SURVEYING 3B

2015
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
SURVEYING FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
SURVEYING 3B
CHAPTER 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.4
1.5.5
1.5.6

Page

1. Introduction
Reconnaissance and choice of control points
Qualities and functions of a surveyor
Description of surveying
Description of leveling
Classification of surveying
Topographic surveying
Engineering surveying
Mine surveying
Hydrographic surveying
Cadastral surveying
Geodetic surveying

2
3
4
4
4
4
4-5
5
5
5
5
6

1.6 Surveying units

1.6.1
Linear
1.6.1.1 The Cape-foot
1.6.1.2 The English-foot
1.6.1.3 The metre

6
6
6
6
6

1.6.2 Area
1.6.3 Volume

6
6

1.7
1.7.1
1.7.2
1.7.3
1.8
1.8.1
1.8.2
1.8.3

7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7

List of units
Length
Area
Volume
Units of angular measurements
Radians
Sexagesimal angles
Centesimal angles

1.9
Basic mathematics
1.9.1 Mental arithmetic

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1. Introduction
2.
As civil engineering students you are prepared to operate within the full wide spectrum
of civil engineering. You have therefore, in the view of the writer, currently knowledge of a
wide variety of al the disciplines within civil engineering but you are actually master of none.
3.
It is only in post graduate studies where you will most probably make your own
informed choice to specialize in any one civil engineering discipline.
4.
Civil engineering mostly revolves around the design and construction of structures and
within the design we can branch out in the following types of structures:
Brick and or wood housing structures
Large high rise concrete structures
Large and small dam structures;
o Earth fill dam wall structures
o Concrete and re-enforced concrete dam wall structures
Irrigation Canal structures
Geometric design of road or rail structures including bridges and culverts
Power line design and construction
5.
In all of these designs and constructions the engineer cannot operate on his / her own
in a vacuum. Engineers need a team of experts in other fields to work together as a team, such
as architects, geotechnical experts, surveyors, mechanical, electrical and other experts.
6.
In your training and studies you will however have to study some of the principles of
these directions to be able to understand their roles and language to be able to effectively
communicate with them in the workplace.
7.
After all this is said and done it must be clear that all these other disciplines are
support services to the civil engineering industry. It is hoped that this will eliminate some of the
resistance and questions why you have to study surveying.
8.
We do not want to nor is it our intention to make surveyors out of you. In designing
any one of the structures mentioned above the surveyor will play a role right from the initiation
phase up to the finalisation of the project.
9.
It is not expected from you as engineer to actually do the survey work on site, although
it may at some times be necessary for the engineer to carry out minor surveying measurements
to check or if there is no surveyor present and the work cannot be stopped.

If you do not know the surveying principles needed for the specific task / project you will
not be able to effectively design the structure that it is practically constructible (light
castles).
At the same time you will at some stage in your development have to become involved in
the bill of quantities and costing of the different components that contribute to the final cost
of the project.
How will you write surveying specifications in setting up tender documents and or know
whether the quoted prices are in line too low or too high if you know nothing about
what is expected from the surveyor.
All the same arguments are applicable to all the other support services that you have to
know enough about

10.
A lot of problems and costly results were encountered in the past when some engineers did
not properly budget for the costs of surveying on a project. Some money then had to be scraped
from other sources resulting in a situation where the required qualified surveyors could not be
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afforded. This resulted in appointing what we call plastic surveyors and eventually high financial
losses because of mistakes due to lack of training and the correct knowledge. Currently legislation
does not require that engineering surveyors have to register with PLATO, the surveying statuary
body, to operate in surveying. Therefore many untrained, poorly skilled persons give themselves
out in practice as surveyors.
11.
When you appoint a surveyor on any project always make sure that he / she is registered
with PLATO, looking after the interests of and protecting the public against poor workmanship and
malpractices. Engineers should preferably also ensure that the surveyor is registered with SAGI, the
surveying institute looking at the interests of the surveyor.
12.
It is very easy to get money from somewhere to buy a GPS receiver nowadays but this
computerised instrument is a very patient fast idiot. It basically works on the principle of see
button, push button and will almost always give an answer, but if you do not have the background
knowledge you will not know if it is a correct and or usable result? If you want to pay monkey
money you will get baboons and get boo boo results.
13.
Remember the good engineers motto: When in doubt call a registered surveyor!
14. 1.2
lecture)
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.

Reconnaissance and choice of control points (will be fully discussed during the

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46.
47.
48.
1.2
QUALITIES AND FUNCTIONS OF A SURVEYOR.
His / her knowledge of surveying (theory and practical) must be good.
A surveyor must be absolutely honest.
Checks should be arranged wherever possible on linear, angular or height measurements. Never
assume anything as correct unless it is checked thoroughly, preferably by means of an
independent check.
Since no measurement can ever be absolutely accurate, surveys are usually described as being to
a certain degree of accuracy. A surveyor must aim for a degree of accuracy suited to the particular
job at hand.
A surveyor must be trustworthy.
A surveyor must have good judgment,
A surveyor must display initiative and tackle every task with perseverance
A surveyor must be thorough and only satisfied with a task after thorough completion.
Concentration and care must be maintained. At all times think clearly and reason without prejudice.

49. The best surveyor is not always the very accurate one, but the one who aims for a degree of
accuracy suited to the particular job, without waste of precious and costly time.
50. It is very often necessary to measure very accurate, such as distances to an accuracy of 1:10
000 and this could only be obtained by working methodically.
51.
52.

1.3

Description of surveying
Surveying is the determination in the field of the relative positions and elevations of
existing objects, the size and form of any portion of the earths surface and the plotting of the
measured data on a plan or map.
53. 1.4
Description of leveling
54.
Leveling is the determination of the relative heights of different points on the earths
surface.
55.
There are four types of measurements necessary to fix a point:
56.
(i)
Horizontal distances
57.
(ii)
Vertical distances
58.
(iii)
Horizontal angles
59.
(ii)
Vertical angles
60.
1.5
Classification of surveying
61.
Surveying is classified in 6 different types of surveys namely:
62. 1.5.1
Topographic surveying
63.Topographic surveys are those that are made for the purpose of representing the three-dimensional
relations of the earths surface on maps or models. The features shown include such natural
objects as hills, valleys, streams, lakes, relief of the ground surface etc., and the works of man
such as buildings, roads, railways, cultivation, towns and villages.
64.The problem encountered is that we see hills and valleys as high and low points. In order to show this
on a flat piece of paper (plan) we use contour lines.
65.A Contour is a continuous line joining all points of the same relative height.
66.

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67.
68. 20
69. 15
70. 10
71. 5
72. 0
73.

CROSS SECTION OF A TWO HILLS AND A VALEY

74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83. PRESENTATION OF THE CONTOUR LINES (as seen from the top)
84.
85.
86.

1.5.2

Engineering surveying
Engineering survey is any survey work done in preparation of or in conjunction with
the execution of Civil Engineering works such as mass concrete or earth fill dams, canals,
pipelines, tunnels, roads, railways, bridges, power-stations, power-lines and construction of
high-rise buildings.
87. 1.5.3
Mine surveying
88.
Mine surveys are the same as engineering surveys but only in connection with
underground or opencast mining operations. Mine Survey work entails the determination of
the:
89.
(i)
Extent of present work.
90.
(ii) Relative position of all underground workings and the surface.
91.
(iii) As well as to fix the positions and directions of tunnels and shafts.
92.
1.5.4
Hydrographic surveying
93.
Hydrographic survey comprises the operations necessary to map the shorelines of
bodies of water; to chart the bottom areas of streams, dams, lakes, harbours and coastal
waters; to measure the flow of streams. This includes the determination of Mean Sea Level,
which is done over a long period of time, to get the mean between low and high tide.
94.
1.5.5
Cadastral surveying
95.
Cadastral Surveys comprise any survey operations for subdivision of land and the
preparation of plans showing and defining legal property boundaries. The registration of the
boundaries and ownership of property at the Deeds offices may only be signed off and done
by a registered Land Surveyor. Presently, under the new Survey Act, new SA University
graduates may register as a Professional Surveyor: Cadastral and no longer call themselves
Land Surveyors.
96.
1.5.6
Geodetic surveying
97.
The plans submitted to the Survey Generals and Deeds offices must show the form,
area and measurements of the property. If any landowner wants to sell a portion of the property it
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must be surveyed and a new plan drawn of the sub-division, new boundaries fixed and the area
stated.
98.
Individual Cadastral surveys cover such a small part of the earths surface that
curvature of the earth can be ignored. Therefore the survey operations are called Plane Surveying
99. Geodetic surveying is surveys of such a wide extent that the earths curvature cannot be ignored.
100. Geodetic surveying is done to determine the form and extent of the earth or part thereof.
Because it is of such a wide extent it cannot be done with a tape alone. Trigonometrical beacons
were constructed on suitable hills to form a series / network of triangles. The operations involved
was to accurately measure a baseline between 8 to 16 Kilometres in length in a suitable location
and a series of well conditioned triangles, of which the inner angles are determined very
accurately, are extended (Baseline Extension).
101. With one side and two inner angles of the first triangle known, all the other sides lengths can be
calculated and coordinates of all the beacons of the series are calculated. Coordinate lists
compiled and supplied by the Department of Trigonometric surveys, for use by all surveyors.
102. In modern days with GPS equipment the use and application of Trig beacons are not such a
major necessity anymore, but they are still necessary to initialise GPS equipment before and
during survey operations, in the control process to make the survey fit in with the whole.
103. 1.6
Surveying units
104.
1.6.1 Linear
105. 1.6.1.1 The Cape-foot: Cadastral- and Geodetic surveys were previously done in this unit.
106.
The Cape-foot is a bit longer than the English-foot.
107.
1.6.1.2
The English-foot: All types of survey in South Africa were previously done in
this unit, usually to one or two decimal places.
108.
1.6.1.3
The Meter: All surveys, horizontal and vertical, must now be done in this unit
in South Africa. Previously it was only used in Southwest Africa (Namibia).
109. 1.6.2.
Area
110. The accepted units are the Square Kilometre (Km2), the hectare (ha) and the square meter
(m2).
111.
All of these may be used in surveying as appropriate. Previously areas were measured in Square
cape-feet, Square English-feet, Morgen and Acres.
112.
10 000 m2
= 1 ha
113.
1 000 000 m2 = 1 Km2
114.
100 ha = 1 Km2
115.
116.

1.6.3 Volume
1.6.3.1
Cubic Metres (m3): Quantities of materials such as excavations, rock, sand etc.
are expressed in this unit.
117. 1.6.3.2
Litre: Liquid volumes are stated in litres (l)
118.
1 litre = 0,001 m3
119.
1 litre = 1000 ml
120.
1.6.3.3
Morgen Eng-ft or Acre Eng-ft: The volumes of irrigation dams and lakes were
expressed in these units. It represents the volume of water to cover an acre or morgen
respectively to a depth of 1 foot.
121.
Now it is expressed in millions of cubic metres (106 m3).
122.

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123.
124.

1.7
1.7.1

LIST OF UNITS
LENGTH
125.
1,609344 Km
127.
0,9144 m
129.
0,304797265 m
131.
25,4 mm

1 Mile =
1 yard =
1 Feet =
1 inch =

133.
1 C-feet
= 0,31485557516 m

126.
1
Km = 0,6214 mile
128.
1
m = 1,094 yard
130.
1
m = 3,28084 Feet
132.
1
m = 3,176059 CapeFeet
134.
1
mm= 0,0393701 inch

135.
136. 1 Cape-Feet = 1,033 EngFeet
138.
= 3,141593
140.

1.7.2 AREA
141.
Morgen
143.
145.

1 ha

137. 1 Chain
Ft = 7,9 inch
139. 1 furlong
yards

= 1,167499

1 Km2 = 0,3861 mile2

1 ha = 2,471 Acre

147.
Side of a morgen =
92,549m = 101,2139 yard
149.
1
Morgen
=
92196,4896 Sq Eng Feet
151.
1 Morgen = 600 Cape
Rood

= 66
= 220

142.
1
Morgen = 0,856532 ha
144.
1
2
Mile = 2,589990 Km2
146.
1 Acre
= 0,404686 ha
148.
1
Morgen = 2,116540 Acres
150.
1 Acre
= 0,47246718 Morgen
152.
1
Morgen = 86400 Sq Capefeet
154.
1 Sq
mile = 640 Acres

153.
1 Acre = 43560 sq
Eng-ft = 40821,3 sq Cape-feet
155.
1.7.3 VOLUME
156.
Cusecs: One cusec represents a cubic foot per second. Thus the quantity of water flowing past a
point in one second is measured in cusecs.
157.
1 cusec = 1 cubic Eng-ft water
158.
1 cusec-hour =
22400
flowing for 1 sec
Imperial Gallons
159.
1 Acre-ft
= 271300 Imperial
160.
1 Morgen-ft =
574300
Gallons
Imperial Gallons
161.
1 cub yd
= 0,764555 m2
162.
1 morgen-ft = 2610,71001
3
m
163.
164.
1 Acre-ft
= 1233,48001
m3
165.
1.8 UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
166.
1.8.1 Radians
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167.

A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by a curve length equal to the
radius of the circle
168.
The circumference of a circle = 2R
2R
169.
One revolution = 360 = R Radians = 2
Radians
360
170.
1 Radian = 2 = 57 17 44,8 = 206265
seconds
171.
An angle in Radians =
Curve length
Arc

R
R Radians
Curve length
206265
R
172.
An angle in seconds =
Arc

R x 206265 Seconds
173.
174.
1.8.2 Sexagesimal angles
175.
The practical unit of angular measurement in South Africa will continue to be the
degree and its sub-divisions, the minute and the second.
176. 1 Degree = 60
177. 1 minute = 60
178. 360 degrees = 1
minutes
seconds
revolution
179. 1 degree = 0,0175
180. 1 Radian = 57,29
181. 1 Radian = 206264,8
Radians
degrees
seconds
182.
1.8.3 Centesimal angles
183.
In Europe the Centesimal system is used where the circle is divided into 400 grads.
Take note that most photogrammetric stereo plotters operates on the centesimal system.
184.
1.9 Basic mathematics
185. 1.9.1 Mental arithmetic
186.
A surveyor must be able to evaluate measured and calculated data. He/she must
develop the ability to analyse the data in order to determine whether the results are acceptable
or have to be rejected.
187.
If the measured and or calculated data must be rejected it can only be done based on
scientific proven grounds. Therefore it is of the utmost importance that a good surveyor must
before accepting any calculated answer, should have a good idea of the expected magnitude
and sign of any calculated result, even before using the calculator. Take care not to become a
slave of the calculator. Rather make the calculator your slave.
188.
A calculator is only a fast idiot. It can do involved calculations very fast and will
always supply an answer. It does not have the ability to think and can only perform whatever
you tell him to do. If you key in wrong data, or keying in correct data wrongly, it will still
supply an answer but it will be a totally wrong answer. You can only be his master if you
develop the ability through mental arithmetic to anticipate the expected answer. Then only
will you be able to question the answer and redo the calculation without the detrimental loss
of time and money.
189.
A good surveyor does not always directly run back to the field to redo measurements
that was found, by evaluation, to be un-acceptable.
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190.
By analyzing the task or problem it can most of the times be determined where the
incorrect measurement or calculation was made. Then it is necessary to go out to redo only
that measurement.
191.
You can only develop this analytical ability and sharpen it if you in the first instance
develop a solid knowledge and understanding of the theory on the relevant task and secondly
one learns by application of the mathematical principles to be able to analyze. By quickly
doing small mental arithmetic calculations the process can always be speeded up.
192.
In order to prepare you for this and to sharpen your abilities on evaluation and
analysis we will regularly do mental arithmetic exercises in the class. We will even sometimes
do more involved calculations without a calculator, where you will only have to give your
expected answers in magnitude and sign

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