A small note on SQL

What Is SQL?
SQL, Structured Query Language, is the standard language used to communicate with a
relational database. The prototype was originally developed by IBM using Dr. E.F.
Codd's paper ("A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks") as a model. In
1979, not long after IBM's prototype, the first SQL product, ORACLE, was released by
Relational Software, Incorporated (it was later renamed Oracle Corporation). It is, today,
one of the distinguished leaders in relational database technologies. SQL is pronounced
either of two ways: as the letters S-Q-L, or as "sequel"; both pronunciations are
acceptable. However, most experienced SQL users tend to use the latter pronunciation.
If you travel to a foreign country, you may be required to know that country's language to
get around. For example, you may have trouble ordering from a menu via your native
tongue if the waiter speaks only his country's language. Look at a database as a foreign
land in which you seek information. SQL is the language you use to express your needs
to the database. Just as you would order a meal from a menu in another country, you can
request specific information from within a database in the form of a query using SQL.

ANSI SQL?
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is an organization that approves
certain standards in many different industries. SQL has been deemed the standard
language in relational database communication, originally approved in 1986 based on
IBM's implementation. In 1987, the ANSI SQL standard was accepted as the
international standard by the International Standards Organization (ISO). The standard
was revised again in 1992 and was called SQL-92. The newest standard is now called
SQL-99; it's also referred to as SQL3.

• What Is a Database?
• In very simple terms, a database is a collection of data. Some like to think of a
database as an organized mechanism that has the capability of storing
information, through which a user can retrieve stored information in an effective
and efficient manner.
• People use databases every day without realizing it. A phone book is a database.
The data contained consists of individuals' names, addresses, and telephone
numbers. The listings are alphabetized or indexed, which allows the user to
reference a particular local resident with ease. Ultimately, this data is stored in a
database somewhere on a computer. After all, each page of a phone book is not
manually typed each year a new edition is released.
• The database has to be maintained. As people move to different cities or states,
entries may have to be added or removed from the phone book. Likewise, entries
will have to be modified for people changing names, addresses, or telephone
numbers .
 • Relational database:-
A relational database is a database divided into logical units called
tables, where tables are related to one another within the database. A relational database
allows data to be broken down into logical, smaller, manageable units, allowing for easier
maintenance and providing more optimal database performance according to the level of
organization.
Types of SQL Commands
The following sections discuss the basic categories of commands used in SQL to
perform various functions. These functions include building database objects,
manipulating objects, populating database tables with data, updating existing data in
tables, deleting data, performing database queries, controlling database access, and
overall database administration.
The main categories are:-
DDL (Data Definition Language)
DML (Data Manipulation Language)
DQL (Data Query Language)
DCL (Data Control Language)
Data administration commands
Transactional control commands

• Defining Database Structures

Data Definition Language, DDL , is the part of SQL that allows a
database user to create and restructure database objects, such as the creation or the
deletion of a table.
Some of the most fundamental DDL commands discussed during following hours
include the following:
• CREATE TABLE
• ALTER TABLE
• DROP TABLE
• TRUNCATE

• Manipulating Data
Data Manipulation Language, DML , is the part of SQL used to manipulate data
within objects of a relational database.
There are three basic DML commands:
INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
 • Data Query Language: Selecting Data
Though comprised of only one command, Data Query Language (DQL) is the
most concentrated focus of SQL for modern relational database users. The base command
is as follows:
SELECT
This command, accompanied by many options and clauses, is used
to compose queries against a relational database. Queries, from simple to complex, from
vague to specific, can be easily created.
A query is an inquiry to the database for information. A query is
usually issued to the database through an application interface or via a command line
prompt.
• Data Control Language
Data control commands in SQL allow you to control access to data within the
database. These DCL commands are normally used to create objects related to user access
and also control the distribution of privileges among users. Some data control commands
are as follows:

– ALTER PASSWORD
– GRANT
– REVOKE

• Data Administration Commands

Data administration commands allow the user to perform
audits and perform analyses on operations within the database. They can also be used to
help analyze system performance. Two general data administration commands are as
follows:
– START AUDIT
– STOP AUDIT

Database administration is the overall administration of a

database, which envelops the use of all levels of commands. Database administration is
much more specific to each SQL implementation than are those core commands of the
SQL language.

• Transactional Control Commands

In addition to the previously introduced categories of commands,
there are commands that allow the user to manage database transactions.
• COMMIT Saves database transactions
• ROLLBACK Undoes database transactions
• SAVEPOINT Creates points within groups of transactions in
which to ROLLBACK