Answer to the question no 1

Polymers are very useful materials because their structures can be altered
and tailored to produce materials. A polymer is composed of many simple
molecules that are repeating structural units called monomers. Covalent
bonds hold the atoms in the polymer molecules together and secondary
bonds then hold groups of polymer chains together to form the polymeric
material. Copolymers are polymers composed of two or more different
types of monomers. Carbon is the most common element in polymers.
The chemical bonds in polymers are also different than those found in
metals and ceramics. A molecule is a group of atoms held together by
covalent bonds. Examples of polymers are polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Typical
structures are

Linear (end-to-end, flexible, like PVC, nylon)

Branched
Cross-linked (due to radiation, vulcanization, etc.)
Network (similar to highly cross-linked structures)

Fig: Various structures of polymeric materials

Answer to the question no 2
A polymeric molecule that is unsaturated does not have excess
material or solvent within the liquid. Unsaturated polymeric molecule
has the potential to effectively dissolve more material before reaching
the point of full saturation.

A saturated polymeric molecule is as saturated as it can possibly be

under normal conditions. This means that the temperature of the
polymeric molecules, the force applied to it and any other variables are
neutral and within normal ranges. A saturated polymeric molecule is
unable to dissolve or absorb any further solvent, and any solvent that
is added after this saturation point remains whole, usually floating to
the bottom of the polymeric molecules container.
Examples of saturated (all bonds are single ones) hydrocarbon
molecules:

Double and triple bonds can exist between C atoms (sharing of two or
three electron pairs). These bonds are called unsaturated bonds.
Unsaturated molecules are more reactive.

Ethylene, C2H4
Supersaturated polymeric molecules are not possible under normal,
unmodified circumstances. In order to supersaturate a polymeric
molecule, temperature can be raised, which allows more solvent to be
dissolved into the polymeric molecules.

Alternatively, high

pressure can create a supersaturated polymeric molecule. The third

way to produce supersaturated polymeric molecules is to change
volume, such as by evaporation.

Answer to the question no 3

Polymerisation is the process of binding a number of molecules which
contain a small number of Carbon atoms or monomer to form one
molecule of a large number of Carbon atoms. Polymerisation is a process
of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form
three-dimensional networks or polymer chains. There are 2 types of
polymerisation which are:

Addition polymerisation;
Condensation polymerisation.

Addition polymerisation: By binding great number from saturated small

molecules to give big molecules like poly-ethylene. This involves the
formation of the polymer WITHOUT the elimination of any simple
compound.
Condensation polymerisation: Between two different monomers by
losing water to give co-polymer like Bakelite. The polymer is formed from
the monomers by the elimination of some simple compounds.
Answer to the question no 4
Crystalline polymer: Crystalline polymers are solid polymers with a high
degree of structural order and rigidity. Most crystalline polymers are not
entirely crystalline. The chains or parts of chains, that aren't in the
crystals, have no order to the arrangement of their chains. They are in the
amorphous state. So a crystalline polymer really has two components:

The crystalline portion and

The amorphous portion.

Crystalline makes a material strong, but it also makes it brittle. A

completely crystalline polymer would be too brittle to be used as plastic.
The amorphous regions give polymer toughness, that is, the ability to
bend without breaking.
Non-crystalline polymer: In non-crystalline (amorphous) polymers
yielding occurs by molecular uncoiling. At the yield point a neck forms

which is followed by an overall drop in stress. The folded chains become

aligned. Macroscopically because of the thinning down in cross section,
the stress rises locally and any deformation occurs preferentially there.
This helps the neck propagate along the waist of the specimen under a
steady load a process known as cold drawing. Any deformation produced
beyond the yield point is not recoverable.

Fig: Non-crystalline structure

In a crystalline polymer the unfolding of chains begins in the amorphous
regions between the lamellae of the crystals. This is followed by breakingup and alignment of crystals.
Answer to the question no 5
The normal state of most thermoses polymers is to be an amorphous solid
at room temperature. There are a lot of important differences between the
glass transition and melting. Like I said earlier, melting is something that
happens to a crystalline polymer, while the glass transition happens only
to polymers in the amorphous state. A given polymer will often have both
amorphous and crystalline domains within it, so the same sample can
often show a melting point and a Tg. But the chains that melt are not the
chains that undergo the glass transition.
There is another big difference between melting and the glass transition.
When we heat a crystalline polymer at a constant rate, the temperature

will increase at a constant rate. The heat amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one gram of the polymer one degree Celsius is called
the heat capacity.
Now the temperature will continue to increase until the polymer reaches
its melting point. When this happens, the temperature will hold steady for
awhile, even though you're adding heat to the polymer. It will hold steady
until the polymer has completely melted. Then the temperature of the
polymer will begin to increase once again. The temperature rising stops
because melting requires energy. All the energy you add to a crystalline
polymer at its melting point goes into melting, and none of it goes into
raising the temperature. This heat is called the latent heat of melting.
So, two things happen when a crystalline polymer melts: It absorbs a
certain amount of heat, the latent heat of melting, and it undergoes a
change in its heat capacity. Any change brought about by heat, whether it
is melting or freezing, or boiling or condensation, which has a change in
heat capacity, and a latent heat involved, is called a first order transition.

The graph shows how the sample heats up at one rate below the Tg and
then heats up at a higher rate above the Tg. The lower slope below the Tg
is due to the lower heat capacity for the amorphous polymer. Above the
Tg, the rubbery, flexible polymer has a higher heat capacity.
The polymer does undergo an increase in its heat capacity when it
undergoes the glass transition. Because the glass transition involves

change in heat capacity, but it doesn't involve a latent heat, this transition
is called a second order transition.
Answer to the question no 6
Polymers are very large molecules that are made up of thousands - even
millions - of atoms that are bonded together in a repeating pattern. The
structure of a polymer is easily visualized by imagining a chain. The chain
has many links that are connected together. In the same way the atoms
within the polymer are bonded to each other to form links in the polymer
chain. The molecular links in the polymer chain are called repeat units
that are formed from one or more molecules called monomers.
Polymer Properties: The disordered tangling of the polymer chains
create what is known as an amorphous structure. Amorphous polymers
are typically transparent and much easier to melt to make materials like
kitchen cling film.
Properties of Polymers: The physical properties of a polymer, such as
its strength and flexibility depend on:

Chain length - in general, the longer the chains the stronger the

polymer;
Side groups - polar side groups give stronger attraction between

polymer chains, making the polymer stronger;

Branching - straight, unbranched chains can pack together more
closely than highly branched chains, giving polymers that are more

crystalline and therefore stronger;

Cross-linking - if polymer chains are linked together extensively by
covalent bonds, the polymer is harder and more difficult to melt.

Applications of Polymers:

Polymeric materials are used in and on soil to improve aeration,

provide mulch, and promote plant growth and health.

Many biomaterials, especially heart valve replacements and blood

vessels, are made of polymers like Dacron, Teflon and polyurethane.

Consumer Science Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are light
weight and economically less expensive than the more traditional
containers.

They are very commonly used in industry of automobile parts,

windshields for fighter planes, pipes, tanks, packing materials,
insulation, wood substitutes, adhesives, matrix for composites, and
elastomers are all polymer applications used in the industrial

market.
Polymers also demanding in sports playground equipment, various
balls, golf clubs, swimming pools, and protective helmets are often

produced from polymers.

These are also used in clothing; floor coverings, garbage disposal
bags, and packaging are other polymer applications.
Answer to the question no 7

Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and

elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation. Synthetic polymers,
wood, and human tissue, as well as metals at high temperature, display
significant viscoelastic effects. In some applications, even a small
viscoelastic response can be significant. It represented by:

d
dt

Dashpot/damper for viscous element.

Follows Newtonian fluid constitutive law

Spring for elastic element

Assumed to linearly elastic

Viscoelastic behaviour: The difference between elastic materials and

viscoelastic materials is that viscoelastic materials have a viscosity factor
and the elastic ones dont. Because viscoelastic materials have the
viscosity factor, they have a strain rate dependent on time. Purely elastic
materials do not dissipate energy (heat) when a load is applied, then
removed; however, a viscoelastic substance does.
When subjected to a step constant stress, viscoelastic materials
experience a time-dependent increase in strain. This phenomenon is
known as viscoelastic creep.

At a time, a viscoelastic material is loaded with a constant stress that is

maintained for a sufficiently long time period.
Viscoelastic materials are used for isolating vibration, dampening noise,
and absorbing shock. They give off the energy absorbed as heat.