43

CHAPTER VI

RESISTANCE PREDICTION

6.1

Introduction

Nowadays there are many techniques which can be used in determining ship
resistance. There are four methods which are:
i)

Model Experiments

ii)

Standard Series Of Experiments

iii)

Statistical Methods

iv)

Diagrams

Model experiment method is the most widely used and applied among others
since it uses models with similar characteristic of the ship and applicable to any
kinds of ships. Meanwhile the other three methods can be used for prediction only
because they have limitation and can be used only for a ship that has similar
particulars to such group. In this project, only five methods are chosen. These
methods are Van Ootmerssens Method, Holtrops & Mennens Method, Cedric
Ridgely Nevitts Method, DJ Dousts Method and Diagram method.

44
6.2

Van Oortmerssens Method

This method is useful for estimating the resistance of small ships such as
trawlers and tugs. In this method, the derivation of formula by G. Van Ootmerssen is
based on the resistance and propulsion of a ship as a function of the Froude number
and Reynolds number. The constraint of this formula, also based on other general
parameters for small ships such as trawlers and tugs that are collected from random
tank data. The method was developed through a regression analysis of data from 93
models of tugs and trawlers obtained by the MARIN. Besides, few assumptions were
made for predicting resistance and powering of small craft such as follows:
1. According to the Figure 6.1 there are positive and negative pressure
peak distributions for the hull surface. For the ship hull scope, there
are high pressure at the bow and stern, while in the middle it becomes
a low pressure.

Figure 6.1: Pressure distribution around a ship hull

2. Small ship can be said to have a certain characteristics such as the

absence of a parallel middle body, so the regions of low pressure and
the wave system of fore and after shoulder coincide and consequently
the pressure distribution is illustrated as in figure 6.2.

45

Figure 6.2: Wave system at fore and aft shoulder

3. The summation of viscous resistance and wave-making resistance

representing the components of the total resistance.

The range of parameters for the coefficients of the basic expression is as

follow:
Table 6.1: Limitations for Van Oortmerssens Method

Parameter

Limitations

Length of water line, LWL

8 to 80 m

Volume,

5 to 3000 m

Length/Breadth, L/B

3 to 6.2

Breadth/Draft, B/T

1.9 to 4.0

Prismatic coefficient, CP

0.50 to 0.73

Midship coefficient, Cm

0.70 to 0.97

Longitudinal center of buoyancy, LCB

-7% L to 2.8% L

entrance angle, ie

10 to 46

Speed/length, V/L

0 to 1.79

Froude number, Fn

0 to 0.50

46
Van Oortmerssens suggested that the final form of the resistance equation is
represented by the summation of viscous resistance and wave-making resistance as
follow:

1 / 9 mFn
C2e mFn C3e mFn sin Fn 2
RT C1e

C4e mFn 2 cos Fn 2

0.075SV 2

2
2log Rn 2

where,

10 3 Ci d i ,0 d i ,1 LCB d i , 2 LCB 2 d i ,3C p d i , 4 C p d i ,5 LWL / B

2

1.

2.

d i ,6 LWL / B d i ,7 CWL d i ,8 CWL d i ,9 B / T d i ,10 B / T d i ,11 Cm

2

m b1 . C p

b / 2

or for small ships this can be presented by:

m 0.14347 C p
3.

2.1976

CWL is a parameter for angle of entrance of the load waterline, i e, where

CWL ie LWL / B

4.

Approximation for wetted surface area is represented by:

S 3.223V 2 / 33 0.5402LWLV 1/ 3
Table 6.2 below shows an allowance for frictional resistance and table 5.3
shows the values of regression coefficient given by Van Oortmerssens.

47
Table 6.2: Allowance for frictional resistance

Allowance for

CF

Roughness of hull

0.00035

Steering resistance

0.00004

Bilge Keel Resistance

0.00004

Air resistance

0.00008

Table 6.3: Values of regression coefficient

i

di,0

79.32134

6714.88397

-908.44371

3012.14549

di,1

-0.09287

19.83000

2.52704

2.71437

di,2

-0.00209

2.66997

-0.35794

0.25521

di,3

-246.46896

-19662.02400

755.186600

-9198.80840

di4

187.13664

14099.90400

-48.93952

6886.60416

di,5

-1.42893

137.33613

-9.86873

-159.92694

di,6

0.11898

-13.36938

-0.77652

16.23621

di,7

0.15727

-4.49852

3.79020

-0.82014

di,8

-0.00064

0.02100

-0.01879

0.00225

di,9

-2.52862

216.44923

-9.24399

236.37970

di,10

0.50619

-35.07602

1.28571

-44.17820

di,11

1.62851

-128.72535

250.64910

207.25580

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6.3

Holtrops & Mennens Method

This resistance prediction method is one of the techniques widely

used in prediction of resistance of displacement and semi-displacement vessels. Like
all methods, however, this technique is limited to a suitable range of hull form
parameters. This algorithm is designed for predicting the resistance of tankers,
general cargo ships, fishing vessels, tugs, container ships and frigates. The
algorithms implements are based upon hydrodynamic theory with coefficients
obtained from the regression analysis of the results of 334 ship model tests.
In their approach to establishing their formulas, Holtrop and Mennen
assumed that the non-dimensional coefficient represents the components of
resistance for a hull form. It might be represented by appropriate geometrical
parameters, thus enabling each component to be expressed as a non-dimensional
function of the sealing and the hull form. The range of parameters for which the
coefficients of the basic expressions are valid is shown as following:

Table 6.4: Limitation for Holtrop and Mennens method

Ship type

Max
Froude

Cp

L/B

B/T

Min

Max

Min

Max

Min Max

no.
Tankers, bulk carries

0.24

0.73

0.85

5.1

7.1

2.4

3.2

Trawlers, coasters, tugs

0.38

0.55

0.65

3.9

6.3

2.1

3.0

Containerships, destroyer types

0.45

0.55

0.67

6.0

9.5

3.0

4.0

Cargo liners

0.30

0.56

0.75

5.3

8.0

2.4

4.0

RORO ships, car ferries

0.35

0.55

0.67

5.3

8.0

3.2

4.0

49
The step by step procedures are shown below to calculate resistance in order
to predict the ship power.
Calculate:
1.

Frictional Resistance, RF 1 / 2SV 2 C F 1 k Ca

2.

Wetted Surface,

S L2T B CM

3.

0.5 0.4530 0.4425CB

0.2862CM

0.003467B / T 0.3696CWP

2.38 ABT / CB

Form Factor

1 k 0.93 T / L 0.22284B / LR 0.924970.95 CP

0.521451 CP 0.0225LCB0.6906

where, LR L1 C P 0.06
4.

Correlation Factor, Ca 0.0006L 100

5.

Frictional Resistance Coefficient, C F

6.

Residuary resistance, RR Ce m1Fn

0.16

0.9

0.00205

0.075

LogRn 22

m2 cosFn 2

where,

m1 0.0140407 L / T 1.75254 1 / 3 / L 4.79323B / L 8.07981C P

13.8673C P 6.984388C P
2

50
2
2
m2 1.69385CP e 0.1/ Fn

1.446CP 0.03L / B
7.

Therefore, total resistances are, RT RF RR

6.4

Cedric Ridgely Nevitts Method

This method is developed for a model test with trawler hull forms having
large volumes for their length. In this method it covers a range of prismatic
coefficients from 0.55 to 0.70 and displacement-length ratios from 200 to 500, their
residuary resistance contours and wetted surface coefficients have been plotted in
order to make resistance estimates possible at speed-length ratios from 0.7 to 1.5.
The changing of beam-draft ratio also takes into account the effect on total
resistance.

Table 6.5: Limitations for Cedric Ridgely Nevitts method

Parameter

Limitations

Length/Breadth, L/B

3.2 5 .0

Breadth/Draft , B/T

2.0 - 3.5

Vulome/length, / 0.01L

200 500

Prismatic coefficient, CP

0.55 - 0.70

Block coefficient, CB

0.42 - 0.47

Speed/length, V/L

0.7 - 1.5

Longitudinal center of buoyancy, LCB

0.50% - 0.54% aft of FP

entrance angle , e

7.0 - 37.4

51
This method is applicable to fishing vessels, tugs, fireboats, icebreakers,
oceanographic ships, yachts and other short and beamy ships falling outside the
range of the Taylor Series or Series 60. Procedures of calculating ship resistances
using this method are as follows:
Calculate:
i)

Parameter of V/L for every speed.

ii)

Parameter of /(0.01L)
Residuary resistance coefficient CR then can be determined from the
graph / (0.01L) against prismatic CP at every V/L.

iii)

Parameter of B/T ratio

The wetted surface coefficient, S / L value can be determined from

the graph of wetted surface coefficient against prismatic coefficient Cp and

calculated B/T ratio
iv)

The wetted surface area from the wetted surface coefficient S / L

v)

Reynolds Number, Rn

vi)

Frictional resistance coefficient, C F

vii)

Total resistance, RT C R C F / 2SV 2

UL

0.075

LogRn 22

After all parameters are calculated, correction needs to be carried out with the total
resistance according to the B/T ratio. The correction can be determined from the
graph B/T correction factor against V/L.
viii)

Calculate the real total resistance coefficient, RT RT x correction

'

factor

52
6.5

DJ. Dousts Method

DJ. Dousts Method is used for calculating resistance based on the resistance
tests of about 130 trawler models carried out at the National Laboratory in
Teddington, England. The results of the tests were transformed into a trawler
standard length, between perpendiculars, of 61m (200ft). (Fyson J. 1985) There are
sixs parameters used in the early stage of design. Those parameters are L/B, B/T, C M,
CP, LCB and e.

Tables 6.6: Limitations for DJ Dousts Method

Parameter

Limitations

Length/Breadth, L/B

4.4 5.8

Breadth/Draft, B/T

2.0 2.6

Midship coefficient, CM

0.81 0.91

Prismatic coefficient, CP

0.6 0.7

Longitudinal center of buoyancy, LCB

0% - 6% aft of midship

entrance angle, e

5 - 30

This method is relevant to be used in predicting the resistance for fishing

vessels. However, correction needs to be taken into consideration for the ships have
different length compared to the standard ship length (200ft). Procedures of
calculation for DJ Dousts Method are as follows:

i)

Calculate the parameter required to determine factors used to calculate

residuary resistance for the ship having standard length, 200 ft. These
parameters are L/B, B/T and V/L.

53
ii)

Determine three factors used to calculate residuary resistance using

graph given. These three factors are F1 f Cp, B / T ,

F2 f Cp, LCB and F3 f Cp,1 / 2 , L / B

'

iii)

Calculate F6 using F6 100aCm 0.875. The parameter a is a

function V/L and given by Table 6.7

iv)

Calculate residuary resistance, C R 200 F1 F2 F3 F6

v)

Calculate, S 0.0935S / 1

vi)

Calculate, L' 1.05V / L

vii)

Calculate Froudes skin friction correction,

'

SFC SL'

0.175

2/3

0.0196 0.29L /10

'

2.77 L' / 10 6 1.22L' / 108

viii)

Calculate, 1 152.5 x SFC / 200

ix)

Calculate residuary resistance for new ship, C R new C R 200 1

x)

1/ 3

Calculate total resistance, RT

C R new V 2
L

Tables 6.7: Values parameter a

V/L

0.8

-0.045

0.9

-0.053

1.0

-0.031

1.1

-0.035

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6.6

Diagram Method

This method represents the usage of a given chart to obtain the necessary
power of the vessel. Its also one of the method used to compare the result with the
other method. Usually the values are taken directly from the chart and will be used as
comparison with the other. This chart shows the curves for displacement and beam of
a typical fishing vessel from 10 to 70m length (33 to 230 ft). (Appendix C) The solid
line in this chart is for the optimum vessel and indicates how the necessary engine
power can be reduced if the hull shape is favorably designed. (Fyson J. 1985) Dotted
lines show the corresponding curve for average fishing vessels. Nevertheless, it also
has limitations on the usage of this graph, they are:

Table 6.8: Limitation of Diagram method

6.7

Parameter

Limitation

Length (m)

10 70 m

Beam (m)

0 10 m

Displacement (m)

0 3000

Engine in SHP (hp)

0 1500

Speed (knots)

7 13.5

Resistance prediction of trawler

The predictions on this trawler are done only by four methods. For all the
techniques above, the method suitable for this trawler specifications are Van
Oortmerssens Method, Holtrop and Mennens Method, Cedric Ridgely Nevitts
Method and Diagram method. The diagram and Cedric Ridgely Nevitts method are

55
applied by calculation based on the graph while the Van Oortmerssens and Holtrop
& Mennens method were calculated by Maxsurf program. The prediction of
resistance will be compared with tank test result. The assumption on the coefficient
is stated below.

Assumption of coefficient:
1. Gearing coefficient, G

= 0.96-0.97 (0.97)

2. Shaft and bearing coefficient, S . B = 0.98 machinery aft (0.98)

= 0.97 machinery amidships
3. Drive Coefficient, D

= 0.5

Table 6.9: Resistance prediction using a various method

Resistance Prediction, Rt (kN)

Speed

Cedric Ridgely

Chart

Chart

Holtrop &

Van Oortmerssens

(knots)

Nevitts method

(Average)

(Optimum)

Mennens

Method

1.32

1.16

2.88

2.86

4.01

4.09

5.56

5.63

7.87

12.42

10

11.98

22.20

13.32

10.33

17.57

11

18.09

38.34

24.22

13.80

19.39

12

27.75

23.79

36.50

12.5

50.95

51.22

13

78.14

67.95

56
Table 6.10: Effective power prediction, PE

Power Prediction, PE (kW)

Cedric
Speed

Ridgely

Chart

Chart

(knots)

Nevitts

(Average)

(Optimum)

Holtrop &

Van

Mennens

Oortmerssens

Method

Method

method
4

3.655

3.19

11.935

11.855

19.36

19.765

30.7

31.095

48.89

77.11

10

82.61

153.12

91.88

71.26

121.18

11

137.28

290.94

183.75

104.68

147.15

12

229.74

196.92

302.17

12.5

439.32

441.65

13

700.735

609.37

Table 6.11: Summary of result (all)

Differences (%)

Cedric

Holtrop

Speed

Towing

Ridgely

Chart

Chart

&

(knots)

tank (Hp)

Nevitts

(Average)

(Optimum)

Mennens

method

Method

Van
Oortmerssens
Method

6.71

14.61

28.14

10.73

11.34

92.03

29.81

28.95

196.15

47.56

17.29

10

302.87

42.62

6.37

36.18

50.52

15.96

11

458.12

36.96

33.61

15.61

51.93

32.42

12

754.00

35.9

45.1

15.93

12.5

983.29

5.5

13

1217.24

21.11

5.33

57

Effective Power Against Ship Speed

800
700

Cedric Ridgely Nevitts

600
Chart (Average)
PE (HP)

500
Chart (Optimum)
400
Holtrop

300
200

Van Oortmerssens

100

Tank Test

0
0

10

12

14

Speed (knots)

Graph 6.1: Comparison of effective power between various methods and tank test

Total Resistance Against Ship Speed

90

Cedric Ridgely
Nevitts

80

Chart
(Average)

70

Rt (kN)

60

Chart
(Optimum)

50

Holtrop

40
30

Van
Oortmerssens

20

Tank test

10
0
0

10

12

14

Speed (knots)

Graph 6.2: Comparison of total resistance between various methods and tank test

58
6.8

Discussion on prediction result

The prediction of resistance for trawler hull form shows an acceptable value
compared to the towing tank test result. All methods showed that resistance will
increase gradually with increasing speed. In a certain speed, there is no result on that
value. This condition occurs because parameter of the vessel can only measure at that
certain speed. If the value is higher than the particular speed, the resistance cannot be
measured, but its enough to see the comparison between the resistance test and
prediction value. The comparison can be clearly seen on Graph 6.2. Differences on
percentage are not to significant comparing to the tank test result and it still can be
accepted.

6.8.1

Van Oortmerssens method

Usually, the Van Oortmerssens methods are useful for estimating the
resistance of small ships such as trawlers and tugs. In general, Malaysian fishing
vessels are short and beamy whilst their draught is relatively low. These kinds of
vessel are normally located in shallow river estuaries. These factors will result in a
relatively low breadth-draught ratio and block coefficient. According to the Graph
6.2, the results of the tank test are nearly close to this method. Its also shows the
lower percentage difference on the prediction value. Therefore Van Oortmerssens
method is suitable because the hull characteristics are covered by this method.

59
6.8.2

Holtrop and Mennens method

Generally, Holtrop and Mennens method is suitable for a small vessel and
this algorithm is designed for predicting the resistance of fishing vessels and tugs.
However, with this method, there are still errors exist in the final result. Therefore,
all the factors below are considered to determine the degree of uncertain parameter:
i)

Increasing in Froude number which will create a greater residuary

resistance (wave making resistance, eddy resistance, breaking waves
and shoulder wave) is a common phenomenon in small ships. As a
result, errors in total resistance increase.
ii)

Small vessels are easily influenced by environmental condition such

as wind and current during operational.

iii)

For smaller ship, the form size and ship type have a great difference.

This method is only limited to the Froude number below 0.5, (Fn < 0.5) and
also valid for TF / LWL > 0.04. There is correlation allowance factor in model ship
that will affect some 15% difference in the total resistance and the effective power.
This method is also limited to hull form resembling the average ship described by the
main dimension and form coefficients used in the method. Graph 6.2 shows the
difference is slightly large value but according to the Table 6.11, after 12 knots, the
percentage will reduce. The critical range of speed between 8 to 11 knots shows the
dissimilarity is because of the above reason.

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6.8.3

Cedric Ridgely Nevitts Method

In this method, the resistances are base on the limitation of the parameter.
The acceptable speed that can be used by these methods are from 7 to 13 knots.
Referring to the calculation, this method also used the displacement-length ratio for
measuring the residuary resistance from the chart. The error occurs when
determining the residuary resistance and the correction factor of breadth-depth ratio
from the graph given. The actual value cannot acquire because the prediction is only
limited to a certain value. Therefore, an affected of residuary resistance also affect
the total resistance of the ship.

6.8.4

Diagram method

This method can be used for preliminary design of new fishing vessel based
on the requirement of that new vessel. In this analysis, the shaft horse power value
can be used use for reference to design new ship. Based on the Graph 6.2, the tank
test curve is in the middle of the optimum and average value. Therefore, it is on the
range of selected engine power and can be accepted for the preliminary design.