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BUILDING SCIENCES AND SERVICES

SOLID WASTE
Normally solid or semi-solid materials, resulting from human and animal
activities, that are useless, unwanted, or hazardous.

Garbage •decomposable wastes from food

•nondecomposable wastes, either combustible (such as paper, wood,


Rubbish and cloth) or noncombustible (such as metal, glass, and ceramics)

Ashes •residues of the combustion of solid fuels

Large wastes •demolition and construction debris and trees

•material retained on sewage-treatment screens, settled solids, and


Sewage treatment solids biomass sludge

Industrial wastes •such materials as chemicals, paints, and sand

Mining wastes •slag heaps and coal refuse piles

Agricultural wastes •farm animal manure and crop residues

Dead animals
SOLID WASTE GENERATION
Domestic, trade and Institutional Wastes
• Domestic waste - food and other discarded waste materials such as paper,
plastic, glass, metal, rags and packaging materials

Bio-medical Waste
• variety of infectious and toxic wastes generated by hospitals, nursing homes
and health care establishments
causes an adverse impact on human health if not disposed in a scientific
manner.
Industrial Waste
• Industries produce a lot of hazardous waste which is required to be
disposed of following standards laid down by the pollution control boards at
designated sites.
• But in practice, most industrial solid waste is being disposed of in an
unscientific manner surreptitiously on open plots or on the roadside or in
water bodies in urban areas, creating environmental pollution and sub-soil
contamination.
Construction and Demolition Waste
• This waste is generated mainly by repair, maintenance and reconstruction
activities
contains bricks, cement concretes, stones, tiles, wood etc.
MUNICIPAL or URBAN SOLID WASTE
Waste type that includes predominantly
Urban Waste household waste (domestic waste) with
sometimes the addition of commercial
wastes collected by a municipality within
a given area. They are in either solid or
Organic Inorganic semisolid form and generally exclude
industrial hazardous wastes.

Putrescible •tend to decompose rapidly and unless carefully controlled, decompose


with the production of objectionable odours and visual unpleasantness

Fermentable •tend to decompose rapidly, but without the unpleasant accompaniments of


putrefaction.

Non-
•tend to resist decomposition and, therefore, break down very slowly.
Fermentable
STREET WASTE
WASTES
GENERATED • generated by natural phenomena and are difficult to avoid
• include dusts blown from unpaved areas, and leaves and flowers
BY NATURAL that fall from trees and plants in the community
CAUSE

• Motor vehicles deposit dirt and mud, as well as oil and rubber
on the roads
WASTES • Particulate matter from diesel emissions also accumulates on
GENERATED streets, trees, and building surfaces, creating a public nuisance
BY TRAFFIC • traffic wastes are unavoidable; however, it is possible to control
them through public education and the promulgation of
appropriate rules and regulations

WASTES • There are two major sources of wastes generated by the public:
1) litter thrown onto the streets by pedestrians, 2)
GENERATED residential and commercial wastes swept or discarded from
BY THE PUBLIC private premises.
CATEGORIES OF MSW
• food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper (can also
Biodegradable waste be recycled).

• paper, glass, bottles, cans, metals, certain plastics,


Recyclable material etc.

Inert waste • construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris.

• waste clothing, Tetra Packs, waste plastics such as


Composite wastes toys.

Domestic hazardous
waste (or household • medication, e-waste, paints, chemicals, light bulbs,
fluorescent tubes, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide
hazardous waste) & toxic containers, batteries, shoe polish.
waste
MSW VARIATION WITH REGION
 The characteristics and quantity of the solid waste generated in a region
are not only a function of the living standard and lifestyle of the region's
inhabitants, but also of the abundance and type of the region's natural
resources.

 For example, a major source of putrescible waste is food preparation and


consumption. As such, its nature varies with lifestyle, standard of living,
and seasonality of foods. Fermentable wastes are typified by crop and
market debris and thus also vary from region to region.

Comparison of solid waste


characterisation worldwide
(% wet wt)
Solid waste management is the collection, transport,
processing, recycling or disposal, and monitoring of waste
materials. It usually relates to materials produced by human
activity, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on
health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is
also carried out to recover resources from it.

Efficient waste management involves:


•considering the amount of waste being disposed of
•considering the type of waste being disposed of
•customising a waste management solution taking both the
amount and type of waste being disposed of into consideration
IMPORTANCE OF
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
The organic fraction of MSW is an important component because it constitutes a
sizable fraction of the solid waste stream in a developing country and because of
its potentially adverse impact upon public health and environmental quality.
Due to the implementation of modern solid waste management practices, both
the public health and the quality of the environment are benefited directly and
substantially.

Environmental Impact
A major adverse impact is its attraction of rodents and vector insects for which
it provides food and shelter. Impact on environmental quality takes the form of
foul odours and unsightliness. These impacts are not confined merely to the
disposal site. On the contrary, they pervade the area surrounding the site and
wherever the wastes are generated, spread, or accumulated.
Health Impact
Studies have shown that a high percentage of workers who handle refuse, and of
individuals who live near or on disposal sites, are infected with gastrointestinal
parasites, worms, and related organisms. Contamination of this kind is likely
at all points where waste is handled.
HIERARCHY OF
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
BASED ON THE
Prevention • Prevent the production of waste, or reduce the amount generated.
CONCEPT OF

Minimization
• Reduce the toxicity or negative impacts of the waste that is
generated.

Reuse
• Reuse in their current forms the materials recovered
from the waste stream.

Recycling
• Recycle, compost, or recover materials for use as
direct or indirect inputs to new products.

Energy Recovery
• Recover energy by incineration, anaerobic
digestion, or similar processes.

Reduce
• Reduce the volume of waste prior to
disposal.

• Dispose of residual solid waste


Disposal in an environmentally sound
manner, generally in landfills.
REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE
Rising overall living standards and the advent of mass production have
reduced markets for many used materials and goods in the affluent
countries.
In many developing countries, waste reduction occurs naturally as matter
of normal practice because of the high value placed on material resources by
the people, as well as other factors. Consequently, reuse is prevalent.
The practice of recycling solid waste
is an ancient one.
Today, recyclable materials are
recovered from municipal refuse by a
number of methods, including
shredding, magnetic separation of
metals, air classification and wet
pulping process.
Increasingly, local authorities and
private refuse-collection organizations
require those who generate solid
waste to separate recyclable items
from other waste.
COLLECTION AND TRANSPORT
City or town governments have overall responsibility for waste
management operations -- ensuring that collection takes place and
that the collected materials are delivered to processors, markets, or
disposal facilities. Financing for vehicles, crews, and other equipment
usually is provided by the municipal government, which is ultimately
responsible for the entire process.

Street sweeping:
MANUAL SWEEPING
The most common method of collection of all types of
municipal waste as most of the waste is disposed of on
the streets. Street sweepers are employed by many
municipal organisations.

MECHANICAL SWEEPING
The majority of mechanical sweepers are mobile units
that use a vacuum system to collect the waste materials.
These are mostly employed in developed countries.
DISPOSAL
Disposal refers to the final disposal of
municipal solid wastes in terms of the
specified measures to prevent
contamination of ground-water, surface
water and ambient air quality.

Methods of waste disposal date from


ancient times, and sanitary sewers have
been found in the ruins of the
prehistoric cities of Crete and the
ancient Assyrian cities. Storm-water
sewers built by the Romans are still in
service today. Although the primary
function of these was drainage, the
Roman practice of dumping refuse in
the streets caused significant quantities
of organic matter to be carried along
with the rainwater run-off.
CHOICE OF TECHNOLOGY

Selecting a disposal method depends almost entirely on costs, which in turn are
likely to reflect local circumstances.

Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for
urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial producers. Management
for non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is
usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while management for
non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of
the generator.

Disposal of solid wastes on land is by far the most common method.


COMPOSTING
Composting organisms require 4
equally important things to work with:
OXYGEN
Carbon, for energy - the microbial
oxidation of carbon produces the heat.

Nitrogen, to grow and reproduce more NITROGEN


organisms to oxidize the carbon. CARBON

Oxygen, for oxidizing the carbon, the


decomposition process. WATER

Water, in the right amounts to maintain


activity.

Certain ratios of these elements will


provide beneficial bacteria with the
nutrients to work at a better rate. The COMPOST
most efficient composting occurs with a
C:N mix of about 30 to 1.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS
“Biodegradable” refers to the substrate and it requires that the substance be
susceptible to decomposition attack by certain living organisms, e.g.,
bacteria and fungi. Such substances are organic compounds formed either by
living organisms or by way of chemical synthesis (e.g., halogenated
hydrocarbons), such as yard (or garden) waste/waste containing high
proportion of lignocelluloses materials, which do not readily degrade under
anaerobic conditions, waste from slaughterhouse and dairy waste.

Farmers have been using compost made out of cow dung and other agro-
waste. The compost made out of urban heterogeneous waste is found to be of
higher nutrient value as compared to the compost made out of cow dung and
agro-waste. Composting of MSW is, therefore, the most simple and cost
effective technology for treating the organic fraction of MSW.

At the operational level, if waste segregation at source is not properly carried


out there is possibility of toxic material entering the stream of MSW. It is
essential that compost produced be safe for application. Standardization of
compost quality is, therefore, necessary.
PRINCIPLE

Compost technology has three important functions:

I. The first is “pre-processing”. Pre-processing consists of the preparation


or processing of a raw waste such that it constitutes a suitable substrate
for the compost process.

II. The second function is the conduct of the compost process.

III. The third function is the preparation of the compost product for safe
and nuisance-free storage and/or the upgrading of the product so as to
enhance its utility and marketability.
COMPOSTING SYSTEMS
SMALL SCALE
• Compost pits
• Vermi-composting
• Compostable toilets
• German mound
• Sheet composting
1.
LARGE SCALE
• Windrow composting
• Vermi-composting
• Mechanical biological treatment

1. Building a "Lasagna compost" bed or


"German mound" to plant potatoes and
strawberries.
2.
2. Potatoes on the mound a few weeks later.
COMPOSTING AT HOME: COMPOST PILE
Waste from the garden and kitchen
can be condensed and reused as a
fertilizer through composting.
A compost pile may be built by
layering different kinds of waste in a
bin, leaving space between the layers
for air to circulate.

Woodchips
& sawdust Worms

Leaves
Nitrogen is added to the pile in the
Kitchen form of manure, meal, or greenery to
waste
Grass generate heat, which facilitates
clippings rotting and kills all undesirable
Water organisms. Once the pile is slightly
Shredded
newspaper & dampened, it is covered. As heat and
Air
cardboard steam build up, the waste
Bacteria decomposes over time into nutrient-
rich substance compost, which can
then be applied to plants as a fertilizer.
INDUSTRIAL (LARGE SCALE) COMPOSTING:
WINDROW COMPOSTNG

Windrow composting is the production of compost by piling organic matter


or biodegradable waste, such as animal manure and crop residues, in long
rows (windrows).

These rows are generally turned to improve porosity and oxygen content, mix
in or remove moisture, and redistribute cooler and hotter portions of the pile.

This method is suited to producing large volumes of compost. Windrow


composting is a commonly used farm scale composting method.
COMPOSTING IN INDIA
Composting has been known in India since times
immemorial. Farmers have always been using compost
made out of cow dung and other agro-waste.
Full-scale commercially viable composting technology
is already demonstrated in India and is in use in several
cities and towns, though on a limited scale. In some
towns un-segregated waste is put into the pits and
allowed to decay; the semi-decomposed material is
sold out as compost. In some large cities aerobic
compost plants of 100 MT to 700 MT capacities are set
up but they are functioning much below installed
capacity. A few towns are practising vermi-composting
on a limited scale.
CITY FACILITY MANUFACTURER INSTALLED
CAPACITY
Kolkata M/s. Eastern Organic Fertilizer P. Ltd. 700 TPD
Delhi Nature and Waste Inc. India (BALSWA 500 TPD
Plant)
Bangalore Karnataka Compost Development 350 TPD
Corporation
WASTE TO ENERGY SYSTEMS
Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is the process of creating
energy in the form of electricity or heat from the incineration of waste
source. It is a form of energy recovery. Most WtE processes produce electricity
directly through combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as
methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels.
WTE projects generally involve higher capital investment and are more
complex when compared to other options of waste disposal, but as pointed by
Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES), gains in terms of waste
reduction, energy, etc. are also higher.
Waste materials

Thermal processing Biochemical Chemical

Anaerobic
Combustion Gasification Pyrolysis Fermentation Esterification
Digestion

Heat and power Chemical feedstocks Ethanol Biodiesel


INCINERATION

Municipal solid waste in the furnace of a moving grate incinerator capable of handling 15 metric tons (17
short tons) of waste per hour. The holes in the grate elements supplying the primary combustion air are
visible.
The incineration of raw (unprocessed) wastes is practiced throughout the
world, particularly in European countries where it has been in use for
decades.

Incineration –a thermal treatment system- involves the combustion of


organic materials and/or substances and converts the waste into
incinerator bottom ash, flue gases, particulates, and heat, which can in turn
be used to generate electric power. The flue gases are cleaned of
pollutants before they are dispersed in the atmosphere.

The simplest and crudest method of incineration is open burning. With the
successive changes that have taken place in technology in general and in
environmental concerns, the combustion process gradually has become
subjected to increasingly “controlled” conditions. Initially, the main
objective of the process was to reduce the volume of the material
requiring disposal. Later, the products of combustion (hot gases) were used
to generate steam.

Steam produced by incineration drives a turbine on a generator, and the


energy from the generator is converted for domestic and industrial use.
ADVANTAGES
• generates steam, and thus energy
• reduces the volume of waste requiring disposal
• ash from the incineration process can also be sold
to the construction and road building industry to
further reduce the amount of material to be
ultimately disposed
• relatively hygienic, noiseless, and odourless
• land requirements are minimal
• plant can be located within
city limits, reducing the cost of waste transportation
DISADVANTAGES
• least suitable for disposal of chlorinated and
high moisture content/low calorific value
waste as supplementary fuel may be needed
to sustain combustion
• plant requires large capital, entails substantial
operation and maintenance costs; skilled
personnel are required
• substantial cost of controlling and managing
pollutant emissions (air emissions, bottom
and fly ash, and wastewater)
• direct combustion of the raw wastes does not
provide an opportunity for substantial
recovery of material resources
PYROLYSIS
Pyrolysis is defined as incineration under anaerobic conditions and is
another option for waste-to-energy that is being investigated. Pilot projects
using pyrolysis for plastic wastes, and for mixed municipal solid waste
potentially have very high-energy efficiencies. Combined pyrolysis and
gasification systems and combined pyrolysis and combustion have also
been developed and implemented.

DISPOSAL

WASTE

HEATING
USED HYDROCARBONS
PRODUCT OIL FROM
AND WASTE
PYROLYSIS

GASES REFINERY
+ OIL
GASES
THERMAL GASIFICATION AND
BIOGASIFICATION
“Gasification” is a term applied to the
conversion of wastes into a gaseous fuel. It
is used even though not all of the recovered
energy is in the form of a combustible gas.
Indeed, with certain processes, the fraction
in the form of a combustible gas may be
much less than that in a solid or a liquid form,
or in both.
In principle, gasification is the thermal decomposition of organic matter in
an oxygen deficient atmosphere producing a gas composition containing
combustible gases, liquids and tars, charcoal, and air, or inert fluidising
gases.
Because gasification can be a complex and expensive undertaking, recourse
to it for energy recovery should be considered only in certain special
circumstances. For example, there might be a local need for an organic gas as a
chemical feedstock or a gaseous fuel to supply a gas-fired industrial process.
Such circumstances preclude the presence of an economical supply of fossil
(“natural”) gas.
LAND FILLS
Landfilling is the disposal of residual solid wastes on land in a facility
designed with protective measures against pollution of ground water, surface
water and air fugitive dust, wind-blown litter, bad odour, fire hazard, bird
menace, pests or rodents, greenhouse gas emissions, slope instability and
erosion.
Sanitary landfill is the cheapest satisfactory means of disposal, but only if
suitable land is within economic range of the source of the wastes; typically,
collection and transport account for 75 per cent of the total cost of solid waste
management.
In a modern landfill, refuse is spread in thin layers, each of which is compacted
by a bulldozer before the next is spread. When about 3 m (10 ft) of refuse has
been laid down, it is covered by a thin layer of clean earth, which also is
compacted. Pollution of surface and groundwater is minimized by lining
and contouring the fill, compacting and planting the cover, selecting proper
soil, diverting upland drainage, and placing wastes in sites not subject to
flooding or high groundwater levels. Gases are generated in landfills through
anaerobic decomposition of organic solid waste. If a significant amount of
methane is present, it may be explosive; proper venting eliminates this
problem.

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