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et/2 dt = 1 + 2C < .
Hence all conditions of Theorem 2.29 are satisfied, and thus, (z) is analytic on
U,R .
115
= z (z + 1).
Now by induction on n it follows that
(8.2)
(z) =
1
(z + n) for Re z > 0, n = 1, 2, . . . .
z(z + 1) (z + n 1)
1
(z + m),
z + n) (z + m 1)
and so
1
1
(z + n) =
(z + m).
z(z + 1) (z + n 1)
z(z + 1) (z + m 1)
116
lim (z + n)(z) =
zn
lim (z + n)
for z C \ Z.
sin z
(1 + z)(1 z) =
z
for z A := (C \ Z) {0},
sin z
which implies Theorem 8.3. Notice that by Theorem 8.2 the left-hand side is analytic
on A, while by limz0 z/ sin z = 1 the right-hand side is also analytic on A. By
Corollary 2.19, it suffices to prove that (8.3) holds for z S, where S is any subset
1
of A having a limit point in A. For the set S we take { 2n
: n Z>0 }; this set has
limit point 0 in A. Thus, (8.3), and hence Theorem 8.3, follows once we have proved
that
(8.4)
(1 +
1
)
2n
(1
1
)
2n
/2n
sin /2n
(n = 1, 2, . . .).
Notice that
(1 +
1
)
2n
(1
1
)
2n
s 1/2n
e s
0
Z Z
=
117
ds
et t1/2n dt
0
st
e
0
(s/t)1/2n dsdt.
Define new variables u = s + t, v = s/t. Then s = uv/(v + 1), t = u/(v + 1). The
Jacobian of the substitution (s, t) 7 (u, v) is
u
s s v
v+1
2
(v
+
1)
(s, t)
= u v = 1
u
t t
(u, v)
v + 1 (v + 1)2
u v
=
uv u
u
=
.
3
(v + 1)
(v + 1)2
It follows that
(1 +
1
)
2n
(1
eu v 1/2n
=
0
1
)
2n
Z
0
u
(v + 1)
(s,
t)
dudv
eu v 1/2n
(u, v)
Z
Z
u
dudv =
e udu
2
0
v 1/2n
dv.
(v + 1)2
In the last product, the first integral is equal to 1, while for the second integral we
have, by homework exercise 4,
Z 1/2n
Z
1
v
1/2n
v
d
dv
=
(v + 1)2
v+1
0
0
1/2n Z
Z
v
dw
/2n
1
1/2n
dv
=
=
.
=
+
2n
v+1 0
v+1
w +1
sin /2n
0
0
This implies (8.4), hence Theorem 8.3.
Corollary 8.4. ( 21 ) = .
Proof. Substitute z =
1
2
We give two other expressions for the Gamma function. Recall that the EulerMascheroni constant is defined by
:= lim
N
X
1
log N.
n
n=1
Y
n! nz
ez/n
= ez z 1
.
n z(z + 1) (z + n)
1
+
z/n
n=1
(z) = lim
Proof. We first show that the second and third expression are equal, assuming that
either the limit exists, or the product converges. Indeed,
ez z 1
N
Y
1
1
ez/n
ez/n
= lim e(log N 1 2 N )z z 1
1 + z/n N
1 + z/n
n=1
n=1
z log N 1
= lim e
N
N
Y
Nz N!
1
= lim
.
1 + z/n N z(z + 1) (z + N )
n=1
Y
n! nz
ez/n
z 1
g(z) := lim
=e z
.
n z(z + 1) (z + n)
1
+
z/n
n=1
z z/n
1 6 Mn for z D(0, R), n > 1,
(1 + )e
n
Mn < .
n=1
Then the infinite product defining h is pointwise absolutely convergent, which implies that h(z) 6= 0 whenever any of the factors in the product is 6= 0; that is,
119
z z/n
z
z z 2 /n2 z 3 /n3
e
= 1+
1 +
+
n
n
n
2!
3!
1 z2
1 z3
1 z4
1
1
1 2 +
+
2 n
2! 3! n3
3! 4! n4
1+ e
n
(k 1)! k!
n
k=2
|z| 2 X
|z| 2 X
k1
1
k2
|z|
6
|z|k2
6
n
(k
1)!
n
(k
2)!
k=2
k=2
6
Clearly,
n=1
R2 R
e .
n2
n! nx
n x(x + 1) (x + n)
for x R>0 .
(x) = lim
1
0
t n x1
t dx.
n
Lemma 8.9. For every integer n > 2 and every real t with 0 6 t 6 n we have
0 6 et 1
t n
t2
6 et 2 .
n
n
We prove (8.6) and complete the proof of Theorem 8.6. We have for x > 0, by
the integral expression for (x) for x > 0 and by Lemma 8.8,
n! nx
n x(x + 1) (x + n)
Z n
Z n
t n x1
t x1
t dt
= lim
e t dt
1
n
n
0
0
Z n
t n x1
= lim
et 1
t dt.
n 0
n
(x) lim
121
=
(z)(1 z)
(z)(z)(z)
Y
Y
z
z
z/n
z
z/n
e
1
(z)e
= (z) e z
e
1+
n
n
n=1
n=1
1 z
= z
Y
n=1
Y
z
z
z2
1
1+
= z
1 2 .
n
n
n
n=1
X Bn
z
=
z n (|z| < 2).
ez 1 n=0 n!
Corollary 8.11. We have B0 = 1, B1 = 12 , B3 = B5 = = 0 and
(2n) = (1)n1 22n1
B2n 2n
for n = 1, 2, . . . .
(2n)!
Proof. Let z C with 0 < |z| < 1. Then sin z 6= 0 and so, by taking the logarithmic
derivative of sin z,
cos z
(eiz + eiz )/2
sin0 z
=
= iz
sin z
sin z
(e eiz )/2i
1
2iz
2iz
z e
1
X
1
Bn
= i +
(2i)n z n .
z n=0 n!
= i +
(8.7)
122
sin0 z
(z)0 X (1 z 2 /n2 )0
=
+
sin z
z
1 z 2 /n2
n=1
X
z
1
1 X 2z/n2
+
2
=
=
z n=1 1 z 2 /n2
z
n2
n=1
2
X
z k
k=0
n2
X
1
z 2k+1
=
2
(by absolute convergence)
z
n2k+2
k=0 n=1
X
1
(2k + 2)z 2k+1 .
2
=
z
k=0
(8.8)
Now Corollary 8.11 easily follows by comparing the coefficients of the Laurent series
in (8.7) and (8.8).
Proof. Let A be the set of z indicated in the lemma. We show that the function
F (z) := 22z (z)(z + 21 )/(2z) is constant on A. Substituting z = 12 gives that the
the expressions
(z) =
(z +
1
)
2
2n+1 n! nz
n! nz
= lim
,
n 2z(2z + 2) (2z + 2n)
n z(z + 1) (z + n)
lim
n! nz+1/2
= lim
n (z + 1/2)(z + 3/2) (z + n + 1/2)
2n+1 n! nz+1/2
,
n (2z + 1)(2z + 3) (2z + 2n + 1)
= lim
(2z) =
(take in Theorem 8.6 the limit over the odd integers). Thus,
22z (z)(z + 12 )
(2z)
2z(2z + 1) (2z + 2n + 1)
22n+2 (n!)2 n2z+1/2
2z
= 2 lim
n
2z(2z + 1) (2z + 2n + 1)
(2n + 1)! (2n + 1)2z
2n+2
2
(n!)2 n
= lim
n
(2n + 1)!
F (z) =
since
22z n2z
= lim e2z log(2n/(2n+1)) = 1.
n
n (2n + 1)2z
lim
2( 21 )(1)
= 2 .
(1)
Remark. More generally, one can derive the multiplication formula of LegendreGauss,
(2)(n1)/2 (nz) = nnz1/2 (z)(z + n1 ) (z + n1
)
n
for every integer n > 2. The idea of the proof is similar to that of Theorem 8.12
(exercise).
124