Lebanese University

Faculty of Engineering II

Final year project

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the

Mechanical Engineering Degree

By

Ghinwa JASSAR
Johnny SAIDY

Design of an exhaust gas heat recovery fire tube boiler for

Poppins factory

Project supervisor: Dr. Khalil EL KHOURY

2012

Acknowledgments
Foremost, we would like to thank Dr. Khalil Khoury, chief of the mechanical department, for helping us to learn how to think and research. He has been a mentor and an
inspiration. His encouragement and support made this work possible. We especially appreciate the project opportunity that he has given us as well as his faith in our abilities.
We are also hearty thankful and express deep sense of gratitude to all the Daher
Group managers and staff for the project opportunity and for their moral support and interest, particularly to Mr. Albert Sassine, engineering manager, for his invaluable guidance and
technical advice. Without his ideas, the project would not have appeared in the present
shape.
We would also like to thank our fellow graduate students for their support and
friendship.
We would like to thank our family, who have continually given us their love and support, and encouraged us to reach our dreams. We could not have done this without you.
Most importantly we would like to thank God. Thank you for all of these blessings.

Abstract
The mid-20th century has proven to be a time during which the world has had a rude awakening from its relaxed attitude towards the usage of our depleting natural resources. Proof
of this is the waste heat recovery systems that have been in use in industries all over the
world for the last 50 years. An example of this is the integration of various factory sections
where the waste heat from one section is used in another.
Moreover, basic human needs can be met only through industrial growth, which depends to
a great extent on energy supply. The large increase in population during the last few decades
and the spurt in industrial growth have placed tremendous burden on the electrical utility
industry and process plants producing chemicals, fertilizers, petrochemicals, and other essential commodities, resulting in the need for additional capacity in the areas of power and
steam generation throughout the world. Steam is used in nearly every industry, and it is well
known that steam generators and heat recovery boilers are vital to power and process
plants. It is no wonder that with rising fuel and energy costs engineers in these fields are
working on innovative methods to generate electricity, improve energy utilization in these
plants, and recover energy efficiently from various waste gas sources
The study of improved heat transfer performance is referred to as heat transfer enhancement. In general, this means an increase in heat transfer coefficient. Attempts to increase
heat transfer coefficients have been recorded for more than a century, and there is a large
store of information. A survey [1] cites 4345 technical publications. The recent growth of
activity in this area is clearly evident from the yearly distribution of the publications presented in Figure 1.

ii

References on heat transfer augmentation versus year of publication (to late 1990) [1].

Waste heat recovery is common practice in the food industry and not only saves money, but
streamlines production and results in better efficiencies.
The definition of waste heat includes the following:
1. Unburned combustible fuel.
2. Sensible and latent enthalpy discharge from exhaust gas mixtures.
3. Sensible heat discharge in liquid waste.

iii

Nomenclature
A
Cp
d
D
P

E
E
f
h
h
k
K
K
L

n
Nu
Pr
Q
r

Re
Rf
S
t
U
V

Coefficient of thermal expansion

Heat exchanger surface area
Specific heat capacity
Tube diameter
Shell diameter
Pressure drop through the boiler
Absolute roughness of tubes
Heat exchanger effectiveness
Joint efficiency between sheets (section 4.3)
Modulus of elasticity (section 7.2)
Darcy friction factor
Water and Steam enthalpy
Thickness of the tube sheet (section 7.2)
Exhaust gas thermal conductivity
Steel thermal conductivity
Minor losses coefficient (section 4.3.2)
Tube length
Mass flow rate
Ligament efficiency
Number of tubes
Nusselt number
Prandtl number
Boiler duty
Heat loss factor through the outer shell
Exhaust gas density
Reynolds number
Fouling resistance
Maximum allowable stress of steel (According to ASME code)
Shell thickness
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Gas velocity inside the tubes
Kinematic Viscosity of exhaust gas
Differential thermal expansion

Subscripts
c
h
i
o
m
e
p
s
t

Cold fluid
Hot fluid
Inside fluid
Outside fluid
Mean value
Equivalent
Tube sheet ( Ep)
Shell (Es)
Tube (Et)
iv

Table of contents
1

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1

OVERVIEW ON HEAT EXCHANGERS ......................................................................................................... 2

2.1

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................. 2

2.2

HEAT EXCHANGER CLASSIFICATION.................................................................................................................... 2

2.3

HEAT EXCHANGERS DESIGN METHODS .............................................................................................................. 3

2.3.1

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient .................................................................................................... 3

2.3.2

Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient h ........................................................................................... 4

2.3.3

LMTD Method.................................................................................................................................. 5

2.3.4

Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop ........................................................................................................ 6

2.3.5

Analysis of Extended Surfaces ......................................................................................................... 6

2.3.6

Fouling in heat exchangers .............................................................................................................. 6

2.3.7

Typical Heat Exchanger Designs ...................................................................................................... 7

2.3.8

Waste Heat Recovery Boilers ........................................................................................................ 13

PROJECT DATA ...................................................................................................................................... 15

3.1

PROJECT DESCRIPTION .................................................................................................................................. 15

3.2

INPUT DATA ............................................................................................................................................... 19

3.2.1

Exhaust Gas ................................................................................................................................... 19

3.2.2

Feedwater...................................................................................................................................... 22

3.3

REQUIRED OUTPUT DATA .............................................................................................................................. 23

3.4

PRELIMINARY CALCULATION........................................................................................................................... 24

HEAT TRANSFER DESIGN ....................................................................................................................... 27

4.1

FIRE TUBE BOILER SIZING PROCEDURE .............................................................................................................. 27

4.2

NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 31

4.2.1

Gas and steam properties ............................................................................................................. 31

4.2.2

Mass flow per tube ........................................................................................................................ 31

vi

4.2.3

Exhaust Gas Velocity ..................................................................................................................... 32

4.2.4

The Reynolds Number.................................................................................................................... 32

4.2.5

The Nusselt Number and Dittus-Boelter Correlation ..................................................................... 33

4.2.6

Gas side heat transfer coefficient hi .............................................................................................. 33

4.2.7

Water side heat transfer coefficient ho ......................................................................................... 33

4.2.8

Overall heat transfer coefficient U ................................................................................................ 36

4.2.9

Log mean temperature difference TLM ........................................................................................ 37

4.2.10

Boiler Duty Q............................................................................................................................. 37

4.2.11

Surface Area and Tube Length .................................................................................................. 37

4.3

PRESSURE DROP .......................................................................................................................................... 38

4.3.1

Darcy Friction Factor ..................................................................................................................... 39

4.3.2

Minor Losses and Equivalent Length Le ......................................................................................... 41

4.3.3

Pressure Drop ................................................................................................................................ 43

4.3.4

Heat Transfer vs. Pressure Drop .................................................................................................... 44

OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................. 47

BOILERS MECHANICAL DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 52

6.1

PRESSURE VESSEL ......................................................................................................................................... 52

6.1.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 52

6.1.2

Manufacturing Constraints ........................................................................................................... 52

6.1.3

Shell Dimensions ............................................................................................................................ 52

6.1.4

Material and Maximum Allowable Stress ..................................................................................... 53

6.1.5

Loadings and Design Pressure ....................................................................................................... 54

6.1.6

Pressure Vessel thickness under internal pressure ........................................................................ 55

6.2

TUBE SHEET DESIGN ..................................................................................................................................... 56

6.2.1

Design Procedure........................................................................................................................... 57

6.2.2

Working Conditions ....................................................................................................................... 58

6.2.3

Numerical Application ................................................................................................................... 59

vii

BOILER FITTINGS AND MOUNTINGS ...................................................................................................... 62

7.1

SAFETY VALVES ............................................................................................................................................ 62

7.2

BOILER STOP VALVES..................................................................................................................................... 63

7.3

FEEDWATER CHECK VALVE............................................................................................................................. 63

7.4

PRESSURE GAUGE ........................................................................................................................................ 64

7.5

WATER LEVEL INDICATOR .............................................................................................................................. 65

7.6

WATER LEVEL CONTROLS ............................................................................................................................... 65

7.7

AIR VENTS AND VACUUM BREAKERS ................................................................................................................. 65

CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................... 67

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................... 69

viii

List of Figures
Figure 2-1 Double pipe heat exchanger ..................................................................................... 8
Figure 2-2 Single-pass Shell and Tube heat exchanger .............................................................. 9
Figure 2-3 Finned tube heat exchanger ..................................................................................... 9
Figure 2-4 A boiler is basically a burner and a heat exchanger ............................................... 10
Figure 2-5 One pass fire tube boiler......................................................................................... 11
Figure 2-6 Two pass fire tube boiler ........................................................................................ 11
Figure 2-7 Natural water circulation in a water tube boiler .................................................... 12
Figure 2-8 Water tube boiler schematic .................................................................................. 12
Figure 2-9 Comparison between fire tube and water tube boilers ......................................... 13
Figure 2-10 classification of waste heat boilers ....................................................................... 14
Figure 3-1 Caterpillar Diesel Engine ......................................................................................... 15
Figure 3-2 Diesel Engine Specifications.................................................................................... 16
Figure 3-3 Boiler placement ..................................................................................................... 17
Figure 3-4 The boiler without the outer shell .......................................................................... 18
Figure 3-5 Close-up on the fire tube boiler .............................................................................. 18
Figure 3-6 Diesel Engine Technical Data .................................................................................. 19
Figure 4-1 Fire tube boiler design procedure flow chart ......................................................... 30
Figure 4-2 Nusselt, Grashof and Prandtl numbers ................................................................... 34
Figure 4-3 Natural convection heat transfer from an isothermal horizontal cylinder ............ 34
Figure 4-4 Excel spreadsheet calculations for natural convection .......................................... 35
Figure 4-5 Entrance flow conditions and loss coefficient (a) Reentrant, K=0.8, (b) sharpedged, K=0.5, (c) slightly rounded, K=0.2, (d) well-rounded, K=0.04. ..................................... 42
Figure 4-6 Exit flow conditions and loss coefficient (a) Reentrant, K=1, (b) sharp-edged, K=1,
(c) slightly rounded, K=1, (d) well-rounded, K=1. .................................................................... 42
Figure 4-7 Influence of various geometrical parameters of a shell-and-tube exchanger on
heat transfer and pressure drop. ............................................................................................. 45
Figure 4-8 Influence of various geometrical parameters of a shell-and-tube exchanger on
heat transfer and pressure drop. ............................................................................................. 46
Figure 5-1 Flow chart for fire tube design procedure .............................................................. 48
Figure 6-1 Tubesheet AutoCad drawing and dimensions ........................................................ 53
Figure 6-2 types of stresses in a cylindrical shell, S1=longitudinal stress, S2=Circumferential
or hoop stress ........................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 6-3 Fire tube boiler scheme .......................................................................................... 57
ix

Figure 7-1 Boiler safety valve ................................................................................................... 62

Figure 7-2 Boiler stop valve ...................................................................................................... 63
Figure 7-3 Boiler Check Valve................................................................................................... 63
Figure 7-4 Location of feed check valve ................................................................................... 64
Figure 7-5 Typical pressure gauge with ring siphon ................................................................ 64
Figure 7-6 Gauge glass and fittings .......................................................................................... 65
Figure 7-7 Typical air vents and vacuum breakers................................................................... 66

List of Tables
Table 1 - Shape Factors .............................................................................................................. 4
Table 2 - TEMA Design Fouling Resistances Rf for a Number of Industrial Fluids ..................... 7
Table 3 Exhaust gas major and minor constituents ................................................................. 20
Table 4 Density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, expansion coefficient, kinematic
viscosity and Prandtl of exhaust gas (N2=76%; CO2=13%; H2O=11%) .................................... 21
Table 5 - Compressed water property table at 0.6 MPa.......................................................... 22
Table 6 - Saturated steam pressure table ................................................................................ 24
Table 7 - Results of design calculations for fire tube waste heat boilers for the same duty .. 44
Table 8 Values for G1, G2, G3 and G4 ...................................................................................... 58

1 Introduction
In our project, weve considered working with Daher International Food Co., a leading
producer and distributor of premium quality food in the region, and particularly one of its
brands: Poppins.
The Poppins factory lies in the heart of the Bekaa valley in Mansoura, West Bekaa-Lebanon.
Poppins uses the latest equipment and methods in the production of a wide array of breakfast cereals and cereal chocolate bars.
However, due to chronic electricity shortage in Lebanon, frequent power outages occur on
daily basis outside of the country's capital Beirut (3 to 4 times per day).
These frequentpoweroutageshaveaveryundesirableimpactonthefactorysproduction
line and cause the production chain to stop for some time as well as the production of noncompleted products and putting many delicate and relatively expensive systems in risk of
failure. All this imposes meaningful expenses and loss of productivity in the factory.
Hence, factories find themselves obligated to generate their own power using Diesel Engines
Generators in order to provide an uninterrupted power supply that has become costly nowadays due to the global increase in fuel cost.
In fact, it is well-known that approximately one third of the total energy released by the
combustion process is lost along with the exhaust gas, and one third is transferred to the
cooling fluids while the rest is converted to actual electrical power. The cooling fluids are
necessary losses which prevent catastrophic failure of the engine due to overheating.
In our detailed study, the sensible heat must be recovered from the hot exhaust gas (around
500C)by means of a heat exchanger which will impose a low back pressure on the exhaust
system in order to prevent motor failure. We note that latent enthalpy recovery due to the
condensation of vapor is not envisaged at present in our project.
The final system design would ideally convert the recovered energy into heat energy that
is capable of producing fair amounts of pressurized steam that will be used in the cooking
process of cornflakes. The waste heat recovery heat exchanger will be connected to the
main steam boilers network present in the factory.

2 Overview on Heat Exchangers

2.1 Introduction
A heat exchanger is a component that allows the transfer of heat from one fluid (liquid or
gas) to another fluid. Reasons for heat transfer include the following:
1. To heat a cooler fluid by means of a hotter fluid
2. To reduce the temperature of a hot fluid by means of a cooler fluid
3. To boil a liquid by means of a hotter fluid
4. To condense a gaseous fluid by means of a cooler fluid
5. To boil a liquid while condensing a hotter gaseous fluid
Heat exchangers are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power
plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing,
and sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows through radiator
coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the incoming air.
Regardless of the function the heat exchanger fulfills, in order to transfer heat the fluids involved must be at different temperatures and they must come into thermal contact. Heat
can flow only from the hotter to the cooler fluid.
In a heat exchanger there is no direct contact between the two fluids. The heat is transferred
from the hot fluid to the metal isolating the two fluids and then to the cooler fluid.
In the following paragraphs, we will only discuss the types of heat exchangers that weve
studied in order to find the optimal design for our waste heat recovery steam generator
and taking into consideration.

2.2 Heat Exchanger Classification

Due to the large number of heat exchanger configurations, a classification system was devised based upon the basic operation, construction, heat transfer, and flow arrangements.
The following classification [2] was outlined:
Recuperators and regenerators
Transfer processes: direct contact or indirect contact
Geometry of construction: tubes, plates, and extended surfaces
Heat transfer mechanisms: single phase or two phase flow
Flow Arrangement: parallel flow, counter flow, or cross flow

2.3 Heat Exchangers Design Methods

The goal of heat exchanger design is to relate the inlet and outlet temperatures, the overall
heat transfer coefficient, and the geometry of the heat exchanger, to the rate of heat transfer between the two fluids. The two most common heat exchanger design problems are
those of rating and sizing. In the following discussion we will limit ourselves to the design of
recuperators only. That is, the design of a two fluid heat exchanger used for the purposes of
recovering waste heat.
We will begin first, by discussing the basic principles of heat transfer for a heat exchanger.
We may write the enthalpy balance on either fluid stream to give:

And

For constant specific heats with no change of phase, we may also write:

And

Now from energy conservation we know that:

and that we may relate the heat transfer rate Q and the overall heat transfer coefficient U,
to the some mean temperature difference
by means of:

Where A is the total surface area for heat exchange that U is based upon. Later we shall
show that how to obtain
2.3.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
A heat exchanger analysis always begins with the determination of the overall heat transfer
coefficient. The overall heat transfer coefficient may be defined in terms of individual thermal resistances of the system. Combining each of these resistances in series gives:

where the surface efficiency of inner and outer surfaces, h is the heat transfer coefficients
for the inner and outer surfaces, and S is a shape factor for the wall separating the two fluids.
The surface efficiency accounts for the effects of any extended surface which is present on
either side of the parting wall.
The thermal resistances include: the inner and outer film resistances, inner and outer extended surface efficiencies, and conduction through a dividing wall which keeps the two
fluid streams from mixing. The shape factors for a number of useful wall configurations are
given below in Table 1.
This equation is for clean or unfouled heat exchanger surfaces. The effects of fouling on heat
exchanger performance are discussed in a later section. Finally, we should note that:

However,

Table 1 - Shape Factors

Finally, the order of magnitude of the thermal resistances in the definition of the overall
heat transfer coefficient can have a significant influence on the calculation of the overall
heat transfer coefficient. Depending upon the nature of the fluids, one or more resistances
may dominate making additional resistances unimportant.
2.3.2 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient h
The heat transfer coefficient, in thermodynamics and in mechanical and chemical engineering, is used in calculating the heat transfer, typically by convection. The heat transfer
coefficient has SI units in watts per square meter -kelvin: W/ (m2K).

There are numerous methods for calculating the heat transfer coefficient in different heat
transfer modes, different fluids, flow regimes, and under different thermohydraulic conditions. Often it can be estimated by dividing the thermal conductivity of the convection fluid
by a length scale. The heat transfer coefficient is often calculated from the Nusselt number
(a dimensionless number). The Nusselt number is dimensionless; it is the ratio of convective
to conductive heat transfer across the boundary:

Where:
L = Characteristic Length
k = Thermal conductivity of the fluid
h = The convective heat transfer coefficient
Whenever it is difficult or not possible to determine the Nusselt number analytically, we
search for a correlation equation which gives the Nusselt number. Correlation equations are
usually based on experimental data and depend on the configuration that is being studied.
There are many correlation equations. Each is for a specific application and is valid under
specified conditions.
For example, in case forced convection for constant properties and no dissipation, local
Nusselt number is correlated as

And for natural convection,

Where:

Re = The Reynolds number

Pr = The Prandt number
Gr = The Grashof number

2.3.3 LMTD Method

The log mean temperature difference (also known by LMTD) is used to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow systems, most notably in heat exchangers.
The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold
streams at each end of the exchanger. The larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred.
The use of the LMTD arises straightforwardly from the analysis of a heat exchanger with
constant flow rate and fluid thermal properties. The LMTD has the form:

Where
and
represent the temperature difference at each end of the heat exchanger, whether parallel flow or counterflow. The LMTD expression assumes that the overall heat
transfer coefficient is constant along the entire flow length of the heat exchanger.
The LMTD method is also applicable to crossflow arrangements when used with the crossflow correction factor.
2.3.4 Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop
Pressure drop in heat exchangers is an important consideration during the design stage.
Since fluid circulation requires some form of pump or fan, additional costs are incurred as a
result of poor design.
In addition, as it is the case in our study, high pressure drop in the heat exchanger can
cause a high backpressure on the Diesel generators causing them to shut down.
Pressure drop calculations are required for both fluid streams, and in most cases flow consists of either two internal streams or an internal and external stream. Pressure drop is
affected by a number of factors, namely the type of flow (laminar or turbulent) and the passage geometry.
First, a fluid experiences an entrance loss as it enters the heat exchanger core due to a sudden reduction in flow area, then the core itself contributes a loss due to friction and other
internal losses, and finally as the fluid exits the core it experiences a loss due to a sudden
expansion. In addition, if the density changes through the core as a result of heating or cooling an acceleration or deceleration in flow is experienced.
This also contributes to the overall pressure drop (or gain). All of these effects are discussed
in detail later on in section 4.3.
2.3.5 Analysis of Extended Surfaces
Extended surfaces also known as fins are widely used as a means of decreasing the thermal
resistance of a system. In the study of heat transfer, a fin is a surface that extends from an
object to increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the environment by increasing convection. The amount of conduction, convection, or radiation of an object determines the
amount of heat it transfers. Increasing the temperature difference between the object and
the environment, increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient, or increasing the surface area of the object increases the heat transfer. Sometimes it is not economical or it is not
feasible to change the first two options. Adding a fin to an object, however, increases the
surface area and can sometimes be an economical solution to heat transfer problems.
2.3.6 Fouling in heat exchangers
Fouling in heat exchangers represents a major source of performance degradation. Fouling
not only contributes to a decrease in thermal efficiency, but also hydraulic efficiency. The
buildup of scale or other deposit increases the overall thermal resistance of the heat exchanger core which directly reduces the overall thermal efficiency. If buildup of a fouling
6

deposit is significant, it can also increase pressure drop due to the reduced flow area in the
heat exchanger core. The two effects combined can lead to serious performance degradation. In some cases the degradation in hydraulic performance is greater than the
degradation in thermal performance which necessitates cleaning of the heat exchanger on a
regular basis. Fouling of heat exchangers has different aspects. The two most common are
corrosion and scale buildup. However, depending upon the nature of the fluid other factors
may contribute to fouling. Fouling in heat exchangers is traditionally treated using the concept of a fouling resistance. This resistance is added in series to either side of the wall
resistance in the definition of the overall heat transfer coefficient.

Where
and
are respectively the inside and outside fouling resistances of the heat
exchangerssurfacearea.
Some typical values of fouling resistances are given in Table 2 for a number of fluids.

Table 2 - TEMA Design Fouling Resistances Rf for a Number of Industrial Fluids

2.3.7 Typical Heat Exchanger Designs

We will now examine several common heat exchanger designs without any detailed study.
We shall consider: Double Pipe Heat Exchangers, Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers, Compact
Heat Exchangers, Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers, Boilers, Condensers, and Evaporators.

2.3.7.1 Double Pipe Exchangers

The double pipe heat exchanger is probably one of the simplest configurations found in applications. It consists of two concentric circular tubes with one fluid flowing inside the inner
tube and the other fluid flowing inside the annular space between the tubes. Its primary
uses are in cooling process fluids where small heat transfer areas are required. It may be
designed in a number of arrangements such as parallel flow and counterflow, and combined
in series or parallel arrangements with other heat exchangers to form a system.

Figure 2-1 Double pipe heat exchanger

2.3.7.2 Shell and Tube Exchangers

Shell and tube heat exchangers are widely used as power condensers, oil coolers, preheaters, and steam generators. They consist of many tubes mounted parallel to each other in a
cylindrical shell. Flow may be parallel, counter, or cross flow and in some cases combinations
of these flow arrangements as a result of baffling. Shell and tube designs are relatively simple and most often designed according to the Tubular ExchangerManufacturersAssociation
(TEMA) standards. Special attention must be given to the internal tube arrangement, i.e.
baffled, single pass, multi-pass, tube pitch and arrangement, etc., to properly predict the
heat transfer coefficient.

Figure 2-2 Single-pass Shell and Tube heat exchanger

2.3.7.3 Finned Tube Heat Exchangers

In a conventional tube-fin exchanger, heat transfer between the two fluids takes place by
conduction through the tube wall.
In a gas-to-liquid exchanger, the heat transfer coefficient on the liquid side is generally one
order of magnitude higher than that on the gas side. Hence, to have balanced thermal conductance on both sides for a minimum-size heat exchanger, fins are used on the gas side to
increase surface area A. This is similar to the case of a condensing or evaporating fluid
stream on one side and gas on the other. In addition, if the pressure is high for one fluid, it is
generally economical to employ tubes.

Figure 2-3 Finned tube heat exchanger

2.3.7.4 Boilers
Basically, a boiler is a closed vessel or arrangement of enclosed tubes in which water is heated to
supply steam (to drive an engine or turbine, or to provide heat); when other liquid than water is
used, the boiler is more often named vaporizer (or evaporator). A second meaning of boiler is a domestic device burning solid fuel, gas, or oil, to provide hot water, especially for central heating
(better called a heater). Closely related to boilers are pressure cookers, i.e. strong hermetically
sealed pots in which food may be cooked quickly under pressure at a temperature above the normal
boiling point of water (in this case the intention is not to supply steam but to generate it for pressurizing; the higher the pressure, the higher the boiling temperature).

Most boilers are fuel-fired, thus, they can be viewed as shell-and-tube heat exchangers (Figure 2-5.), where the hot fluid is the burnt gases, and the cold fluid the water stream. Heat
transfer by radiation is important in boilers because of the high temperatures (some 2000 K).
In most boilers, the air for combustion is previously heated by the exhaust gases in the stack.
Typical efficiencies, measured as water enthalpy change divided by the combustion enthalpy
(most often based on the standard low heating value of the fuel), are around 100% in modern condensation boilers (where part of the water vapor dissolved in the flue gases is
condensed), around 90% for large non-condensing boilers, and around 80% for modern
small non-condensing boilers. A boiler is often the largest energy consumer both at domestic
and at industrial level, thus, great savings may be obtained by their proper selection, operation and maintenance.

Figure 2-4 A boiler is basically a burner and a heat exchanger

Two main types of boilers will be discussed in details:

Fire Tube Boilers

Water Tube Boilers

Fire Tube Boilers

In a fire-tube boiler (Figure 2-5, 2-6), hot flue gases from the burner are channeled through
tubes that are surrounded by the fluid to be heated. The body of the boiler is the pressure
vessel and contains the fluid. In most cases this fluid is water that will be circulated for heating purposes or converted to steam for process use. Fire-tube boilers are relatively
inexpensive, easy to clean, and more compact than water-tube boilers (although of smaller
steam capacities, and not suitable for high pressure applications (up to 2 MPa only).

10

Figure 2-5 One pass fire tube boiler

Figure 2-6 Two pass fire tube boiler

Water tube boilers

In a water-tube boiler, water flows through the tubes within a furnace in which the burner
fires into. The tubes are connected to a steam drum on top and a mud drum at the bottom.
Water-tube boilers typically produce steam or hot water for large industrial applications
(less frequently for heating applications).
Many water-tube boilers operate on the principle of natural water circulation (also known as
'thermosiphoning'). Figure 2-7 helps to explain this principle:
11

Figure 2-7 Natural water circulation in a water tube boiler

Cooler feed water is introduced into the steam drum behind a baffle where, because
the density of the cold water is greater, it descends in the 'down comer' towards the
lower or 'mud' drum, displacing the warmer water up into the front tubes.
Continued heating creates steam bubbles in the front tubes, which are naturally separated from the hot water in the steam drum, and are taken off.

Water tube boilers support higher pressure (up to 35 MPa) and temperature (900 K) than
fire-tube boilers, but are more complex, larger (up to 50 m high, up to 60 kg/s of steam), and
more expensive than fire-tube boilers. In supercritical boilers, water is heated at more than
22 MPa and converted to supercritical steam without any phase change.

Figure 2-8 Water tube boiler schematic

12

Heresacomparisontableofsomeaspectsofwatertubeandfiretubeboilers:

Figure 2-9 Comparison between fire tube and water tube boilers

2.3.8 Waste Heat Recovery Boilers

Heat recovery boilers, also known as waste heat recovery boilers or heat recovery steam
generators (HRSGs), form an inevitable part of chemical plants, refineries, power plants, and
process systems. They are classified in several ways, as can be seen in Figure 2.10, according
to the application, the type of boiler used, whether the flue gas is used for process or mainly
for energy recovery, cleanliness of the gas, and boiler configuration, to mention a few. The
main classification is based on whether the boiler is used for process purposes or for energy
recovery. Process waste heat boilers are used to cool waste gas streams from a given inlet
temperature to a desired exit temperature for further processing purposes. Steam generation is of secondary importance in such plants. In energy recovery applications, on the other
hand, the gas is cooled as much as possible in order to obtain the highest possible steam
quantity.

13

Figure 2-10 classification of waste heat boilers

Getting back to our project, and taking into account our system considerations that will be
discussed later, weve decided to design a waste heat recovery fire tube boiler since its
easier to manufacture and costs less than water tube boiler. In addition, fire tubes are
used usually to produce steam at small scale.
The fire tube boiler has the following criteria based on Figure 2-10 above:

Gas condition: Dirty

Purpose: Energy Recovery from flue gases
Circulation: Natural
Firing: Unfired
Steam System: Single Pressure, Saturated Steam
Configuration: Single Pass, Integral Drum

14

3 Project Data
3.1 Project Description
As explained before, the chronic electricity shortage in Lebanon and particularly the frequent power outages that occur on daily basis has led the industrial sector to generate its
own electrical power using Diesel Engine Generators which incur a heavy financial burden on
the factories especially after the rise in the price of fuel over the last decade and resulting to
the increase of their productsmarketprices.
As a matter of fact, these frequent power outages have a very undesirable impact on the
factorysproductionlineandcausetheproductionchaintostopforsometimeaswellas the
production of non-completed products and putting many delicate and relatively expensive
systems in risk of failure. All this impose meaningful expenses and loss of productivity in the
factory.
For instance, the POPPINS cornflakesfactoryhadestablishedageneratorsroomnextto
the factory in order to generate its own power needs.
Six CATERPILLAR Diesel Engine Generators are connected in parallel in the generators
room and each generator set has the following specs:

Model: CAT 3412C Diesel Engine

Power Rating @ 0.8 power factor : 725 kVA
50 Hz, 1500 rpm, 400 Volts

Figure 3-1 Caterpillar Diesel Engine

15

Figure 3-2 Diesel Engine Specifications

On the other hand, some food processes in the factory require a large amount of steam.
Particularly, the steam is used to cook the cornflakes. Thus, a steam boiler is installed in the
factory and is able to produce the required amount of steam used in the food process using
fuel oil as its main power source.
Pressure sensors throughout the steam network provide the sufficient feedback data to the
fuel oil burners in order to maintain the required steam pressure at 6 bars. However, the
increasing global fuel prices made the production of steam a bit more expensive.
Facing these two issues, the company decided to somehow merge the two systems and
solve the problem. In fact, the heat from the Diesel Generators exhaust gas will be used to
produce steam in a smaller unit.

16

The final system design should be able to extract the heat out of the exhaust gas using a
waste heat fire tube boiler in order to produce a fair amount of pressurized steam that will
be connected to the main steam network at the factory. ( see the scheme in Chapter 8 )
As a result:

The price of steam production will be reduced.

The overall efficiency of the Diesel Generators will be improved.

We note that the boiler should impose a low back pressure on the exhaust system in order
to prevent motor failure. This issue will be discussed in the next chapter.
Thewasteheatboilerwillbeputontopofthegeneratorsroomandconnectedtotheexhaust pipe from one side. Figures 3-3, 3-4 and 3-5 give us an idea about the boilers
placement:

Figure 3-3 Boiler placement

17

Figure 3-4 The boiler without the outer shell

Figure 3-5 Close-up on the fire tube boiler

18

3.2 Input Data

In this section we will list the different system Input design data that are mainly the exhaust
gas physical and thermal properties.
As a matter of fact, a Diesel engine has fuel efficiency of about 40%, and around 30% of the
energy is transferred to the motor cooling fluid. That leaves around 30% of energy lost in the
atmosphere through the exhaust gas.
3.2.1 Exhaust Gas
First, if we examine the CAT GensetDieselEnginetechnicaldatasheetunderExhaustSystem(figure 3-6).

Figure 3-6 Diesel Engine Technical Data

19

We conclude the following valuable data:

Exhaust stack gas temperature: 534 C (right on the motor exit)

400 C (measured on the roof)

Exhaust gas flow rate: 125.4 m3/min

Total heat rejection to exhaust: 571 kW
Exhaust system max allowable backpressure: 6.7 kPa
Exhaust gas pressure : 1 atm

3.2.1.1 Temperature
The exhaust gas temperature is given right after the exhaust leaves the combustion chamber
into the exhaust system. Therefore the actual exhaust temperature to be used in our design
is less than 534 C due to the heat loss through the exhaust pipe walls, and in order to know
itscorrectvalue,wevemanagedtouseatemperaturemeasuringdeviceandfoundoutthat
the actual temperature of flue gas on the roof is around 400 C. This would be our gas design
temperature.
3.2.1.2 Composition
Generally, flue gases obtained from Diesel combustion contain a mixture of the following
components grouped in the table 3 below:
Major Constituents
Nitrogen, N2
Water Vapor, H2O
Carbon Dioxide, CO2
Oxygen, O2

Minor Constituents (less than 1%)

Sulfur Oxides, SO2, SO3
Nitrogen Oxides, NO, NO2
Carbon Monoxide, CO
Hydrogen, H2

Table 3 Exhaust gas major and minor constituents

In fact, the presence of gases such as hydrogen and water vapor increases the heat transfer
coefficient significantly, which can affect the heat transfer and the boiler size. Also, if the gas
is at high pressure, the mass velocity inside the tubes can be much higher because of the
higher density, which also contributes to the higher heat transfer coefficients. However, due
to the absence of exact gas composition data we will assume that:
The latent enthalpy recovery due to the condensation of vapor present in the flue gas
will not be taken into consideration in the design.
The exhaust gas composition:
N2 = 76%
CO2= 13%
Water vapor H2O=11%

20

3.2.1.3 Exhaust Gas Properties

Basically, five different air properties will be used in the calculation procedure:

Density:
Specific Heat Capacity: Cp
Thermal Conductivity: k
Kinematic Viscosity:
Prandtl Number: Pr

However, all these properties depend on the gas temperature and some of them can vary
widely. Therefore, an interpolation between two different temperatures will be used to calculate the air property at the exhaust gas bulk temperature which is the mean temperature
of the gas between the entrance and the exit of the boiler.
For instance, if the gas enters at T1 and exits at T2, then the gas properties in the design process will be calculated at the gas mean temperature Tm

(An interpolation was integrated in the excel sheet available in the report soft copy.)
Table 4 below represents the variation of these properties as a function of temperature (C)
at atmospheric pressure:
Temperature

Density

-T*C+
0
100
200
250
300
350
400
500
600

- [Kg/m3]
1.295
0.95
0.748
0.683
0.617
0.571
0.525
0.457
0.405

Specific Heat
Capacity
-Cp[kJ/Kg-K]
1.042
1.068
1.097
1.109
1.122
1.137
1.151
1.185
1.214

Thermal
Conductivity
-k[W/m-K]
0.0243
0.0314
0.0386
0.0421
0.0454
0.0485
0.0515
-----

Kinematic
Viscosity
- x 10-6 [m2/s]
12.2
21.54
32.8
39.31
45.81
53.1
60.38
76.3
93.61

Prandtl
Number
-Pr--0.72
0.69
0.67
0.66
0.65
0.645
0.64
0.63
0.62

Table 4 Density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, expansion coefficient, kinematic viscosity and
Prandtl of exhaust gas (N2=76%; CO2=13%; H2O=11%)

21

3.2.2 Feedwater
Poppins factory uses large scale water purification techniques in order to purify its water
supply and use it in the food processing.
The water is filtrated and disinfected using different advanced techniques such as UV disinfection and Reverse Osmosis for example where mechanical pressure is applied to an impure
solution to force pure water through a semi-permeable membrane.
The feedwater must be pumped into the fire tube boiler at a pressure of 6 bars although the
head of the pump must be higher than 6 bars in order to overcome the piping friction losses.
A level meter will be installed in the boiler and will feedback to the pump in order to maintain a specific water level.

3.2.2.1 Temperature
Forinstance,whatmattersinthedesignisthefeedwaterstemperaturethatwasmeasured
and was found to be:
3.2.2.2 Enthalpy
Further, the feedwater enthalpy isimportantintheheatexchangersthermaldesign.Looking at the thermodynamic property table for compressed water, Table 5, we conclude for
and
that:

Table 5 - Compressed water property table at 0.6 MPa

22

3.3 Required Output Data

By now, it became clear that the objective of the project is to extract heat from the exhaust
gas for as much as possible and reduce its temperature to the lowest. Nevertheless, the exit
gas temperature could never be less than the steam saturation temperature i.e. the water
boiling point.
Steam Saturation Temperature or boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid
equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
A liquid in a vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high-pressure has a higher boiling point than when that liquid is at
atmospheric pressure. In other words, the boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the
surrounding environmental pressure
The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at
which a liquid boils into its vapor phase.
As a matter of fact, during the liquid to vapor phase change, the water is maintained at a
constant temperature. The water gets the heat but its temperature does not go higher.
To sum up, during the heating process of the boiler, the pressurized feedwater receives heat
from the hot gas and its temperature increases until it reaches the saturation temperature
and remains constant.
Thatswhennucleateboilingisinitiatedinsidetheboilerandsmallbubblesofsteamrise
on the tubes outside surface and forms saturated steam on top of the water surface.
Both the Saturation Temperature and the Saturated Steam enthalpy can be obtained from
the corresponding steam table (Table 6) for a pressure of 6 bars:

And,

23

Table 6 - Saturated steam pressure table

3.4 Preliminary Calculation

The preliminary calculations were made as a first step to get an idea on whether the process
of generating fair amounts of steam is possible and know the amplitude of the power that
weredealingwith.
Forinstance,letsassumethat the gas will be cooled from:

To

Then

24

Where:

is the average temperature of the gas between the inlet and the outlet.

First, knowing the gas flow volumetric rate, the total mass flow rate of the gas must be determined from the equation:

(1)

Where

For

, we interpolate the value of the gas density from table 4:

And the specific heat capacity of the gas:

Then from equation (1),

Next, we calculate the heat load available from the flow of gas:

Finally,

Ontheotherhand,ifweassumethatwevemanagedtotransfertheentireheatloadfrom
the gas to the water, without any heat exchanger calculations, then we can calculate the
flowofsteamthatwecanproduceandthiscouldgiveusanideaaboutthequantitieswere
dealing with and whether the system is practical or not.
On the waters side:

(2)

25

Where

Then for

we obtain:

Interestingly, we conclude that we can produce a fair amount of steam out of the waste
heat. Thus, the project is valuable to the factory,andwellproceedtothenextstepwhichis
to design the fire tube waste heat recovery boiler.
The design should take into consideration the following:
o
o
o
o
o
o

Heat transfer design and sizing.

Off-design performance.
Pressure drop calculations.
Sizing of the pressure vessel and the tube sheets.
Manufacturing considerations.
Boiler accessories (safety valves, water level meter, feedwater pump, etc...).

26

4 Heat Transfer Design

Engineers often must estimate the size of heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers,
gas coolers, boilers, and economizers for preliminary costing and to check space requirements. With the approach presented in this chapter, one can quickly determine one or more
configurations to accomplish a certain amount of heat transfer in a fire tube boiler. One can
also size equipment so as to limit the pressure drop.

4.1 Fire tube boiler Sizing Procedure

In fire-tube boilers, flue gas flows inside the tubes while the steam is generated outside the
tubes. Depending on the cleanliness of the gas, tube sizes can vary from 1.5 to 3.5 in. OD.
The specified gas velocities can vary, depending on the allowable gas pressure drop.
Both of these factors - tube size and gas velocity - influence the heat -transfer coefficients
and, hence, the surface area.
The procedure for sizing a fire-tube boiler is as follows.
The required surface area, S, is calculated from:
(3)
If U is based on the tube outer diameter ( ), then the surface area is also based on the tube
outer diameter; likewise, if U is based on the tube inner diameter ( , then the surface area
should be based on the tube inner diameter.
This can also be expressed as:
(4)
However,

Where

And

n and L are respectively the number and the length of the tubes.

27

Thus, Eq. 3 a can be rewritten as either

(3.a)
Or
(3.b)

The energy transferred per unit time, Q, is:

[

(5)

The term r represents the heat loss factor and is equal to one minus the losses due to radiation and convection from the boiler surfaces. A 2% loss, or r = 0.98, is typical
The log mean temperature difference,

is determined by:
(6)

The overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is given by:

( )

(7)

Where
.
.
Where Rf is the fouling resistance.
The value of hi is obtained from the Dittus-Boelter correlation:
(8)
For

0.6<Pr<160

Re>10000

L/D<10

Where
(9), k the thermal conductivity inside the gas.

28

(10)

V is the velocity of the gas inside the tubes and

is the kinematic viscosity of flue gas.

The 3rd term in Eq. 7 is the resistance of the tube wall to heat transfer. The thermal conductivity of the tube material, K, is about 35-45 W/m-K for carbon steel, the typical material
used for boilers.
To size the boiler, the mass flow per tube, ranging from 50 to 90 kg/hr. for a 2-in. tube, and
the gas velocity, typically ranging from 20 to 50 m/s, are assumed and the tube count is calculated. The relationship between mass flow and velocity is:

(11)

Inpractice,itseasiertoassumeanumberoftubesandchoosethetubesIDfirstthencalculate the gas velocity inside it.

Based on the temperature and properties of the gas, all the variables are calculated and finally U is determined.
Then Eq. 3 is used to calculate A which in turn used to determine the tube length, L.
At the end, the pressure drop is calculated (see section 4.3), and if the computed pressure
drop is higher than that allowed by the specification, another tube count or mass flow rate
per tube is assumed and the procedure is repeated. [11]
The flowchart in figure 4-1 will visually explain the steps that have been made to size the fire
tube boiler.
Nowregardingthefirststepofoursizingprocedure,weveassumedthefollowing:

We must size the boiler to be able to cool the exhaust gases from 400C to 230 C.
OD1.75;1.521IDsteeltubeswerechosen.(availableinthemarketfor6metersof
length )
An average of 3.5 generators running all the time.
A tube count of 200 will be assumed as a start and will be checked in the end for
pressure drop and will be optimized for better heat transfer, n=200.

29

Assume Gas out. Temp

Calculate Duty Q
Choose di
Calculate steam generation
Assume tube count n
Calculate

Calculate per tube

Calculate Surface Area A

45< <90
kg/h?
N

Calculate Tube Length L

Calculate Gas Pressure Drop

Determine Gas properties

Calculate Gas Velocity

Calculate Reynolds number

Pressure drop
smaller than 6.7
kPa?

Calculate Nusselt number

Proceed to mechanical design

Deduce hi

Calculate U

END

Figure 4-1 Fire tube boiler design procedure flow chart

30

4.2 Numerical Applications

4.2.1 Gas and steam properties
Theboilerssizeshouldbeabletocool the exhaust gas from:
To
Thus, all the gas properties will be determined from Table 4 for the gas mean temperature:

All the needed exhaust gas properties are listed below:

As for the feedwater and steam, well only use the enthalpies at feedwater and steam at
saturation temperatures obtained from Tables 5 and 6:

4.2.2 Mass flow per tube

First, knowing the gas flow volumetric rate, the total mass flow rate of the gas must be determined from the equation:

Where

Then

31


And the mass flow per tube is acceptable, it is given by:

4.2.3 Exhaust Gas Velocity

As we will discuss later, the exhaust gas velocity inside the tubes has an important role in
increasing the heat transfer between the gas and tubes.
We note that the tubeschosenare1.75-1.521tubes,thatstheequivalentof:
And
From eq. 11:

4.2.4 The Reynolds Number

In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of the ratio of inertial forces (which characterize how much a particular fluid resists any
change in motion) to viscous forces and consequently quantifies the relative importance of
these two types of forces for given flow conditions.
It is often used to characterize different flow regimes, such as laminar or turbulent flow:
laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant, and is
characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion; turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds
numbers and is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to produce chaotic eddies, vortices
and other flow instabilities.
In our case, the Reynolds number is used to calculate the heat transfer coefficient between
the gas side and the tubes. The higher the Reynolds number, the higher the heat transfer.
The Reynolds number is calculated below:

32

4.2.5 The Nusselt Number and Dittus-Boelter Correlation

The Dittus-Boelter equation (for turbulent flow) is an explicit function for calculating the
Nusselt number. It is easy to solve but is less accurate when there is a large temperature
difference across the fluid. It is tailored to smooth tubes, so use for rough tubes (most commercial applications) is cautioned. The Dittus-Boelter equation (Eq. 8) can be used since
Re>10000, Pr>0.6 and L/D>10:

4.2.6 Gas side heat transfer coefficient hi

The gas side heat transfer coefficient hi can be derived fromEq.9nowthatweve calculated
the Nusselt number:

We will conclude later that hi dominates the Overall heat exchange coefficient U. In fact, the
sum of all the other resistances will be neglected because they only contribute in 8% only of
the U value.
4.2.7 Water side heat transfer coefficient ho
The boiling heat-transfer coefficient ho is very high - on the order of 3000 to 100 000
W/m2.K. Thus, even a 20% variation in its value will not impact U, because the tube-side coefficient, hi, which is typically on the order of 50-100 W/m2.K, governs U.
However, before the nucleate boiling starts we should make sure that ho is still relatively
high and does not affect the U value that much. We should calculate the natural convection
heat transfer coefficient.
In fact, convection heat transfer takes place when a fluid flows past a solid surface, with a
difference in temperature between the fluid and the surface. If the fluid flow is due to an
external force, like a pump or fan, it is forced convection. If the fluid flow is caused by density differences within the fluid due to internal fluid temperature differences, then it is natural
convection, also sometimes called free convection.
The equations used to calculate natural convection heat transfer coefficients come from
correlations of dimensionless numbers. The dimensionless numbers typically appearing in
these correlations are the Nusselt number, the Prandtl number, the Grashof number, and
sometimes the Rayleigh number. The equations for the Nusselt, Prandtl, and Grashof numbers (Nu, Pr, and Gr) are shown in the box below. The Rayleigh number is simply: Ra = Gr Pr.
33

Figure 4-2 Nusselt, Grashof and Prandtl numbers

Following are the parameters that appear in these dimensionless numbers:

D is a characteristic length parameter (e.g. diameter for natural convection from a circular cylinder or a sphere or height of a vertical plate) in m.
is the density of the fluid in Kg/m3 .
is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid N-s/m2 .
k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid W/m-K.
Cp is the heat capacity of the fluid in J/kg-K.
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2).
is the coefficient of volume expansion of the fluid in K-1.
T is the temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid.

In our case, its a natural convection heat transfer from a horizontal tube outside surface and
the water.
The Nusselt number/Rayleigh number/Prandtl number correlation for natural convection heat
transfer between a fluid and an isothermal horizontal cylinder is shown in figure below. An
Excel spreadsheet was made in order to easily calculate ho.

Figure 4-3 Natural convection heat transfer from an isothermal horizontal cylinder

34

As shown in the equations in the box, figure 4-2, the length parameter used in the Nusselt
number and Grashof number is the cylinder diameter, D. There is a single correlation for the
Nusselt number for this configuration. It applies for Rayleigh number less than 1012.
We note that the water properties were extracted from the pressurized water tables at 6 bars
pressure.
The figure 4-3 above shows the calculations made in the excel spreadsheet available on the
soft copy. It clearly shows how large is ho, thus it can be neglected in the calculations of U.

Figure 4-4 Excel spreadsheet calculations for natural convection

35

4.2.8 Overall heat transfer coefficient U

Equation 7 will give us the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside surface area.
(

But first, we need to determine three more remaining variables:

The thermal conductivity of the steel tube material:

The gas side fouling resistance
; from Table 2:

The water side fouling resistance

; where

at 200C

Finally,
(

And

However, if we neglect the terms corresponding to the fouling factors, the wall resistance
and the water side convection resistance, we obtain the following value of Uo:

Thus all the resistances cited above affects the value of Uo only by 8%.
In other words, the gas side coefficient of convection hi dominates the U value and further in
the Excel spreadsheet attached, only hi will be inputted and the other factors will neglected,
and the value of Uo will be multiplied by a factor of 0.92.
Consequently, Uo will be calculated in the following way:
Hence,
And finally

36

4.2.9 Log mean temperature difference TLM

The log mean temperature difference (also known by LMTD) is used to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in the fire tube boiler since the entrance and exit
temperatures of the fluids are not the same.
In our case:

4.2.10 Boiler Duty Q

The boiler duty Q represents the heat load available from cooling the gas from 400 C to
230C; Eq. 5:

Hence

4.2.11 Surface Area and Tube Length

Theheatexchangerssurfaceareaisobtainedfromtheequation 3.b :

And finally we deduce the length of the tubes:

Nowthatwevecalculatedthedimensionoftheboiler,wemustverifythedesignforpressure drop.

37

4.3 Pressure Drop

Back pressure refers to pressure opposed to the desired flow of a fluid in a confined place
such as a pipe. It is often caused by obstructions or tight bends such as piping or air vents.
Because it is really resistance, the term back pressure is misleading as the pressure remains
and causes flow in the same direction, but the flow is reduced due to resistance.
Back pressure caused by the exhaust system of an engine has a negative effect on engine
efficiency resulting in a decrease of power output that must be compensated by increasing
fuel consumption, and finally, if the backpressure is high, it will cause the diesel engine to
shut down.
Our goal now is to determine the pressure drop of the exhaust gas across the fire tube boiler
and make sure that it is not beyond its limit.
Mainly, pressure drop is the result of frictional forces on the fluid as it flows in the core of
the tube.
But first, a fluid experiences an entrance loss as it enters the tubes due to a sudden reduction in flow area as well as it exits the core due to a sudden expansion.
In fluid dynamics, the DarcyWeisbach equation relates the pressure loss due to friction
along a given length of pipe to the average velocity of the fluid flow.
The DarcyWeisbach equation contains a dimensionless friction factor, known as the Darcy
friction factor. This is also called the DarcyWeisbach friction factor or Moody friction factor.
The expression for turbulent flow pressure drop of fluids (Reynolds number >2100) is:
(12)
Where

38

4.3.1 Darcy Friction Factor

Moody Chart

39

Before choosing a formula to calculate f, it is worth knowing that in the paper on the Moody
chart, Moody stated the accuracy is about 5% for smooth pipes and 10% for rough pipes.
We note that the absolute roughness of the tubes made of commercial steel is:

So the relative roughness is:

From the Moody chart we conclude that:

However, although the Moody chart is accurate, it is also impractical to use and an analytical
method is preferred.
Colebrook equation
The Colebrook equation is an implicit equation that combines experimental results of studies
of turbulent flow in smooth and rough pipes. The equation is used to iteratively solve for the
DarcyWeisbach friction factor f. This equation is also known as the ColebrookWhite equation.

However, this equation is impractical and needs a couple of iterations in order to converge
to the exact value of f.
SwameeJain equation
The SwameeJain equation is used to solve directly for the DarcyWeisbach friction factor f
for a full-flowing circular pipe. It is an approximation of the implicit ColebrookWhite equation.

The Swamee-Jain equation is explicit and easy to solve, and it gives a relatively accurate and
tolerable result.
The calculation is implemented in the spreadsheet and described below:

40

)+

4.3.2 Minor Losses and Equivalent Length Le

Many pipe systems contain various transition sections in which the pipe diameter changes
from one size to another. Such changes may occur abruptly or rather smoothly through
some type of area change section. Any change in flow area contributes additional pressure
drop. Such losses are generally termed minor losses.
The most common method used to determine these pressure drops is to specify the loss
coefficient, K, for each minor loss then calculate the equivalent length, leq, which are related
by:

Then the total equivalent length, Leq, of the system is given by:

In fact, the pressure drop in the pipe system is the same as that produced in a straight pipe
whose length is equal to the pipe of the original system plus the sum of the additional equivalent lengths of all of the minor losses in the system.

In our case, these losses are the entrance and exit loss:

41

4.3.2.1 Entrance Loss

Figure 4-5 Entrance flow conditions and loss coefficient (a) Reentrant, K=0.8, (b) sharp-edged, K=0.5,
(c) slightly rounded, K=0.2, (d) well-rounded, K=0.04.

4.3.2.2 Exit Loss

Figure 4-6 Exit flow conditions and loss coefficient (a) Reentrant, K=1, (b) sharp-edged, K=1, (c) slightly rounded, K=1, (d) well-rounded, K=1.

42

4.3.2.3 Equivalent Length

Considering the tube to tube sheet welding technique, we can tolerably assume that the
entrance and exit of the tubes are both sharp-edged, then:

And finally,
(

4.3.3 Pressure Drop

The pressure drop of the gas across the fire tube boiler is finally given by Eq. 12:

We notice that:

Hence, the [tube length/tube count/tube ID] configuration that weve considered is valid
and causes allowable backpressure to the Diesel engines.
Furthermore, similar calculations were made (Excel Spreadsheet) considering that the 6 engines are all running at full power at the same time instead of 3.5 which is in fact the most
critical case for backpressure.
For 6 engines running

Yet, several other configurations can produce a better heat transfer and still an allowable
pressure drop. This point will be discussed in the next section.

43

4.3.4 Heat Transfer vs. Pressure Drop

Obviously, different boiler configuration may lead to different heat transfer and pressure
drop.
First, let us examine the following table where the values were calculated using the excel
spreadsheet:
Size, in
1.75x1.521
2.0x1.77
2.5x2.238
Number of tubes

150

200

250

130

180

230

100

150

200

Velocity, m/s

41.6

31.2

24.96

35.44

25.6

20.03

28.82

19.21

14.41

Length, m

3.67

3.46

3.31

4.26

4.0

3.8

5.42

4.71

Surface Area, m2

76.83

96.72

115.62

88.42

114.71

139.56

108.1

149.51

188.2

Uo, W/m2-K

77.37

61.47

51.42

67.24

51.83

42.6

55.0

39.76

31.58

P, kPa

2.12

1.15

0.72

1.54

0.77

0.46

1.02

0.43

0.23

Table 7 - Results of design calculations for fire tube waste heat boilers for the same duty

Surface area should not be used as the sole criterion for selecting boilers, because tube size
and gas velocity affect this variable.
Shown in table 7 are the design options for the same boiler duty using different gas velocities and tube sizes; the procedure described in the last section was used to arrive at these
options. The purpose behind this table is to bring out the fact that surface area can vary by
as much as 50% for the same duty.
1. As the gas velocity increases, the surface area required decreases, which is obvious.
2. The smaller the tubes, the higher the heat transfer coefficient for the same gas velocity, which also decreases the surface area.
3. For the same gas pressure drop, the tube length is smaller if the tube size is smaller.
This fact helps when we try to fit a boiler into a small space.
4. For the same tube size, increasing the gas velocity results in a longer boiler, a greater
gas pressure drop, but smaller surface area.
So is surface area an important criterion for evaluating different boiler designs?
The answer is yes if the person evaluating the designs is knowledgeable in heat transfer
related aspects and no if the person simply compares different designs looking only for surface area information. We can observe this in the Table 7 which shows the results of design
calculations for fire tube waste heat boilers in different configurations, and where, due to
variations in tube size and gas velocity, different designs with over 4050% difference in surface areas were obtained for the same duty Q.
The interpretation of these values can be concluded in the following diagrams:
44

 Need to increase heat transfer?

As a matter of fact, when the surface area increases, the heat transfer increases.
Similarly, increasing the gas velocity inside the tube increases the heat transfer coefficient hi
and therefore the heat transfer increases.

Increase number
of tubes

Tube Side
Decrease tube
outside Diameter

Increase heat
transfer
coefficient
Shell Side

Need to increase
heat transfer

not applicable in
fire tube boilers

Increase tube
length

Increase shell
diameter and
number of tubes

Increase surface
area

Employ multiple
shells in series or
parallel

Figure 4-7 Influence of various geometrical parameters of a shell-and-tube exchanger on heat transfer and pressure drop.

45

 Need to reduce pressure drop?

The pressure drop is a function of the gas velocity, V, and the length of the tube, L.
Increasing the length will increase the pressure drop.
Increasing the tube diameter or the number of tubes will decrease V and we obtain a lower
pressure drop.

Decrease number of
tube passes

Tube Side

Increase tube diameter

Decrease tube length

and increase shell
diameter and number
of tubes

Need to reduce
pressure drop

Shell Side

Not applicable in fire

tube boilers

Figure 4-8 Influence of various geometrical parameters of a shell-and-tube exchanger on heat transfer and pressure drop.

46

5 Off-Design Performance
Nowthatwevesizedtheboilerforapre-assumed gas exit temperature, the off-design performance calculations will predict the gas exit temperature and steam generation for a given
boiler configuration where the entrance temperature, gas flow rate and size are known. But
firstletsassumethefollowing:
Assumptions:
Instead of L= 3.46 m tubes -letssay3.5 m- calculated in the sizing section,
we will use L= 3 m tubes for the sole reason that commercial tubes come in
packages of 6 m of length. Therefore, cutting these tubes for L= 3.5 m will
leave 2.5 m pieces that cannot be used which is not economical.
For L= 3m the new surface area is:

First, we will discuss the logic for determining the off-design performance of a fire tube
waste heat boiler with the configuration assumed above.
Performance calculations are more involved than design calculations, because we do not
know the gas exit temperature and the simple procedure presented above is used to predict
it.[11]
Letstakealookatthefollowingflowchartinfigure5-1:

47

Known:
Tube length
Tube diameter
Number of tubes
Gas inlet flow rate
Gas inlet
temperature
Assume:
Gas exit temperature
Surface Area

t2

END

Determine Gas properties

Calculate Gas Velocity

Calculate steam generation:

Calculate Reynolds number

Calculate Nusselt number

Calculate Duty Q

Deduce hi

Y
Calculate U

Solve for T2 unknown:

Figure 5-1 Flow chart for fire tube design procedure

48

The boiler duty Q is given by the expression:

(13)

Simplifying, we have:
(14)

We assume that t2= 230C as the gas exit temperature, then

At this temperature, the gas properties are the following:

The internal velocity:

Gas mass flow rate:

Reynolds number:

Nusselt number:

Convection coefficient :

U-Value:

49

Nowits time to solve equation 14 where T2 is unknown:

And since:
then we need to iterate until the temperatures converge to the exact gas exit temperature.
The easiest way to iterate is to assume:

Then we recalculate the average temperature:

Andnowwedeterminethenewgaspropertiesat322C:

The internal velocity:

Gas mass flow rate:

Reynolds number:

Nusselt number:

Convection coefficient:

U-Value:
Again we solve equation 14 where T2 is unknown:

50

Hence,

This time we get:

Conclusively, the two values have converged and we can now predict that the exit temperature of the exhaust gas is:

Hence, we can now calculate the duty of the boiler and the flow rate of the steam generated:

The calculations procedure is implemented in the excel spreadsheet, but manual iteration of
the values is needed.

Heat Exchanger Effectiveness

Effectiveness is a measure of thermal performance of a heat exchanger. It is defined for a

given heat exchanger of any flow arrangement as a ratio of the actual heat transfer rate
from the hot fluid to the cold fluid to the maximum possible heat transfer rate Qmax thermodynamically permitted:

Or

Hence,

51

6 Boilers Mechanical Design

6.1 Pressure vessel
6.1.1 Introduction
The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinder or tanks) are used to store fluids under pressure. The fluid
being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel as in case of steam
boilers or it may combine with other reagents as in a chemical plant. The pressure vessels
are designed with great care because rupture of pressure vessels means an explosion which
may cause loss of life and property. The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such that
cast iron or ductile such as mild steel.
Cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels (e.g., hydraulic cylinders, gun barrels, pipes, boilers
and tanks) are commonly used in industry to carry both liquids and gases under pressure.
When the pressure vessel is exposed to this pressure, the material comprising the vessel is
subjected to pressure loading, and hence stresses, from all directions. The normal stresses
resulting from this pressure are functions of the radius of the element under consideration,
the shape of the pressure vessel (i.e., open ended cylinder, closed end cylinder, or sphere) as
well as the applied pressure.
Two types of analysis are commonly applied to pressure vessels. The most common method
is based on a simple mechanics approach and is applicable to thin wall pressure vessels
which by definition have a ratio of inner radius, r, to wall thickness,t,ofr/t10.Thesecond
method is based on elasticity solution and is always applicable regardless of the r/t ratio and
canbereferredtoasthesolutionforthickwallpressurevessels.
In our analysis we will discuss the thin wall pressure vessel approach in order to determine
the type and thickness of the material that forms the body of our cylindrical fire tube boiler
according to the ASME code (American Association of Mechanical Engineers.)
6.1.2 Manufacturing Constraints
While perforating the tube sheets, a minimum inter-tube distance of 3 cm should be given
according to the manufacturer. This will affect the diameter of the shell and the tube sheet.
6.1.3 Shell Dimensions
Given:

An AutoCad drawing (Figure 6-1) was used to determine the tube sheet diameter. The boiler
must have the following dimensions:
52

Figure 6-1 Tubesheet AutoCad drawing and dimensions

6.1.4 Material and Maximum Allowable Stress

Mild steel such as SAE-285 Grade C steel which is a typical hot rolled mild steel [4] will be
used in the construction of the pressure vessel.
According to the ASME code, the design should be made with respect to the Maximum Allowable Stress of the material and not its Yield strength unlike European codes.
The maximum allowable stress value is the maximum unit stress permitted in a given material used in a vessel constructed under the ASME code [5] It is usually based on 2/3rd of the
Yield strength of the material (equivalent to a 1.5 safety factor in Euronorm). In the design of
a pressure vessel the max allowable stress is based on one-fourth of the ultimate tensile
strength of the material.(equivalent to a 4 safety factor in Euronorm) [4].
The hazard of an exploding vessel is great, a fact which justifies the use of a greater factor of
safety for pressure vessels than any other application.
The max allowable stress for SAE-285 Grade C steel temperature not exceeding 400F [6]
(204C) is:

53

6.1.5 Loadings and Design Pressure

Vessels covered by this Division of Section VIII shall be designed for at least the most severe
condition of coincident pressure and temperature expected in normal operation. For this
condition the maximum difference in pressure between the inside and outside of a vessel.
[7]
The loadings to be considered in designing a vessel shall include those from:
6.1.5.1 Internal and external pressure

6.1.5.2 Weight of the vessel and normal contents under operating or test conditions
This includes additional pressure due to static head of liquids that is maximum at the bottom
of the vessel:

Where

Finally

6.1.5.3 The final design pressure

The final inside design pressure shall be:

54

6.1.6 Pressure Vessel thickness under internal pressure

The thickness of shells under internal pressure shall be not less than that computed by the
following formulas. The symbols defined below are used in the formulas of this paragraph:
.
P

For cylindrical shells, the minimum thickness should be greater than the greatest thickness
given by the formulas below [8]:
1. Circumferential Stress (Longitudinal joints)

2. Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential joints)

Figure 6-2 explains the type of stresses in a cylindrical shell:

Figure 6-2 types of stresses in a cylindrical shell, S1=longitudinal stress, S2=Circumferential or hoop
stress

55

 Numerical application:

1. For circumferential stress,

2. For longitudinal joints,

Finally,

And for a corrosion allowance of C.A. = 1mm

6.2 Tube Sheet Design

The tube-plates (tube-sheets) in shell and tube heat exchangers support the tubes, and separate the shell and tube side fluids. One side is subject to the shell side pressure and the
other the tube-side pressure. The plates must be designed to support the maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur. Radial and tangential bending stresses will be induced
in the plate by the pressure load and, for fixed-head exchangers, by the load due to the differential expansion of the shell and tubes.
A tube-plate is essentially a perforated plate with an imperforated rim, supported at its periphery. The tube holes weaken the plate and reduce its flexural rigidity.
This chapter discusses the design of fixed tube sheets in accordance with the method proposed by Dr. K. A. G. Miller. It takes into account the support given to the tube sheets by the
tubes and also the weakening effects of different tube hole spacing. The tube sheet designed
by this method results in thickness much less than as given by the method proposed by
TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association).
The Miller method is generally preferred over the TEMA method for economical purposes,
especially for large diameter alloy tube sheets designed for low internal pressure. There, will
not only be a saving material but, more important, a saving in the machining time for drilling
the holes in the tube sheet.

56

6.2.1 Design Procedure

Figure 6-3 Fire tube boiler scheme

Cross-sectional area of one tube is:

Cross-sectional area of inside of shell is:

Cross-sectional area of tube holes in tube sheet is given by:

Cross-sectional area of shell plate is found using the formula:

Ligament efficiency can be calculated from the relationship:

Determine:

57

6.2.2 Working Conditions

Calculate equivalent pressure difference by:

Differential thermal expansion is:

Effective pressure difference due to the combined pressure difference P and the differential
expansion is:

Determine the value of dimensionless factor:

*
kR
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
2.0
5.5
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0

G1
0.800
0.809
0.820
0.871
1.012
1.34
1.88
2.36
2.75
3.10
3.43
3.77
4.12
4.82
5.54
6.26
6.98
8.43
9.88
11.33
12.80
14.25

+
G2
0.800
0.810
0.844
0.993
1.412
2.40
4.24
6.36
8.53
10.75
13.1
15.8
18.7
25.3
33.1
41.8
51.6
74.3
101.1
132.0
167.2
206.4

G3
+1.000
+0.998
+0.966
+0.836
+0.546
+0.121
-0.306
-0.608
-0.741
-0.727
-0.619
-0.541
-0.515
-0.529
-0.564
-0.602
-0.642
-0.727
-0.816
-0.907
-0.999
-1.091

Table 8 Values for G1, G2, G3 and G4

58

G4
1.000
1.002
1.029
1.14
1.40
1.79
2.25
2.69
3.10
3.47
3.83
4.18
4.54
5.26
5.97
6.68
7.39
8.81
10.23
11.65
13.06
14.48

The values of G1, G2, G3 and G4 corresponding to the factor kR can be read from Table 8.
Maximum radial stress in tube plate is given by:
*

+
[

( )

Also, maximum stress in tube material is greater of:

(

)
]

)
]

Or

If, either of the stresses in any of the cases is found more than the allowable, the tube plate
thickness should be modified unless the stresses within allowable limits are obtained. [9]
6.2.3 Numerical Application
We note that ASTM A53 type F Grade B steel is one of the widely used pipe and tube material and there is no need to check the tube thickness for failure because small diameter tubes
can withstand very high internal and external pressures.
We also note that the tube sheet is made of the same material as the vessel, SAE-285 Grade
C steel.
Now we gathered the following data:
Designtemperaturearound200Cor400F

, the shell design temperature.

, Shell bore.

, Modulus of elasticity of shell material [10]

59

, Coefficient of thermal expansion for shell

, the tube design temperature.

, Modulus of elasticity of tube material

, Coefficient of thermal expansion for tubes

, Modulus of elasticity of tube sheet material

Assuming the total thickness of tubesheets as 2 in. or 50.8 mm therefore,

60

The effective length is:

From Table 8, for kR=4.13 we get by interpolation:

Hence,
*

+
[

And
(

)
]

)
]

Or

Since all the stresses are within allowable limits, a 2 inch thick tubesheet is sufficient for this
exchanger. Thickness could be further reduced but seems to be quite reasonable and safe
for such an exchanger.
61

7 Boiler fittings and mountings

A number of items must be fitted to steam boilers, all with the objective of improving [12]:

Operation.
Efficiency.
Safety.

7.1 Safety valves

An important boiler fitting is the safety valve. Its function is to protect the boiler shell from
over pressure and subsequent explosion.
In Europe, matters relating to the suitability of safety valves for steam boilers are governed
by the European standard EN 12953. In the US and some other parts of the world, such matters are covered by ASME standards.
Many different types of safety valves are fitted to steam boiler plant, but generally they
must all meet the following criteria:

The total discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be at least equal to the 'from
and at 100C' capacity of the boiler. If the 'from and at' evaporation is used to size
the safety valve, the safety valve capacity will always be higher than the actual maximum evaporative boiler capacity.
The full rated discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be achieved within 110%
of the boiler design pressure.
The minimum inlet bore of a safety valve connected to a boiler shall be 20 mm.
The maximum set pressure of the safety valve shall be the design (or maximum permissible working pressure) of the boiler.
There must be an adequate margin between the normal operating pressure of the
boiler and the set pressure of the safety valve.

Figure 7-1 Boiler safety valve

62

7.2 Boiler stop valves

Figure 7-2 Boiler stop valve

A steam boiler must be fitted with a

stop valve (also known as a crown
valve) which isolates the steam boiler
and its pressure from the steam network. It is generally an angle pattern
globe valve of the screw-down variety. Figure 8-2 shows a typical stop
valve of this type.
In the past, these valves have often been manufactured from cast iron, with steel and
bronze being used for higher pressure applications. In the UK, BS 2790 (eventually to be replaced with EN 12953) states that cast iron valves are no longer permitted for this
application on steam boilers. Nodular or spheroidal graphite (SG) iron should not be confused with grey cast iron as it has mechanical properties approaching those of steel. For this
reason many boilermakers use SG iron valves as standard.

7.3 Feedwater Check Valve

The feedwater check valve (as shown in Figures 8-3 and 8-4) is installed in the boiler feedwater line between the feedpump and boiler. A boiler feed stop valve is fitted at the boiler
shell.
The check valve includes a spring equivalent to the head of water in the elevated boiler
when there is no pressure in the boiler. This prevents the feed pump being flooded by the
static head from the boiler.

Figure 7-3 Boiler Check Valve

Under normal steaming conditions the

check valve operates in a conventional
manner to stop return flow from the boiler
entering the feed line when the feedpump
is not running. When the feedpump is running, its pressure overcomes the spring to
feed the boiler as normal.
63

Figure 7-4 Location of feed check valve

7.4 Pressure gauge

All boilers must be fitted with at least one pressure indicator. The usual type is a simple
pressure gauge constructed to EN 12953.
The dial should be at least 150 mm in diameter and of the Bourdon tube type, it should be
marked to indicate the normal working pressure and the maximum permissible working
pressure / design pressure.
Pressure gauges are connected to the steam space of the boiler and usually have a ring type
siphon tube which fills with condensed steam and protects the dial mechanism from high
temperatures.

Figure 7-5 Typical pressure gauge with ring siphon

64

7.5 Water Level Indicator

All steam boilers are fitted with at least one water level indicator, but those with a rating of
100 kW or more should be fitted with two indicators. The indicators are usually referred to
as gauge glasses complying with EN 12953.

Figure 7-6 Gauge glass and fittings

A gauge glass shows the current level of water in the boiler, regardless of the boiler's operating conditions. Figure 8-6 shows a typical gauge glass.

7.6 Water level controls

The maintenance of the correct water level in a steam boiler is essential to its safe and efficient operation. The methods of sensing the water level, and the subsequent control of
water level is a complex topic that is covered by a number of regulations. The topic will not
be discussed here.

7.7 Air vents and vacuum breakers

When a boiler is started from cold, the steam space is full of air. This air has no heat value,
and will adversely affect steam plant performance due to its effect of blanketing heat exchange surfaces. The air can also give rise to corrosion in the condensate system, if not
removed adequately.
65

The air may be purged from the steam space using a simple cock; normally this would be left
open until a pressure of about 0.5 bar is showing on the pressure gauge. An alternative to
the cock is a balanced pressure air vent which not only relieves the boiler operator of the
task of manually purging air (and hence ensures that it is actually done), it is also much more
accurate -and will vent gas which may accumulate in the boiler. Typical air vents are shown
in Figure 8-7.
When a boiler is taken off-line, the steam in the steam space condenses and leaves a vacuum. This vacuum causes pressure to be exerted on the boiler from the outside, and can
result in boiler inspection doors leaking, damage to the boiler flat plates and the danger of
overfilling a shutdown boiler. To avoid this, a vacuum breaker (see Figure 8-7) is required on
the boiler shell.

Figure 7-7 Typical air vents and vacuum breakers

66

8 Conclusion
In a broader context, regarding the design methods presented in this report, one can easily
design any type of fire tube boiler, discuss the different configurations to find the optimal
size and easily predict the performance of the designed boiler i.e. theboilersduty,steam
generation as well as the exhaust gas exit temperature and the back pressure produced in
the exhaust system.
From the heat transfer and pressure drop point of view, the report is complete. However,
regarding the mechanical design, only the shell and the tubesheet thicknesses were studied.
Conclusively, a inch shell and 1 inch tubesheet thicknesses are found to be very safe for
any type of mild steel used as a construction material. Inaddition,thetubesmaterialdoesnt
form any concern and a 6 bars external pressure is not considered to be serious for tubes.
Inevitably, the gas ducts and also the shell must be insulated to minimize the heat losses in
the system. Additionally, the duct on the exit of the boiler must be designed in a way that it
can be moved in order to perform the cleaning for the tubes on a regular basis to prevent
theeffectsoffoulingontheboilersperformance.
The next page is a figure that represents the boilersscheme.
A soft copy is attached to the report and contains the following files:

The report in .pdf and .doc formats.

The boiler sizing calculations Excel spreadsheet.
The boiler off design performance calculations Excel spreadsheet.
The natural convection heat transfer coefficient calculations Excel Spreadsheet.
An AutoCad 3D drawing of the boiler configuration and placement.
An AutoCad drawing of the perforated tube sheet.
AnAutocaddrawingoftheboilersmountingsandthewholesystemconnections.

67

68

References
[1] Bergles et al. (1991) survey
[2] Kakac and Liu (1998)
[3] Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators Design, Applications, and Calculations - V. Ganapathy, page 61
[4] Equipment Design By Lloyd E. Brownell, Edwin H. Young, page 24
[5] ASME code, Section VIII, Division 1, Part UG, UG-23, Maximum allowable stress values,
page 20.
[6] ASME code, Section II, Part D, sub-part 1, Tables 1A, page 6/643
[7] ASME code, Section VIII, Division 1, Part UG, UG-22, Loadings, page 20.
[8] ASME code, Section VIII, Division 1, Part UG, UG-27, Thickness of shells under internal
pressure, page 24.
[9] Miller, K. A. G., "The Design of Tube Plates in Heat Exchangers," Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 1B, 1952 53, page 215-231.
[10] ASME code, Section II, Part D, sub-part 2, Tables TM-1, page 606.1
[11] Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators, Design, Applications, and
Calculations, Chapter 8, Heat Transfer Equipment Design and Performance.
[12] http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-tutorials/the-boilerhouse/boiler-fittings-and-mountings.asp

69