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K. Kreutz-Delgado
Abstract
For a new class of tendon-driven robotic systems that is generalized to include tensegrity structures, this paper focuses
on a method to determine the tendon force inputs from a set
of admissible, non-saturating inputs, that will move the rigidbody system from point A to point B along a prescribed path
in minimum time. The approach utilizes the existence conditions and solution of a linear algebra problem that describes
how the set of admissible tendon forces is mapped onto the
set of path-dependent torques. Since this mapping is not oneto-one, free parameters in the control law always exist. An
infinity-norm minimization with respect to these free parameters is responsible for saturation avoidance. Characterizing
and optimizing these free parameters is the new contribution. Feedback is introduced to attenuate disturbances arising from the tensegrity paradigm. Examples illustrate methods and validate tensegritys superior saturation avoidance
capability.
to transmit torque with sufficient bandwidth [5]. One approach that circumvents this problem is to design a mechanism that reduces tendon usage [13]. Alternatively, bandwidth can also be recovered by reducing system mass [4].
For instance, the tensegrity systems in Fig. (1c-h) can be
designed with exceptionally low system mass and superior
saturation avoidance capability since large bending moments
normally present in the links get absorbed in the tendon network [10]. The work herein suggests that tensegrity concepts will revolutionize the manner in which tendon-driven
systems are designed, controlled and utilized. We believe
this will become especially true in environments where agile
maneuvering and delicate object handling require a soft
touch.
In the sections that follow, we address the following questions: Given a set of admissible tendon forces, how should
the control law be designed? For a given robot, which tendon network sustains more torque? What is its minimumtime trajectory along a prescribed path? How can feedback
be used to keep it on track? Lastly, tensegrity model building
methods and control simulations are illustrated by example.
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D = diag 2/ fy1 2/ fy2 2/ fym
e = [ 1 1 ]T ,
t = [ t1 tm ]T
z + K v z + K p z + K i v = 0
z = q qd = v
Yes, if and only if there exists t A to solve
Gt = M(qd K v z K p z K i ) +V q + g = .
(1)
(2)
In order to keep a tendon actuation system in a state of unsaturation that is robust to perturbations, d, we look to part
(iii) of the corollary to motivate the following robust control
objective.
Robust control objective: Maximize saturation margin, ,
w.r.t. free parameters in real-time.
An equivalent objective follows immediately from part (ii)
of the corollary: Minimize tendon force deviation from t d
(50%-yield) w.r.t. free parameters in real-time,
:= arg min t() t d
= arg min G + G+ t d 2 = GT t d
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r
fy
(3)
S2 = (2/ fy )G t d + G+
2
k1 (q) + k2 (q)
a
fy
validate tensegritys leverage advantage for most configurations where k1 0, k2 1 and the link lengths are sufficiently greater than the pulley radii, i.e. a
r. Increasing
the sustainable torque means point-to-point maneuvering can
occur in less time.
0.5c2 c1
fy
c
1
(e+e3 )sin
2
= arg min
f
0.5c
c
y
1
2
c2
2
(e+e3 ) sin
yields tendon forces t = G+
2 + G2 for system 2. Figure
(3b,c) shows the least-squares minimizer is slightly inferior
to the minmax minimizer for saturation avoidance. Figure
(a)
(b)
40
, (Nm)
30
90
, (deg)
150
30
20 60 0
10
40
20
60 100
60 100
0 20
20
100 60
(c)
40
0
10 0
6 20
40
0
10 60 20
40
rq q = r s s
rq q + r q q = r s s + r ss s2
40
90
, (deg)
150
30
90
, (deg)
150
1
u(s) = M(q)rq r s
(4)
v(s, s)
= M(q)r1
rss s2 rq q ) + h(q, q )
q (
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uncertainty are considered here, namely, the standard error, = , that occurs in all robotic systems, and two
tensegrity-based errors,
+
+ = G+ G
G
G = G G
a(s, s,
) + sc(s)
f (s, s,
) s g(s, s,
)
f = max ((sign(ci ) ai )/ci )
i
dt =
B
1
A
s(s)
psuedoinverse error
nullspace error
J=
ds
In [2], it was shown that J is minimized if and only if s always takes either its largest or its smallest admissible value.
In summary, it is easy to show the following.
Lyapunov design. Given time-optimal reference trajectories how do we stay on path using feedback? This can be
solved by using a Lyapunov function: V1 = 12 rT M(q)r where
r = z+ z. First, we can rewrite dynamics in terms of filtered
tracking error r as, M(q)r = Y () V (q, q )r d t + + Gur ,
where Y () = M(q)(z q d ) + V (q, q )(z q d ) g(q).
Then we choose nominal input as = Y () K r r with
+ sgn(r) can
The robust input, ur = kd G
error = Y ().
be implemented without error since we assume the state
is known exactly. The psuedoinverse error is bounded as
+ gI,
where 0 g 1. The time-derivative
gI
GG
of the Lyapunov function becomes,
V1 = rT M(q)r + rT M(q)r/2
T
= r (Y () d t + + Gur )
+ rT (M(q)/2
V (q, q ))r
Theorem 2 The path-following minimum time solution subject to t A is obtained by switching between maximum acceleration, s = g(s, s,
), and maximum deceleration s =
+ sc(s)
f (s, s,
) where = arg min A(s) + b(s, s)
+
+
and A = DG , b = DG v e, c = DG u.
= rT (Y () d t + + Gur )
= rT K r r rT d t + rT Gur
n
= rT K r r rT d t + (kd + g|k
d |) |ri |
i=1
2 = G (s)D e.
i=1
n
i=1
r K r r + |ri | max |dti | + kd + g|k
d|
T
i=1
rT K r r
if kd = |kd |, |kd |
||d t ||
(1 g)
(5)
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7 Tensegrity Model
In this section, a family of dynamical system models is generated for a generalized class of tendon-driven robots that
includes tensegrity structures. First, the rigid body dynamic
models for serial-link and free-link systems are developed.
Second, tendon actuation model building is conveyed by an
illustrative example.
where I = diag I 1 I 2 I b R nn , consists of inertial
2 mi 2
i
blocks, I i = diag m
12 (ai ci ) 12 ai . Notice how the kinetic
energy derivation yields the mass matrix as a freebee! The
potential energy for the rigid body system is
b
V = pTci f gi ,
T
f gi = 0 mi g 0
i=1
The kinetic and potential energies are differentiated in Lagranges equations of motion,
d K K V
+
=
dt q
q
q
and rearranged into the following matrix form [12],
M(q)q +V (q, q )q + g(q) =
T
qi = i i
ci ci
i = si ci
si
pi = po + ak k
k=1
i1
pci = po + ak k + aci i
k=1
(7)
qi
2 i=1 qi
q j
qk
The gravity-induced torque vector becomes
b
b
pci T
V
=
f gi = Tci f gi
g(q) :=
q
q
i=1
i=1
T
Nodal forces, f = f T1 f T2 f Tb , in cartesian space,
f i R3 , are induced by the tendon actuation system. Using
the principle of virtual work [12], the mapping from nodal
forces, f R3b , to torques, Rn , is
ak
k=1
i1
k
q =: i (q)q
qk k
Ti f i =
T1 T2 Tb f =: H(q) f
i=1
k=1
where (3 n) matrices, i (q) = J 1 J 2 J i Oni and
ci (q) = J 1 J 2 J i1 J ci Oni , consist of Jacobians, J i =
ai i /qi and J ci = aci i /qi , and a matrix of zeros with
n 2i columns, Oni . The kinetic energy for the rigid body
system becomes
1
2
1 T T m1 I 0
1
p c1
p c1 q 1
=
=: q T M(q)q
q 1
0 I 1 (q1 )
2
2
1 b
(6)
(mi p Tci p ci + q Ti I i (qi )qi )
2 i=1
1
1 T b
T
= q mi ci (q)ci (q) + I (q) q =: q T M(q)q
2
2
i=1
K =
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8 Illustrative Examples
T
T
T
T
0 J 1 d 2 J 1 d 3 J 1 d 4 J 1 d 5 J T1 d 6
0
0
0 J T2 d 4
0 J T2 d 6
G=
T
T
T
T
J3 d1
0 J 3 d 3 J 3 d 4 J 3 d 5 J T3 d 6
0
0
0
0 J T4 d 5 J T4 d 6
Plant 1. Two inertially-isolated double-link manipulators interconnected with flexible tendons are shown in figure (5).
This system can be described by two copies of the serial-link
p322
p221
p112
p211
p212
p312
model where b = 2, n = 2 and i = 0 for each copy. Combining the copies yields
M(q)q +V (q, q )q + g(q) = H(q) f
T
T
and i j = j i , qi j = i j , f i j = f Ti f Tj , si =
sin i , ci = cos i . Gravity acts orthogonal to the plane of
motion, and therefore g = 0. The nodal points, pi , are computed using forward kinematics,
ci
ci+1
pi = poi + ai
, pi+1 = pi + ai+1
si
si+1
where i = 1 for the first 2-link arm and i = 3 for the second
2-link arm. The tendon orientation vectors, i , are defined in
terms of the nodal points as
po1
I
1
I
2
po3
I I
3
I
I
=
p1 = Co po +Cp
4
I I p2
5
I
I p3
6
I I
p4
p321
p122
p111
(8)
p311
p121
p222
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ci j ci j
i j = si j ci j
si j
9 Conclusion
This paper describes a feedback linearization control law that
uses the parameters in the nullspace of the control distribution matrix, G, to minimize the norm of the tendon force
tracking error, t t d , while avoiding saturation of the control signals. This paper has also shown that when the free
parameters in the tendon control law are optimized in realtime, control synthesis for a generalized class of light and
agile robotic tensegrity structures is possible. Future work
will focus on integrating structure and control design so that
optimal candidates within this new robotics paradigm can be
identified on a task-by-task basis.
90
4.5
t1
t3
80
50
40
t3
30
20
0.05
MVC
0.1
3.5
References
Switch
Point
2.5
1.5
[1] A. Bicchi and D. Prattichizzo. Analysis and optimization of tendinous actuation for biomorphically designed
robotic systems. Robotic systems, 2000-1.
Max Deceleration
Max
Accel.
t1
0
ds/dt, (m/sec)
tension, (N)
60
10
MVC
70
0.5
0.15
0.2
time, (seconds)
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
s, (m)
[2] J.E. Bobrow, S. Dubowsky, and J.S. Gibson. TimeOptimal Control of Robotic Manipulators Along Specified
Paths. Int J of Robot Res, 4(3), 1985.
s, for this design is illustrated in figure (7b). Clearly, the control input is feasible since it is bounded above by the maximum velocity curve. The switching point indicates where on
the path the maximum path-acceleration, g, is switched to
the maximum path-deceleration, f. See [2, 11] for algorithm
details. This procedure can be repeated for plants 1 and 2 by
prescribing a feasible path for all degrees of freedom.
Tension rate constraint. Notice in figure (7a) the tendon forces are discontinuous at the switching point. Since
tendons have finite bandwidth, the control law must be
smoothened for implementation. Smooth minimum-time trajectories are computed by using the algorithm given in [3]
to ensure tension rates, t, instead of torque rates, , are
bounded. This substitution is straightforward once we express t in exactly the same form as as follows
...
s),
t = (s) s + (s, s,
...
= (s) s + (s, s,
s),
t R
Rn .
m
(9)
i
i
All
yields i = ( fy /2) mj=1 i j and i = ( fy /2) mj=1 qi j q.
trajectories are smooth because [3] uses cubic splines to parameterize s(s).
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