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A CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVATION THEORIES

(CONTENT VS. PROCESS)


Motivation theories can be classified broadly into two different perspectives:
Content and Process theories. Content Theories deal with what motivates
people and it is concerned with individual needs and goals. Maslow, Alderfer,
Herzberg and McClelland studied motivation from a content perspective.
Process Theories deal with the process of motivation and is concerned with
how motivation occurs. Vroom, Porter & Lawler, Adams and Locke studied
motivation from a process perspective.

THE CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION


In a historical perspective, the content theories tend to be the earliest
theories of motivation or later modifications of early theories. Within the
work environment they have had the greatest impact on management
practice and policy, whilst within academic circles they are the least
accepted.
Content theories are also called needs theories, because they are generally
associated with a view that concentrates on the importance of determining
'what' motivates us. In other words they try to identify what our 'needs' are
and relate motivation to the fulfilling of these needs.

1. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs


2. McGregors Management Assumptions (Theory X and Theory Y)
3. Alderfers ERG Theory
4. McClellands Need for Achievement, Affiliation and Power
5. Herzbergs Two Factor Theory

1. ABRAHAM MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

When motivation theory is being considered the first theory that is


being recalled is Maslows hierarchy of needs which he has introduced
in his 1943 article named as A Theory of Human Motivation.
According to this theory, individual strives to seek a higher need when
lower needs are fulfilled. Once a lower-level need is satisfied, it no
longer serves as a source of motivation. Needs are motivators only

when they are unsatisfied.


In the first level, physiological needs exist which include the most

basic needs for humans to survive, such as air, water and food.
In the second level, safety needs exist which include personal

security, health, well-being and safety against accidents remain.


In the third level, belonging needs exit. This is where people need to
feel a sense of belonging and acceptance. It is about relationships,
families and friendship. Organizations fulfill this need for people.

In the fourth level, self-esteem needs remain. This is where people

looks to be respected and to have self-respect. Achievement needs,

respect of others are in this level.


In the top-level, self-actualization needs exist. This level of need
pertains to realizing the persons full potential.

Activity
Do you have the same hierarchy of needs as other people you
know?
Does your hierarchy of needs always remain constant or does
it change depending on your present circumstances?
Is there a hierarchy or do we generally address all these needs
all the time?

2. "MANAGEMENT ASSUMPTIONS" (THEORY X AND


THEORY Y)
Douglas McGregor further developed the needs concept of Maslow and
specifically applied it to the workplace. McGregor maintained that every
manager made assumptions about their employees and adopted a
management approach based upon these assumptions. He maintained there
were two main categories and that managers adopted one or the other.
The first category, which he termed Theory X, he maintained was the
dominant management approach and assumed:

The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if
possible,
Because of this most people needed to be coerced, controlled, directed and
threatened with punishment to get them to put adequate effort into the
achievement of organizational objectives, and
The average person prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has
very little ambition and wants security above all else.

McGregor maintains that the application of this approach, as well as


misunderstanding the real needs of employees, creates a self-fulfilling
outcome because it forces people to become like thisthey have no
alternative.
McGregor proposed an alternative set of assumptions which he called Theory
Y. The assumptions here are virtually the opposite of Theory X. They are:

Work is as natural as play or rest.


External control and threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing
about effort towards organizational objectives. People will exercise selfdirection and self-control towards the achievement of objectives they are
committed to.
Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their
achievement.
The average person learns under proper conditions to not only accept
responsibility but also seek it.
The ability to seek and develop innovative problem solving approaches is
widely, not narrowly distributed across the whole population.
In most work organizations the abilities of most employees is only partially
utilized.

McGregor advocated that the application of Theory Y, would not only meet
the needs of the organization but also those of the employee. He believed
that Theory X at best only met Maslows Deficiency needs, whilst Theory Y
also met the Growth Needs. You would thus have more motivated employees
if you adopted Theory Y.

Activity
Did you score as a Theory X or Theory Y person?
Were you surprised by your score on this exercise?

3. ALDERFERS ERG MOTIVATION THEORY


Clayton P. Alderfer's ERG theory from 1969 condenses Maslow's five human
needs into three categories: Existence, Relatedness and Growth.
1.

Existence Needs

Include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air, clothing,
safety, physical love and affection). In terms of Maslow's model, existence
needs include (physiological and safety needs)
2.
Relatedness Needs
Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with significant others
like family, friends, co-workers and employers. This also means to be
recognized and feel secure as part of a group or family. (In terms of
Maslow's model, relatedness correspondence to social needs)
3.
Growth Needs
Internal esteem and self actualization; these impel a person to make
creative or productive effects on himself and the environment (e.g., to
progress toward one's ideal self). This includes desires to be creative and
productive, and to complete meaningful tasks. (In terms of Maslow's model,
growth needs include esteem and selfrealization needs)
Even though the priority of these needs differ from person to person,
Alderfers ERG theory prioritizes in terms of the categories'
concreteness. Existence needs are the most concrete, and easiest to
verify. Relatedness needs are less concrete than existence needs, which
depend on a relationship between two or more people. Finally, growth
needs are the least concrete in that their specific objectives depend on the
uniqueness of each person.
4. MCCLELLANDS NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT,

AFFILIATION AND POWER


In his 1961 book named as The Achieving Society, David McClelland
identified three basic needs that people develop and acquire from their life
experiences.

Needs for achievement: The person who has a high need for
achievement seeks achievement and tries to attain challenging goals.
There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress, and
a need for a sense of accomplishment. The person who have a high

achievement need likes to take personal responsibility.


Needs for affiliation: The person who has a high need for affiliation
needs harmonious relationships with people and needs to be accepted by

other people. (People-oriented rather than task-oriented).


Needs for power: The person who has a need for power wants to
direct and command other people. Most managers have a high need for
power.

Although these categories of needs are not exclusive, generally individuals


develop a dominant bias or emphasis towards one of the three needs.
Entrepreneurs usually have high degree of achievement needs.
Dominant
Motivator
Achievement

Affiliation

Characteristics of This Person

Has a strong need to set and accomplish


challenging goals.

Takes calculated risks to accomplish their


goals.

Likes to receive regular feedback on their


progress and achievements.

Often likes to work alone.

Wants to belong to the group.

Wants to be liked, and will often go along


with whatever the rest of the group wants
to do.

Favors collaboration over competition.

Doesn't like high risk or uncertainty.

Dominant
Motivator
Power

Characteristics of This Person

Wants to control and influence others.

Likes to win arguments.

Enjoys competition and winning.

Enjoys status and recognition.

5. HERZBERGS TWO FACTOR THEORY


Next to Maslow, Herzberg's theory has probably received the most attention
within the workplace. He developed a theory that differentiated between
factors that satisfied employees, and factors that dissatisfied employees. In
his theory the opposite of 'satisfaction' is not 'dissatisfaction' but rather 'no
satisfaction'. Likewise, the opposite of 'dissatisfaction' is 'no dissatisfaction'.
Herzberg related job satisfaction to five factors:

achievement

recognition

work itself

responsibility

advancement

He termed these factors 'motivators' and related the m back to growth


needs.
Herzberg related job dissatisfaction to:

company policy and administration

supervision

salary

interpersonal relationships

working conditions

These he termed 'hygiene factors' and equated them with deficiency


needs.
His major impact was to argue that providing hygiene factors (more money,
better working conditions, etc) wouldn't create more motivation, only less
dissatisfaction. Only motivators could motivate.

Activity
In evaluating Herzberg's theory do you consider it more a theory of
motivation or job satisfaction?
Do you agree with his placement of factors on the hygiene or
motivator list?
Do they work for you?

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