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h i g h l i g h t s
Modelling air quality impacts upon EV introduction in Barcelona and Madrid.
EV offers potential air quality improvements, especially related to NO2 and CO.
Lower improvements related to PM due to the high weight of non-exhaust emissions.
A high EV introduction is required (26e40%) to signicantly improve air quality.
Electricity generation emissions due to EV charging imply slight NO2 rises (<3 mg m3).
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 28 January 2014
Received in revised form
16 September 2014
Accepted 18 September 2014
Available online 19 September 2014
This work analyses the potential air quality improvements resulting from three eet electrication
scenarios (~13, 26 and 40%) by replacing conventional vehicles with Electric Battery Vehicles (EBVs),
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs). This study has been performed for the cities of Barcelona and Madrid (Spain), where road transport is the primary emission
source. In these urban areas, several air quality problems are present, mainly related to NO2 and particulate matter. The WRF-ARW/HERMESv2/CMAQ model system has been applied at high spatial
(1 1 km2) and temporal (1 h) resolution. The results show that eet electrication offers a potential for
emission abatement, especially related to NOx and CO. Regarding the more ambitious scenario (~40%
eet electrication), reductions of 11% and 17% of the total NOx emissions are observed in Barcelona and
Madrid respectively. These emissions reductions involve air quality improvements in NO2 maximum
hourly values up to 16%: reductions up to 30 and 35 mg m3 in Barcelona and Madrid, respectively.
Furthermore, an additional scenario has been dened considering electric generation emissions associated with EBVs and PHEVs charging from a combined-cycle power plant. These charging emissions
would produce slight NO2 increases in the downwind areas of <3 mg m3. Thus, eet electrication
would improve urban air quality even when considering emissions associated with charging electric
vehicles. However, two further points should be considered. First, eet electrication cannot be
considered a unique solution, and other management strategies may be dened. This is especially
important with respect to particulate matter emissions, which are not signicantly reduced by eet
electrication (<5%) due to the high weight of non-exhaust emissions. Second, a signicant introduction
of electric vehicles (26e40%) involving all vehicle categories is required to improve urban air quality.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Air quality modelling
Air quality management
Emission inventory
Electric vehicles
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
1. Introduction
Air pollution is a major environmental risk to health (WHO,
2011; 2013). A signicant proportion of Europe's population live
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: albert.soret@bsc.es (A. Soret).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.09.048
1352-2310/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
52
Spain, higher NO2 levels occur in major urban areas such as Barcelona and Madrid. The annual limit value was exceeded in both
areas in 2011, while the hourly limit value (200 mg m3) was also
exceeded in Madrid. These areas also recorded air quality problems
related to PM10, while the PM2.5 target value threshold was not
exceeded (MAGRAMA, 2012).
The largest contribution of atmospheric pollutant emissions in
urban areas today is from on-road transport (Colvile et al., 2001;
Belis et al., 2013). In recent years, there have been signicant
efforts to study the effects of strategies designed to reduce onroad trafc emissions and the subsequent impacts of these
emissions on air quality. Currently, the main objectives of these
strategies are either 1) reducing the emission per vehicle by
adopting lower-polluting fuels and technologies (eet renewal by
updating the vehicle emission standards, e.g., Che et al., 2011;
natural gas vehicles, e.g., Gonalves et al., 2009; fuel cell vehicles,
e.g., Stephens-Romero et al., 2009; use of biofuels, (e.g., Liaquat
et al., 2010), or 2) adopting mobility management strategies to
reduce either the maximum speed of circulation (e.g., Baldasano
et al., 2010), or the vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) (e.g.,
Soret et al., 2011).
Fleet electrication is one of the strategies under consideration
for improving urban air quality. It comprises a wide spectrum of
technology options that range from the early stages of hybrid vehicles to pure electric battery vehicles (EBVs). Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) represent the rst step away from a purely
combustion engine vehicle, allowing reduced fuel consumption
compared to conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles (CVs).
Furthermore, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) can be also
charged from a power grid and can be driven in electric mode over
longer distances and higher speeds than HEVs (Pistoia, 2010).
Finally, EBVs are entirely propelled by stored electricity with no
direct exhaust emissions. Thus EBVs and PHEVs (hereafter referred
to as electric vehicles, EVs) would help to reduce road transport
emissions. Because of the limited driving range in electric mode,
EVs are particularly suitable to improve urban air quality, where
short distances and low speeds are prevalent. Furthermore, higher
potential benets of reducing air emissions are found in highly
populated areas (Ayalon et al., 2013). Depending on the type of
power plant which supplies electric energy for EV, other potential
benets that can be attributable to eet electrication are an increase in energy efciency, and reductions in: energy dependence,
fuel consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (ETC/ACC,
2009).
However, EVs entail an additional load on the electricity power
system, resulting in increased emissions from electrical generation,
dependent on power mix. EPRI (2007a,b) forecasted eet electrication in the United States and determined that their electric
demand will cause an increase in coal-red capacity. That study
showed signicant GHG emission reductions. However, modest
effects on nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) were
found, and there was even the possibility of increases in PM in
certain areas. In this way, several studies have explored emission
reductions based on eet electrication, considering various factors
related to the percentage of electric vehicle introduction and the
power source affected by EV demand (e.g., Jansen et al., 2010; Ji
et al., 2012). A clear majority of these studies focus on vehicle
charging at night, coinciding with periods of lower electrical demand; this approach helps to improve the overall utility system
performance and allows for the least expensive electrical production (Parks et al., 2007). Beyond emissions analyses, the number of
studies concerning the air quality impact of eet electrication is
lower, and, in most cases, the spatial resolution used (EPRI, 2007b:
36 36 km2) does not allow for extracting urban air quality conclusions. In other cases, despite the spatial resolution increase (e.g.,
53
Fig. 1. Areas of study. 1a) Domains of study: two regional domains (Europe and Iberian Peninsula) and two nal domains (Barcelona and Madrid); 1b) Barcelona nal domain; 1c)
Madrid nal domain; 1d and 1e) detailed images of Barcelona and Madrid cities: Barcelona and Madrid boundaries (red lines), air quality stations (blue points) and natural gas
combined-cycle plants Besos 3e4 (yellow cross).
EEA, (2009) does not describe specic emission factors for EBVs,
PHEVs and HEVs, but specic emission factors have been dened
for this study. First, regarding exhaust and evaporative emissions,
these emissions are regarded as equal to zero for the km travelled in
electric driving mode. For hybrid drive mode, the same emission
factors are assumed for PHEVs and HEVs. For passenger cars (PCs)
driven in hybrid mode, EEA, (2009) denes emission factors for
every pollutant but PM. After a literature review, the authors
decided to include an emission factor of 0.004 g PM km1 (Graham,
2005). As EEA, 2009 considers that the coarse fraction is negligible
in vehicle exhaust emissions, the emission factor of
0.004 g PM km1 is considered PM2.5. For light-duty vehicles (LDVs)
driven in hybrid mode, no emission factors are dened within EEA,
(2009), authors have assumed the same for the Diesel LDV Euro
IV<3.5t. Similarly, for hybrid driven buses the Buses Euro V urban 1518t emission factors are assumed. Finally, regarding non-exhaust
emissions (tyre and brake wear and resuspension), the same
emission factors considered for CVs have been assumed for EBVs,
PHEVs and HEVs.
54
Table 1
Specic parameterizations used in the modelling system for CMAQ and for WRFARW.
Model
Meteorology
Chemistry
Model version
Domains
(Nx,Ny,Nz,
Hor. Res.)
(33 sigma vertical
layers cover
the
troposphere
(up to 50 hPa)
with 12 under
the PBL.
Initial and
boundary
conditions
Parameterizations
WRF-ARW v3
D1: 480, 400, 33,
12 12
D2: 400, 400, 33,
4 4 km
Final Bar.: 148,
148, 33, 1 1 km
Final Mad..: 148,
160, 33, 1 1 km
CMAQ v5.0.1
D1: 480, 400, 15, 12 12
D2: 400, 400, 15, 4 4 km
Final Bar.: 148, 148, 33, 1 1 km
Final Mad..: 148, 160, 33, 1 1 km
Analysis ECMWF
0.5 0.5
D1: LMDz-INCA2
Rest: BC: Parent domain
IC: 24-h Spin-up
Chemical Model: cb5cl-ae5-aq
Boundary l.:YSU
Aerosol Model: AERO5
Microphisics:
Adv scheme: Horiz (Yamartino massWSM3
Cumulus Scheme: conserving)/Vert. (Piecewise Parabolic)
Dif: Eddy diffusivity theory
Kain-Fritsch
Land Surf. Mod.: Aerosol d. v.: aero-depv2
Dry d. r.: Models-3 Cl species
Noah
Long Wave: RRTM
Short wave:
Dudhia
Table 2
Emission factors for a natural gas combined-cycle.
g MWh1
NOx
PM10
CO
VOC
SOx
222.9
1.73
10.3
23.7
18.3
Table 3
Percentage of EVs and HEVs introduced for each vehicle category in the cities of
Barcelona and Madrid.
Category
Electric
Hybrid
Light-duty vehicles (LDVs) Electric
Hybrid
Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) Electric
Hybrid
Buses
Electric
Hybrid
Mopeds
Electric
Motorcycles
Electric
0%
<1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
10%
5%
5%
5%
0%
0%
5%
5%
15%
15%
20%
10%
10%
10%
0%
0%
10%
10%
30%
30%
30%
15%
15%
15%
0%
0%
15%
15%
45%
45%
55
Fig. 2. Fraction of VKT for the study scenarios per vehicle category. Vehicle categories that represent <0.1% of the total VKT are not included in the gure.
nuclear) regarding EV charging. A description of the Spanish electricity system is included in the Supplementary Material.
The energy demand for EV charging has been estimated based
on the energy conversion factors for each vehicle category as
described in: the literature, the catalogue of EVs homologated in
Spain and technical descriptions from automobile manufacturers
(Table 5). The same demand is assumed for EBVs and PHEVs for a
selected vehicle category. Furthermore, a conversion efciency ratio from the electrical energy from the grid to power at the wheels
has been considered: 80% (EPRI, 2007b; Berry et al., 2009). According to this, for example, the electric demand for EV charging for
the High scenario is estimated as 909 and 1842 MWh day1 in
56
Table 4
Percentage of VKT in electric and hybrid mode considering all the vehicle categories
in Barcelona and Madrid per scenario. And the energy demand estimation due to EV
charging.
% VKT Electric
% VKT Electric
% VKT Hybrid
% VKT Hybrid
Total eet
electrication
MWh day1
MWh day1
City
Low
scenario
Medium
scenario
Barcelona
Madrid
Barcelona
Madrid
9.7%
9.1%
3.6%
4.3%
~13%
19.4%
18.1%
7.1%
8.6%
~26%
29.2%
27.2%
10.6%
12.9%
~40%
606
1228
909
1842
Barcelona 303
Madrid
614
Table 5
Energy conversion factors for each vehicle category used to estimate EV charging
demand.
PCs
LDVs
Buss
Mopeds Motorcycles
1.26 0.03
BYD, MIET,
2013 2013
0.06
MIET, 2013
1997; Perez et al., 2004). During the period of study, a welldeveloped land-sea breeze regime dominated the local atmospheric dynamics (see supplementary material). Madrid is located
in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula, where convective thermal
n et al., 1997).
phenomena control the pollutant dynamics (Milla
These atmospheric processes affected the pollutant dynamics
involving their accumulation. The primary air quality problems
during the study period were related to NO2 and PM10. The NO2
hourly limit value (200 mg m3) was exceeded in Barcelona and
Madrid. PM10 daily levels exceed the 24-h limit value in Barcelona
(50 mg m3), while in Madrid those levels were close to the limit
value. Regarding secondary pollutants, the solar radiation and
temperature are lower in October than in summer, thus reducing
photochemical reactions. O3 hourly levels were under 120 mg m3
(the population information threshold is 180 mg m3).
3. Results
In this section, emission and air quality model results of the
1 km 1 km simulations are presented. The WRF-ARW/
HERMESv2/CMAQ modelling system has been evaluated for the
available air quality stations of Barcelona (7) and Madrid (19)
(Fig. 1d) and e)). The model evaluation is shown in the
Supplementary Material.
3.1. Emissions
3.1.1. Base case scenario; current situation
In the cities of Barcelona and Madrid, road transport is the main
emission source for NOx, PM10 PM2.5 and CO. Table 6 shows the
daily average emissions for the period of study. In Madrid, trafc
emissions represent 69% of the total NOx emissions; in Barcelona,
this percentage is lower: 40% (Fig. 4a and b). In Barcelona, port and
energy industries emissions have a signicant weight, representing
the 29 and the 13% of the total NOx emissions, respectively.
Regarding PM10 emissions, the contribution of trafc emissions
is much more signicant: 80 and 90% for Barcelona and Madrid,
respectively (77 and 89% concerning PM2.5, respectively). PM10
exhaust emissions represent ~40% of the total road trafc emissions
(~30% regarding PM2.5). The rest is due to non-exhaust emissions:
resuspension and brake, tyre and road abrasion.
Fig. 4c, d, e and f compare the VKT per vehicle categories and the
corresponding road transport emissions. While the VKT travelled
by passenger cars represent 61 and 81% of the total VKT, the relative
weights of these emissions are lower: 38 and 43% of the total NOx
emissions in Barcelona and Madrid, respectively. Other means of
transport are greater polluters. For example, in Madrid, the VKT of
buses and heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) represent 9% of the total
VKT, but their NOx emissions are 49% of the total NOx trafc
emissions. This also affects the rest of the pollutants. In Barcelona,
with a large number of two-wheeled vehicles, CO emission from
motorcycles represents 64% of total transport CO emissions, while
its VKT in only 12%.
3.1.2. Fleet electrication scenarios: low, medium, high scenarios
The emission reductions are described below for the road
transport sector and for the total emissions. The analysis is focused
on the differences between the Base case and High (~40% eet
electrication) scenarios. However, the differences of the Low
(~13%) and Medium (~26%) scenarios are proportional.
Fleet electrication implies emission reductions in all the pollutants analysed. These reductions depend on three main factors:
Percentage of electrication considered: Low, Medium and
High.
57
Fig. 3. Hourly electricity generation of the natural gas combined-cycle plants Besos 3e4 for the period of study (3e5 October, 2011), with increases due to overnight electric
generation associated with EV charging.
58
Table 6
NOx, PM10, PM2.5, CO, SOx and NMVOC estimated emissions by sector for the EB scenario for the cities of Barcelona and Madrid, and the total emissions for the other scenarios
and the corresponding increase compared to the Base case scenario.
Mg day1
Barcelona city
NOx
Madrid city
PM10
PM2.5
CO
0.17
0.07
0.03
0.00
0.00
2.44
0.34
0.01
0.00
0.00
3.06
3.02
2.98
2.95
2.95
1%
3%
4%
4%
0.17
0.06
0.03
0.00
0.00
1.91
0.32
0.01
0.00
0.00
2.50
2.46
2.41
2.37
2.37
2%
3%
5%
5%
1.80
0.22
1.71
0.23
0.95
0.09
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
28.07
0.19
0.97
3.75
0.17
0.04
0.00
0.00
0.12
0.00
33.79
4.52
29.95
4.50
26.10
4.49
22.26
4.47
22.26
4.49
11%
0%
23%
1%
34%
1%
34%
1%
value (350 mg m3) in both cities. The higher hourly levels are
located in Barcelona, around the port (<65 mg m3) due to the port
emissions. Concerning CO, the maximum 8-h levels in Madrid and
Barcelona were <3 mg m3, far from the 8-h limit value of
10 mg m3. Figures for O3, SO2 and CO are not shown.
3.2.2. Fleet electrication scenarios: low, medium and high
scenarios
Fig. 5eeh shows the differences in the maximum hourly levels
for NO2 and PM10 between the Base Case and High (~40% eet
electrication) scenarios. Higher pollutant concentration abatements were observed in downtown Barcelona and Madrid, where
eet electrication is considered, and to a lesser extent in the
corresponding downwind areas. The higher NO2 reductions were
<30 mg m3 in downtown Barcelona and <35 mg m3 in downtown
Madrid. PM10 reductions are smaller than NO2 reductions:
<8 mg m3 in downtown Barcelona and <6 mg m3 in downtown
Madrid.
In contrast, the O3 hourly maximum concentrations increase
with eet electrication: <4 mg m3. This behaviour is characteristic of VOC-sensitive areas, usually in conditions with low VOC to
NOx ratios (Sillman and He, 2002). It should be noted that these O3
increases occur where the concentrations in the Base Case scenario
are lower (inner area of both cities). Regarding SO2, hourly
maximum reductions are not signicant; <2 mg m3 in both
downtown areas. Concerning CO, hourly maximum reductions are
higher in Barcelona (0.5 mg m3) than in Madrid (<0.3 mg m3).
Figures for O3, SO2 and CO are not shown.
Furthermore, the hourly air quality impacts of eet electrication has been analysed for the locations with air quality station in
Barcelona (7) and Madrid (19). Fig. 6 shows the hourly concentrations for NO2, PM10, and PM2.5 for the Base case, Low, Medium and
High scenarios. Two urban-trafc stations for each city were
selected: Eixample (41.386N; 2.155E) and Poblenou (41.405N;
2.205E) in Barcelona, and Castellana (40.439N; 3.690W) and
Escuelas Aguirre (40.421N; 3.682W) in Madrid. Measured air
quality levels are also shown to be compared with the Base case
scenario results, to show model performance. Further model evaluation is shown in the Supplementary Material.
In both Madrid and Barcelona, higher NO2 reductions are
observed for the higher air quality levels. For the Eixample station,
SOx
NMVOC NOx
0.48
0.52
0.45
1.03
12.16
10.41
0.29
0.01
0.00
0.70
26.05
25.25
24.46
23.66
23.68
3%
6%
9%
9%
0.00
4.66
0.91
0.00
0.00
28.43
7.26
0.00
0.00
0.02
41.27
38.90
36.52
34.13
e
6%
12%
17%
e
PM10
0.00
0.20
0.09
0.00
0.00
5.32
0.29
0.00
0.00
0.00
5.89
5.83
5.77
5.71
e
1%
2%
3%
e
PM2.5
0.00
0.17
0.06
0.00
0.00
4.15
0.28
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.66
4.59
4.52
4.45
e
2%
3%
5%
e
CO
SOx
0.00
2.64
8.24
0.00
0.00
25.60
8.32
0.00
0.01
0.27
45.08
41.94
38.66
35.38
e
7%
14%
22%
e
0.00
0.88
0.11
0.00
0.00
0.41
1.57
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.93
1.90
1.86
1.82
e
2%
4%
6%
e
NMVOC
0.00
0.80
0.18
1.00
15.87
11.36
3.85
0.00
0.01
1.67
32.17
31.73
31.29
30.84
e
1%
3%
4%
e
the higher level observed for the Base case scenario is reduced by
26 mg m3 (from 194 to 168 mg m3), which represents a 13%
reduction. In Barcelona, the reductions of the maximum levels are
between 8 and 16%. The reductions of the 24-h values are lower:
between 7 and 13%. In Madrid, higher reductions are observed for
the 24-h average; 11e15% and similar for the hourly maximums:
8e16%. In Madrid, higher air quality improvements regarding the
NO2 24-h average are obtained because the contribution of road
transport to the total emission is higher than in Barcelona. In Barcelona, the plume from the port and from energy industries plays
an important role in the air quality levels depending on local wind
patterns.
Smaller reductions were observed for PM10 values. In Barcelona,
the higher hourly values were reduced by 3e5%; in Madrid, these
reductions were 2e4%. Regarding the ne fraction of PM, PM2.5
levels were reduced more than PM10 (4e7% and 3e5% for the
higher values in Barcelona and Madrid, respectively).
3.2.3. High demand scenario
Fig. 7 shows the air quality impacts of EV charging demand
based on overnight electricity generation from a gas combinedcycle plant in Barcelona (909 MWh day1). At night, land breeze
directs the combined-cycle plume seaward. These results show
slight NO2 increases in the downwind areas <3 mg m3 (Fig. 7a). For
the other pollutants, PM10, PM2.5, O3, SO2 and CO, the increases are
not signicant (<1 mg m3). Thus, signicant air quality benets are
observed with eet electrication, even considering the electric
generation emissions associated with EV charging. This is based on
a reduction in the total emissions and an increase of the dispersive
features of these emissions.
4. Conclusions
This work analyses the potential emission and air quality impacts of eet electrication in Barcelona and Madrid. The conclusions shown in this study are derived from the study of an air
pollution episode in 2011 (worst-case). Although it cannot be
considered a large period, it is an episode with signicant air
pollution. The study was performed by applying the WRF-ARW/
HERMESv2/CMAQ model system at high spatial (1 1 km2) and
temporal (1 h) resolution. This level of detail allowed for the
59
Fig. 4. Daily average emissions for the period of study for the cities of Barcelona (left panels) and Madrid (right panels). (Upper panels) 4a and 4c; NOx emissions per sector, 4b and
4d; total emissions per scenario. (Lower panels) Percentage of VKT by vehicle category (4e and 4g) and the corresponding road transport emissions (4f and 4h).
60
A. Soret et al. / Atmospheric Environment 99 (2014) 51e63
Fig. 5. Air quality levels in Barcelona and Madrid for the period of study (3e5 October, 2011). Upper panels: Barcelona; Lower panels: Madrid. From left to right: maximum hourly levels of NO2 (5a and 5b), maximum hourly levels of
PM10 (5c and 5d), NO2 maximum hourly differences between Base Case and High scenario (5e and 5f) and PM10 maximum hourly differences (5g and 5h). Roads (grey lines) and Barcelona and Madrid area boundaries (black lines) are
also included.
61
62
Fig. 7. Air quality differences between High demand and High scenarios of NO2 (7a) and PM10 (7b) in Barcelona. Roads (grey lines), natural gas combined-cycle location (red dot)
and Barcelona and Madrid boundaries (black lines) are also included.
Acknowledgement
The Authors gratefully acknowledge K. Serradell for the meteorological input data, F. Martinez for the implementation of HERMESv2.0 and J. Caus from SEAT for his comments and guidance
regarding electried vehicles. Authors also want to thank the
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