1.

Laterites are soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet
tropical areas (Wikipedia)
Soil layer that is rich in iron oxide and derived from a wide variety of rocks
weathering under strongly oxidizing and leaching conditions
(http://www.britannica.com).
Laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They develop by intensive
and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock.
2. O: Organic matter
A: Horizon near the surface characterized by eluviation of materials in
solution or accumulation of organic matter
B: horizon characterized by illuviation (enrichment) of clay, organic
matter, and iron and aluminum oxides or by in situ weathering.
C: Slightly weathering parent material
D or R: Unweathered parent rocks
Regolith (Greek: "blanket rock") is a layer of loose, heterogeneous
material covering solid rock. The origins of regolith are weathering and
biological processes; if it contains a significant proportion of biological
compounds it is more conventionally referred to as soil.

3. Secondary Enrichment Deposit: endapan mineral ekonomis yang

terbentuk oleh karena pengendapan mineral yang soluble di zona dekat
dengan muka air tanah, sebagai hasil pencucian endapan mineral yang
berada di dekat permukaan. Contoh: endapan Cu supergen dalam sistem
Porfiri Cu-Au.

The weathering profiles for supergene alteration of sulphidic ore bodies in

general are as follows.
These profiles start with
a. the protore or hypogene zone, and the profile above is built up of
b. a lower pale and grey reducing zone, which is also a zone of
supergene enrichment or cementation below the ground-water
table, and
c. an upper multicoloured, dominantly red and brown oxidation zone,
or zone of leaching, above the water table (also called "gossan" or
"iron hat").

4. Residual deposit
bauksit : soil/batuan yang utamanya tersusun oleh mineral-mineral
hidroksida alumunium (hasil pelapukan kimiawi batuan silicate
aluminium yang sedikit mengandung Fe dan kuarsa
Batuan asal:
Endapan bauksit dapat berasal dari berbagai jenis batuan yang kaya akan
mineral pembawa aluminium (Al-bearing minerals):
syenit nefelin (Arkansas, USA)
batugamping (Jamaika),
batu lempung, serpih (Gove, Australia),

batupasir kaolinitik (Brazil, Weipa-Australia) dan

granit (Los Pijiguaos, Venezuela, Indonesia).
KLASIFIKASI ENDAPAN BAUKSIT
Endapan Karstik 14% produksi
Endapan Lateritik 85% produksi
Endapan Allochthonous 1% produksi
Endapan bauksit lateritik (residual)
Pelapukan kimia
Desilisikasi
Pengkayaan Alumina dalam soil
Alumina: Oksida alumina murni (Al2O3)
Al = 52,9%
O = 47,1%

Besi laterit

On iron-rich parent rocks lateritic weathering can produce a significant

additional concentration of iron due to the leaching of silica.

The economically most important occurrences of supergene altered iron ores,

mainly on the Precambrian banded-iron formation
Nikel laterit
Terbentuk oleh proses pelapukan dan pengkayaan kimiawi terhadap
batuan ultramafik, seperti peridotit, harzburgit dan lherzolit yang
mengalami proses serpentinisasi.
Zona pelapukan kimiawi yang kaya akan bijih nikel berada pada
zona saprolit
Contoh: endapan nikel laterit di Soroako, Sulawesi

5. A. Placer deposit : mineral deposits formed by the mechanical

concentration of resistant minerals, which are released by weathering
from source rocks
A mineral with a high specific gravity will become concentrated by flowing
water.
Deposits of minerals having high specific gravities are placers.
Most placers are found in stream gravels that are geologically young.
b. Syarat pembentukan:

 Berat jenis tinggi (3,5 19,4)

Tahan terhadap pelapukan kimia dan mekanis
Mempunyai daya tahan (durabillity, malleability)
Kekerasan (toughness, hardness) tinggi (2,5 10)
Tidak mudah larut
c. Continental placer
Elluvial placer
Overlie or very near source rock
No reworking of resistant minerals
Grade is normally lower than other
Enrichment is partly caused by the removal of soluble minerals by
groundwater & partly by transport of the lighter mineral by running
water & wind action

Colluvial placer
Alluvial placer Fluvial
Relatively far from source rocks
Any reworking of resistant minerals
Gold & cassiterite are the main minerals
Size larger & grade higher
Important environment: river terraces & valley fill
Requirements for formation:
Appropriate source rock
Climate
Morphology
Distance from sources

Desert Placer
Glacial placer
Transitional placer
Natural sorting of the surf, which is concentrated heavy minerals at
the high-water mark and removes the lighter fraction
Transport sediment by wind
Climate change in Plio-Pleistosen, during which changes of sea level
have resulted in several periods of marine transgression and
regression, which have reworked an extensive zone of clastic
sediments
Endapan pada pantai (transisi laut dan darat)
Agen: Arus & Angin
Marine placer
Occurs on the continental shelf 5 km of the coast
Formed by the submergence of heavy mineral accumulation, which
originally concentrated in a continental or litoral environments
Offshore current activity redistribution the heavy minerals
- Mulanya endapan transisional
- Transisi tergenang
- Endapan placer marine

D. Berasal dari batuan vulkanik basaltik = pasir besi

Zircon di Indonesia, seperti di Bangka, Belitung dan Kalimantan terbentuk

bersama-sama dengan batuan beku granitik.
REE minerals are Tertiary or Quaternary deposits derived from source
areas that include granitic rocks or high-grade metamorphic rocks

1. The processes involved in the formation of chromite layers are

fractional crystallization and gravity settling. Chromite crystallizes into
mineral grains within the silicate liquid and, because they are heavier
than the liquid, they sink to form a cummulate layer at the base of the
intrusive.
There are two main types of chromite
deposits:
Stratiform chromite deposits consist of laterally persistent
chromite-rich layers (a few mm to several m thick) alternating with
silicate layers. The silicate layers include ultramafic and mafic rocks
such as dunite, peridotite, pyroxenite and a variety of others, less
commonly gabbroic rocks. They are generally found within basal
portions of mafic-ultramafic layered intrusions of Archean age such as
the Bushveld Complex in South Africa. These deposits contain
substantial reserves of poor-quality chromite (average 10.7% Cr 203).
Podiform chromite deposits consist of pod to pencil-like, irregularly
shaped massive chromite bodies and they are predominantly found
within dunitic (olivine-rich) portions of ophiolite complexes. The rocks
associated with podiform chromites are generally referred to as
"Alpine-type" peridotites and they are usually found along major fault
zones within mountain belts.

Ni sulfide
Magma segregasi

Orthomagmatic copper-nickel-iron (-platinoid) deposits

associated with basic and ultrabasic rocks (Evans, 1993)
Nickel-copper sulfide ores formed by the sinking of an
immiscible sulfide liquid to the bottom of a magma chamber
or lava flow.
Sulfides usually accumulate in hollows at the base of the
magma forming conformable sheets or lenses

Noritic rocks intruded into an area that has suffered a catastrophic release
of energy, e.g. an astrobleme (Sudbury);
Intrusions associated with flood basalts in intracontinental rift zones
(Noril'sk-Talnakh, Duluth);
Komatiitic and tholeiitic flows and intrusions in greenstone belts
(Kambalda, Agnew, Pechenga).

PGM
However, while the fundamental processes involved in the formation of NiCu and chromite deposits are relatively simple, the concentration and
deposition of PGM appears to be a not too well understood, diverse and
multistage process.
Several lines of evidence indicate that PGM can
1. concentrate during high-temperature deposition of chromites,
2. be incorporated into immiscible liquids,
3. be remobilized and reconcentrated during metasomatic and
hydrothermal activity.

1. The Merenski Reef of the Bushveld Complex in South

Africa,
2. The Ni-Cu deposits of the Noril'sk-Talnakh District in the U.S.S.R.,
3. By-product of several Ni-Cu deposits (Sudbury, etc.),
4. Placers derived from zoned (Alaskan-type) ultramafic intrusions
(Columbia, Goodnews Bay, Tulameen) (Catatan: placer PGM juga
teridentifikasi di Pegunungan Meratus, Kalsel)
5. Metasomatic dunite pipes of the Bushveld Complex. The bulk of
present world production comes from the Bushveld and Russian
deposits and most presently known reserves are within Merenskitype environments (Bushveld and Stillwater Complexes).
2. They occur at or near the base of complexely differentiated gabbrodolerite intrusions (50 to 350 m thick) emplaced during late Permian to
Triassic time during rifting of the Siberian platform. The sills are considered
to be feeders to overlying plateau basalts.
3. The mineralogy of the ores include pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite
and a great variety of PGM minerals. Placers derived from Alaskan-type
intrusions are the results of the breakdown, transport and concentration of
Pt-Fe alloys mainly associated with Fe-rich chromite layers from the dunitic
portions of thse complexes.
4. The metasomatic dunite pipes of the Bushveld Complex played a
significant role as high-grade platinum producers during the early days of
platinum mining in South Africa. They consist of central zones of Fe-rich
dunite enveloped by shells of dunite and pyroxenite.
2. Redox state magma (Ishiharas classification) : M&I
sumber genesa I, M, A

Magnetite vs ilmenite series are considered to have resulted from

different oxygen fugacities during evolution of the granitic
magma
Magnetite series: deep source, such as the subducting slab, the
upper mantle wedge or the lowest crust. They trap water at an
early stage of magma evolution as a main oxidizing agent
Ilmenite series: source from either shallower depth or deep
source but later contaminated by crustal carbon that becomes the
reducing agent
Magnetite series : characterized by sulfide mineralization: base
metal sulfides, gold-silver, large part of molybdenum, including
porphyry and VMS type deposits
Ilmenite series: sulfide-free mineralization (cassiterite,
wolframite, beryl and fluorite).
Granit tipe S atau ilmenit dijumpai di Bangka, Belitung dll (Tin islands)
dan bagian timur Sumatra umumnya berumur Triassic dan berasosiasi
dengan mineralisasi timah

partial melts of aluminous sedimentary rocks; w/ Al-rich minerals

(Al-silicates; cordierite, garnet), biotite (brown) and ilmenite
Granit tipe I atau magnetite-series dijumpai di sepanjang Perbukitan
Barisan, umur Mesozoic-Tersier dan berasosiasi dengan mineralisasi
emas dan logam dasar.
- partial melts of mantle-derived mafic rocks (underplated basaltic
melts?); contain abundant hornblende and magnetite

M-type granitoids (direct mantle source) - e.g. plagiogranites in

ophiolites

A-type granitoids (on anorogenic settings) - peralkaline melts in

rifts

3.
Perlite
erlite (perlit) adalah salah satu batuan piroklastik, salah satu tipe dari volkanik-glass,
yang dapat mengembang dan menjadi sangat berpori ketika dipanaskan. Berasal dari
bahasa Perancis "Pearl", yang menunjukkan kilap mutiara dari batuannya. Ketika
dipanaskan, perlit dapat mengembang hingga 20x dari volume sebenarnya. Prinsipnya
sama seperti kita membuat pop corn, dimana volume akan mengembang, namun
menjadi lebih ringan. Perlit umumnya berwarna abu-abu hingga hijau, namun bisa
berwarna cokelat, biru, ataupun merah. Setelah dipanaskan, perlit akan berwarna abuabu hingga putih.

Pada daerah yang saya kunjungi, perlit berasosasi dengan tuff dan batu-apung (pumice), yang
juga merupakan produk dari batuan piroklastik, dan juga berasosiasi dengan devitrified
perlite. Klasifikasi dari material tersebut dibagi berdasakan kenampakan fisik dari batuan.
Banyak struktur minor yang bisa diamati, seperti adanya laminasi, micro-folding atau perlipatan
mikro, serta adanya fragmen batuan yang terperangkap dan terkompaksi, sebagai produk
adanya letusan di masa lampau.
Perlit mempunyai banyak manfaat. Menyerupai bentonit, zeolit, yang dimanfaatkan
sebagai penukar ion, perlit juga dapat dipakai untuk keperluan tersebut. Pembuatan
beton ringan, kosmetik, campuran bahan makanan hewan dan tumbuhan, penjernih air,