angle subtended in the horizontal plane of the normal to
the surface on the horizontal plane. By convention, the angle is taken positive if the normal
is west of south and negative when east of south in northern hemisphere, and vice versa for
southern hemisphere.
Slope (): It is an angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal surface. The angle is
taken as positive for a surface sloping towards south, and negative for a surface sloping
towards north.
SUNRISE, SUNSET AND DAY LENGTH:
The times of sunrise and sunset and the duration of the day length depend upon the
latitude of the location and the month in the year. At sunrise and sunset, the sunlight is
parallel to the ground surface with a zenith angle 90 0. The hour angle pertaining to sunrise
or sunset (s) is
Cos s = - tan tan
s = Cos-1( - tan tan )
Page 22

The value of hour angle corresponding to sunrise is positive, and negative

corresponding to sunset. The total angles between sunrise and sunset is given by
2s = 2Cos-1(- tan tan )
Since 150 of hour angle corresponds to one hour, the corresponding day length
(Td) in hour is given by
Td = 2/15 Cos-1(- tan tan )
LOCAL APPARENT TIME (LAT):
LAT = Standard time 4 (Standard time longitude longitude of location) + (Time
correction)
The positive sign in the first correction is for the western hemisphere while negative sign is
applicable for the eastern hemisphere. In India we use negative sign.

COMPUTATION OF COS FOR ANY LOCATION HAVING ANY ORIENTATION:

Fig3.7: drawing shoeing angle incidence, zenith angle, solar altitude angle, slope and
surface azimuth angle for a tilted surface.
The basic angle for a location P on a tilted surface are shown in above figure.
To compute the beam energy falling on a surface having any orientation, the incident beam
flux Ib is multiplied by Cos , where is the angle between the incident beam and the
normal to the tilted surface as shown n above figure. The angle is depends on the position
of the sun in the sky.
A general equation showing the relation of angle is
Cos = Sin (Sin Cos + Cos Cos Cos Sin ) + Cos (Cos Cos Cos Sin Cos Sin ) + Cos Sin Sin Sin
Use of eq.1 can be demonstrated as:
Page 23

- eqn.1

(i)

For a vertical surface, = 900, therefore

Cos = Sin Cos Cos Cos - Cos Sin Cos + Cos Sin Sin
- eqn.2

(ii)

For a horizontal surface, = 00, therefore

Cos = Sin Sin + Cos Cos Cos

In this case, the angle is the zenith angle z
(iii)

-eqn.3

In northern hemisphere the sun during winter is towards south. For a surface
facing due south, = 00, therefore

Cos = Sin (Sin Cos + Cos Cos Sin ) + Cos (Cos Cos Cos - Sin
Sin )
= sin sin( ) + cos cos cos( )
(iv)

For a vertical surface facing due south, = 900, = 00, therefore

Cos

3.1.1

- eqn.4

= sin cos cos - cos sin

- eqn.5

EMPIRICAL EQUATION FOR ESTIMATING THE AVAILABILITY OF

SOLAR RADIATION:

The measurement of solar radiation at every location is not feasible, so engineers have
developed empirical equations by utilizing the meteorological data like the number of
sunshine hours, the days length and the number of clear days. For accurate calculations,
the hourly, the daily and the monthly time scales are used. Angstrom (1924) suggested a
linear equation as follows for determining the amount of sunshine at a given location.
Hg
DL
=a+b
Hc
D max

( )

eqn.6

Where
Hg = Monthly average of daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at a given location,
in MJ/m2/day
Hc = Monthly average of daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at the same location
on a clear sky day, in MJ/m2/day
DL = Monthly average measured solar day length, in hours
Dmax = Monthly average of the longest day length, in hours
Page 24

a, b = Constants for the location.

It is difficult to define a clear sky day, so it was proposed that H c in eq. 6 should be
replaced by Ho is the monthly average of daily extra terrestrial radiation that would fall on a
horizontal surface at the given location.
Hg
Ho

= a+b

DL
D max

( )

- eqn.7

The value of Ho can be obtained by the following empirical equation

H o=

24
360 n
I sc 1+0.033 cos

365

- eqn.8

Where Isc = Solar constant per hour = 1367 W/m2 in SI Units, s = sunset hour angle, n =
day of the year.
MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION:
Hd
=1.3904.027 K T +5.531 K 2T 3.108 K 3T - eqn.9
Hg
Hd = Monthly average for daily diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface, in KJ/m2/day
KT =

Hg
= monthly average clearness index.
Ho

It was indicated by kreith that eq.9 was obtained with a value of 1394 W/m2 for the solar
constant.
When the Indian data was analyzed, two linear equations were finalized.
Hd
=1.4111.696 K T Hg

-eqn.10

Hd
=1.3541.570 K T Hg

-eqn.11

Page 25

The above equations provide similar results, and are valid for
0.3<

Hd
<0.7
Hg

( )

Solar radiation on an inclined surface:

BEAM RADIATION:
Rb=

cos
cos z

sin sin ( ) +cos cos cos ( )

- eqn.12
sin sin + cos cos cos

DIFFUSE RADIATION:
Rd =

1+ cos
2

-eqn.13

REFLECTED RADIATION:

1cos

Rr =

-eqn.14

TOTAL RADIATION:
The total radiation flux falling on an inclined surface at any instant is expressed as:
I T =I b R b + I d R d +(I b + I d ) R r -

3.1.2

-eqn.15

SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENTS:

Pyranometer:
The Pyranometer measures global or diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface. It
covers total hemispherical solar radiation with a view angle of 2 steradian.
It was designed by the Eppley laboratories, USA, operates on a principle of thermopile. It
consists of black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature
rises until the rate of heat gain from solar radiation equals the heat loss by conduction,
convection and radiation. An electric output voltage (0 to 10mV range) generated by the

Page 26

temperature difference between the black and the white surfaces indicates the intensity of
solar radiation.
Pyrheliometer:
A pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures beam radiation on a surface
normal to the suns rays. The sensor is a thermopile and its disc is located at the base of a
tube whose axis is aligned in the direction of the suns rays.
Sunshine Recorder:
The duration in hours of bright sunshine in a day is measured by a sunshine recorder.
It consists of a glass sphere installed in a section of spherical metal bowl, having grooves
for holding a recorder card strip.
SOLAR RADIATION DATA FOR INDIA:
India lies within the latitudes of 70 N and 370N, with annual intensity of solar
radiation between 400 and 700 cal/cm 2/day. Most parts of india rMEive 4 7 kWh/m 2/day
of solar radiation with 250 300 sunny days in a year. The annual average daily global solar
radiation in India (in kWh/m2/day) is shown in fig. below.
The highest annual radiation energy is receivedin the western Rajasthan while the northeastern region receives the lowest annual radiation.

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A LIQUID FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR:

The performance of a solar collector can be improved by enhancing the useful
energy gain from incident solar radiation with minimum losses. Thermal losses have three
components, namely conductive loss, convective loss and radiative loss.
Conductive loss is reduced by providing insulation on the rear and sides of the absorber
plate. Convective loss is minimized by keeping the air gap of about 2cm between the cover
and the plate. Radiative losses from the absorber plate are lowered by applying a spectrally
selective absorber coating.
The energy balance of the absorber can thus be represented by a mathematical equation
Page 27

Qu= A p SQL

-eqn16

Where
Qu=Useful h eat delivered by t h e collector ( watts )
S = Solar heat energy absorbed by the absorber plate (W/m2)
A p= Area of t h e absorber plate ( m2 )
QL =Rate of h eat loss by convectionreradiation t h e top, by conduction
convection t h e bottomsides(Watts)
From eq.14, the flux absorbed is obtained if the eq is multiplied by the transmissivity
absorptivity product ( , therefore
S=I b R b ( )b + [ I d Rd + ( I b+ I d ) R r ] ()d -

-eqn.17

Where

( )b is the transmissivity absorptivity product for the beam radiation falling on the
collector and

( ) d is the transmissivity absorptivity product for diffuse radiation impinging the

collector
It is emissary to define two terms instantaneous collector efficiency and stagnation
temperature which are required to indicate the performance of the collector. The
instantaneous collector efficiency is defined as the ratio of useful heat gain to radiation
falling on the collector. It is expressed by
i =

Qu
- Eq.17
A p IT

Depending on the given data, the collector aperture area Aa or the collector gross area Ac is
used in place of Ap.
In case the flow of liquid through the collector is stopped, the useful heat gain and the
efficiency become zero. At this stage the absorber attains a temperature so that ApS = QL.
This is the maximum temperature that the absorber plate can attain and is called as
stagnation temperature. Accordingly Qu useful heat gain in one hour becomes KJ/h and IT
the energy falling on the collector face in one hour becomes KJ/m2h

Page 28

3.2 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

Photovoltaic power generation is a method of producing electricity using solar cells.
A solar cell converts solar optical energy directly into electrical energy. A solar cell is
essentially a semiconductor device fabricated in a manner which generates a voltage when
solar radistion falls on it.
In semiconductors, atoms carry four electron in the outer valence shell, some of which
can be dislodged to move freely in the materials if extra energy is supplied. Then, a
semiconductor attains the property to conduct the current. This is the basic principle on
which the solar cell works and generates power.
3.2.1

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND DOPING

A few semiconductor materials such as silicon (Si), cadmium sulphide (CdS) and
gallium arsenide (GaAs) can be used to fabricate solar cells. Semiconductors are divided
into two categories (i) Intrinsic pure and (ii) extrinsic. The process of adding impurity atoms
is called Doping.
3.2.2

PHOTON ENERGY

Sunlight is composed of tiny energy capsules called photons. The number of photons
present in solar radiation depends upon the intensity of solar radiation and their energy
content on the wavelength band. The solar spectrum constitutes three main regions.
1. Ultraviolet region ( < 0.4m); 9% irradiance
2. Visible region (0.4 m < < 0.7m); 45% irradiance
3. Infrared region ( > 0.7 m); 46% irradiance
p-n JUNCTION
A semiconductor when doped by a donor impurity increases electrons in the conduction
band and become n-type material. When a semiconductor is doped by an acceptor impurity,
Page 29

Figure 1

it becomes the p-type material with excess holes. When these n-type and p-type materials
are joined, a junction is formed as detailed in fig. The number of electrons in the n-type
material is large; so when an n-type material is brought into contact with p-type material,
electrons on the n-side flow into holes of the p-material. Thus in the vicinity of the junction,
the n-material becomes positively charged and the p-material negatively charges. The
process of diffusion of carriers continues till the junction potential reaches an equilibrium
value at the time of equal flow of electrons and holes from both directions as shown in fig.
This is known as the unbiased condition of the p-n junction. In this condition, v is the
contact potential (i.e., not an externally imposed potential) developed between the p-n
junctions. The contact potential so developed is a property of the junction itself.

Fig: 3.8 (a) p-n junction, (b) p-n junction with applied voltage Vf in forward bias, and
(c) p-n junction with reverse bias.
When there is no illumination (dark) the flow of the junction current Ij with imposed voltage
V in a p-n junction is expressed by
I j=I 0 [exp

( eVkT )1]
Page 30

PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
When a solar cell (p-n junction ) is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated and the
electric current obtained is the difference between the solar light generated current I L and
the diode dark current Ij, i.e.
I = I L Ij
I = IL I0[exp (eV/kT) 1]
This phenomenon is known as the photovoltaic effect.

Page 31

HOW PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS WORK:

A typical silicon PV cell is composed of thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin layer
of phosphorus-doped (n-type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron-doped (p-type)
silicon. An electrical field is created neat the top surface of the cell where these two
materials are contact, called the p-n junction as shown in fig.

Fig 3.9: diagram of a photovoltaic cell.

When sunlight strikes the surface of a PV cell, this electrical field provides momentum and
direction to light-stimulated electrons, resulting in a flow of current when the solar cell is
connected to an electrical load. Regardless of size, a typical silicon PV cell produces about
0.5 0.6 volt DC under open-circuit with no-load conditions. The current output of a PV
cell depends on its efficiency and size, and is proportional to the intensity of sunlight
striking the surface of the cell.

Page 32

3.2.3

EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELLS

Electrical characteristics of a solar cell are expressed by the current-voltage cures

plotted under a given illumination and temperature conditions as shown in fig.

Fig3.10: current (I) voltage (V) characteristic of solar cell

The significant points of the curve are short-circuit current I sc and open circuit voltage Voc.
Maximum useful power of the cell is represented by the rectangle with the largest area.
When the cell yields maximum power, the current and voltage are represented by the
symbols Im and vm respectively. Leakages across the cell increases with temperatures which
reduces voltage and maximum power. Cell quality is maximum when the value of fill factor
approaches unity where the fill factor (FF) is expressed as
FF=

I mV m
I sc V oc

Maximum efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of maximum electric power
output to the incident solar radiations. So,
max =

Im V m
Is Ac

Where Is = incident solar flux, Ac = cells area

Page 33

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS FOR SOLAR CELL:

Solar cells are fabricated from semiconductor materials prepared in three physical
states single multicrystal, many small crystals (polycrystalline) and amorphous
(noncrystallin).
Single Crystal Silicon (SCS):
Silicon solar cells are commonly used for both terrestrial and space applications. The
basic raw material is sand (SiO2) from which (Si) is extracted and purified repeatedly to
obtain the metallurgical grade silicon. A single crystal ingot is about 6cm to 15cm in
diameter. Crystalline cells basically require 300m to 400m of absorber material; the ingot
is sliced in wafer of 300m thickness as shown in fig. 3.11

Fig3.11: cross section of a silicon cell.

Solar cells are fixed on a board and connected in series and parallel combinations to provide
the required voltage and power to form a PV module.
To protect the cells from the damage a module is hermetically sealed between a plate of
toughened glass and layers of ethyl vinyl acetate. Single PV modules of capacities ranging
from 10Wp to 120Wp can provide for different loads. The size of individual cell varies
from 10cm2 to 100cm2 and a module contains about 20 cells to 40 cells. A standard module
constituting 30 cells, each of 7.5 cm in diameter can provide electrical parameters of 12
volts, 1.2 ampere and 18 watt peak power.

Page 34

Polycrystalline Silicon Cells (PSC):

The production cost of SCS is higher than PSC. It is obtained in thin ribbons drawn
from molten silicon bath and cooled very slowly to obtain large size crystallites. Cells are
made with care so that the grain boundaries cause no major interference with the flow of
electrons and grains are larger in size than the thickness of the cell as shown in fig.3.12

Fig 3.12: cross section of a polycrystalline silicon cell.

This are fabricated in three designs, (i) p n junction cells, (ii) metal insulator
semiconductor cells, and (iii) conducting oxide insulator semiconductor cells. A nicely
developed cell with chromium metal base with SiO2 insulation over it, the p type
crystalline silicon can give efficiency up to 12% at AM-1 conduction with cell dimension of
0.2 cm2.
Amorphous Silicon Cells (ASC):
Amorphous silicon is pure silicon with no crystal properties. It is highly light
absorbent and requires only 1m to 2m of material to absorb photons of the incident light.
Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si: H) is a suitable material for thin film solar cells,
mainly due to its high photo conductivity, high optical absorption of visible light with
optical band gap of 1.55eV. thin film of nearly 0.7m can produce solar cells comparatively
at low cost. This can be fabricated in four structures: (i) metal, insulator semiconductor
(MIS), (ii) p I n devices, (iii) hetrojunction, and (iv) schottky barriers. Theoretical
efficiency obtained is up to 24%.
Page 35

TYPES OF PV SYSTEMS:
Grid-connected photovoltaic system:
Grid connected PV systems are design to operate parallel with electric utility grid. It
is also called as grid commutated inverter which transforms the DC power from PV arrays
into AC power at a voltage that is accepted by the grid. The bidirectional interface is made
b/w PV system AC o/p circuit and electric utility net work at on site of distributed panel as
shown in fig. This allows the PV system to supply either electrical load or feed back to PV
system when PV system o/p is greater than on site load demand.
Stand-Alone photovoltaic system:
These systems are designed to operate independent of the electric utility grid and are
design to supply DC and /or AC electrical loads. The simplest stand-alone PV system is
direct coupled to system where the DC o/p is directly connected DC load as shown in fig.
Since there is no batteries in direct couple systems the load only operate during sunlight
hours making this design used for applications like ventilation fans, water pumps, and small
circulating solar thermal water heaters.

PV ARRAY

CHARGE
CONTROLL
-ER

BATTERY

DC LOAD

INVERTER

AC LOAD

Fig3.13: stand-alone PV system.

Page 36

V-I characteristic of PV module:

The V-I characteristic of PV module is non linear graph b/w current and voltage
generated by PV module as shown in fig for different temperatures. Maximum power point
have also shown to represent the point at which max power can be drawn from PV module.
This MPP constitute the Max power line, which represented the track path of max power
point tracker.

Fig 3.14: V-I characteristic of PV module

P-V characteristic of PV module:P-V characteristic curve of a PV module is also a non
linear curve plotted b/w power and voltage of PV module for different densities in W/m 2.
The MPP is shown in graph.

Page 37

Fig 3.15: P-V characteristic PV module.

A fundamental understanding of how a photovoltaic panel works is essential in

producing a highly efficient solar system. Solar panels are formed out of solar cells that
are connected in parallel or series. When connected in series, there is an increase in the
overall voltage, connected in parallel increases the overall current. Each individual solar
cell is typically made out of crystalline silicon, although other types such as ribbon and
thin-film silicone are gaining popularity.
PV cells consist of layered silicon that is doped with different elements to form a p-n
junction. The p-type side will contain extra holes or positive charges. The n-type side will
contain extra electrons or negative charges. This difference of charge forms a region that
is charge neutral and acts as a sort of barrier. When the p-n junction is exposed to light,
photons with the correct frequency will form an extra electron/hole pair. However, since
the p-n junction creates a potential difference, the electrons cant jump to the other side
only the holes can. Thus, the electrons must exit through the metal connector and flow
through the load, to the connector on the other side of the junction.
Because the PV cells generate a current, cells/panels can be modeled as DC current
sources. The amount of current a PV panel produces has a direct correlation with the
intensity of light the panel is absorbing. Below is a simple drawing of the system:

Page 38

Figure 3.16: Angle of Incidence to Solar Cell (Adrian, 2010)

The normal to the cell is perpendicular to the cells exposed face. The sunlight comes
in and strikes the panel at an angle. The angle of the sunlight to the normal is the angle of
incidence (). Assuming the sunlight is staying at a constant intensity () the available
sunlight to the solar cell for power generation (W) can be calculated as:
W = A cos()
Here, A represents some limiting conversion factor in the design of the panel because
they cannot convert 100% of the sunlight absorbed into electrical energy. By this
calculation, the maximum power generated will be when the sunlight is hitting the PV
cell along its normal and no power will be generated when the sunlight is perpendicular
to the normal. With a fixed solar panel, there is significant power lost during the day
because the panel is not kept perpendicular to the suns rays. A tracking system can keep
the angle of incidence within a certain margin and would be able to maximize the power
generated. Mousazadeh et al. calculated the amount of power gained by tracking can
come close to an ideal 57% difference

Page 39

CHAPTER 4
COMPONENTS, SPECIFICATION & DESCRIPTION
4.1 COMPONENTS
4.1.1 Solar charge controller
Solar charge controller can be used as either a stand-alone device or a control circuitry
integrated within a battery pack, a battery-powered solar device or a battery recharger. Itr is
basically built for offgrid solar power systems and bifurcates into two varietiesA solar charge controller ios a device needed for monitoring and controlling the
charging of battery bank connected to the p-v modules. Main function of solar charge
controller is to limit the rate at which electric current is added to or drawn from batteries. It
prevents overcharging and protects battery from voltage fluctuation, which can reduce
battery performance or lifespan, and may pose a safety risk.

Page 40

A charge controller may be used to power DC equipment with solar panels. The
charge controller provides a regulated DC output and stores excess energy in a battery as
well as monitoring the battery voltage to prevent under/over charging. More expensive units
will also perform maximum power point tracking. An inverter can be connected to the
output of a charge controller to drive AC loads.

Fig: 4.1Solar Charge Controller

Fig: 4.2Solar Charge Controller Kit

PMW CHARGING
Trading solar regulators featuring PMW (PULSE WIDTH MODULATION)
charging operate by making a connection directly from the solar array to the battery bank.
During bulk charging when there is a continuous connection from the array to the battery
bank, the array output voltage is pulled down to the battery voltage. The battery voltage
adjusts slightly up depending on the amount of current provided by the array and the size
and characteristics of the battery.

Page 41

PMW RANGE-5Amps/12V
Solar Charger Controller is a system with advanced MOSFET based PMW
Technology. The term charger controller refers to a device that charge the battery from
solar panel.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The Controller is for off-grid solar systems. This protects the battery from getting
over charged using the solar module and over discharged by the load. The charging process
has been optimized for long battery life and improved system performance.
The comprehensive self-diagnostics and electronic protection functions prevent damage
from installation mistakes or system faults

For Street Light Application

For Household Application

Customization for -Household Application

Fig: 4.3 Installation Diagram of Solar charge Controller

PMW RANGE
Operations/Options

Maximum Charging Current:10-45A

Page 42

Single and Dual solar Array

Start time: 25 Sec -+5 Sec

Maximum PV I/P voltage : 25V per 36 Cell Solar Module

Adjustable Bulk Voltage

Equilization through Auto/Manual Mode

Applications

Standalone DC system

Home lighting System

Street Light System

Stand Alone Solar System

4.1.2 BATTERY:An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with

external connections provided to power electrical devices. A battery has a positive terminal,
or cathode, and a negative terminal, or anode. The terminal marked positive is at a higher
electrical potential energy than is the terminal marked negative. The terminal marked
negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and
Page 43

deliver energy to an external device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit,

electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical reactions to be
completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the external circuit. It is the
movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to
perform work. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of
multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to additionally include devices composed of a
single cell.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the
electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the
alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary
(rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original
composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the leadacid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for
telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48
billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATIONS
Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of
some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and
the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the
other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode to which cations (positively
charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are
added) at the cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at
the anode during charging. During discharge, the process is reversed. The electrodes do not
touch each other, but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use different
Page 44

electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells, but
prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the
difference between the emfs of its half-cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs
then the net emf is

and

; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the

reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or

across the terminals of a cell is known as the

terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is
neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the
cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is
smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is
charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage.
An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant
terminal voltage of

until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5

volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5
joules of work.[16] In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge and the
open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted
against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies
according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the
chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have
different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and
NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The
high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium
cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Page 45

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such
as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in producing
mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.
Categories and types of batteries
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a D Cell, a C cell, an AA cell, an
AAA cell, an AAAA cell, an A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3 battery, and a pair of button cells
(CR2032 and LR44)
Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When

the supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery.
[21]

Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, approximately restoring their
original composition.

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored
to operation by replacing the electrodes. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely
rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal
corrosion.
Primary batteries
Main article: Primary cell
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly.
These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used
only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in
alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently
available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical
reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original
forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells.
Page 46

In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but
disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75
ohms (75 ).
Common types of disposable batteries include zinccarbon batteries and alkaline batteries.
Secondary batteries
Main article: Rechargeable battery
Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must
be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the
discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which
reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the
appropriate current are called chargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the leadacid battery. This technology
contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept
upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it
produces during overcharging. The leadacid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of
electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels
make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than
weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in
general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.
The sealed valve regulated leadacid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the
automotive industry as a replacement for the leadacid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an
immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf
life.[26] VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass
matting.
Page 47

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are
useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in
order of increasing power density and cost) include nickelcadmium (NiCd), nickelzinc
(NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the
highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way
radios, and medical equipment.
Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL,
which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,[27] nanoball batteries that
allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs
with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on overdischarge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.

Battery lifetime
Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable
batteries but only one for non-chargeable. For rechargeable, it can mean 1) the length of
time a device can run on a fully charged battery or 2) the number of charge/discharge cycles
possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these two lives
are equal since the cells last for only one cycle by definition. (The term shelf life is used to
describe how long a battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use.)
Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to
most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very long service life
without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range.
Page 48

The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original
pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles.
4.1.3 MOTOR:An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The reverse of this would be the conversion of mechanical energy into
electrical energy and is done by an electric generator.
In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an
electric motor's magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor. In
certain applications, such as in the transportation industry with traction motors, electric
motors can operate in both motoring and generating or braking modes to also produce
electrical energy from mechanical energy.
Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools,
household appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered by
direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by
alternating current (AC) sources, such as from the power grid, inverters or generators. Small
motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized
dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use. The
largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumpedstorage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified
by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, and
so on.
Electric motors are used to produce linear or rotary force (torque), and should be
distinguished from devices such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers that convert
electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical powers, which are
respectively referred to as actuators and transducers.
4.1.4 Shaft
A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which is used
to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which produces power to a
machine which absorbs power. The various members such as pulleys and gears are mounted
on it.
Page 49

Types
They are mainly classified into two types.

Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the machine

absorbing power; e.g. counter shafts and line shafts.

Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.g. crankshaft.

Materials
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required, an alloy
steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steel is used.
Shafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold drawing or turning
and grinding.
Machine shafts

Up to 25 mm steps of 0.5 mm

25 to 50 mm steps of 1 mm

50 to 100 mm steps of 2 mm

100 to 200 mm steps of 5 mm

Transmission shafts

25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm steps

60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps

110 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm steps

140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps

The standard lengths of the shafts are 5 m, 6 m and 7 m.

Stresses
The following stresses are induced in the shafts.
Page 50

1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (due to torsional load).

2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon the machine
elements like gears and pulleys as well as the self weight of the shaft.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.
Design stresses
The maximum permissible (design) stresses in bending (tension or compression) may be
taken as:
1. 112 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.
2. 84 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.
The maximum permissible (design) shear stresses may be taken as:
1. 56 N/mm2 for shafts with allowance for keyways.
2. 42 N/mm2 for shafts without allowance for keyways.

4.1.5 Pulley
This article is about the mechanical concept/device. For other uses, see Pulley
(disambiguation).

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Fig: 4.4 Nylon Pulley

A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of
direction of a taut cable or belt along its circumference. Pulleys are used in a variety of
ways to lift loads, apply forces, and to transmit power. In nautical contexts, the assembly of
wheel, axle, and supporting shell is referred to as a "block."
A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have a groove between two flanges
around its circumference. The drive element of a pulley system can be a rope, cable, belt, or
chain that runs over the pulley inside the grooves.
Hero of Alexandria identified the pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift weights.[2]
Pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to provide mechanical advantage
to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to
transmit power from one rotating shaft to another.[3][4]

Block and tackle

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Gun
Luff
Double
Gyn
Three Fold
Tackle Tackle Tackle Tackle Purchases
Fig 4.5 Various ways of rigging a tackle.
A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the same axle form a block.
Two blocks with a rope attached to one of the blocks and threaded through the two sets of
pulleys form a block and tackle.
A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point and the
other is attached to the moving load. The ideal mechanical advantage of the block and
tackle is equal to the number of parts of the rope that support the moving block.

Fig 4.6 Rope and Pulley Systems

How it works
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The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are
weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to friction. It is also assumed that the lines
do not stretch.
In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in
the rope must be the same for each of its parts. This means that the two parts of the rope
supporting the moving block must each support half the load.

Fig 4.7 Pulley Work System

Diagram 1: The load F on the moving pulley is balanced by the tension in two parts
of the rope supporting the pulley.

Fig 4.8 Movable Pulley

Diagram 2: A movable pulley lifting the load W is supported by two rope parts with
tension W/2.

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4.1.6 Rope
Wire rope is a type of cable which consists of several strands of metal wire laid
(twisted) into a helix. The term cable is often used interchangeably with wire rope.
However, in general, "wire rope" refers to diameter larger than 3/8 inch (9.52 mm). Sizes
smaller than this are designated cable or cords. Initially wrought iron wires were used, but
today steel is the main material used for wire ropes.
Historically wire rope evolved from wrought iron chains, which had a record of
mechanical failure. While flaws in chain links or solid steel bars can lead to catastrophic
failure, flaws in the wires making up a steel cable are less critical as the other wires easily
take up the load. Friction between the individual wires and strands, as a consequence of
their twist, further compensates for any flaws.
Wire ropes were developed starting with mining hoist applications in the 1830s.
Wire ropes are used dynamically for lifting and hoisting in cranes and elevators, and for
transmission of mechanical power. Wire rope is also used to transmit force in mechanisms,
such as a Bowden cable or the control surfaces of an airplane connected to levers and pedals
in the cockpit. Static wire ropes are used to support structures such as suspension bridges or
as guy wires to support towers. An aerial tramway relies on wire rope to support and move
cargo overhead.
Wires
Steel wires for wire ropes are normally made of non-alloy carbon steel with a carbon
content of 0.4 to 0.95%. The very high strength of the rope wires enables wire ropes to
support large tensile forces and to run over sheaves with relatively small diameters.

Fig 4.9 Rope Hook

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Fig 4.10 Steel Rope

Rope drive
There are technical regulations for the rope drives of cranes, elevators, rope ways and
mining installations not exceeding a given tensile force and not falling short of a given
diameter ratio D/d of sheave and rope diameters. A general dimensioning method of rope
drives (and used besides the technical regulations) calculate the five limits [12]

Working cycles up to rope discarding or breakage (mean or 10% limit) Requirement of the user

Donandt force (yielding tensile force for a given bending diameter ratio D/d) - strict
limit. The nominal rope tensile force S must be smaller than the Donandt force SD1.

Rope safety factor = minimum breaking force Fmin / nominal rope tensile force S.
(ability to resist extreme impact forces) - Fmin/S 2,5 for simple lifting appliance

Discarding number of wire breaks (detection to need rope replacement) Minimum

number of wire breaks on a reference rope length of 30d should be BA30 8 for
lifting appliance

Page 56

Optimal rope diameter with the max. rope endurance for a given sheave diameter D
and tensile rope force S - For economic reasons the rope diameter should be near to
but smaller than the optimal rope diameter d dopt.

The calculation of the rope drive limits depends on:

Data of the used wire rope

Rope tensile force S

Diameter D of sheave and/or drum

Simple bendings per working cycle w-sim

Reverse bendings per working cycle w-rev

Combined fluctuating tension and bending per working cycle w-com

Relative fluctuating tensile force deltaS/S

Rope bending length

Safety
The wire ropes are stressed by fluctuating forces, by wear, by corrosion and in seldom cases
by extreme forces. The rope life is finite and the safety is only given by inspection for the
detection of wire breaks on a reference rope length, of cross-section loss as well as other
failures so that the wire rope can be replaced before a dangerous situation occurs.
Installations should be designed to facilitate the inspection of the wire ropes.
Lifting installations for passenger transportation require that a combination of several
methods should be used to prevent a car from plunging downwards. Elevators must have
redundant bearing ropes and a safety gear. Ropeways and mine hoistings must be
Page 57

permanently supervised by a responsible manager and the rope has to be inspected by a

magnetic method capable of detecting inner wire breaks.

4.2 SPECIFICATIONS

4.2.1 SOLAR PANEL SPECIFICATION

I.

Outline View:
Outline Dimensions

5600.2mm

6650.2mm

3.20.3mm

WEIGHT

4.5 kg
Table 4.1

II.

Technical characteristics
Description of Goods
Type

Poly crystalline

No. of Cells

60

Watts

40

Voltage

12DC

Material

Silicion
Table 4.2

III.

Technical Spec.

Notes
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This couldnt be contacted directly with strong corrosive substances.

To be avoid to scratch the surface.
This couldnt be born bending force during transportation & assembling.

4.2.2 BATTERY:(SEALED MF RECHARGABLE BATTERY)

TYPE

VOLTAGE

INITIAL CURRENT

REGULATION
STAND BY USE

13.5-13.8V

NO LIMIT

CYCLIC USE

14.4-15.0V

5.1 A Max.

Table 4.3

4.2.3 MOTOR:VOLTAGE

12V DC

POWER

24 WATTS

CURRENT

2 AMPS

SPEED

40 RPM

HORSE POWER

0.03 HP
Table 4.4

4.2.4 SHAFT:MATERIAL

SAE 1045 HOT ROLLED STEEL

LENGHT

10.5CM

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DIAMETER

0.5CM

TENSILE STRENGTH

570-700MPA
Table 4.5

4.2.5 PULLEY:OUTER DIA

42MM

MATERIAL

NYLON
Table 4.6

4.2.6ROPE:LENGTH

90CM

DIAMETER

0.85-0.90CM

MATERIAL

STEEL
Table 4.7

Page 60

4.3 DESCRIPTION:4.3.1 CONSTRUCTION:1. Solar panel

2. Solar power controller
3. Battery
4. Motor
5. Pulley & Rope
6. Weight lifting box
The structure is made up of mild steel welded the steel rods to roll the rollers up and
down which is connected to the weight lifting box, Solar panel is mounted on the top of
the structure and below which solar power controller is fixed in order to control the
fluctuations of voltage to the battery. The Rechargeable Battery is placed below the
controller, the input of Battery is connected by solar power controller and the output of
the battery is connected to the motor. Motor is placed upon the weight lifting box, along
the axis to the pulley. Shaft is connected to transmit the power from motor to the pulley.
The rope is wounded round the nylon pulley and the other end is connected to the weight
lifting box. Weight lifting box is lifted with the help of rollers which runs on the steel rod.

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4.3.2 WORKING:The Solar Panel which is situated on the top of the structure and it is expose to the sun
light and after some time its generates the Power and this power is stored in the battery
which is controlled i.e., to control the fluctuations by solar power controller. As the power
generate in the solar panel is not constant it depends upon the intensity of sunlight. And to
regulate the power and to save the battery from getting damage due to fluctuations we use
solar power controller. And the output of the solar power controller is connected to the
input of the battery to stored the energy and the output of battery is connected to the
motor and the motor starts working when the switch is turned on and the switch is
bidirectional to rotate the motor bidirectionally. When the motor starts working the shaft
which is connected to it axially rotates the pulley, and in turn the pulley rotates the rope
which lifts the weight lifting box.

4.3.3 ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:1. It is economic to use solar energy to generate the power
2. Solar energy is freely available
3. This system helps in energy generation through Solar energy.
4. Conservation of Non Renewable energy sources.
DISADVANTAGES:1. Initial cost is high
2. Efficiency is comparatively low
3. For more power large number of panels are required
4. More suitable only in summer season
5. This system requires periodic monitoring.
6. This system fails to work if the load is heavy.
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4.3.4 APPLICATIONS:1. This system can be practically implemented in real time in Industrial applications,
Malls, Workshops, Coal Mines,.
2. Construction of Buildings, etc.,

4.3.6Result:
The project SOLARIZED ELEVATOR is made such that to deliver power to lift
the load using Solar panel. The system generates electrical power as non-conventional
method by Solar panel energy power using Solar panel.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION & FUTURE PROSPECTS

5.1 Conclusion:
Integrating features of all the hardware components have been used in it.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to
the best working of the unit. The project has been successfully implemented. Thus the
project has been successfully assembled and tested.

5.2 Future Scope:

Our project SOLARIZED ELEVATOR is mainly intended to made developing a
system which makes use of solar energy to lift the load. The entire system is used for lifting
the load. Solar energy is treated as non renewable source of energy.
The project makes use of a solar panel. The solar energy obtained is stored to a
battery. The battery supply is fed to motor through which the load is lift by the means of
pulley . We use bidirectional motor for up and down purpose.
The main drawback of this system is it can draw only limited energy this can be
eliminated by maximum power generation. The Solar panel energy power plant requires
Solar panel power continuously.

Page 64

CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES
References:[1]
[2]

NW wind and solar (a division of SME inc of Seattle, U.S.A)

Bailis, Robert. Wood in Household Energy Use. Encyclopedia ofEnergy.

[3]

2004. Pages 516, & 518.

www.wikipedia.com

[4]

Theory of Machines, A Text Book by R.S.Khurmi & J.K.Gupta

[5]

Electrical Engineering, A Text Book by V.K. Mehta & Rohit Mehta

Page 65