MARCH 2010 PRIMEFACT 814
Zoonoses – animal diseases
transmissible to humans
Stephen Love
Veterinarian, State Coordinator – Internal Parasites
Introduction
Simply defined, zoonoses (plural of ‘zoonosis’) are
animal diseases that are transmissible to humans.
About 75% of emerging human infectious diseases
are thought to have come from animals, including
wildlife (Heyman 2004). Governments in Australia
aim to address this threat by strengthening links
between human and animal health systems (CDI
2008).
Although there are many animal-borne disease
agents that can affect humans, zoonoses fortunately
are not common in Australia. However, for affected
individuals this provides little comfort, particularly
as some zoonoses have serious consequences.
Most at risk of contracting a zoonosis are people in
close contact with animals or animal products. This
includes veterinarians, farmers, abattoir workers,
shearers and, of course, pet owners. Also at higher
risk are children, the elderly and pregnant women,
as well as those with impaired immunity.
The occurrence of most diseases including zoonoses
depends on many factors. The mere presence of a
disease agent is rarely sufficient. Other important
factors include the level of exposure, a mechanism
to transfer the disease and host susceptibility.
Defining zoonosis
‘Zoonosis’ comes from the Greek words zoon
(animal) and osis (ill).
The 2008 Communicable Diseases Intelligence
Report defines zoonoses this way: ‘A zoonosis is
an infection or infectious disease transmissible
under natural conditions from vertebrate animals to
humans. Animal hosts play an essential role in
maintaining the infection in nature, and humans are
only incidental hosts.’
Direct and indirect zoonoses and
environmental infections
Some experts restrict their definition of ‘zoonosis’ to
those animal diseases that are transmitted directly
to humans without the involvement of a vector 1 or
intermediate host. This definition includes rabies,
but excludes liver fluke and arboviruses. Also
excluded are disease agents that are food- or
water-borne which, as well as being indirectly
transmitted, can sometimes come from the
environment or humans rather than animals.
Members of the Mycobacterium avium-
intracellulare complex are an example of microbes
that can come from sources other than animals.
These bacteria can be associated with poultry and
pigs, and may cause disease in these animals. But
they are also commonly present in soil and water
and can cause disease in humans, usually those
with defective immunity. The disease in humans is
sometimes called environmental mycobacterial
disease.
E. coli are commonly found in the gastrointestinal
tract of people, as well as animals. Many types of
E. coli are harmless. Some produce toxins,
including Shiga toxin. These are called Shiga
1
Vector (epidemiology): an organism, often an invertebrate
arthropod, which transmits a pathogen from reservoir to host.
toxigenic E. coli (STEC), sometimes called Notifiable zoonoses – how common are
verocytotoxin-producing E. coli (VTEC). There are they?
various strains of STEC, e.g. E. coli O111 and E.
coli O157. STEC infections cause diarrhoea; some Table 1. Summary of information from
infections cause haemolytic uraemic syndrome Communicable Diseases Intelligence, 2008.
(HUS), a severe condition characterised by kidney
failure, bleeding and anaemia. This can sometimes Zoonoses notifiable to Comment
be fatal. Sources include undercooked ground NNDSS – confirmed
meat, or food or water contaminated with faeces human cases (2006)
from infected people and animals.
Anthrax. Cutaneous anthrax, western
Campylobacter infections commonly cause 1 notification NSW.
diarrhoea in humans. Infected animals and (10 occurrences of
contaminated food (especially undercooked anthrax reported in
livestock).
poultry) or water have been implicated in
outbreaks. However, often the source is unknown. Australian bat lyssaviral Two known cases prior to 2006
or lyssaviral were in humans in 1996 and
Some other diseases in humans that can be
(unspecified) infection. 1998 (both fatal) following close
food- or water-borne include salmonellosis, Zero notifications. contact with bats. Infection in
streptococcosis, yersiniosis, giardiasis and Australian bats may have been
cryptosporidiosis. present for a number of years
prior to its first detection.
Cryptosporidiosis can be serious in patients with
defective immune systems. Causes may be human Brucellosis. Includes B. suis, melitensis and
or animal types of the organism. Humans can be 49 notifications (0.2 abortus. All cases except
affected by different variants of C. parvum: either the cases per 100,000). B. suis believed to be from
human variant (human genotype 1 or C. hominis) Qld (40), NSW (8), overseas exposure.
WA (1).
or the bovine (bovine genotype 2) variant.
Leptospirosis. Exposure to infected urine of
Arbovirus infections (arthropod-borne viruses),
147 notifications. wild and domestic animals.
notably Murray Valley encephalitis (MVE) and Ross
(0.7 cases per 100,000). Highest rate: Qld (117
River fever, are examples of indirect zoonoses. notifications), most from Far
The source of MVE, a flavivirus infection, is wild North Qld.
birds. It occurs in Australia and New Guinea, Ornithosis. Inhaling Chlamydophila psittaci
but is rare. Transmission is by mosquito (Culex 168 notifications from faeces, secretions or dust
annulirostris) bites. Most cases (99%) are (0.8 cases per 100,000). from various birds, including
symptom-free. Highest rate: NSW (94 psittacines (parrots and similar).
notifications). Outbreak
The sources of Ross River virus, an alphavirus, are in Blue Mountains in
unknown. Large marsupials may be reservoir 2002 (from wild birds).
hosts. There is a high rate of infection in horses,
Q-fever. Coxiella burnetti. Primary
mostly symptom free. (Blood et al 2007, Radostits
402 notifications. reservoirs: cattle, sheep, goats.
et al 2007). Ross River fever (‘epidemic polyarthritis’)
Most from Qld (164; Humans often very susceptible
occurs in Australia and the South Pacific Islands. It 4 per 100,000). and infected via dust or direct
is transmitted by mosquito (Culex annulirostris and contact with infected material.
Aedes spp) bites. Symptoms include fever, joint Govt. funding announced at end
pain, and rash. There may be long-term effects of 2006 for CSL Ltd to
following infection. recommence vaccine
production.
In short, whether a disease is a zoonosis or not
is not always clear. Some are environmental Total zoonosis 0.5% of all disease notifications
infections rather than zoonoses. Whatever the notifications: 767. to NNDSS.

case, simple preventive measures can substantially NNDSS: National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System
reduce the risk of contracting disease.

2 PRIMEFACT 814, ZOONOSES – ANIM AL DISEASES TRANSMISSIBLE TO HUM ANS

Prevention is best
The risk of being affected by animal-borne or other
transmissible diseases can be markedly reduced
by attention to simple measures based on personal
hygiene and protection, reducing exposure to
disease, and managing human and animal health.
Personal health and hygiene
• Wash hands with soap for at least 10 seconds,
under running water after contact with animals,
before putting your hands near your face (to
eat or smoke, for example), before preparing
food, or after using the toilet.
• Hand sanitisers, such as alcohol-based hand
rubs (ABHRs), routinely used by health care
workers, are particularly useful where there is
no water. ABHRs compare very favourably with
other hand cleaning methods against a range
of pathogens, but they have their limitations.
They are not recommended when there has
been exposure to bacterial spores or
protozoon oocysts, parasites, certain viruses
(non-enveloped viruses such as rotavirus),
when hands are visibly soiled with dirt or blood
or other bodily fluids, or after using the toilet. In
these cases, hand washing with soap and
water is preferred. (Hand Hygiene Australia,
2010).
• Regularly shower or bathe, and clean clothing
and footwear, especially if you are in frequent
contact with animals.
• Maintain a healthy immune system through a
healthy lifestyle, and seek medical assistance
as appropriate.
• Keep vaccinations up to date, for example
tetanus and Q-fever.
• Promptly attend to cuts or abrasions.
• Seek medical attention if a zoonosis is
suspected, or there has been significant
exposure to one.
Reduce exposure
• Use PPE – personal protective equipment –
as appropriate. This includes overalls, gloves,
eye protection and masks. The use of PPE is
particularly important where contact with
animal tissues, excreta or fluids is likely.
• Keep equipment clean and in good order. This
includes PPE, instruments, harnesses and
rugs.
• Avoid intimate contact with animals, including
facial contact.
PRIMEFACT 814, ZOONOSES – ANIM AL DISEASES TRANSMISSIBLE TO HUM ANS 3
• Children and pregnant women should avoid
uncovered sandpits or other areas where
animals may defecate.
• Owners of dogs should remove and appropriately
dispose of their animals’ faeces, especially
from public places.
• Take particular care when in contact with sick
animals, although healthy as well as sick
animals can transmit disease.
• Food safety: buy safe food and store and
prepare appropriately to reduce the risk of
infection with Campylobacter or Salmonella
bacteria, for example.
• Do not prepare food for yourself or others if
you are ill.
• Keep animals out of the kitchen.
Manage animal health
• Vaccinate livestock and pets as appropriate.
• Control animal movements. This includes
livestock and farm and pet dogs.
• Control vertebrate pests that may spread
disease (rodents, cats, foxes, dogs, pigs).
• Practise good hygiene with livestock feeds,
and control exposure to animals such as
rodents and cats (to reduce the spread of
toxoplasmosis from cats, for example).
• Prevent and control animal diseases, including
parasitic diseases. Maintain animals in good
health. Regularly worm dogs and cats.
• Isolate and treat sick animals to reduce the risk
of spreading disease to other animals and
humans.
• Dispose of carcasses appropriately to prevent
spread or recurrence of disease.
Zoonoses in Australia
Over 200 different diseases have been classified
as zoonoses in different parts of the world, with
approximately 50 of these being reported in
Australia (Anon, 1989). Table 2 lists some of the
more common zoonoses in Australia, plus a few
other zoonoses of interest that do not occur in
Australia.
A detailed list of zoonoses that occur in various
parts of the world can be found in the Merck
Veterinary Manual.
References and further information
About the Hendra virus. Department of
Employment, Economic Development and
Innovation, Queensland. Retrieved March 2010
from
http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/rde/dpi/hs.xsl/4790_1
1112_ENA_HTML.htm
Anon (1989). Disease acquired from animals.
National Occupational Health and Safety
Commission. Australian Government Publishing
Service, Canberra, ACT.
Blood DC, Studdert VP and Gray CC (2007). Eds,
Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary,
3rd ed. Saunders Elsevier, 2007.
Communicable Diseases Intelligence. Department
of Health and Ageing, Australian Government.
Retrieved March 2010 from
http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.n
sf/Content/cdi3202
Fish diseases and human health. Industry &
Investment NSW. Retrieved March 2010 from
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/pests-
diseases/animal-health/fish-diseases-and-human-
health
Hand Hygiene Australia. Retrieved February 2010
from http://www.hha.org.au/home.aspx
Hendra virus: important information for horse
owners. Australian Veterinary Association and
Queensland DPI. Retrieved March 2010 from
http://ava.informz.net/ava/data/images/documents/
3915-hendra_virus_guidelines.pdf
Heymann D, editor. Control of Communicable
Diseases Manual. 18th edn. Washington: American
Public Health Association; 2004, cited in CDI 2008.
http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.n
sf/Content/cdi3202
Keeping food safe. NSW Food Authority. Retrieved
March 2010 from
http://www.foodauthority.nsw.gov.au/consumers/ke
eping-food-safe/
Kennedy KJ, Jadeer AA, Ong CW, Senanayake SN
and Collignon PJ (2008). Two cases of
Streptococcus suis endocarditis in Australian
piggery workers. Letter to Editor, Medical Journal of
Australia 189(7), 413.
King S and Hutchinson GW (2007). Hydatids – you,
too, can be affected. Primefact 475 (February
2007), NSW Department of Primary Industries.
Retrieved March 2010 from
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/she
ep/health/internal/hydatids
4 PRIMEFACT 814, ZOONOSES – ANIM AL DISEASES TRANSMISSIBLE TO HUM ANS
Livestock diseases that affect humans. Industry &
Investment NSW. Retrieved march 2010 from
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/heal
th/humans/zoonoses-explained
Love S (2008). Hydatids – the basics. Primefact
812, NSW Department of Primary Industries.
Retrieved March 2010 from
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/heal
th/specific/cattle/hydatids-basics
Love, SCJ & Hutchinson, GW (2003). ‘Pathology
and diagnosis of internal parasites of ruminants’ in
Gross Pathology of Ruminants, Proceedings 350,
Post Graduate Foundation in Veterinary Science,
University of Sydney, Ch. 16, pp. 309–38.
Retrieved March 2010 from
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/00
03/34608/lh-pathol-int-para.pdf
Menangle virus infection. Industry & Investment
NSW. Retrieved March 2010 from
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/vetmanual/sp
ecimens-by-disease-syndrome/diseases_of_
livestock/menagle_virus_infection
Murdoch B (2007). Zoonoses – animal diseases
that may also affect humans. Information Notes,
Department of Primary industries, Victoria.
Retrieved March 2010 from
http://new.dpi.vic.gov.au/home (From this page,
search for ‘zoonoses’).
Merck Medical and Veterinary Manuals. Accessed
March 2010 on-line at http://www.merck.com/pubs/
NSW Department of Health: A–Z Health topics.
Retrieved March 2010 from
http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/topics/index.asp
Windsor PA (2009). Leptospirosis and other
zoonoses from cattle in Australia. Conference
Proceedings, Australian Cattle, Sheep and
Reproductive Veterinarians, Darwin.
Radostits OM, Gay CC, Hinchcliff KW and
Constable PD (2007). Editors, Veterinary Medicine,
10th edition. Saunders Elsevier.
Shiga Toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) Infection.
NSW Department of Health. Retrieved March 2010
from
http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/factsheets/infectious/
shigatoxigenic.html
Stevenson, WJ. & Hughes, KL. (1988) Synopsis of
Zoonoses in Australia, 2nd edition, Canberra:
Australian Government Publishing Service.
Taenia infections. Fact sheet, Centre for Food
Safety and Public Health, Iowa State University.
Retrieved March 2010 from
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/taenia
.pdf
Tramontana AR, Graham M, Sinickas V and Bak N
(2008). An Australian case of Streptococcus suis
toxic shock syndrome associated with occupational
exposure to animal carcasses. Medical Journal of
Australia 2008; 188: 538-539.
Table of zoonoses in Australia
See Table 2, next page.
Acknowledgements
This publication has been reviewed by several
Industry and Investment NSW staff including
scientists and veterinarians. Their contribution is
gratefully acknowledged.
PRIMEFACT 814, ZOONOSES – ANIM AL DISEASES TRANSMISSIBLE TO HUM ANS 5
© State of New South Wales through Department of Industry
and Investment (Industry & Investment NSW) 2010. You may
copy, distribute and otherwise freely deal with this publication
for any purpose, provided that you attribute Industry &
Investment NSW as the owner.
ISSN 1832-6668
Check for updates of this Primefact at:
www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/primefacts
Disclaimer: The information contained in this publication is
based on knowledge and understanding at the time of writing
(March 2010). However, because of advances in knowledge,
users are reminded of the need to ensure that information
upon which they rely is up to date and to check currency of
the information with the appropriate officer of Industry &
Investment NSW or the user’s independent adviser.
Job number 8887 PUB10/35
Table 2. Zoonoses in Australia. Adapted from Murdoch (2007) and other sources.
Most but not all of the diseases listed below currently occur in Australia. Some are not transmitted directly
from animals or may come from other sources, and so are not strictly zoonoses according to some experts.
The diseases listed range from being relatively common to very rare. Most zoonoses occur uncommonly, but
some of these are serious diseases. The simple measures discussed earlier can markedly reduce the risk of
contracting a zoonosis.

Disease or injury Agent Transmission and comments

Bacterial

Bacterial infections from Pasteurella multocida and From dog and cat bites. The most common zoonoses in Australia.
animal bites other bacterial species. Includes cat-bite fever (c.f. cat-scratch disease).

Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Usually from infected cattle and sheep in Australia. Usually a skin
infection in humans; respiratory tract (‘wool sorters’ disease’) and
alimentary tract infections can also occur. Human cases are rare
in Australia.

Brucellosis Brucella suis, B. abortus and In Australia, Brucellosis (B. suis) can be contracted from pigs,
other Brucella spp. often feral pigs. B. abortus has been eradicated in Australia; other
Brucella species are exotic.

Campylobacter enteritis Mainly Campylobacter jejuni Sources include cattle, pigs, poultry, dogs, cats, wild birds and
contaminated food or water. Causes enteritis, and sometimes
arthritis or generalised infections (sepsis).

Cat-scratch disease Bartonella henselae Agent first identified in 1992, although the condition has long
been recognised. Papules and pustules form around the initial
wound, from where infection may spread to regional lymph
nodes. Also called benign lymphoreticulosis. Do not confuse with
cat bite fever.

Escherichia coli Shiga toxigenic E. coli
(STEC)
E. coli are commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract of people
and animals. Many types of E. coli are harmless. Some produce
toxins, including Shiga toxin. These are called Shiga toxigenic E.
coli (STEC), sometimes called verocytotoxin-producing E. coli
(VTEC). There are various strains of STEC e.g. E. coli O111 and
E. coli O157. STEC infections cause diarrhoea; some infections
cause haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), a severe condition
characterised by kidney failure, bleeding and anaemia. Sometimes
fatal. Source: Ingestion of undercooked ground meat, or food or
water contaminated with faeces from infected animals or people.

Leptospirosis Leptospira spp Exposure to urine from infected livestock, wild animals and
rodents. An effective vaccine is available for dairy cows. Causes
flu-like symptoms in humans.

Listeriosis Listeria spp Listeriosis in humans is mostly food-borne. Silage can be an

important source for animals.

Mycobacterium spp M. marinum Causes ‘tank granuloma’ in aquarium fish. May cause ulcerative
nodular skin lesions in humans. Uncommon.

M. bovis Bovine TB has been eradicated from Australia but it is still a

serious zoonosis overseas. Vaccination and good personal and
food (milk) hygiene are important. Tuberculosis (TB) – which
properly (in human medicine) refers to disease caused by M.
tuberculosis – is the leading infectious cause of morbidity and
mortality in adults worldwide, killing about 2 million people every
year. (Merck Manual, 2008).

6 PRIMEFACT 814, ZOONOSES – ANIM AL DISEASES TRANSMISSIBLE TO HUM ANS

Psittacosis/ornithosis/ Chlamydophila (formerly Source for humans includes psittacine birds – cockatiels,
chlamydiosis Chlamydia) psittaci parakeets, budgerigars and all the birds known as parrots
(psittacosis), but also other birds including poultry (ornithosis) and
wild birds. Good hygiene and minimising dander and dust are
important. Note that many chlamydial infections in humans are
not of animal origin.

Q-fever (‘Query’ fever) Coxiella burnetii Source for humans: fluids from placenta, urine and faeces of
livestock and wild animals, contaminated wool, straw, hides;
unpasteurised milk. Human vaccine is available. Symptoms mild
to severe flu-like.

Salmonellosis Salmonella spp Depending on type of salmonella, occurs within intestines of

livestock, birds, reptiles and humans. Animals and humans can
get salmonella gastroenteritis from direct or indirect contact with
faeces or contaminated food.

Streptococcus spp Cattle (S. agalactiae), pigs (S. Ingestion especially of raw milk; direct contact. May cause
suis), horses (S. equi); pharyngitis, cellulitis, pneumonia, meningitis, arthritis, sepsis.
occasionally other animals Most human cases of streptococcal disease are unrelated to
including dogs, cats. animals.

Yersiniosis Yersinia enterocolitica, Sources: mammals including dogs, cats, pigs; birds; undercooked
Y. pseudotuberculosis pork, contaminated food or water. Disease in humans may
include enteritis, fever, and lymphadenitis.

Protozoa

Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium spp Organism shed in faeces. Human cases from contact with faeces
or contaminated water. Flu-like illness with gastrointestinal signs.
May be serious in immunocompromised patients. Different
variants of C. parvum can affect humans: either the human
variant (human genotype 1 or C. hominis) or the bovine (bovine
genotype 2) variant.

Giardiasis Giardia spp Intestinal organism. Sources: livestock, wild animals, dogs, cats
and humans. Contact with faeces or contaminated water (may
survive some chlorination systems). Sometimes person to person
transmission.

Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii Found in many animal species. Faeces from cats, especially
young cats, most common source for humans; also poorly
cooked meat. Immunocompromised persons and pregnant
women most at risk (human foetuses up to 4 months old are most
vulnerable).

Fungi

Ringworm Various fungi incl. These skin infections can be spread from animals to humans and
Microsporum and Trichophyton vice versa. Direct or indirect contact with infected animals
spp. (livestock, pets), some of which may have inapparent infections.

Parasites

Hydatid disease Echinococcus granulosus (in E. granulosus lives in intestines of dogs, foxes and dingoes,
Australia). which contract the infection from eating the organs of infected
intermediate hosts (sheep, wallabies etc). Humans infected by
direct or indirect contact with faeces of infected dogs, etc. Cysts
develop in affected humans. Control: Personal and food hygiene;
break the life cycle (dog–sheep; dingo–wallaby etc).

PRIMEFACT 814, ZOONOSES – ANIM AL DISEASES TRANSMISSIBLE TO HUM ANS 7

 Visceral (VLM) and Toxocara canis, T. cati, VLM: Children primarily affected. Roundworm eggs ingested by
cutaneous (CLM) larval Ancylostoma spp. direct or indirect (e.g. from fur) contact with faeces from pets.
migrans. (dog and cat roundworms). Larvae hatching from eggs in child’s intestine migrate through
various tissues. CLM mainly caused by hookworm (Ancylostoma
spp) larvae which can penetrate and migrate in human skin.
Control: hygiene; reduce contact with faeces (cover sandpits etc);
worm pets regularly.

Liver fluke Fasciola hepatica Occasional human cases (liver disease). Infection from eating
watercress from fluke-infested areas.

Viruses

Hendra virus Recently discovered Hendra: first appeared in 1994; highly fatal respiratory disease in
paramyxoviruses carried by horses; small number of human cases (respiratory, encephalitis)
fruit bats. through close contact with infected horses.

Menangle and Nipah Menangle virus occurred in a piggery (at Menangle near Sydney)
viruses and in two piggery workers in 1997. Infection/disease has not
been known to occur in pigs or humans in Australia since 1997. It
is illustrative, however, of how disease patterns and risks can
change.
Nipah: not reported in Australia (illness in pigs and humans in
Malaysia).

Australian bat lyssa virus Rhabdoviruses Australian bat lyssa virus: first found 1996 in flying fox from NSW.
Flying foxes and small insectivorous bats can transmit virus to
humans. Usually fatal. Avoid contact with flying foxes, especially
those that are ill. Vaccine available for at risk people.

Rabies Rabies: two human cases only in Australia, one in 1867; and
(not known in Australia) another in 1987 (child bitten while overseas).

Scabby mouth Parapoxvirus (orf, scabby Common disease of sheep in Australia. Vaccine available.
mouth, contagious ecthyma). Human lesions typically on hands from handling affected sheep.

Arboviruses Murray Valley encephalitis Source: Wild birds. Occurs in Australia, New Guinea. Rare.
(arthropod borne, chiefly virus (flavivirus). Transmitted by mosquito (Culex annulirostris) bites.
mosquitoes and ticks). Asymptomatic infection in 99%; severe encephalitis with
neurologic symptoms following can (rarely) occur.

Ross River virus Sources undetermined. Large marsupials may be reservoir hosts.
(alphavirus). High rate of infection in horses, mostly asymptomatic (Blood et al
2007, Radostits et al 2007). Ross River fever (‘epidemic
polyarthritis’) occurs in Australia and the South Pacific Islands.
Transmitted by mosquito (Culex annulirostris and Aedes spp)
bites. In humans causes fever, arthralgia (joint pain), rash; may
persist for months; purpura on lower extremities. Some evidence
of long-term chronic effects following infection.

Fish Diseases Parasites, algae, viruses, See, ‘Fish diseases and human health’.
bacteria. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/pests-diseases/animal-
health/fish-diseases-and-human-health

8 PRIMEFACT 814, ZOONOSES – ANIM AL DISEASES TRANSMISSIBLE TO HUM ANS