What is channel element

Enhance the correlation among symbols so as to recover the signal when interference occurs

Provides better error correction at receiver, but brings increment of the delay

Channel Types

No Coding

Convolutional Coding (1/2, 1/3)

Turbo Coding (1/3)

UTRAN employs two FEC schemes: convolutional codes and turbo codes. The idea is
to add redundancy to the transmitted bit stream, so that occasional bit errors can be
corrected in the receiving entity.
The first is convolution that is used for anti-interference. Through the technology,
many redundant bits will be inserted in original information. When error code is
caused by interference, the redundant bits can be used to recover the original
information.
Convolutional codes are typically used when the timing constraints are tight. The
coded data must contain enough redundant information to make it possible to
correct some of the detected errors without asking for repeats.
Turbo codes are found to be very efficient because they can perform close to the
theoretical limit set by the Shannons Law. Their efficiency is best with high data rate
services, but poor on low rate services. At higher bit rates, turbo coding is more
efficient than convolutional coding.
In WCDMA network, both Convolution code and Turbo code are used. Convolution
code applies to voice service while Turbo code applies to high rate data service.
Note that both block codes and channel codes are used in the UTRAN. The idea
behind this arrangement is that the channel decoder (either a convolutional or turbo
decoder) tries to correct as many errors as possible, and then the block decoder (CRC
check) offers its judgment on whether the resulting information is good enough to be
used in the higher layers.
OVSF Code (Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor) is used as channelization
code

Orthogonal codes are easily generated by starting with a seed of 1, repeating the 1 horizontally and
vertically, and then complementing the -1 diagonally. This process is to be continued with the newly generated
block until the desired codes with the proper length are generated. Sequences created in this way are referred
as Walsh code.

Channelization uses OVSF code, for keeping the orthogonality of different subscriber physical channels.
OVSF can be defined as the code tree illustrated in the diagram.

Channelization code is defined as Cch SF, k,, where, SF is the spreading factor of the code, and k is the
sequence of code, 0?k?SF-1. Each level definition length of code tree is SF channelization code, and the left
most value of each spreading code character is corresponding to the chip which is transmitted earliest.

SF = chip rate / symbol rate

High data rates ? low SF code
Low data rates ? high SF code

The channelization codes are Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes. They are used to
preserve orthogonality between different physical channels. They also increase the clock rate to 3.84 Mcps.
The OVSF codes are defined using a code tree.

In the code tree, the channelization codes are individually described by Cch,SF,k, where SF is the
Spreading Factor of the code and k the code number, 0 ? k ? SF-1. A channelization sequence modulates one
users bit. Because the chip rate is constant, the different lengths of codes enable to have different user data
rates. Low SFs are reserved for high rate services while high SFs are for low rate services.

The length of an OVSF code is an even number of chips and the number of codes (for one SF) is equal
to the number of chips and to the SF value.

The generated codes within the same layer constitute a set of orthogonal codes.
Furthermore, any two codes of different layers are orthogonal except when one of the two codes is a mother
code of the other. For example C4,3 is not orthogonal with C1,0 and C2,1, but is orthogonal with C2,0.

SF in uplink is from 4 to 256.

SF in downlink is from 4 to 512.

Symbol rate * spreading factor = chip rate and symbol rate = chip rate / spreading
factor
Such as: WCDMA chip rate = 3.84 MHz, spreading factor = 4, the symbol rate =
960kbps.
CDMA 1X chip rate = of 1.2288 MHz, the spreading factor = 64, the symbol rate =
19.2kbps leading communications technology forum-a) x9P j4E (f) {4g '~
Symbol rate = (service rate + checksum) * channel coding * punch rate
: WCDMA service rate = 384kbps, channel coding = 1/3Turbo code, symbol
rate = 960kbps www.mscbsc.com1o 'K6U9o/P-q6n
CDMA 1X, service rate = 9.6kbps, channel coding = 1/3 convolutional code, the
symbol rate = 19.2kbps
The chip (symbol), chip rate processing gain | a leading communications technology forum "} $ V" X
"Z8o D: A9D

System through the spread-spectrum-bit conversion into chips.

A data signal (such as a logic 1 or 0) typically use a plurality of encoded signals to be
encoded, wherein a coded signal is referred to as a chip.
If each data signal with a 10 yards sheet transfer, then the chip rate is 10 times the
data rate, the processing gain is equal to 10.
Chip which is equivalent to that the analog modulated carrier role, the
digital signal of the carrier.
Top spread pattern is a narrowband PSK signal is multiplied by a pseudo-random
noise sequence (PN sequence). PN sequence is usually represented by the symbol C,
a PN sequence is an ordered binary stream constituted by 1 and 0, 1 and 0 because
they do not carry information, and therefore is not called a bit called a chip (chip ).
To be understood that the term "chip", first understand the need for a spread
spectrum communication, the information symbols, each digit are carrying the
information, having a certain bandwidth.
The spread spectrum communication is a string of rules than the information stream
frequency much higher stream modulated information symbols, which means that
the original "1" or "0" is replaced by a string of code. As a string of code to said
information, it can not be said a bit (bit is the basic unit of information), so look for a
term called chip, the string of code every code word is a chip, such as cdma code The
chip rate is 1.2288Mchip / s. Chip data rate is the data rate after the spread spectrum
modulation means cps (chip per-second), for the bit data identification unit that is in
the computer, and the identification data on the air interface chip . The role is to
spread spectrum digital signal into a transmission signal of the wireless air interface.
Data * channel code = chip, the chip is eventually sent in the empty physical channel
data rate units
WCDMA chip rate is 3.84Mcps, c: chip, i.e. symbols. 3.84Mcps: 3.84M symbols per
second, the chip rate is the rate after spreading, after channel coding frame
equalization, the rate matching the effective FP Bit pass over from the MAC-d,
multiplexed into the CCTrCH, divided into IQ two-way, respectively, the operation of
the spreading and scrambling. Spread spectrum is multiplied by the effective bit
spreading code spreading operation will increase the bandwidth, the spread rate

known as the chip rate.10ms TTI contains 15 slots, each slot has 2560 chips, an
operator can come 3.84Mchipps of chip rate.
Third, the service rate
To put it plainly is that you usually use the mobile Internet download speeds. Such as
home ADSL 1M, that the business rate is 1M. Units is a bit to the computer
to download data speed, but also in addition to become B do not forget.
Fourth, channel coding
Digital signal transmission is often due to various reasons, such that bit errors in the
transmitted data stream, and thereby enable the receiver to produce an image jump,
serials, mosaic phenomenon.Through this part of the channel coding, digital stream
processing, the system has error correction capability and anti-jamming capability,
can greatly avoid code spread sent in error occurred. The BER error correction
processing technology, interleaving, linear interpolation. Improving data
transmission efficiency, reduce the error rate is the task of the channel coding. The
nature of the channel coding is to increase the reliability of communication. Useful
information for data transmission channel coding will reduce channel coding process
is to be inserted in the source data stream symbol, so as to achieve the purpose of a
wrong judgment and error correction at the receiving end, this is what we often say
overhead . This is similar to the CRC checksum function during data transmission.
, Punching, drilling rate
Punch puncturing is a pattern of the stamper, and the other is the spreading factor is
halved. The useful in HSDPA L1 coding rate matching, you can refer 3GPP25.213. 2
times the rate matching is used in the HSDPA can be suitable for the UE to the
encoded bit stream after the rate matching after first ability.The second rate
matching in order for each physical channel capacity. Punching mode is set
according to the the RNC RRC signaling configuration parameters down to remove
some of the redundant bit in the bit stream. (1/3turbo coding for each significant bit
of the two redundant bits.)
Q: data flow "punch" is compressed or transfer? The case of compression, lossy
compression or lossless?Is asked, had been knocked out bit is thrown away or
transferred to the re-transmission elsewhere?
A: knock down a bit to be thrown away, such as the effective data for 10bit, after
encoding to 50bit destroyed 50bit 10bit even more, the receiver can still be translated
out of
The so-called perforated STOLEN bit to the UE to send, for example, the NODEB is
unable to translate these bits out. Specific implementations, when receiving the first
punch position counted (Node B and the UE using the same algorithm calculated the
punch location), and then fill the number above. Finally, the use of convolutional
coding and TURBO coding introduces redundant information so it will not affect the
very Viterbi decoding at the receiving end information bits can still be translated out.
(of course, in agreement, TD provisions ships, drilling rate generally does not exceed
1/3) punch is in accordance with a certain pattern, some bits are removed, and
therefore equivalent to that behind the bit forward, enabling the adjustment of the
bit rate, that the rate matching, played the role of place redundant, while ensuring
the correct decoding even after removal of these redundant.
Sixth, the spreading factor
Entire spread spectrum (spreading) process is divided into the channel
(channlization) and scrambling two-step (screambling) is referred to as "the former
the OVSF code multiplied and multiplied by two steps with the gold code (scrambler)

and many articles spread spectrum ", which is known as" scrambling ", and OVSF
code called" spreading code "- and because they feel that the expansion rate in the
first step has been to 3.84M, facts are understood and are not allowed. Spreading
factor: the ratio of the spread spectrum chip rate and the spread spectrum signals
prior rate directly reflects the spreading gain.
3 mainstream CDMA spreading factor values:
WCDMA :4-512 (3.84Mcps)
CDMA2000 :4-256, (3.6864Mcps)
TD-SCDMA :1-16, (1.28Mcps)
The source coding: Adaptive Multi-Rate (4.7K to 12.2K
output for bit

A total of eight kinds of rate) -------

The role of the channel coding: increase the bit, in order to restore the signal in the
case of disturbed Voice services: convolutional code Data services: Turbo code
Interleaving: disrupt the correlation between the symbols, to reduce the
impact of fast fading and interference.
Intertwined role: to reduce the impact of fast fading. The channel is fast fading into
blocks, intertwined into blocks of bit error to the dispersion.
The data modulation: data modulation using QPSK or 8PSK, two
consecutive bits (QPSK) or three consecutive bits (8PSK) is mapped to a symbol ------- output
symbol
Spread Spectrum: OVSF code (Walsh and OVSF) cross-correlation is zero (0%), are
completely orthogonal to each other (100%) ------- output chips
Therefore, the entire process is: the bit stream is formed by encoding the second
interleaver is a physical channel mapping, data stream through the physical channel
mapping also performs data modulation symbols is formed, after the spread spectrum
modulation rate is the chip rate.
Symbol rate = (service rate + checksum) channel coding duplicate or drilling rate

Chip rate = symbol rate x spreading factor

The principle of spread spectrum technology: C = B * log2 (1 + S / I)
C: channel capacity

strength

I:

B: channel bandwidth

S: signal

interference Output chip

(B)
When the spreading factor is 1, the transmission data with a 1 to indicate that the
spreading factor of 8, 11111111 represents 1,so that the transmission can be reduced when
the BER is the signal-to-noise ratio, but the actual data can be transmitted isreduced,
therefore, the greater the spreading factor, the transmission data rate is smaller.

If the spread spectrum on the role of this point, it may be there will be the presence of
this technology, the spreading factor, there is another purpose, that is, the orthogonal
code can be obtained by ovsf orthogonal spreading codes, the spreading factorThat is, the
spreading factor is 4, you can simultaneously transmit four individuals
of 4 has four orthogonal spreading codes, orthogonal spreading code that allows the simultaneous
transmission of a wireless signal interfere with each other when the despreading information, that
is, we are talking about code channel, empathy spreading factor 16:00 16 spreading code,
that is, 16 yards Road (assuming XXX method, spreading factor of 4 can get 16 spread
code, then the code channel is 16, of course, this is impossible) i.e., the spread spectrum
while reducing the transmission of valid data, but allows multiple users to eliminate
interference and increase network capacity.

Because the transmission of voice and data services, the data rate
requirements are different, so they are not the same as the spreading
factor.
Overall, the size of the spreading factor determines the size of a user's actual data rate
(note that says here is the actual data, such as data transmission 11111111 A with 11, then
the actual data is 1111, and B in 1111 to 1, then the actual data is 11, so that the error
probability of the B is smaller than A, but the data rate is also smaller than that of A), but
because of the presence of an orthogonal code, the point of view from the base station , to
improve the spreading factor, on a user's actual data rate is reduced, but at the same time the number
of available user (spreading code) of the actual overall data rate did not change.

HSDPA rate is calculated:

The HSDPA uses 16QAM Encoding, spreading factor = 16, the WCDMA chip rate =
3.84MBPS
Symbol rate * spreading factor = chip rate
Symbol rate = 3.84MBPS/16
Each symbol represents a 4bit data single physical channel rate =
3.84mbps/16 * 4;
NodebB assigned the maximum rate of 16 code channels, wherein a code
channel to be transmitted in a common channel, only a single user =
3.84/16 * 4 * (16-1) = 14.4mbps
Understanding of the above, please understand the difference between
the chip and the data and did not involve modulation, we could look at the
content on spread spectrum orthogonal, in fact, spread spectrum
modulation in some places very similar to understand the modulation look
to expand frequency, it is easy to understand the relationship of the
spreading factor and the number of data rate.

http://www.cs.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-06/ftp/cellular_qos/index.html

Throughput The rate at which the packets go through the network.

Maximum rate is always preferred.
Delay This is the time which a packet takes to travel from one end to the
other. Minimum delay is always preferred.

 Packet Loss Rate The rate at which a packet is lost. This should also be as
minimum as possible.
Packet Error Rate This is the errors which are present in a packet due to
corrupted bits. This should be as minimum as possible
Reliability The availability of a connection. (Links going up/down).

3.1. Conversational class

Applications which use this class include telephony speech, voice over IP and
video conferencing. Real time conversation is always performed between groups of
humans and so this is the only scheme where the required characteristics are
strictly given by human perception. [ 3GPP 23.107 ]
Real time conversation scheme is characterized by that the transfer time should be
low because of the conversational nature of the scheme and at the same time the
time variation between information entities in the stream should be preserved in the
same way as for real time streams. [ 3GPP 23.107 ] The maximum transfer delay is
dictated by how much delay the humans can tolerate for audio and video.
Therefore the bounds for acceptable transfer delay are very stringent, and if
transfer delay is not low enough then it affects the quality. The transfer delay
should be lower and stringent than the round trip delay for this class.
3.2. Streaming class

Applications for this class includes listening to or looking at real time video
(audio). This scheme is characterized by that the time relations (variations)
between information entities (i.e. sample packets) within a flow shall be preserved,
although it does not have any requirements on low transfer delay. [ 3GPP 23.107 ]
The delay variation of the end - to - end flow should be limited to preserve the time
variation between the information entities of the stream.
3.3.Interactive class

Applications for this class includes browsing the web, database retrieval, access of
server etc. Interactive traffic is a communication scheme which is characterized by
the request response pattern of the end user. Round trip delay is the most important
attribute for this class. Another important attribute is that the error rate should be
very low in the data transfer. [ 3GPP 23.107 ]

3.4. Background class

This is a service class in which the applications run in the background. Example
includes an email program which is running in the background. It sleeps for most
of the time and wakes up when an email arrives. Other examples include SMS,
download of databases. Background traffic is characterized by that the destination
is not expecting the data within a certain time. Thus this class is less delay sensitive
and another characteristic is that the contents should be delivered with low error
rate. [ 3GPP 23.107 ]

http://www.scribd.com/doc/200898925/Huawei-WCDMA-PrimaryScrambling-Code-Planning#scribd

If someone asks you "Which Signal Level for good call quality: -80 dbm or -90 dBm?"
Beware, if you respond quickly, you might end up missing. This is because the correct
answer is ... it depends! The Signal Strength is a very important and essential measure
for any technology (GSM, CDMA, UMTS, LTE, etc.). However, it is not the only one: let's
talk a little today about another magnitude, equally important: the Signal Noise Ratio.

Although this ratio is of fundamental importance to any cellular system, is not well
understood by many professionals. On the opposite side, professionals with a good
understanding of this ratio are able for example, to correctly assess the RF links, and
also to perform more extensive optimizations, obtaining the best possible performance of
the system.
So, let's see a little about it?

Eb and No
To begin, we define the basic concepts of Eb and No. They are basic for any digital
communication system, and generally we talk about it when we deal with Bit Error Rate
and also Modulation techniques.
Simply put:

Eb: Bit Energy.

o

It represents the amount of energy per bit.

No: Noise Spectral Density.

o

Unit: Watts/Hz (or mWatts/Hz)

Which brings us to the classic definition of Eb/No:

Eb/No: Bit Energy on the Spectral Noise Density.

o

Unit: dB

It did not help much, does it?

Do not worry. Indeed, only with the theoretical definition is still very difficult to see how
this
ratio
is
used,
or
how
it
can
be
measured.
But okay, let's walk a little further.

Okay, so how is Eb/No measured?

To understand how this ratio can be measured, let's imagine a simple digital
communication system.

The ratio Eb/No is measured at the receiver, and serves to indicate how strong the signal
is.
Depending on the modulation technique used (BPSK, QPSK, etc.) we have different
curves for Bit Error Rate x Eb/No.
These curves are used as follows: for a certain RF signal, which is the bit errors rate that
I have? Is this bit error rate acceptable for my system?
Whereas the gain that digital has, then we can set a minimum criterion of signal to noise
ratio, in order to have each service (Voice/Data) operating acceptably.

In other words, we can theoretically determine how the performance would be for the
digital link.

Note: it is worth remembering here that this is a very complex subject. As always, we
try to introduce to you the most simplified possible through the use of examples and
simple concepts. Okay?
For example, a concept that could be explored here - since we are talking about digital
communication system - is the Noise Figure. But we do not want to repeat here all the
theory explained in the University. Nor was it to have mentioned the noise figure here,
but as we talked about it, just understand as a noise level that every receiver has, and
that it is due to the process of amplification and processing of signal.
Concepts like this, and other even more complex, can be studied, if you wish. But now,
let's continue with our signal to noise ratio.

Eb/No -> Ec/Io

The concept of Eb/No applies to any digital communication system. But today we are
talking specifically to Ec/Io, which is a measure of evaluation and decisions of CDMA and
UMTS.
Note: all the technology uses signal-interference ratio. For example, in GSM, we use C/I.
As we are speaking of codes, it becomes easier to understand the concepts by observing
a simplified diagram of Spread Spectrum Modulation.
In red, in transmitter have a narrowband signal with data or voice modulated. This signal
is spread and transmitted. And spreads through the middle (air). In the receiver, the
signal is despread - using the same sequence that was spread - and thus recovering the
base narrowband signal.

To proceed, we must know some more definitions. However, this point is quite delicate,
as we enter a conceptual area where we have differences between authors, differences
in translations/countries, where differences in technologies are applied, etc..
Let's try to define in a generic way, and only the main.

No: Spectral Density of Noise;

Noise generated by the RF components of the system, the air, among others.

Io: Interference is the Broadband; Interfering co-channel, including yourself setor.

E: is the signal (average) energy - do not confuse it with the sinal (average) power.

b, c, s. ..: Energy are the power points in time, therefore related to the measure or 'length' of
the time (the average power is independent of time ).
o

Hence it comes Eb, Ec and Es, respectively relating to Bit Chip and Symbol in different
times.

Note: With these concepts, several formulas can be derived with different numerators
and denominators. For example, Es = Eb * k, where k = number of bits per symbol. In
QPSK modulation, where k = 2, Es = 2 * Eb. And the derivations of formulas can reach
far more complex equations, such as the definitions of capacity of an AWGN channel, and
further deductions for equivalences (Ec/No, Eb/Nt, etc. ...). Again, it is not our purpose
here today. We only mention a few concepts, related.
Then come back to the practical level - noting that theoretical approaches can be done
more easily later, after the basics are understood.
So let's keep today in ratios most common: Eb/No and Ec/Io.
As we defined Eb/No is the Average Energy of a bit signal, on the Spectral Density of
Noise. It is primarily a parameter related to the manufacturer for different bearers
(based on the channel model). But it can also vary with the environment (urban, rural,
suburban), speed, diversity, use of power control, application type, etc..
And now we can begin to define Ec/Io, one of the most important systems in CDMA and
UMTS.
Note: An important observation is that often when we refer to Ec/Io, we are actually
referring to Ec/(Io + No). What happens is that for practical purposes, we only have
Ec/Io, because the interference is much stronger and the noise can be neglected.
Otherwise: for CDMA interference is like a noise, then both can be considered the same
thing.
Okay, let's stop with the issues and concepts, and talk a little about the values of these
indicators and their use in practice.

Eb/No Positive and Ec/Io Negative?

In terms of values, and talking logarithmicly, if any ratio is less than 1, then the value is
negative. If greater than 1, positive.
We have Ec/Io in the air, which is spread across the spectrum: then we have negative
value to the ratio of energy on the total noise (the energy is lower than the Total
Interference). It is measured at the input of receiver (NodeB, UE, etc).

Regarding Eb/No, it is in the baseband after despreading and decoded only for one user then we have a positive amount of energy over the total noise. It is measured at the
output of receiver (NodeB, UE, etc).

Why should we use Ec/Io?

A more natural question would be: why we can not simply use the Signal Strength
measured by the mobile as a guide for operations such as handover?
The answer is simple: the measured signal level corresponds to the Total RF power - All
cells that the mobile sees.
So we need another quick and simple measure that allows us to evaluate the
contribution of each sector individually.
We used to measure the pilot channel signal of each sector to assess the quality: if the
level of the pilot is good, then also are good levels for the traffic channels for our call in
this sector. Likewise, if the pilot channel is degraded, so will the other channels
(including traffic) be, and it is best to avoid using the traffic channels in this sector.
UMTS and CDMA systems, we have a pilot channel, some other control channels such as
paging, and traffic channels.
The Ec/Io varies with several factors, such as the Traffic Load and and RF Scenario.
Of course, the Ec/Io is the final composition of all these factors simultaneously
(Composite Ec/Io), but it's easier to understand talking about each one separately.

Change in Ec/Io according to the Sector Traffic

Load
Each sector transmits a certain power. Suppose in our example we have a pilot channel
power setting of 2 W, and a power of other control channels also fixed at 2 W.
To make it easier to understand, we calculate the Ec/Io (pilot channel power to total
power) of this sector in a situation where we have no busy traffic channel (0 W).

Thus we have:
Ec = 2 W
Io = 0 + 2 + 2 = 4 W
Ec/Io = (2/4) = 0.5 = -3 dB
Now assume that several traffic channels are busy (eg use 6 W for traffic channels). This
is a situation of traffic load, we'll see how is Ec/Io.

Ec = 2 W
Io = 2 + 2 + 6 = 10 W
Ec/Io = (2/10) = 0.2 = -7 dB
Conclusion: As the traffic load in the sector increases, the Ec/Io worsens.

Change in Ec/Io according to the scenario RF

According to the RF scenario - a single server sector, some or many servers sectors - we
can also take various measures to Ec/Io.
Considering first a situation without external interference, with only one server sector
(dominant), the ratio Ec/Io is about the same initially transmitted.

Ec/Io = (2/8) = 0.25 = -6 dB

Whereas a signal coming from this sector in the mobile at level of -90 dBm (Io = -90
dBm), we have Ec = -90 dBm + (- 6 db) = -96 dBm.

Let us now consider another situation. Instead of one, we have five sectors signal
arriving at the mobile (for simplicity, all with the same level of -90 dBm).

Now have Io = -83 dBm (which is the sum of five signals of -90 dBm). And the power of
our pilot channel remains the same (Ec = -96 dBm).
Thus: Ec/Io = -96 - (-83) = -13 dB
Conclusion: As many more sectors serves the mobile, the Ec/Io worsens.
2/40 = 0.05 , log ( 0.05) * 10 = -13db

This situation where we have many overlapping sectors, and with the same level of
signal is known as Pilot Pollution - the mobile sees them all at once - each acting as
interferer to each other.
The solution in such cases is to eliminate unwanted signals, by setting power parameters
or physical adjustments (tilt, azimuth), leaving just dominant signals which should exist
at this problematic place.

Okay, and what are typical values?

We have seen that for CDMA and UMTS systems, the measurement of Ec/Io which is
very important in the analysis, especially in handover decisions.
And now also understand the measure Ec/Io as the ratio of 'good' energy over 'bad'
energy, or 'cleaness' of signal.
But what are the practical values?
The value of Ec/Io fluctuates (varies), as well as any wireless signal. If the value starts
to get too low, you start to have dropped calls, or can not connect. But what then is a
good range of Ec/Io for a sign?
In practical terms, values of Ec/Io for a good evaluation of the network (in terms of this
indicator) are shown in the diagram below.

A composite Ec/Io ~ - 10 db is a reasonable value to consider as good.

Note: See we are talking about negative values, and considering them 'good'. In other
words, we are saying that energy is below the Noise (and still have a good situation).
This is a characteristic of the system itself, and Ec/Io 'most negative' or 'less negative' is
going to allow assessment of the communication.

In situations where Ec/Io is very low (high negative number), and the signal level too
(also high negative number), first we need to worry in enhancing the weak signal.
Another typical situation: if the measured Ec/Io is very low, even if you have a good
signal level, you can not connect, or the call will drop constantly.
I hope you've managed to understand how the Ec/Io is important for CDMA and UMTS.
Note, however, that this matter is very complex, and supplementary reading - books and
internet - can further help you become an expert on the subject.
Anyway, the content displayed serves as an excellent reference, especially if you're not
familiar with the concept of signal over noise for CDMA and UMTS.

And the Signal

technologies?

to

Noise

Ratio

for

other

The ratio Ec/Io is the most commonly used to assess the condition of energy over
interference, but applies only in technologies that use codes (Ec).
But the concepts understood here to CDMA and UMTS are very similar - apply - for any
technology, eg GSM, where we use the C/I.
Anyway, this is a topic for another tutorial, we saw today Ec/Io.

Conclusion
Today we had a brief introduction on the Ec/Io ratio, a measurement for decisions in
CDMA and UMTS, and used togheter with the measured Signal Strength.
We have seen that it represents the ratio of signal energy within the duration of a chip of
the pilot channel, on the Spectral Density of Noise + Interference.
This is a very important measure, which somehow ignores the overall strength of the
signal, and focuses on how best to evaluate the pilot channel signal is desired, in relation
to noise that interferes with it.
Returning to our original question: A strong signal level does not necessarily indicate an
strong Ec/Io: it depends on the level of interference.

http://www.slideshare.net/tanchap/list-channel-in-wcdma?
next_slideshow=1

Call Flow
http://www.sharetechnote.com/html/BasicCallFlow_LTE.html

http://127.0.0.1:7890/hdx.cgi?tocLib=01&tocV=01%20(2009-0330)&id=01_01%20(2009-03-30)_10018&tocURL=resources
%252fDescription%252fPower%2520Control
%252ehtml&p=t&fe=1&ui=3&keyword=max%1Dpower%1Dtransmit

http://www.comlab.hut.fi/opetus/238/lecture4_Intro_to_WCDMA.pdf

User Equipment, UE
The USER Equipment or UE is a major element of the overall 3G UMTS network architecture. It
forms the final interface with the user. In view of the far greater number of applications and
facilities that it can perform, the decision was made to call it a user equipment rather than a
mobile. However it is essentially the handset (in the broadest terminology), although having
access to much higher speed data communications, it can be much more versatile, containing
many more applications. It consists of a variety of different elements including RF circuitry,
processing, antenna, battery, etc.
There are a number of elements within the UE that can be described separately:

UE RF circuitry: The RF areas handle all elements of the signal, both for the receiver
and for the transmitter. One of the major challenges for the RF power amplifier was to
reduce the power consumption. The form of modulation used for W-CDMA requires the
use of a linear amplifier. These inherently take more current than non linear amplifiers
which can be used for the form of modulation used on GSM. Accordingly to maintain
battery life, measures were introduced into many of the designs to ensure the optimum
efficiency.

Baseband processing:

The base-band signal processing consists mainly of digital

circuitry. This is considerably more complicated than that used in phones for previous
generations. Again this has been optimised to reduce the current consumption as far as
possible.

Battery: While current consumption has been minimised as far as possible within the
circuitry of the phone, there has been an increase in current drain on the battery. With
users expecting the same lifetime between charging batteries as experienced on the
previous generation phones, this has necessitated the use of new and improved battery
technology. Now Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries are used. These phones to remain small
and relatively light while still retaining or even improving the overall life between charges.

Universal Subscriber Identity Module, USIM:

The UE also contains a SIM card,

although in the case of UMTS it is termed a USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module).
This is a more advanced version of the SIM card used in GSM and other systems, but
embodies the same types of information. It contains the International Mobile Subscriber
Identity number (IMSI) as well as the Mobile Station International ISDN Number
(MSISDN). Other information that the USIM holds includes the preferred language to
enable the correct language information to be displayed, especially when roaming, and a
list of preferred and prohibited Public Land Mobile Networks (PLMN).
The USIM also contains a short message storage area that allows messages to stay with
the user even when the phone is changed. Similarly "phone book" numbers and call
information of the numbers of incoming and outgoing calls are stored.
The UE can take a variety of forms, although the most common format is still a version of a
"mobile phone" although having many data capabilities. Other broadband dongles are also being
widely used.

3G UMTS Radio Network Subsystem

This is the section of the 3G UMTS / WCDMA network that interfaces to both the UE and the
core network. The overall radio access network, i.e. collectively all the Radio Network Subsystem
is known as the UTRAN UMTS Radio Access Network.
The radio network subsystem is also known as the UMTS Radio Access Network or UTRAN.
Read more about the UMTS Radio Access Network.

3G UMTS Core Network

The 3G UMTS core network architecture is a migration of that used for GSM with further
elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS.
In view of the different ways in which data may be carried, the UMTS core network may be split
into two different areas:

Circuit switched elements: These elements are primarily based on the GSM network
entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a permanent channel for the
duration of the call.

Packet switched elements: These network entities are designed to carry packet data.
This enables much higher network usage as the capacity can be shared and data is
carried as packets which are routed according to their destination.

Some network elements, particularly those that are associated with registration are shared by
both domains and operate in the same way that they did with GSM.

UMTS Core Network

Circuit
switched
elements
The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following
network entities:

Mobile switching centre (MSC): This is essentially the same as that within GSM, and it
manages the circuit switched calls under way.

Gateway MSC (GMSC): This is effectively the interface to the external networks.

Packet
switched
elements
The packet switched elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture include the following
network entities:

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN):

As the name implies, this entity was first

developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried over into the UMTS
network architecture. The SGSN provides a number of functions within the UMTS
network architecture.
o

Mobility management When a UE attaches to the Packet Switched domain of

the UMTS Core Network, the SGSN generates MM information based on the
mobile's current location.

Session management:

The SGSN manages the data sessions providing the

required quality of service and also managing what are termed the PDP (Packet
data Protocol) contexts, i.e. the pipes over which the data is sent.
o

Interaction with other areas of the network:

The SGSN is able to manage its

elements within the network only by communicating with other areas of the
network, e.g. MSC and other circuit switched areas.
o

Billing: The SGSN is also responsible billing. It achieves this by monitoring the
flow of user data across the GPRS network. CDRs (Call Detail Records) are
generated by the SGSN before being transferred to the charging entities
(Charging Gateway Function, CGF).

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN):

Like the SGSN, this entity was also first

introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is the
central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handles inter-working
between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet switched networks, and
can be considered as a very sophisticated router. In operation, when the GGSN receives
data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active and then forwards the
data to the SGSN serving the particular UE.
Shared
elements
The shared elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture include the following network
entities:

Home location register (HLR):

This database contains all the administrative

information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the
UMTS network is able to route calls to the relevant RNC / Node B. When a user switches
on their UE, it registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which
Node B it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even
when the UE is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the
network (HLR) is aware of its latest position with their current or last known location on
the network.

Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given
UE equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each UE equipment has a number
known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above,
is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration.

Authentication centre (AuC) :

The AuC is a protected database that contains the

secret key also contained in the user's USIM card.

User Equipment, UE
The USER Equipment or UE is a major element of the overall 3G UMTS network architecture. It
forms the final interface with the user. In view of the far greater number of applications and
facilities that it can perform, the decision was made to call it a user equipment rather than a
mobile. However it is essentially the handset (in the broadest terminology), although having
access to much higher speed data communications, it can be much more versatile, containing
many more applications. It consists of a variety of different elements including RF circuitry,
processing, antenna, battery, etc.
There are a number of elements within the UE that can be described separately:

UE RF circuitry: The RF areas handle all elements of the signal, both for the receiver
and for the transmitter. One of the major challenges for the RF power amplifier was to
reduce the power consumption. The form of modulation used for W-CDMA requires the
use of a linear amplifier. These inherently take more current than non linear amplifiers
which can be used for the form of modulation used on GSM. Accordingly to maintain
battery life, measures were introduced into many of the designs to ensure the optimum
efficiency.

Baseband processing:

The base-band signal processing consists mainly of digital

circuitry. This is considerably more complicated than that used in phones for previous

generations. Again this has been optimised to reduce the current consumption as far as
possible.

Battery: While current consumption has been minimised as far as possible within the
circuitry of the phone, there has been an increase in current drain on the battery. With
users expecting the same lifetime between charging batteries as experienced on the
previous generation phones, this has necessitated the use of new and improved battery
technology. Now Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries are used. These phones to remain small
and relatively light while still retaining or even improving the overall life between charges.

Universal Subscriber Identity Module, USIM:

The UE also contains a SIM card,

although in the case of UMTS it is termed a USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module).
This is a more advanced version of the SIM card used in GSM and other systems, but
embodies the same types of information. It contains the International Mobile Subscriber
Identity number (IMSI) as well as the Mobile Station International ISDN Number
(MSISDN). Other information that the USIM holds includes the preferred language to
enable the correct language information to be displayed, especially when roaming, and a
list of preferred and prohibited Public Land Mobile Networks (PLMN).
The USIM also contains a short message storage area that allows messages to stay with
the user even when the phone is changed. Similarly "phone book" numbers and call
information of the numbers of incoming and outgoing calls are stored.
The UE can take a variety of forms, although the most common format is still a version of a
"mobile phone" although having many data capabilities. Other broadband dongles are also being
widely used.

3G UMTS Radio Network Subsystem

This is the section of the 3G UMTS / WCDMA network that interfaces to both the UE and the
core network. The overall radio access network, i.e. collectively all the Radio Network Subsystem
is known as the UTRAN UMTS Radio Access Network.
The radio network subsystem is also known as the UMTS Radio Access Network or UTRAN.
Read more about the UMTS Radio Access Network.

3G UMTS Core Network

The 3G UMTS core network architecture is a migration of that used for GSM with further
elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS.
In view of the different ways in which data may be carried, the UMTS core network may be split
into two different areas:

Circuit switched elements: These elements are primarily based on the GSM network
entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a permanent channel for the
duration of the call.

Packet switched elements: These network entities are designed to carry packet data.
This enables much higher network usage as the capacity can be shared and data is
carried as packets which are routed according to their destination.

Some network elements, particularly those that are associated with registration are shared by
both domains and operate in the same way that they did with GSM.

UMTS Core Network

Circuit
switched
elements
The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following
network entities:

Mobile switching centre (MSC): This is essentially the same as that within GSM, and it
manages the circuit switched calls under way.

Gateway MSC (GMSC): This is effectively the interface to the external networks.

Packet
switched
elements
The packet switched elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture include the following
network entities:

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN):

As the name implies, this entity was first

developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried over into the UMTS
network architecture. The SGSN provides a number of functions within the UMTS
network architecture.
o

Mobility management When a UE attaches to the Packet Switched domain of

the UMTS Core Network, the SGSN generates MM information based on the
mobile's current location.

Session management:

The SGSN manages the data sessions providing the

required quality of service and also managing what are termed the PDP (Packet
data Protocol) contexts, i.e. the pipes over which the data is sent.
o

Interaction with other areas of the network:

The SGSN is able to manage its

elements within the network only by communicating with other areas of the
network, e.g. MSC and other circuit switched areas.
o

Billing: The SGSN is also responsible billing. It achieves this by monitoring the
flow of user data across the GPRS network. CDRs (Call Detail Records) are

generated by the SGSN before being transferred to the charging entities

(Charging Gateway Function, CGF).

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN):

Like the SGSN, this entity was also first

introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is the
central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handles inter-working
between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet switched networks, and
can be considered as a very sophisticated router. In operation, when the GGSN receives
data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active and then forwards the
data to the SGSN serving the particular UE.
Shared
elements
The shared elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture include the following network
entities:

Home location register (HLR):

This database contains all the administrative

information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the
UMTS network is able to route calls to the relevant RNC / Node B. When a user switches
on their UE, it registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which
Node B it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even
when the UE is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the
network (HLR) is aware of its latest position with their current or last known location on
the network.

Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given
UE equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each UE equipment has a number
known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above,
is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration.

Authentication centre (AuC) :

The AuC is a protected database that contains the

secret key also contained in the user's USIM card.

http://www.mobilecomms-technology.com/projects/hsupa/

Soft/Softer Handovers in HSUPA only not HSDPA

SIR

Channels

Frequency band:1920 MHz -1980 MHz and 2110 MHz - 2170

MHz (Frequency Division Duplex) UL and DL [more]
Minimum frequency band required: ~ 2x5MHz
Frequency re-use: 1
Carrier Spacing: 4.4MHz - 5.2 MHz
Maximum number of (voice) channels on 2x5MHz: ~196
(spreading factor 256 UL, AMR 7.95kbps) / ~98 (spreading factor
128 UL, AMR 12.2kbps)
Voice coding: AMR codecs (4.75 kHz - 12.2 kHz, GSM EFR=12.2
kHz) and SID (1.8 kHz)
Channel coding: Convolutional coding, Turbo code for high rate
data
Duplexer needed (190MHz separation), Asymmetric connection
supported
Tx/Rx isolation: MS: 55dB, BS: 80dB
Receiver: Rake
Receiver sensitivity: Node B: -121dBm, Mobile -117dBm at BER
of 10-3
Data type: Packet and circuit switch
Modulation: QPSK
Pulse shaping: Root raised cosine, roll-off = 0.22
Chip rate: 3.84 Mcps
Channel raster: 200 kHz
Maximum user data rate (Physical channel): ~ 2.3Mbps
(spreading factor 4, parallel codes (3 DL / 6 UL), 1/2 rate coding),
but interference limited.
Maximum user data rate (Offered): 384 kbps (year 2002),
higher rates ( ~ 2 Mbps) in the near future. HSPDA will offer data
speeds up to 8-10 Mbps (and 20 Mbps for MIMO systems)
Channel bit rate: 5.76Mbps
Frame length: 10ms (38400 chips)
Number of slots / frame: 15
Number of chips / slot: 2560 chips
Handovers: Soft, Softer, (interfrequency: Hard)
Power control period: Time slot = 1500 Hz rate
Power control step size: 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 dB (Variable)
Power control range: UL 80dB, DL 30dB
Mobile peak power: Power class 1: +33 dBm (+1dB/-3dB) =

2W; class 2 +27 dBm, class 3 +24 dBm, class 4 +21 dBm
Number of unique base station identification codes: 512 /
frequency
Physical layer spreading factors: 4 ... 256 UL, 4 ... 512 DL
CQI

http://www.sharetechnote.com/html/Throughput_UMTS_CQI.htmlhttp://w
ww.sharetechnote.com/html/Throughput_UMTS_CQI.html

n live network for HSDPA, Network sends data with different transport block size
depending on CQI value reported by UE. For this mechanism to work properly, there
should be a certain level of agreement between UE and the network about "which CQI
value means which transport block size". These agreement is defined in the following
tables of TS 25.214.

Table 7A: CQI mapping table A.

Table 7B: CQI mapping table B.

Table 7C: CQI mapping table C.

Table 7D: CQI mapping table D.

Table 7E: CQI mapping table E.

Table 7F: CQI mapping table F.

Table 7G: CQI mapping table G

Then next question is which table do I have to use for which case ? The answer is in the
following table from 24.214. As you see, we use different table depending on UE
Category, Modulation Scheme, MIMO. For example, if a UE is Category 14 device and
uses 64 QAM and does not use MIMO, it use Table G for CQI-Transport Block Size
Mapping as shown below.

I put Table 7G as an example. As you see in the table, the range of CQI value is 0~30.
30 means the best channel quality and lower number indicates poorer channel quality.
And Network has to send the data with the proper transport block size according to the
CQI values.
For example,
i) If UE report CQI value 15, it is expected for Network to send data with transport block
size of 3328 bits/TTI which is equivalent to around 1.6 Mbps.
ii) If UE report CQI value 30, it is expected for Network to send data with transport block
size of 38576 bits/TTI which is equivalent to around 19 Mbps.

One thing you would notice that the transport block size for the highest CQI value is not
amount to the ideal MAX throughput defined in 25.306 Table 5.1a. It implies that you
wouldn't get the ideal Max throughput in any case with live network condition which may
operate according to the CQI table defined in 3GPP. (It would not be any problem in real
communication environment since your device would not report CQI 30 in most case).

However, many UE manufacturer/developer wants to see if their device can really reach
the ideal max throughput. In that case, we normally use a special network simulator
which allows us to set the largest transport block size for each UE category. It would be
even better if the network simulator allows us to define CQI-transport block mapping
table arbitrarily. Fortunately I have access to this kind of the equipment and I did an
experiment as shown below using the network simulator and a HSDPA Category 10 UE.

First I defined a CQI-transport block size table very similar to Table 7D, but I changed
the tranport block size for high end CQI (30, 29, 28, 27) to allocate larger tranport block
than the ones specified in Table 7D to push the ideal MAX throughput.
I programmed Network Simulator so that I decrease the downlink power by a certain
steps. As downlink power (Cell Power) gets down, UE would report lower CQI and
Network Simulator would transmit lower transport block size.
The result is as follows.
In the upper plot, you see three traces - Green, Red, Blue. Green trace means the
everage CQI value within 500ms that UE reported. Red trace indicates the the amount of
data in Kbps that the network emulator transmitted to UE within a second. Blue trace
indicates the amount of data in Kbps that UE successfully decoded. If the Red trace and
Blue traces overlaps, it implies that UE successfully decoded all the data transmitted by
the network. If the Blue trace is lower than the Red Trace, UE failed to decode some of
the data transmitted by the network. The black line shown in section A, B, C is the data
rate defined in Table 7D, but I intentionally allocated the higher data rate for section
A,B,C to push the data rate closer to the ideal Max throughput.
In the lower plot, you see three traces - Green, Red, Blue. Green trace means the everage

CQI value within 500ms that UE reported. Red trace indicates the amount of ACKs within
500 ms and Blue trace indicates the amount of NACKs within 500 ms.

There are a couple of things you may notice (The notes here may be different from what
you observed from your device and test setting)
i) Section A is the only region in which UE shows 100% data decoding without any
failure. It means that you have to make it sure that your test equipment configuration,
cable connection between the test equipment and UE is configured properly so that the
channel quality belongs to this area. (I would say "CQI should be much higher than 30".
I know 30 is the max CQI value. What I mean is that the channel quality should be much
better than the quality in which UE barely reports CQI 30).
ii) In Section B, you see huge drops in terms of throughput and huge increase in terms
of number of NACKs. Main reason would be that I allocated too large transport block size
for CQI 29, 28. There would also be some UE issues with this range.
Section C,D,E shows a kind of normal trends, but ideally we should expect exact
overlapping of rad trace and blue trace, but reality never goes like ideal -:)

http://www.slideshare.net/aritra321/umts-callflowscenarios-overview

https://books.google.com.pk/books?
id=581gFV8abl4C&pg=PA114&lpg=PA114&dq=SRB+is+mapped+to+whi
ch+physical+channels+umts&source=bl&ots=tqR8Q_YXT&sig=hK2C_gQUrEW1AZhf0zQ1ykopMcA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=
0ahUKEwiGzKOj-a_JAhUlXqYKHSuVAcAQ6AEIOTAG#v=onepage&q=SRB
%20is%20mapped%20to%20which%20physical%20channels
%20umts&f=false