Clinical Biomechanics 16 Supplement No.

1 (2001) S101S110

www.elsevier.com/locate/clinbiomech

Mechanical impedance of the sitting human body in single-axis

compared to multi-axis whole-body vibration exposure
Patrik Holmlund *, Ronnie Lundstr
om
National Institute of Working Life, Technical Risk Factors, PO Box 7654, Ume
a S-907 13, Sweden

Abstract
Objective. The study was aimed to investigate the mechanical impedance of the sitting human body and to compare data obtained
in laboratory single-axis investigations with multi-axis data from in vehicle measurements.
Design. The experiments were performed in a laboratory for single-axis measurements. The multi-axis exposure was generated
with an eight-seat minibus where the rear seats had been replaced with a rigid one. The subjects in the multi-axis experiment all
participated in the single-axis experiments.
Background. There are quite a few investigations in the literature describing the human response to single-axis exposure. The
response from the human body can be expected to be aected by multi-axis input in a dierent way than from a single-axis exposure.
The present knowledge of the eect of multiple axis exposure is very limited.
Methods. The measurements were performed using a specially designed force and accelerometer plate. This plate was placed
between the subject and the hard seat.
Results. Outcome shows a clear dierence between mechanical impedance for multi-axis exposure compared to single-axis. This is
especially clear in the x-direction where the dierence is very large.
Conclusion. The conclusion is that it seems unlikely that single-axis mechanical impedance data can be directly transferred to a
multi-axis environment. This is due to the force cross-talk between dierent directions. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Whole-body; Vibration; Multi-axis; Mechanical impedance

1. Introduction
Knowledge of how vibration is transmitted to and
through the human body can provide an important
input to our understanding of human response to wholebody vibration (WBV). For instance, biodynamic
studies have identied critical frequency ranges, i.e.,
resonant frequencies, for dierent parts of the body,
such as the eyes, head, shoulders, neck and spine (e.g.,
[13]). It is possible that some types of detrimental
eects are closely related to WBV exposures that contain
frequencies leading to a resonant behaviour of the body
or parts of the body. It has for instance been shown that
the spine has a resonant frequency of about 5 Hz [1,2,4],
i.e., a frequency which is produced in many types of
vehicles and earth-moving machinery [5]. This might be
a causal or a contributing factor for the development of

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: patrik.holmlund@niwl.se (P. Holmlund).

low back pain among professional drivers [6]. Understanding of whole-body dynamics is also necessary for
proper design of protective measures, such as suspension
seats.
The mechanical driving point impedance can be used
to describe the biodynamical properties of the human
body. It species the complex ratio between the dynamic
force to which the subject is exposed and the resulting
body motion in terms of velocity. The international
standard, ISO/CD 5982 [7], presents diagrams showing
the modulus and phase of the driving point impedance
of the human body in the z-direction for an upright
sitting posture. The diagrams cover about 80% of the
range of experimental values obtained from available
literature, predominantly published before 1970 (for
references, see ISO/CD 5982 [7]). It is clearly stated in
the standard that presented information is aicted with
certain restrictions, among which the most important
are the limited number of included subjects (39 males),
frequency range (0.530 Hz), input acceleration amplitudes 12 m s 2 , z-direction only, whole-body weights

0268-0033/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 2 6 8 - 0 0 3 3 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 1 0 2 - 9

S102

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

(5194 kg), posture of the body and body restrains. In

some cases the author does not give the input acceleration and the subject posture is usually poorly dened.
Due to all these restrictions it is clearly stated in the
standard that the information needs to be revised, as
further experimental data are available.
The international standard ISO/CD 5982 standard is
restricted to males [7]. The question of gender dierences
is getting more and more relevant, since the number of
female drivers is steadily increasing. As there are differences in average anthropometric measures and muscle strength capacity between males and females it seems
plausible to assume dierences in biodynamic behaviour. These dierences have to be considered when
trying to understand the risk of injury. Impedance data
for females are not easily found in the literature, therefore studies directed towards this matter are needed.
Against this background the purpose of this paper
was threefold. Firstly, to present results from a laboratory study showing data for the mechanical impedance
of the human body in the three orthogonal directions
fore-aft (x), lateral (y) and vertical (z), for dierent
conditions. Secondly to present some corresponding
data obtained during driving of a vehicle. Thirdly, to
compare laboratory and eld data.
2. Method
2.1. Subjects
The study groups for vertical and horizontal singleaxis laboratory experiments consisted of 15 females and
15 males, of which some participated in both. Vehicle

measurements were done on three subjects who had

participated in both laboratory studies. Basic information about their anthropometric measures, age, work
assignment, years at work, general state of health, previous or present exposure to whole-body vibration, etc.,
were asked for in a questionnaire. All subjects were
considered to be healthy and with no signs or symptoms
of musculo-skeletal disorders, such as low back pain or
lumbago. Averaged anthropometric data for the subjects are shown in Table 1.
2.2. Experimental setup
2.2.1. Single-axis laboratory experiments
With a signal generator (Br
uel & Kjr 1049), an
electrodynamic shaker (Ling Dynamic System, Mod.
712 + ILS 712) and a power amplier (Ling Dynamic
System, MPA 1) sinusoidal vibrations were generated.
For the z-direction experiments a girder was directly
bolted onto the shaker table. Two linear ball bearings
were mounted on the girder, one at each edge, in order
to reduce momentum forces on the shaker. Between the
seat plate, which was made of a 30 mm thick wooden
board (230  300 mm2 ), and the girder four force
transducers (Kistler 9251) were mounted. An accelerometer (Br
uel & Kjr 4231) was centrally attached underneath the seat plate. For the x- and y-direction
experiments acceleration and force were measured with
a specially designed seat plate, consisting of two aluminium plates with a tri-axial accelerometer (Br
uel &
Kjr 4231) and four tri-axial force cells (Kistler 9251)
mounted in between them. All transducers were of piezo-electric type.

Table 1
Mean (M), standard deviation (SD) maximum (max) and minimum (min) values for the subjects' age (years), body weight (kg) and height (cm) in the
two laboratory studies and the corresponding data for the three subjects from the in vehicle study
Female
M (SD, max, min)

Male
M (SD, max, min)

All
M (SD, max, min)

Laboratory experiments
z-direction
n
Age
Weight
Height

15
24 (2, 30, 32)
66 (10, 93, 54)
168 (6, 180, 157)

15
38 (12, 58, 22)
74 (9, 92, 57)
177 (6, 190, 167)

30
31 (11, 58, 22)
70 (11, 93, 54)
173 (7, 190, 157)

x-, y-direction
n
Age
Weight
Height

15
34 (11, 511, 22)
63 (7, 76, 54)
167 (4, 173, 160)

15
39 (12, 59, 24)
75 (10, 93, 55)
177 (6, 188, 167)

30
37 (11, 59, 2)
69 (10, 93, 54)
172 (7, 188, 160)

Subject

Age (years)

Height (cm)

Weight (kg)

In vehicle experiments
A
B
C

48
44
35

175
174
176

74
74
74

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

The signals from the transducers were amplied and

low-pass ltered by identical charge ampliers (vertically: Br
uel & Kjr 2635, horizontally: RION UV6) and
Bessel-lters (cut-o frequency: 300 Hz). By using the
signal feedback function (i.e., compressor) in the signal
generator, the vibration level could be kept constant
independent of the frequency and load. After A/Dconversion (fs 1000 Hz) of the force and acceleration
signals, the values were continuously stored on disk for
later analysis.
2.2.2. In vehicle experiments
The passenger seats at the back of the eight-seat minibus were removed and a semi-rigid seat was mounted
between the rear wheels. The centre of the seat was
approximately 20 cm in front of the rear axle. No back
support or elbowrests were used in this investigation.
Acceleration and force were measured with the same
seat plate as in the horizontal laboratory study. The
signals from these transducers were fed to six identical
charge ampliers (Br
uel & Kjr 2635) set for bandpass
in the frequency range of 0.2 to 100 Hz. Time histories
were stored using a digital tape recorder (SONY
PC208Ax). The sampling rate was set to 12 kHz. A
digital system was used to transfer measurements to a
computer (SONY PCIF250NI). Data were down sampled to 1024 Hz and analysed.
2.3. Experimental procedure
Prior to the rst occasion, each subject was given
written information about the experiment, which included the purpose of the study, possible risk for acute
or chronic injuries, ethical committee approval (University of Ume
a, Dnr 94-255) and their right to either
interrupt an on-going test run or refrain from further
tests. Each subject signed informed prior consent.
The experimental procedure for all test runs in the
laboratory followed a predetermined protocol. After
weighing in a standing position the subjects sat down on
the seat plate and positioned their feet on an adjustable
footrest. At each occasion the subject was exposed to
one of the four (six in horizontal direction) acceleration
levels (0.25, 0.35) 0.5, 0.7, 1.0 or 1:4 m s 2 r.m.s. in both
erect (E) and relaxed (R) upper body posture. In vehicle
experiments used the same postures as the laboratory
studies, sitting erect (E) and relaxed (R). The former was
dened as sitting upright with the hands resting on the
knees, the later originated from the erect posture where
the subject was asked to relax and adopt a more comfortable sitting posture. The experimenter visually
checked the posture during each test run. If a correction
of the posture was required this was done during measurement pauses. For laboratory studies measurement
period for each frequency was followed by a 5 s pause.
The sinusoidal signal was increased in frequency from 2

S103

to 100 Hz in steps of 1/3 octaves, except in the range 2.5

20 Hz where the steps were 1/6 octaves, for vertical direction. For the horizontal directions frequency was
increased from 1.132.5 to 31.580 Hz, depending on
exposure level, in steps of 1/6 octaves, except in the
range 2580 Hz where the steps were 1/3 octaves. The
entire experiment took about 30 min to complete for
which about 20 min consisted of exposure to vibration.
Each subject participated at four (six in each horizontal
direction) occasions, all on dierent days, one for each
of the dierent acceleration levels.
The in vehicle measurements, lasting for at least 5
min, were recorded after the subjects had adopted the
erect posture. The driving surface was a snow covered
gravel road, and the speed was maintained at approximately 50 km h 1 . After the run the minibus turned
around and travelled in the opposite direction, repeating
the procedure for the relaxed posture.
2.4. Analysis
The collected data were processed and analysed with
LabViewe 3.1.1 (Macintosh version). For each test
frequency, in the laboratory studies, the collected acceleration signal was integrated to get the velocity. A
root mean square (r.m.s.) value for the measured time
period was then calculated. The r.m.s. value for the force
was determined after vector compensation for the load
produced by the internal mass of the seat plate i.e., a
procedure usually denoted as ``mass cancellation''. On
the basis of these results, the absolute mechanical impedance was calculated. In the laboratory study the
phase dierence between the force and the acceleration
was calculated by measuring the time dierence between
zero crossings for the force and velocity signals.
The in vehicle measurements calculation of the mechanical impedance (Z) was performed by power spectral density method. Acceleration was integrated to
obtain the velocity. The cross-power spectral density
was calculated for the force (F) and velocity (v) and then
divided by the power spectral density of the velocity [8].
The frequency range of the data were 120 Hz, chosen
because this is the most interesting area for WBV.
3. Results
A general nding in vertical direction laboratory experiments was that the impedance increased with the
frequency up to a rst maximum in the range 46 Hz
(Fig. 1). For most test subjects a second and third
maximum in the ranges of 812 and 5070 Hz, respectively, were also observed. At frequencies around 10 Hz,
females showed a more distinct second peak. In many
cases the magnitude for this peak exceeded the rst. Fig.
1 is separated to show the dierences between male and

S104

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

Fig. 1. Mechanical impedance and phase data for the z-direction laboratory study.

female subjects. It is clear from the gure that the mechanical impedance in the vertical direction was nonlinear with respect to the acceleration. It can also be
noted that the peaks were shifted towards lower frequencies as the acceleration was increased.
A general nding for both x- and y-direction laboratory experiments, was that the mechanical impedance
increased with frequency up to a rst peak in the range
25 Hz dependent upon each subject (Figs. 2 and 3,
respectively). For most test subjects a second peak in the
range 57 Hz was also observed in the y-direction.
Dierences between the female and male groups in mechanical impedance peak frequency and magnitude were
also observed.
The mean mechanical impedance spectra for the xdirection showed in principal one peak at about 35 Hz
for both females and males (Fig. 2). At low vibration
levels there was an indication of two defuse peaks at
about 3 and 67 Hz. At higher vibration levels only one
peak was discernible. The phase spectra for the six levels
of acceleration were similar for both females and males
in the x-direction while some dierences were discernible
in the y-direction. Generally, the phase decreased from

about 80 at 1.6 Hz to between )60 and )40 at 10 Hz,

after which it increased.
Mean mechanical impedance in y-direction for female
and male subjects are shown in Fig. 3. The spectra for
the y-direction showed two peaks at about 2 and 6 Hz at
low vibration levels. However, the second peak diminished with increasing vibration level. As the vibration
level increased the mechanical impedance decreased over
the whole frequency range.
The phase is shown as a function of frequency below
each mechanical impedance spectrum (Fig. 3). In the
phase angle spectra for the six levels of acceleration
some dierences were discernible in the y-direction. The
clear dip between the male subjects mechanical impedance peaks correspond to a more concentrated phase
variation than for the female subjects. Generally, the
phase decreased from about 80 at 1.6 Hz to between
)60 and )40 at 10 Hz, after which it increased.
To visualise the range of the mechanical impedance,
data for males and females, erect and relaxed posture
and all vibration levels are pooled in Fig. 4. From this
gure the mean, maximum and minimum values can be
found at dierent frequencies.

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

S105

Fig. 2. Mechanical impedance and phase data for the x-direction laboratory study.

In vehicle measurements results showed similarities

with the laboratory studies (see Fig. 5). However, results
in x-direction were in general clearly dierent. Results in
z-direction showed good resemblance between the
studies, while y-direction results showed magnitudes in
the same range as laboratory studies.
These dierences can to some extent be explained by
the dierent vibration magnitudes obtained in the three
directions. The vertical direction showed the highest
magnitude and the horizontal directions had about onefth of the magnitude in the frequency range 115 Hz.
For both x- and y-directions an acceleration peak was
located in the range 1520 Hz. Coherency functions
between force and acceleration for the three directions
showed that there was a good coherence in the z-direction, while the coherency in the x- and y-directions was
low, in the range 212 Hz.
Individual results for mechanical impedance in the zdirection, in both the minibus and the laboratory studies, are shown in Fig. 5. Even if some dierences are
evident, the mechanical impedance shown had in general
a good agreement with the laboratory data. The most

obvious dierences were that the second peak is located

at a lower frequency.
The results for the x- and y-directions are also shown
in Fig. 5. The mechanical impedance shows a complex
behaviour. In most cases the results from the eld
measurement show two peaks, at about the same frequencies as y-direction laboratory data. However, the
level of the mechanical impedance diers, the eld results show up to 50% lower levels. Interestingly, the
mechanical impedance for subject C shows about the
same level as in the laboratory for y-direction. In the xdirection mechanical impedance show greater dierences
between laboratory and eld measurements. Mechanical
impedance for all subjects shows high magnitudes for
both postures, which is not consistent with x-direction
laboratory data.
4. Discussion
The results from the two laboratory studies show that
the single-axis mechanical impedance of the human

S106

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

Fig. 3. Mechanical impedance and phase data for the y-direction laboratory study.

Fig. 4. Pooled data for dierent experimental conditions (described in the text) showing the mean, maximum and minimum mechanical impedance
and phase.

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

S107

Fig. 5. Results from the in vehicle and laboratory measurements. Thick lines indicate in vehicle measurements, for subjects A, B and C (see Table 1).

body is dependent on a number of factors, such as frequency, vibration level and gender. Generally, it applies
for the horizontal directions that the mechanical impedance increases with frequency up to a rst peak
around 24 Hz. For the y-direction one additional peak,
in the range 57 Hz was in most cases discernible. The
rst peak was found to be more distinct for male subjects than for females, who have their highest impedance
magnitude at the second peak. This was also the case for
the vertical direction.
The results from the in vehicle multi-axis measurements of the mechanical impedance clearly indicate a
quite dierent outcome compared to the single-axis
measurements as shown in Fig. 5. The most obvious
dierence is that the mechanical impedance is higher at
lower frequencies in the x-direction than would be expected. This nding raises some important questions.
Firstly, will the biomechanical behaviour of the human

body for a certain direction be altered when exposure in

other directions is present? If so, as indicated in this
presentation, is then all single-axis mechanical impedance data reported so far either misleading or useless for
multi-axis modelling, risk assessment or preventative
purposes?
Since the human body is such a complex biomechanical system its behaviour cannot easily be described
by a simple model. Single-axis exposure, by using simple
and easy to control stimulus, has been the way to collect
data for modelling purposes. This is partly due to
technical limitations such as lack of multi-axis exposure
systems, limitations regarding software and hardware
for calculations of multi-dimensional models. The systems and models describing the human body behaviour
to vibration in single-axis have been helpful, for the
understanding of human body biomechanics. However,
besides the results from this study, recently reported

S108

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

work also shows results that indicate that motion applied to the human body in one direction will cause
motion also in another direction. This observation is of
course of outer most importance for all kinds of modelling related to human response to vibration, including
biomechanical modelling and health risk assessment.
The phase information between the motion transferred through the human body and the external motion
is extremely important. Since the force component at the
contact point between the body and the seat can be
doubled or cancelled, and as a consequence show completely dierent results than single-axis experiments, one
can only speculate how this could aect the health risk
assessment as dened in ISO 2631 [9]. This standard
does not mention the importance of the phase information, and that the frequency weighting lters dened
in the standard destroys this information.
A goal with the in vehicle experiments in the vehicle
was to investigate if it is possible to quantify mechanical
impedance by measurement in a real vehicle environment. The discussion will onward focus on the possible
explanations of the dierences found between the laboratory studies and the in vehicle measurements. The
vibration magnitudes were very dierent in the three
directions measured, and the z-direction dominated the
vibration at frequencies below 15 Hz. This, however,
does not limit the possibilities to compare these results
with earlier laboratory results. For mechanical impedance, a good resemblance with the laboratory data was
found for the z-direction. Corresponding results for the
horizontal directions did not show the same similarities.
The impedance in the y-direction showed a better resemblance with laboratory results than the x-direction.
For the x-direction, mechanical impedance with too
high values at low frequencies and with too low values at
high frequencies was found.
One reason, however, could be the low vibration
magnitudes present in the horizontal directions, but this
is unlikely. As the laboratory studies showed, an increase in vibration magnitude resulted in decreased
mechanical impedance magnitude. For the in vehicle
results, the mechanical impedance magnitude was lower
than in the laboratory study, where a higher vibration
level was used. Furthermore, unreasonably high mechanical impedance was found in the frequency range 2
6 Hz for the x-direction.
The observations mentioned above can be caused by
three things; either a defected or aected force and acceleration component, with respect to magnitude and
phase, or any combination of them. One can, with good
reason, assume that the acceleration component is not
the cause. This is because acceleration is the input that
eects the human body to produce a force. Thus a
change in acceleration results in a change in force. A
force component could induce a movement but it is not
probable that it could actually move the whole vehicle.

Since the path from the seat plate, which includes the
accelerometer, through the seat, seat base frame and
chassis is almost rigid, the force has to be so high that it
can move the minibus's suspension. Ruling out acceleration, leaves force signal and/or phase for explanation.
Studying the formulae for calculating mechanical impedance provides some clues;
Zf

F f
vf

Ns=m:

The mechanical impedance magnitude is not eected

by a change in phase, but by a change in force. Excluding acceleration, the only component that can
change the magnitude of the mechanical impedance is
force. Consequently, in the x-direction a too high force
component is probably present for all subjects at low
frequencies. A possible source for this extra force could
be contribution originating from acceleration in any of
the other directions. In building a model of upper body
movement due to vertical whole-body vibration, Kitazaki and Grin [10] showed that a fore-and-aft movement of the spine and rotation of the pelvis were
generated. This movement could be the source of the
force transferred to the x-direction.
The force components in the x- and y-directions have
consequently been aected by a force component generated by acceleration in the z-direction. The eect of
this force is probably highly dependent on their phase
relationship. Since the results show a good resemblance
between the laboratory and eld measurements in the zdirection, it is probable that the force component in that
direction has been only slightly, if at all, aected by
force components originating from acceleration in horizontal directions. This is also supported when acceleration levels for dierent directions are taken into
consideration.
This reasoning is also supported by results from another laboratory study (Holmlund, 1998 not published).
The same three subjects were exposed to vibration in
either x- or y-direction, while force and acceleration
were measured in all three directions simultaneously. A
at spectra random acceleration (120 Hz, 0:25 m s 2
r.m.s.) was used with a rigid seat. The results are shown
in Fig. 6. As can be seen, exposure in the x-direction
generated a force component in the z-direction. For the
y-direction, both x- and z-direction forces are generated,
but they are lower than the forces generated by the xdirection vibration. These observations support the
reasoning above. Even though these results do not show
that there are forces in the x- and y-directions originating from vibration in the z-direction, one can assume
that the reverse is likely. However, this eect needs
further investigation. A good understanding of the underlying mechanisms is of utmost importance in order to
be able to measure and explain human response to
multi-axis vibration.

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

S109

2
Fig. 6. Force components obtained during single-axis random excitation (120 Hz, 0:25 m sr:m:s:
) and simultaneous measurements in x-, y- and zdirection.

In order to evaluate fully the biomechanical properties of the human body in an actual vibration environment, more studies of the eect of force components
originating from other directions are needed. For instance, the magnitude, phase and non-linearity of force
cross-talk need to be determined. Experiments with
multi-axis vibration where one or two directions are
kept constant and one or two directions could be varied,
would, in this context be of great interest.

Design of preventative equipment is another area where

multi-axis models are needed. The main conclusion is
that it seems unlikely that single axis data can be simply
transferred to a multi-axis environment. This is an aspect that needs further investigation in order to truly
evaluate the eects of whole-body vibration on the
seated human.

Acknowledgements
5. Conclusions
The data presented in this paper show dierent for
the seated human mechanical impedance when measured in a single-axis compared with a multi-axis wholebody vibration environment. The reason for this dierence is most likely that a single-axis vibration exposure
results in motion and dynamic forces also in other directions. The consequence of this is that biomechanical
models as well as guidelines for health risk assessment
must be multi-axis sensitive to be useful in most areas.

The nancial support by the Swedish Council for

Work Life Research is gratefully acknowledged (project:
94-0026).This research was supported by the European
Commission under the BIOMED 2 concerted action
BMH4-CT98-3251 (Vibration Injury Network).
References
[1] Grin MJ. Handbook of human vibration. London: Academic
Press; 1990.

S110

P. Holmlund, R. Lundstrom / Clinical Biomechanics 16 Suppl. No. 1 (2001) S101S110

[2] Dupuis H, Zerlett G. The eects of whole-body vibration. Berlin:

Springer; 1986.
[3] Sandover J. Behaviour of the spine under shock and vibration: a
review. Clin Biomech 1988;3:24956.
[4] Pope MH, Novotny JE. Spinal biomechanics. J Biomech Eng
1993;115(4B):56974.
[5] Christ E, Brusl H, Donati P, Grin M, Hohmann B, Lundstr
om
R, et al. Vibration at work. Paris: International Section
``Research'', Institut National de Recherche et de Securite
(INRS); 1989.
[6] Bovenzi M, Hulshof CTJ. An updated review of epidemiological
studies on the relationship between exposure to whole-body
vibration and low back pain. Int Arch Occup Environ Health
1999;72:35165.

[7] ISO/CD 5982. Mechanical vibration and shock Mechanical

driving point impedance and transmissibility of the human body
(revision of ISO 5982:1981 and ISO 7962:1987): International
Organization for Standardization; 1991 1991-08-30. Report No.
ISO 5982:1991(E).
[8] Bendat JS, Piersol AG. Random data: analysis and measurement
procedures, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley; 1986.
[9] ISO 2631-1. Mechanical vibration and shock Evaluation of
human exposure to whole body vibration-Part 1: General
requirements: International Organization for Standardization;
1997 1997-05-01. Report No. ISO 2631-1:1997(E).
[10] Kitazaki S, Grin MJ. A modal analysis of whole-body
vibration, using a nite element model of the human body.
J Sound Vib 1997;200(1):83103.