Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.

(TESOL)

Language Policy and Language Teacher Education in the United Arab Emirates
Author(s): Matthew Clarke, Vaidehi Ramanathan and Brian Morgan
Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 3, Language Policies and TESOL: Perspectives from
Practice (Sep., 2007), pp. 583-591
Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)
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liberaldemocracies.
In A. Barry,
T. Osborne,
"advanced"
Rose,N. (1996).Governing

neo-liberalism
and ratio& N. Rose (Eds.), Foucaultand politicalreason:Liberalism,

nalities
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(pp. 37-64). London:University
CollegeLondon.
Press.
B. (2004). Language
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Spolsky,
policy.
stateeducaTaylor,S., & Singh,P. (2005).The logicofequitypracticein Queensland
tion- 2010. TournaiofEducationPolicy,20, 725-740.

theEnEducation.(1994). Exploring
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ofTESOL Multicultural
Victorian
schools.VATMENewsletter,
and profileforAustralian
statement
glishcurriculum
50, 15-24.

LanguagePolicyand LanguageTeacher
Educationin theUnitedArabEmirates
MATTHEW CLARKE
University
ofHongKong
HongKongSAR,China

Manysectorsofsocietyin theArabianGulfhaveexperiencedstartling
developmentand changein recentyearsas a resultof industrialization,
urbanization,modernization,and globalization.In the face of these
forces,concernis regularly
expressedin the regionabout the preservationoflocal culturesand identities(Dresch& Piscatori,
2005). Language
educationpoliciesand practicesespeciallytake on a particularsignificance in thisvolatilecontext.
This reportpresentsthe findingsof one aspectof a largerstudyconcerningthe developmentof new teacheridentitiesin an Englishlanguage teachereducationdegreeprogramin the UnitedArabEmirates
(UAE) and outlinesthewaysin whichstudentteachersrespondedto a
programwhichaimed to heightentheirawarenessof the social and
politicaldimensionsoflanguageeducationwithinthecurrenthistorical
contextof globalization.In particular,the reportfocuseson Emirati
betweenthe global
studentteachers'beliefsregardingthe relationship
forthe local reappropriation
of the
and the local and the possibilities
Manyof the beliefs
global- whathas been referredto as glocalization.1
thatthestudentteachersespousedreflecteithera naveoptimismabout
1
oftheconcept(Khondker,
as
toa recentstudy
2004), "theword[glocalization]
According
wellas theidea camefrom
1995,p. 28). The termwasmodeledon
Japan(Robertson,
meantadapting
toone'sown
whichoriginally
worddochakuka,
farming
technique
Japanese
In thebusiness
worldtheideawasadoptedtorefertogloballocalization."
localcondition.
The term'soriginsthusembodyitsmeaningofglobal-localdialogue.
BRIEFREPORTSAND SUMMARIES

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583

the communicative
a prelapbenefitsof global Englishor, conversely,
sariannostalgiaforArab-Islamic
somestudentsengaged
however,
purity;
withthe programdesigners'intentionto sensitizethem to language
policyand practiceissuesand theinevitableculturalpoliticsoflanguage
education.
The data presentedwere collected throughresearcher-ledfocus
onlineconversations
overa 2-yearperiod (2002groupsand student-led
the discursive
2004) as partof a discourseanalyticstudyinvestigating
of the studentteachers'community
of practice.The study
construction
examinedthestudents'interpersonal
identities,
relations,intrapersonal
and systemsof knowledgeand belief,includingthose relatingto the
ofEnglishlanguageeducation.Thisreportfirst
outlinesthe
sociopolitics
UAE languageeducationpolicycontextbeforelookingat thewaysthat
theteachereducationprogramsoughtto addresssociopoliticalissuesin
therangeofresponsesto
languageeducation.The reportthenillustrates
these strategiesthroughbriefvignettesof threestudentteachersand
concludesbybriefly
theimplications
forlanguageeducation
considering
in the region.

LANGUAGE, EDUCATION, AND POLICY IN THE UAE

The UAE has accommodatedglobalizationbyembracingglobal EndualismwherebyEnglishis associated
glishwithina policyof linguistic
and internationalism,
and Arabicis associated
withbusiness,modernity,
withreligion,tradition,
and localism(Findlow,2006; Kazim,2000). This
statedin languagepolicydocuments
dualisticapproachis not explicitly
but has evolvedthroughpractice,for as Karmani(2005) notes,in a
and withrelasocietywithoutsubstantialgovernmental
accountability
tivelyweak linkagesbetweensocietyand state,"language education
affair"(p.
policyand planningdecisionsare liable to be a hit-and-miss
dualismpartly
90). This"hit-and-miss"
explainswhythisArabiclinguistic
speakingsocietyhas embracedEnglishas a global language and has
establishedthe Higher Colleges of Technology(HCT) as an Englishmediuminstitution,
thoughit is also importantto note the contemporarynexus betweenoil and Englishthatunderliesthe UAE's rentier
economy(Karmani,2005), a connectionthatsupportsEnglishas leastas
as could be achievedbymorecoerciveapproaches.Nevertheeffectively
roleEnglishhas to playin theregionand given
less,giventheimportant
willonlyincreasein comingyears,a keychallengefor
thatitssignificance
theUAE as wellas othercountriesin the regionis howto resolve,or at
leastaccommodate,ambiguities
aboutEnglish(Ramanathan,2005) and
how to reconcilethe competingdemandsof local, regional,national,
584

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and religiousidentitieswiththe homogenizingtendenciesof globalization and English (Canagarajah, 1999, p. 76). A solution urged by
Karmani(2005) is "to explorelanguageeducationpolicyand planning
solutionsthatare locallybased and help maintainand indeed promote
roleand
Arab-Islamic
values. . . [while]expandingthehugelyimportant
Arab
of
of bilingual
teachers English"(p. 101).
contribution

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION AT

THE HCT
The researchthatprovidesthebasisforthisreportwasconductedwith
- part of the firstgenerationof young
studentand graduateteachers
- in a newbachelor'sdegreein
womenin the UAE to attenduniversity
with
educationprogramat theHCT. The HCT is a multicampus
system,
colleges in the citiesof Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Fujairah,Ras Al
Khaimah,and Sharjah,and a centralofficeinAbu Dhabi.2The program,
whichgraduateditsfirstteachersin 2004, preparesEmiratiwomenas
schoolsand was developedwiththe
EnglishteachersforUAE primary
the benefitsof progressivelearnerdual purpose of demonstrating
centeredpedagogiesin the dual Islamicand global contextsof Emirati
schools,as well as addressingthe recognizedneed to improveEnglish
teachingwithintheEmirates(Loughrey,Hughes,Bax,Magness,& Aziz,
1999). Forthewomenenteringthedegreeprogram,thechanceto study
at college for 4 yearsoftenoffersa welcome change fromdomestic
demands,and formany,teachingis one ofthefewcareeroptionsthatis
acceptableto theirfamilies.In thissense,Englishand Englishteaching
role in theirlives.It also offersa potentialavenue
playan empowering
forcontributing
to local languagepolicyand planningdebates.
whiledrawingon a range
The programis theoretically
sophisticated;
ofdisciplinary
knowledge(Grabe,Stoller,& Tardy,2000), itis also home
grown,withdetailedprogramdevelopmentoccurringlocallyand revisions made accordingto feedbackfromlocal stakeholders.Local cultures,practices,and materialsare used as resources,as partofa process
a "systematic
thatLim (1991) refersto as cultural
equivalencing,
promotionof the local culturein an Englishlanguageteachingprogram. . .
as western
withthe aim of puttingit on the same level of significance
culture"(p. 66); and disciplinary
theoryand practiceare integratedby
2I
fromtheUniversity
ofMelbourne
cametotheUAEas a consultant
andlaterled
initially
inthecentral
AbuDhabioffice.
In boththeseroles,
theHCT'seducation
division,
working
I wasinvolved
in all aspectsofdevelopment
oftheHCT bachelor'sdegreein education.
in thisstudy,
I regularly
I wasnottheteacherofthestudents
workedwithand
Although
taughtthem.
BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES

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585

linkingstudents'collegeprojectswherepossibleto the timetheyspend

each semesterworkingin local schools.The HCT programalso has the
explicitaim of raisingstudentteachers'awarenessof the social and
politicalissuesthatinevitably
accompanyanylanguageeducationprocess (Corson,2001; Hinkel,1999;Tollefson,1995), especiallysignificant
in today'scontextof increasingglobalization(Block & Cameron,2002;
Edge, 2006).
Withinthedegreeprogram,theEnglishlanguagestudiesstrand3has
twointerlinked
substrands:
personallanguagedevelopmentand understandinglanguage.Thisreportwillfocuson theunderstanding
language
In thissubstrand,studentsdeveloptheirknowledgeof the
substrand.4
natureof language and its uses by studyingformallanguage systems
(phonology,semantics,
grammar,
genre,and discourse)and therelated
It is significant
forthisreportthatthe program
linguisticterminology.
also emphasizesthe social aspectsof language (Block,2003), including
projectson discoursecommunities,
languagevariation,and the links
betweenEnglishand globalization.
For example,in one subject,studentsexplainthe conceptof a global
and identify
itspossibleadvantagesand disadvantages,
language
drawing
on languageeducationliterature
as wellas on personaland community
experience.As part of this project,theyexamine the geographicaland culturalfactorsthathaveled to thespread
historical,
sociohistorical,
of Englishas the global language,and theyconsiderthe social and
economicimplications
itsspreadhas on the contemporary
UAE. In doto liveup to Tollefson's
ing thiswork,the studentteachersare striving
(2000) admonitionthat"Englishlanguageeducatorsmustunderstand
the directand powerfulimpactof social,politicaland economicforces
students'lives"(p. 19).
upon theirclassroomsand howtheseforcesaffect
The studentteachersanalyzethenotionof a globallanguage(De Swaan,
2001; Rajagopalan,2004), a standardlanguage(Bex & Watts,1999) and
the conceptof ownership
of a language (Hayhoe & Parker,1994), and
relate these issues to the developmentof multipleworld Englishes
(Kachru,1997),as wellas toArabiclanguagedebates(Ryding,1991) and
to debates about nativespeakerversusnonnativespeakerteachersof
of thesecomEnglish(Braine,1999). Theyalso reviewthe implications
plex questionsin Englishlanguage curriculumand assessmentin the
3 Otherstrands
anda
andreview,
includeeducationstudies,
teaching
practice,
preparation
studies.
seriesofshorthigh-interest
subjectsknownas complementary
4 Personal
a keyarea forstudentteachersforwhom
languagecompetenceis obviously
(1999) and the authorsin Braine's
Englishis not a firstlanguage,thoughSeidlhofer
ofarticles
makea powerful
caseforthedistinct
(1999) collection
advantages
brought
by
ofEnglishas a secondlanguage,
whohavebeenthrough
speakers
manyofthechallenges
sensebyvirtue
of
theirstudents
ofas doubleagentsin a positive
face,andcanbe thought
theirbilingualand bicultural
abilities.
586

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UAE, as well as for themselvesas futureEnglishteachers.One such

As partof
projectexaminesthe languagesituationin anothercountry.
thelanguagesused in thecountry,
thisstudy,studentsidentify
including
theirorigin,evolution,and currentrole in the country'ssocial and inlife.Theypayparticularattentionto questionsof institutionstitutional
alized statusand to any policies relatingto the use of languagesin
education,law, and government.The studentsshare theirfindings
so thatthe whole group can compareand conthroughpresentations
trasttheirown findingswiththose of theirpeers investigating
other
countriesand contexts.

THREE STUDENT TEACHERS' VOICES

Althoughthestudentteachers'responsesto thewaythatthecultural
three
politicsofEnglishwastreatedin theprogramvariedconsiderably,
distinctpositionsemergedin thedata: (a) navecelebrationofEnglish,
(b) nostalgiaforIslamic-Arabic
purism,and (c) pragmaticengagement
ofEnglishlanguage.
withand responseto thesociopoliticalimplications
I briefly
each positionusingbriefvignettes
ofspecificstudents.
illustrate
In discussingtheirattitudestowardEnglishand itsrole in the UAE,
some studentsfocusedon the ubiquitouspresenceof Englishand its
associationswithmassmedia culture:
WhenI was a childI said to myparentsI wantto be a teacher.And
English,becausewhenI turnon theTV and see themovies,
especially
I wanttospeaklikethat. . . thatwasmydream.
Englishmovies,
especially
Andit'sbecomingreal.Englishis aroundus everywhere,
in the
especially
UAE now.(Isha,FocusGroupDiscussion,
April16,2003)
Isha's acceptingand approvingattitudeseems to reflectan uncritical
colonizationbyglobal English,withlittleevidencethatshe is awareof
letalone threats,
thesociopoliticalimplications,
inheringin Englishlanis
if
in
and
It
as
she
lives
a worldoffreeagents,
practices.
guagepolicies
or compromises.
withoutsocial constraints
Attheotherend of thespectrumwerea minority
ofstudentteachers
whoperceivedlittlebutthreatsfromEnglish,as in thefollowing
excerpt
fromFakhra'sonlinepostingrevealingly
titled"EnglishTextbookVersus
Our Traditionand Culture":
in different
Thesebookspresentthecharacters
clothesthantheonesthe
as well.So thechildwillbe
learnerswearand theirfoodsare different
. . . Therefore
shockedabouttheirowncultureand traditions.
thechild
himfromthesebooksevenifhe isnot
whatever
interests
willtrytoimitate
sureaboutit. (Fakhra,OnlinePosting,September
27, 2003)
BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES

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587

These commentsreflecta visionof theworldwherelanguagesand culturesare uncompromisingly

are allopposed, wheresocial structures
determiningand individualsare reduced to culturaldupes. Neither
Isha'snorFakhra'spositionreflects
thesortofsophisticated
awarenessof
the connectionsand potentialfordialogue betweenlanguagepolicies
and classroompracticesthatthe programdesignersaimed for.These
positionsembodya perspectiveon Englishand globalizationfocused
solelyon the homogenizingaspectsof global English,"ratherthanthe
thatglobal flowsof languageand culturesopen up" (Penpossibilities
of lolittleto the articulation
nycook,2007, p. 18), whilecontributing
cally derived language policy and planning solutionsthat Karmani
of studentteachersdid
(2005) callsfor.However,a significant
minority
exhibitsuch capacities.For example,Salma offereddetailedadviceon
in the languageclassroom:
how to capitalizeon culturaldifferences
Whatwe are supposedto do is adaptand relateto our culture.I don't
believein sheltering
our students
fromwestern
cultureand I don'tbelievein makingthemacceptitwithout
Whatweshoulddo is
questioning.
showthemthebad and good ofitand providethemwiththeknowledge
and thinking
skillsthattheyneed to maketheirownjudgmentaboutit
and choosewhat'susefuland rejectwhat'snot. (Salma,OnlinePosting,
October3, 2003)
In contrastto Fakhra,Salma sees thatpointingout culturaldifferences
fromparticularlanguagepoliciesin relationto textbooksproresulting
videsopportunities
forheighteningstudents'criticalawarenessof linand
cultural
issues and for increasingtheircriticalagencyin
guistic
to
The generalthrustof Salma's arstructural
constraints.
responding
reflects
Lim's
(men(1991) concept of culturalequivalencing
gument
tionedearlier), and her recommendation
thatteachersshouldprovide
studentswiththe capacityto critiqueEnglishand the culturethataccompaniesit is an instanceof whatPennycook(1994) describesas encouragingstudentsto talkand/orwriteback to theforeigncultureas a
counteringstrategy:
Whenwe werein schools,we weretold thatwe shouldlearnEnglish
becauseitwouldmakeus betterhumanbeings.NowwhatI wantto do is
teachmystudents
Englishso theycan tellothersthatwearegoodhuman
our ideas,our culture.(Salma,
beings.... I wantthemto communicate
FocusGroupDiscussion,
October14,2002)
Althoughshe is clearlyawareof issuesof powerand inequalityin language education,Salma is not willingto accept being positionedas a
of her own. She would no
culturaldupe withno agencyand initiative
doubt take heartfromMalak's (2005) commentsin his recentbook,
MuslimNarratives
and theDiscourses
ofEnglish"Writersfromthe ex588

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colonies of the BritishEmpire . . . have, persistently

throughvarious
and
refashioned
the
means,exposed,cleansed,
Englishlanguageto fit
theirownagendas"(p. 10). Malakgoes on to arguefortheinevitability
ofmutualinfluencein culturalencounters:"Itshouldbe axiomaticthat
itselfbecomesfertilized.
as one languagefertilizes
another,thefertilizer
and
Cross-pollination creativeencountersoperate in multipledirec- and particularly
in a globalclimate
tions"(p. 11). In a similarfashion
- it is important
to a clashof civilizations
repletewithmedia references
thatthisnewgenerationofEnglishteachersin theUAE recognizestheir
west-basedTESOL - as well as a
capacityto fertilizea predominantly
male-dominated
UAE politicalelite withtheirviewsabouttherolesand
and threats,of Englishin the Middle East. Of
purposes,opportunities
course,as Canagarajah(2002) pointsout,we shouldnotmistakemutual
influencefora democraticUtopiaor underestimate
the ongoingoperationof unequal powerrelations;but neithershouldwe accept a dominant-dominateddualismthatdenies anyand all agencyto some individualsand cultures(pp. 134-135).

CONCLUSION
The HCT bachelor'sdegreein educationis enablingyoungEmirati
womento takeup influential
positionsin schoolsas teachersofEnglish
in a male-dominated,
of this
Arabic-speaking
society.The establishment
s
reflects
the
UAE'
dualistic
to
degree
approach language policyand
in
is
not
made
that
explicit languagepolicydocumentsbuthas
planning
evolvedthroughpractice.In thisrespect,the examplesof naveaccepbifurcation
on the one hand,and talking/
tanceand linguistic-cultural
back
or
cultural
creating
writing
equivalencieson the other,reflectthe
centralagencyof teachersas theyenactlanguagepolicy.To contribute
to ongoinglanguagepolicyand practicedebates,thisnewgenerationof
Englishlanguage teachersin the UAE needs to be sensitizedto the
sociopoliticalissuessurrounding
languageeducation.Theirchallengeis
to ensure thattheirvoices continueto be heard and theirconcerns
valued,withoutbecomingessentializedor co-optedby dichotomizing
agendas.
THE AUTHOR
of Hong Kong's Facultyof Education,in Hong
Currentlyteachingat the University
Kong SAR, China, MatthewClarke led the developmentof the HCTs bachelor's
degree in education. His research interestsinclude teacher identities,discourse
BRIEFREPORTSAND SUMMARIES

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589

is
analysis,and criticalliteracies.His forthcomingbook, LanguageTeacherIdentities,
part of MultilingualMatters'New Perspectiveson Language and Education series.

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The GreatDebate Affecting

EnglishPolicies and
CurricularReformsin Multilingual,
PostcolonialDjibouti
DIANA DUDZIK
University
ofMinnesota
Minneapolis,Minnesota,UnitedStates

For 7 daysin 1999,250 government

officials,
educators,parents,stufromoutsideagencies
members,and representatives
dents,community
discussed education in Djibouti 22 years afterindependence from
France.Theirconcernscenteredon thehighdropoutrate,thequalityof
teaching,and thefutureofeducation.The country's
presidentexhorted
attendeesto considerDjibouti'scomplexsocial,cultural,and linguistic
contextand howeducationcould betterequip itscitizensforeconomic
studentconvincedthe audience thatalchange. A femaleuniversity
thoughteacherswereequipped withknowledge,theyneeded moreeffectivepedagogyto engagestudentswiththatknowledge.As a resultof
the debate,a searchensued to addressthe qualityof education.After
BRIEF REPORTS AND SUMMARIES

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591