Research Methodology Full Notes

RESEARCH MEANING
Research is a serious academic activity with a set of objectives to explain or a

nalyse or understand a problem or finding solution(s) for the problem(s) by adop
ting a systematic approach in collecting, organizing and analyzing the informati
on relating to the problem. Research Definition Research ; may be defined as the s
ystematic and objective analyze and recording of controlled observation that may
lead to the developments or generalizations, principles or theories, resulting
in prediction and possibility ultimate control of events.
Sometimes research is defined as a movement, a movement from the known to the un
known. It is an effort to discover something. Some people say that research is a
on effort to know more and more about less and less.
According to CLIFFORD WOODY, research comprises, defining and redefining problem
s formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting organizing and evalu
ating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at as carefully test
ing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating a hypothesis.
Research may also be defined Any organized enquiry discussed and carried out to p
rovide information for solving a problem.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH:
Research is a conscious approach to find out the truth which is hidden and which
has not been discovered by applying scientific procedure. Therefore each resear
ch has its own focus. This is stated in terms of objectives (or) purposes of con
ducting research. Objectives are like guide points in research, that the researc
her does not nose his focus it is also believed that the objectives determine th
e nature of data to be compiled, the scope of collection, target group sample si
ze and several other crucial aspects which ultimately decide the success or fail
ure, adequacy or in failure, adequacy or research. The objectives or a research
will be explained in the following words;
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Dr.N.KANNAN, Professor & Head in MBA
Determining frequency quencyquency

Testing Hypothesis
Objectives of research Develops Focus
Reveals characteristic ccharacteristicReveal s cccccccccCharacteris It develops
Focus: The research may be to understand for become familiar with some tic pheno
mena or to get to know more in depth it. For example, since the days of steam en
gine, the research continued to come up with more powerful locomotive which coul
d be operated with alternative sources of energy like diesel, electricity etc. I
t reveals characteristics: To clearly reveal the characteristics of an individua
l or a situation or a group like a society is another type of research objective
. For example in these days before a criminal is sentenced efforts are taken to
study why he had turned criminal. This helps develops an approach to create oppo
rtunities for criminals to cha ge themselves and join the main stream of life It
determines frequency of occurrence: To determine the frequency with which somet
hing occurs or with which it associated with something else. In social research
one of the major areas of repeated and continuous research is analysis of povert
y and unemployment. It tests hypothesis: To test a hypothesis about the casual r
elationship between variable
being studied. This type of research is mainly to determine the relationship bet
ween various factors so that necessary policy options could be framed. For examp
le, the reasons for several malpractices adopted in public distribution outlets
include low salary and absence of regulation of service of the staff in such out
lets. This is turn make them to feel insecure and they resort to mal practices.
Having found this the Govt., had taken a policy to improve the salary structure
of these staff ad regularize their services. Hence the study of casual relations
hip might help in formulation of policies.
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Criteria of Good Research (characteristics)

Research is half complete, when obje
ctive or purposes of it are clearly spelt out. It is necessary that every step f
ollowed in the process of research is explained fully. This is because any other
person who wants to repeat such a work to achieve further improvement on lest t
he validity of the research work should be able to do it.
The research design ad
opted for the study should be clear and match with objectives. The research shou
ld be honest in reporting the facts and revealing the flaws in the work.
Every r
esearch work should be based on carefully selected analytical tools. The researc
h work is incomplete without acknowledging the various data (or) facts.
Limitati
ons should be frankly revealed
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
BASED ON INTENET
BASED ON METHODS
Pure research Applied research exploratory Descriptive research
Experimental ll Analytical Historical Survey
Diagnostic research
Evaluation
Action
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FUNDAMENTAL (OR) BASIC RESEARCH:

Pure or Basic research is a search for broad principles and synthesis without an
d immediate utilization objectives. It is not concerned with solving any practic
al problems of policy but with designing and fascinating tools of analysis and w
ith discovering underlying and if possible universal laws and theories. Eg. John
Robinsons imperfect competition and chamberlains monopolistic competition.
Applied (or)Action Research: Applied research also known as action research is a
ssociated with particular project and problem. Such research, being of practical
value may release to current activity (or) immediate practical situation it aim
s at finding a solution for an immediate problems facing a society practically a
ll social science research undertaken in India is of the applied variety and mor
e particularly of the type which helps formulation of policy. Descriptive Resear
ch: It is designed to describe something such as demographic characteristics of
consumers who use the product. It is designed to describe something, such as dem
ographic characteristics of consumers who use the product. It deals with determi
ning frequency with which something occurs or how two variables vary together. T
his study is also guided by a initial hypothesis. For example an investigation o
f the trends in consumption of soft drinks in relation to rationeconomic charact
eristics as age, sex, ethnic group, family income, education level, geographic l
ocation, and so on would be descriptive study. Merits:
This approach helps to te
st the conclusion and findings arrived at on the basis of laboratory studies. By
using this approach, it is possible to substantiate existing theories and concl
usions on modifying them.
Direct contact between the researcher and the responde
nt is brought about in this approach. This is very significant because, the rese
archer would be able to understand himself clearly the problem to be studied.
Wi
th the possibility of direct contract with the respondent, the researcher is abl
e to elicit all the relevant information and eliminate irrelevant facts.
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Limitations:
Unless the researcher is experienced there is every possibility of
the approach being misused. Hurried conclusions and generalizations may be forme
d based on the inaccurate field data.
As this approach involves collection of fi
eld data enormous time and efforts are This approach also involves incurring hea
vy cost on data collection.
Unless the respondents are co-operative. It is not p
ossible to collect data through this approach. HISTORICAL RESEARCH:
required to plan and execute the field survey
As the name suggests in this approach historical data is given importance to und
ertake analysis and interpret the results. Following this approach a researcher
would collect past data for his research. A scholar using this approach has to d
epend on libraries for referring to the magazines or periodicals for collecting
data. Merits: This approach alone is relevant in certain types of research work.
For examples to understand the trend in Indias exports. One has to collect the e
xport data for a period of say 20 years and them analyze it similarly to study t
he impact of the liberalizations policy one has to collect information from 1991
till date. Historical approach makes research possible as it is firmly believed
that once we understand the past, out understanding of the present and expectat
ions of the future could be predicted to some extent. Hence historical research
provides the insight into the past and facilitates looking into the future. Limi
tations:
Personal bias of the people who had written about historical events or
incidents cannot be to mislead. Researchers tend to over generalize their result
s using historical approach. Persons using this approach should be conscious of
the fact that historical data can be taken be give and indication about the past
, but formulation of solutions on that basis and applying them in the current pe
riod is not correct.
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EXPLORATORY RESEARCH:
Most of the marketing research projects begin with exploratory. It is conducted
to explore the possibilities of doing a particular project. The major emphasis i
s on the discovery of ideas and insights. For example, a soft drinks firm might
conduct an exploratory study to generate possible explanations. The exploratory
study is used to spilt the broad and vague problem into smaller, more precise su
b problem statements, in the form of specific hypothesis. An exploratory study i
s conducted in the following situations.
To design a problem for investigations
and to formulate the hypothesis. To determine the priorities for further researc
h. To gather data about the practical problems for carrying out research on part
icular conjectural statements.
To increase the interest of the analyst towards t
he problems and
To explain the basic concepts. Exploratory study is more flexibl
e and highly informal. There is no formal approach in exploratory studies. Explo
ratory studies do not employ detailed questionnaire. These studies will not invo
lve probability sampling plans. The following are the usual methods of conductin
g exploratory research Literature Survey
Experience Survey and
Analysis of insig
ht stimulating cases.
LITERATURE SURVEY;
The literature search in fast and economic way for researchers to develop a bett
er understanding of a problem area in which othey have limited experience. In th
is regard, a large volume of published and unpublished data are collected and sc
anned in a relatively small period of time. Generally sources includes books, ne
wspapers, Government documents trade journals, professional journals and soon. T
hese are available in libraries, company records such as these kept for accounti
ng sales analysis purposes; reports of previous research projects conducted prob
lems incompletely but will be of great help to provide a director to further res
earch.
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EXPERIENCE SURVEYS;
In this method, the persons who have expertise knowledge and ideas about researc
h subject may be questioned. Generally the company executives, sales managers, o
ther relevant people of the company salesman, wholesalers, retailers who handle
the product or related products and consumers are concentrated. It does not invo
lve scientific ally conducted statistical survey, rather it reflects an attempt
to get available information from people who have some particular knowledge of s
ubject under investigation.
ANALYSIS OF INSIGHT STIMULATING CASES:(Case Study Approach). Case study approach
to research is recent development. In this approach the focus is on a single or
ganization or unit or an institution or a district or a community. As the focus
is on a single unit, it is possible to undertake an in depth analysis of the sin
gle unit. It is basically a problem solving approach, The following are the char
acteristics of case study method. The study of the whole unit: It this study a l
arge variety of units are selected for study and the size of the unit may be qui
te large to cover an entire community in a word this method treats an individual
an institution or a group of persons as a whole. Intensive study: It aims at de
ep and through study of a unit. It deals with every aspect of a unit and studies
at intensively. The following methods are undertaken in case study;
Determinati
on of Factors: First of all the collection of materials about each of the units
or aspects is very essential. The determination of factors may be of two types,(
u)particular factors and General factors.
Statement of the problem: In this proc
ess the defined problem is studied intensively and the data are classified into
various classes. Analysis and conclusion: After classifying and studying the fac
tors an analysis is made Advantages:
As this approach involves a focused study t
here is lot of scope for generating new ideas and suggestions. It may provide th
e basis for developing sound hypothesis. As the researcher studies the problem f
rom his own point of view, very useful and reliable findings may be obtained.
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Limitations:
A significant limitation of this approach is that unless the resear
cher is experienced he might ignore very important aspects. This approach also d
epends on the infirm furnished by the respondents unless the infirm is accurate
the conclusions are bound to be irrelevant. It is often said that case studies a
re based on the observations of the researcher
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:
This is a very scientific approach. In this approach the researcher first determ
ines the problem to be studied. Then he identifies the factors that cause the pr
oblem. The problem to be probed is quantified and taken as the dependent variabl
e. The factors causing to the problem will be taken as independent variable. The
n the researcher studies the casual relationship between the dependent and indep
endent variable. He is also able to specify to what extent the dependent variabl
e. He is also able to specify to what extent the dependent variable is influence
d by each independent variable. For examples suppose food production is taken as
the problem for a research study. then the scholar would determine the factors
that will affect food production. Viz size of the land cultivated(x) rainfall (y
) quantity of fertilizer applied (z) etc. These factors x,y and z are called ind
ependent variable,. Food production [A] is called dependent variable. Then by co
llecting data regarding all the four [A,x,y and z]. The researcher is able to st
ate what percentage change in the final food (A) is explained by x,y and z. The
effect of x on A, y on A and z on A is also studied. In this manner the research
er is able to successfully indicate to what extent various factors included in t
he study are important.
Merits of Experimental Approach (Research)
This approach provides the social scientists a reliable method it observe under
given conditions to evaluate various social programmes. This is one of the best
methods of measuring the relationship between variables.
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This approach is more logical and consistent that the conclusions drawn but of r
esearch based on this approach is well received. It helps to determine the cause
effect relationship very precisely and clearly. Following this approach researc
hers could indicate clearly the areas of future research
Limitations of Experimental Approach (Research)
Unless a researcher is well expe
rienced and trained in model building this approach can not be easily followed.
By relying more on models this approach may not add anything significant to know
ledge A serious limitation of this approach is that it relies on sampling and co
llection of data. Unless these are properly planned and executed. the outcome of
analysis will not be accurate..
DIAGNOSTIC STUDY; This is similar to descriptive study but with a different focu
s. It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and
what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the
possible solutions for it. A diagnostic study may also be concerned with discove
ring and testing whether certain variables are associated. E.g., are persons hav
ing from rural areas more suitable for manning rural branches of banks? (or) Do
more villagers than city voters vote for a particular party.
EVALUATION STUDIES;
Evaluation study is one type of applied research it is made for assessing the ef
fectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented (e.g. family planning s
cheme) or for assessing he impact of developmental projects (e.g., irrigation pr
oject) on the development of the area. Evaluation study may be defined as determi
nation of the results attained by some activity (whether a program me, a drug or
a therapy or an approach) designed to accomplish some valued goal or objective.
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ANALYTICAL STUDY:
Analytical study is system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to q
uantitative data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models (or) statist
ical techniques applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also known as the stat
istical method. This method is extensively used in business and other fields in
which quantitative numerical data are generated. It is used for measuring variab
les, comparing groups and examine association between factors. Data may be colle
cted from either primary sources or secondary sources.
SURVEYS RESEARCH:
Survey is a fact finding study. It is a method of research involving collection
of data directly from a population or a sample there of at particular time. It m
ust not confused with the more clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figu
res. It requires expertise and careful analytical knowledge. The analysis of dat
a may be made by using simple or complex statistical techniques depending upon t
he objectives of the study This type of research has the advantage of greater sc
ope in the sense that a larger volume of information can be collected from a ver
y large population
OTHER TYPES Ex-post Facto Research;
Expost Fact research is based on observation made by inquiry in which the resear
cher does not have direct control of independent variables because their outcome
have already occurred. This kind of research based on a scientific and analytic
al examination of dependent and independent variables. The ex-post facto researc
h findings may become riskier by improper interpretations. Panel Research: Gener
ally the survey research is valid for one time period which is known as st udy pe
riod and they do not reflect changes occurring time. The consumer attitudes towar
d purchasing a particular product are not static and hence changing. For example
, it is not possible to study the changes occurring in these attitudes over a pe
riod in response to changes in the particular products marketing min. measuring
change over time is known as
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longitudinal analysis which is done by the use of panels. This methods are gener
ally used in sales forecasting by consumer preferences for various products meas
uring audience size and characteristics for media programmes testing new product
s. Advantages; o It considers the changes in the time. o It provides more contro
l o It has greater co-operation o It offers more analytical Data from respondent
s.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Exploratory Secondary data
conclusive Descriptive research
Survey Depth interview
Case study analytical
experimentation Projective technique
Focus interview \
laboratory
Field experiment
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RESEARCH PROCESS
Research is a process. A process is a set of advices that are performed to achie
ve a targeted outcome. That is a process involves a number of activities which a
re carried out either sequentially or simultaneously. So research process would
refer to various steps and stages involved in research activity. The various sta
ges are listed below;
Formulating the Research problem Extensive literature surv
ey Developing the hypothesis
Preparing the research design
Determining the sampl
e design Collecting the data
Analysis of data
Hypothesis testing and Preparation
of report
Formulating the Research Problem; In research process the first and foremost ste
p is selecting and defining a research problem. A researcher should at first fin
d the problem. Then he should formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to res
earch. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know what a problem is?
What is a Research problem a problem can be called a research problem if it sati
sfies the following condition;
It must be worth studying The study of the proble
m must be socially useful It should be a problem untouched by other researchers
or even if touched must be in need of further research possibility. A research p
roblem should come out with solutions to the issue. It should be up to date and
relevant to the current social happenings. All the special terms that are used i
n the statement of the problem should be clearly defined.
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In selection of the problem the researcher should take into consideration of the
following factors:
Researchers Interest
Topic of significance
Researchers resourc
e Time availability
Availability of data Feasibility of the study
Benefits of th
e research Review of Literature: After defining the problem the researcher shoul
d undertake an extensive literature survey connected with the problem. In this c
ontext he can refer previous studies magazines journals and dissertations publis
hed, academic journals etc., In this process, oit should be remembered that one
source will lead to another. The earlier studies if any which are similar to the
study in hand should be carefully studied. Developing the Hypothesis: This is t
he next stage to the review. Here the researcher should state in clear terms the
hypothesis. Hypothesis is an assumption to be proved or disproved. A research h
ypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific method
s. That relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. Features:
It
should be clear and precise It should be capable of being tested
It should stat
e the relation between variables It should be limited in scope and must be speci
fic It should be stated in simple terms Normally a hypothesis will be developed
in the following ways:
The researcher has to consult and deliberate with colleag
ues and experts about the problem.
He has to examine the existing data, concerni
ng the problem for possible trends and clues and
He has to review studies on sim
ilar problems
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Preparing the Research Design: After developing hypothesis the researcher has pr
epare a research design. A research design could be defined as the blue print sp
ecifying every stage of action in the course of research. Such a design would in
dicate whether the course of action planned will minimize the use of resources a
nd maximize the outcome. Research design is the arrangement of conditions for co
llection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine research purpose
and economy in procedure.
Research design would answer the following questions.
What is the study about?
hy is the study being made? Where will be the study should be carried out? What
type of data and where it would be collected? What is the period of study? Wheth
er any sample would be used and if so what type of sample will be sued? What typ
e of tools to be used?
A good research design should possess the folly features. However the qualities
of a good research would differ from study to study: It should be flexible
It sh
ould help to minimize bias at every stage
It should facilitate collection and an
alysis It should be closely linked with objectives of the study
It is a plan tha
t specifies the sources and type of inform relevant to the research problem. It
should specifically mention the type of approach to the study
It should also inc
ludes the time and cost budget since most studies are suffered by these two cons
traints: Broadly there could be four different types of research design: viz., (
Contents of Research design)
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Sampling design CONCENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN Statistical design Operational desig

n Observational deign
Sampling design: all the details connected with the sampling process from the de
termination of sample size down to the collection of data, would be spelt out. O
bservational design: If the study makes use of observational technique then what
type of observation technique would be used, conditions under which the observa
tions will e made would be indicated. Statistical design: This part of research
design would spell out the type of analysis that would be carried out. Operation
al design: This design would lay down the steps that would be taken at each stag
e as the design is executed. Research design may be classified as: Exploratory R
esearch design Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design Experimental Research
design Conclusive Research Design
Determining the sample Design: A sample, as the name implies is a smaller repres
entation of a large whole simple speaking the method of selecting for the a stud
y portion of the universe with a view to draw conclusion about the universe is k
nown as sampling. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or wh
at is popularly known as the sample design, In other words a sample design is a
definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from given population samples can be either probability samples or non pr
obability samples.
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Collecting the Data: Collection of data is on important stage in research. In fa

ct the quality of data collected determine the quality of research. A researcher
has several ways of collecting the appropriate data which offer considerably I
the context of money, time and other resources as per its sources the data may b
e classified as primary data and secondary data. Primary data is known as the da
ta collected for the first time through field survey. Such data are collected wi
th specific set of objectives to assess the current status of any variables stud
ied. By survey methods data can be collected by anyone or more of the following
ways:
Observation Method Personal Interviews
Telephone survey
Questionnaires
edules Secondary data refers to the information or facts already collected such
data are collected with the objective of understanding the past status of any va
riable.
Processing and analysis of Data: Processing refers to the subjecting the data co
llected to a process in which the accuracy, completeness, uniformity of entries
and consistency of information gathered are examined. Most commonly processing i
s understand as editing, coding, classification and tabulation of the data colle
cted. After processing in research a scholar explains the tools
that he has adopted for analyzing the data. The scholar should select the tools
of analysis by considering the objectives set for the study. He should examine t
he type of analysis required for accomplishing each objectives set. Based on tha
t this he must explain the features of the tool and how is it applied.
Testing the Hypothesis: The researcher after analyzing the data will test the ty
pe of /Hypothesis while testing the hypothesis various tests such as chi-square,
test, t-test, F-test will be used depending upon the nature and object of resea
rch. Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or reject
ing it.
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Sch
Preparation of the Report: After the analysis and interpretations are over, the
research has to prepare the report. The body of the report includes introduction
review of literature, methodology result and discussions and summary and conclu
sions/
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN After developing hypothesis the researcher has to prepa
re a research design. A research design could be defined as he blue print specif
ying every stage of action in the course of research. Such a design would indica
te whether the course of action planned will minimize the use of resources and m
aximize the outcome. Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collec
tion and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine research purpose and
economy in procedure. Exploratory TYPES RESEARCH DESIGN OF Descriptive and diagn
ostic
Experimental
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN: This is also called formulative research design. Th
is aims of formulating a problem for more precise idea or hypothesis, Based on t
his the subsequent stages of research could be planned. As this design is only o
f formulate type it should be highly flexible. While applying this design. Three
different methods are followed: Survey of related literature by studying intens
ively the past studies and contributions relating to the field of study, the res
earch problem could be easily formulated. Conducting experience survey this refer
s to undertaking collection of details and discussion with the experienced peopl
e in the chosen field of research. This would help the researcher to determine t
he extent to which he is original and can avoid duplication. Analysis of insight
-stimulating examples is yet another method in which depending upon the study on
hand. In this method, the experience of people would be used as guide to develo
p or formulate a hypothesis.
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DESCRIPTIVE AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH DESIGN: Descriptive research design is conce

rned with research studies with a focus on the portrayal of the characteristics
of a group or individual or a situation. The main objective such studies is to a
cquire knowledge. For example, to identify the use of a product to various group
s,. a research study may be undertaken to question whether the use varies with i
ncome age sex or any other characteristics of population. On the other hand the
diagnostic studies aim at identifying the relationship of any existing problem.
Based on the diagnosis, it would also help to suggest methods to solve the probl
em. In this process it may also evaluate the effectiveness of the suggestions al
ready implemented. EXPERIMENATAL RESEARCH DESIGN; The experimental research stud
ies are mainly focused on finding out the cause and effect relationship of the p
roblem under study. Actually when observation is arranged and controlled it beco
mes experimental study. An experiment is a test or trial or an act or operation
for the purpose of discovering something unknown or of testing principle, suppos
ition etc., it is a process in which one or more variables are manipulate under
conditions that permit the collection of data that show the effects of any of su
ch variables is a unconfused fashion. The experimental design is broadly classif
ied as a) informal experimental design and b)formal experimental design. The for
mal includes after only design, after only with control design before and after
without control design before and after control and expost facto design. The for
mal experimental design would include completely randomized design randomized bl
ock design; Latin squares design and factorial design.
RELEVANCE
OF
RESEARCH
IN
DECISION
MAKING
IN
VARIOUS
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF MANAGEMENT
Generally a manager has to take a course of action which is most effective in at
taining the goals of the organization Research provides facts and figures in sup
port of such business decisions. It helps the manager to choose a measuring rod
to judge the effectiveness of each decision. This may be the reason why executiv
es and business professionals consider research and research findings as a boon
in their problem solving process.
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Any research on management will have the following general objectives: The objec
tive of decision making The objectives of decision making The objective of contr
olling the managerial activities The object of studying the economic and busines
s environment The object of studying the market The object of studying the new p
roduct development The object of studying innovation The object of studying cust
omer satisfaction
For management the research helps the management in the following ways:
Research
provides decision alternatives in decision making Research stimulates thinking an
alysis evaluation and interpretation of the business environment
Research leads
to innovation Research facilitates the development of new products and modificat
ion of the existing products Research easily locates the problem areas.
Research
establishes the relationship not only between variables in each functional area
, but also between the various functional area. Research facilitates business fo
recasting Market and Marketing analysis may be based on research Research is an
aid to management information system and Research helps to re-design corporate p
olicy and strategy. Functional areas of any business cover production personnel
marketing finance and organizational. They scope of research on these areas are
listed below Research for Marketing decisions: New product development research
Research to brand equity and preference Research on pricing strategies Research
on distribution channels Research on salesman qualities and effectiveness Resear
ch on media effectiveness Research on marketing information system etc. Research
for personnel Decisions: Research on effectiveness of different sources of recr
uitment and training Research on leadership style and effectiveness Research of
personnel information system etc.
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Research for capital market decisions: Research on issues, like climate culture
creativity change design etc., Research for Financial decisions: Research on cos
t of capital and capital structure Research on working capital management resear
ch on inventory management etc. Research on Business Strategies: Strategic allia
nces and divorces Mergers and acquisitions Disinvestment Reorganizations Reengine
ering etc. To sum up research is an ingredient in all the functional areas of co
mmerce and economics production and materials management extensively make use of
research. However a close observation of management practices I India would det
ermine whether research receives its due importance.
SAMPLING Meaning of Sample:
A sample as the name implies is a smaller representation of a large whole simply
speaking the method of selecting a study portion of the universe (total populat
ion) is known as sampling. Sampling is not anything which is followed only in st
atistics. It is used in every day life when rice is purchased in provision store
a small quantity is initially purchased and tested sometimes the small quantity
is cooked and it is found food then the bulk is purchased. Similarly when a pat
ient has to undergo blood test the clinical laboratory takes a few drops test it
and them gives the report. Sampling as a method also used in research. By analy
zing the sample data, the research get some findings which he uses for arriving
at conclusions. Essentials (features )of sampling:
Representativeness: The sample selected should fully represent the population fr
om which it is drawn. This means all the characteristics or features of the popu
lation should be reflected by the sample. Adequacy: The size of the sample shoul
d be large enough so as to provide accurate results. Though it is difficult to s
tate what is the ideal size of sample, statistically it can be determined. Rando
mness: Samples should be selected at random. That is there should be no bias in
the selection of sample elements and each item in the population should have equ
al chance of being selected.
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Homogeneity: Any number of samples could be drawn from a population. But all the
se samples should have similarity in every respect. That is suppose a researcher
selects 500 people from Chennai city as a sample to study consumer behavior of
the people, them the sample elements should be all be people living in Chennai c
ity. It should not include people who have come to Chennai city as tourists.
Merits of Sampling:
Sampling method requires lesser time as only a part of the u
niverse is included for data collection. Since only a part of the universe is in
cluded for the data collection, the cost incurred will also be less.
By adopting
suitable method of sample selection the results could be more reliable
Sampling
method is more frequently used for testing the accuracy of information collecte
d through census method. Limitations of Sampling:
Unless sampling method is care
fully applied it may result in misguiding findings. Use of sampling requires the
services of experts and specialists. This in turn will reflect on costs.
Some t
imes when the sample size itself is very large then sampling method would also b
e done consuming and costly. Apart from a detailed process to be followed sampli
ng also calls for application of a number of tests to verify the findings and re
sults. This makes the method more complex.
While using sampling the investigator
s have to be fully trained. This will add to the cost.
21
METHODS OF SAMPLING
Sampling method can be broadly classified as 1. Random or probability sampling a
nd 2. Non-random or non-probability sampling. Under the former every element of
the population enjoys equal chance of being selected. While the under the later
use elements will have constituting the sample are selected on some basis. For e
xample, suppose from 2000 students in a college, 200 are selected at random then
every one of these 2000 students has equal chance of getting selected. On the o
ther hand, in the case of non random sampling. 200 students out of 2000 may be s
elected on such a way that there are 50 pure science students. In this case the
sample is purposively selected. So it is not random sample. Sample Methods
Random(or) probability sampling
Non-random (or) non probability sampling 9or
Simple(or) restricted judgment 9or lottery Random numbers restricted 0 stratifie
d systematic multistage 0 Quota 0 0 convenience
22
1.Types of Random (or)Probability Sampling (a) Simple (or) unrestricted sampling

i) Lottery Method: In this method all the terms in the population are given num
bers and these are written on chits of uniform size. Then these chits are placed
in a local or a bag and the required number of chits are selected. ii)Table of
Random number: In this method, first the size of the sample is determined. Then
using random number table, the required number of items is selected to form the
sample. (b) Restricted Random Sampling; (i) Stratified Random Sampling: Stratum
means a layer, Population from which samples are to be selected may contain a nu
mber of layers. From each layer a few samples are selected.. Suppose for a resea
rch work on the literacy level in Tamil Nadu data is collected from all places i
n Tamil Nadu. Adopting stratified random sampling, first the state is divided on
to different districts. A few districts are selected at random. Then those dist
ricts are divided into Panchayat Unions. From this second stratum a few Panchaya
t unions are selected. Each Panchayat union divided into Panchayats and a few pa
nchayats are selected at random. Then each panchayat containing a number of vill
ages, a few villages are selected at random. Merits:
It has better representativ
e ness It also gives more accurate information and there would be better coverag
e of the population. Limitations:
Requires lot of care and pre-planning
A prior
knowledge of the composition of the population is required. Method is very expen
sive in terms of bone of money Any bias in selection from each stratum will affe
ct the accuracy of results.
(ii) Systematic Random Sampling: In this method the sample is formed by selectin
g the first unit at random and them selecting the remaining items at evenly spac
ed intervals. For example suppose from 2000 college students we have to select a
sample of 50 students. First we determine the sampling interval (k). this is ob
tained by dividing the size of population by sample size (i.e.40; 2000/50) = 40.
Them from serial number 0001 to 0040 we
23
selected at random a serial number. Suppose we have selected with the serial num
ber 15 with that we add 50 for another sample, So the sample will be as 15, 65,1
15 , and soon. Merits:
It is very simple to adopt
The time and cost involved are r
elatively less With a large population, this method is easy to use
Random select
ion of items is ensured once the sampling interval is determined. Limitations: I
t is less representative, as once the first item is selected at random, subseque
nt items are all lying at uniform interval, So the selected items may lack repre
sentative ness. The first item should be strictly selected at random, If there i
s bias in this first stage this will influence the items selected at subsequent
stages.
Multistage or Cluster Sampling: As the name suggests, in this method the samples
are selected at different stages here the population is first divided into diff
erent stages. All the samples at random at different stages will possess the com
mon characteristics or will be homogeneous on some basis. Merits:
It is highly f
lexible It ensures better representative ness
This type of sampling is very usef
ul either for formulating policy of evaluating an implemented policy.
Easy to co
mpute. Limitations: In practice this method is found to be less accurate compare
d to other methods because bias at any stage will get accumulated. Unless a pers
on is fully aware of the various stages into which the population can be divided
, he cannot be effective in selecting the required number of samples.
The charac
teristics or feature to be present with samples at all stages may not be fulfill
ed in all cases. 09/10/2002
24
NON- RANDOM SAMPLING OR NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non random sampling or non probability sampling refers to the sampling process i
n which the samples are selected for a specific purpose with pre-determined basi
s of selection. This type of sampling is also required at times when random sele
ction may not be possible.
(a)Judgment Sampling: In this method the sample selecting is purely based on the
judgment of the researcher. This is because the researcher may lack information
regarding the population from which he has to collect the sample. Population ch
aracteristics not known in such cases the researcher can use this method. Once t
he sample size is determined the investigator is free to select any item on the
field. For example, suppose 100 boys are to be selected from a college with 1000
boys if nothing is known about the students in this college, then the investiga
tor may visit the college and choose the first 100 boys he met or he may select
100 boys all belonging to III year or he might select 50 boys from commerce and
50 from science.
(b)Convenience Sampling: This method
lements using some convenient method
ng method. For example, suppose 100
llect from the RTOs office the list
0 from that the form the sample.
of sampling involves selecting the sample e

without going through the rig our of sampli
car owners are to be selected. Then we may co
of car owners and then make a selection of 10
(c ) Quota Sampling: In this method the sample size is determined first and then
quota is fixed for various categories of population, which is followed while se
lecting the sample, Suppose we want to select 100 students, and it might say tha
t selection oof sample be according to the quota given below. Boys 50% and girls
50% then among the boys 60% college students and 40% from plus two students. A
different or the same quota may be fixed for girls. SAMPLING ERRORS While using
sampling, errors are committed. These errors are broadly classified as sampling
errors and non-sampling errors.
25
(1)Biased Errors: Biased errors are understood as the inference of the investiga
tors likes and dislikes in the process of sampling. For sample if an investigato
r has to collect data from a specific group also. This may because of investigat
ors urge to complete the work early or failure to understand the purpose of the s
urvey. Such a mistake may result in collection of wrong data which eventually wi
ll result only in wrong conclusions or inferences about the population. The foll
owing are the reasons for biased errors. Faulty process of selection: This refer
s to a situation when the investigator does not apply the randomness in his choi
ce or selection of the sample elements from the population. Faulty collection of
information; Adoption of faulty method of collecting information may cause erro
rs. This will happen if the scope is not clear. Faulty method of analysis: This
will happen when the researcher is not having knowledge about the usage of tools
.
(2) Un Biased Errors: Non-sampling errors are those errors, which are not due to
any sampling process. It is due to several other causes. Such errors are most d
ue to the following reasons:
Investigators may collect data without using comple
te schedules or proper measurement. As a result data collected may not be releva
nt at all. Faulty method of interview or observations may also contribute to non
sampling errors.
Using of UN trained and un skilled investigators.
SAMPLE SIZEAND ITS DETERMINATION What is the size of the sample? How large shoul
d be n when the size (n) is very small the researcher may achieve the objectives a
nd if it is too large, he may incur huge cost and waster resources. Generally, a
sample must be of an optimum size i.e., it should not be too large nor too smal
l. Normally the size should be large enough to give a confidence interval of des
ired width and as such the size of the sample must be chosen by some logical pro
cess. How ever the researcher has to key the following points in his mind while
deciding the size of the sample.
26
Nature of the Universe: When the items of the universe are homogenous, a small s
ample can serve the purpose, suppose they are heterogeneous, a large sample woul
d be required. Number of groups: When a researcher forms class groups a large sa
mple is necessary as a small sample might not be able to give a reasonable numbe
r of items in each class-group. Nature of study: When the researcher examines th
e items very intensively and continuously then the sample should be small. He ma
y prefer general survey when the size of the sample is large but a small sample
is considered appropriate in technical surveys. Sample Technique: The researcher
has to decide the sampling tools while determining the size of the sample A sma
ll random sample is better than a larger but badly selected sample. Accuracy and
confidence level: A researcher requires a large size sample when the accuracy o
r the level of precision is to be kept high. To get more accuracy for a fixed si
gnificance level the samples size has to be increased fourfold. Resources availa
ble: What amount of time and financial resources are available to the researcher
will determine the size of sample, With sufficient time and large volume of fun
ds available the sample size could be large otherwise it should be small. Miscel
laneous factors: In addition to the above considerations the following points to
be considered by a researcher. Nature of units size of the population size of q
uestionnaire availability or trained investigators the conditions under which th
e sample is being conducted the time available for completion of the study. Some
times the mathematical formula is used to determine the sample size. The formul
a is given below: N = (Z / d)
27
When n is the sample size Z is the degree of accuracy desired (specified level o
f confidence) is the standard deviation of the population and d is the differenc
e between the population mean and sample mean. COLLECTION OF DATA
Data refers to information of facts often researchers understand by data only nu
merical figure. It also includes facts non-numerical information qualitative and
quantitative information in a research of the data are available the research i
s half-complete. Data could be broadly classified as primary\\ data and secondar
y data they are also mentioned as sources of data. Primary Data: Primary Data is
known as the data collected for the first time through field survey. Such data
are collected with specific set of objectives to assess the current status of an
y variable studied. By survey methods the data can be collected by any one (or)
more of the following ways. Questionnaire (or) Schedule: In this method a pre-pr
inted list of questions arranged in sequence is used to elicit response from the
respondent Interview: This is a method in which the researcher and the responde
nt meet and questions raised are answered and answered and recorded. This method
is adopted when personal opinion or view point are to be gathered as a part of
data. Observation: In this method the observer applies his sense organs to note
down whatever that he could observe in the field and relate these data to explai
n some phenomena. Feed Back Form: In the case of the consumer goods the supplier
or the manufacturer send the product along with a pre-paid reply cover in which
questions on the product and its usage are raised and the customer is requested
to fill it up and send. Based on this first hand information about the product
from the consuming public is obtained. Sales Force opinion: On several occasions
the manufacturers or distributors collect information about the movement of the
product or market size, market share etc..through sales force on the field.
28
The salesman visit the retailers shop to not down the details of stock movement.
Availability of items etc which give valuable information. Projective techniques
: This technique is adopted to study the consumers though methods like recalling
advertisements them story completion tests etc. Through this technique it is po
ssible to compile information to be used as the basis for projecting the demand
for the product at different points of time. Collection through Mechanical Devic
es: There are several shopping establishments where hidden video cameras are pos
itioned at vantage points this are used for observing the public inside the ship
. Apart from helping to eliminate pilferage and theft they provide very useful i
nformation on the consumers and their preference of products. Classification of
Data
Primary data Questionnaire
Secondary Data
Internal source Schedule Interview Observation Feedback from Sales Force opinion
Projective Technique External source
Mechanical devices
29
PRIMARY (DATA) SOURCES

1.OBSERVATION;
Observation as a method of data collection ois used very frequently whenever col
lection of data through other methods is difficult for example it is not always
possible to conduct interviews with every person to collect required information
. There are occasion when no other method can be adopted for data collections. F
or instance, suppose a scholar wants to study the life style of hill tribe. It i
s certainly not possible to use a questionnaire or schedule or interview only al
ternative available is observation as the respondents would not rely any questio
n orally or in written. Observation may be defined as, sensible application of se
nse organs in understanding less explained or unexplained phenomena Whenever a re
searcher is unable to compile information through any other method then he has t
o effectively apply his sense organs to observe and explain. So it may be said t
hat observation involves recording of information applying visual understanding
backed by alert sense organs.
Types of Observation: Structured observation: When observation takes place stric
tly in accordance with a plan or a design prepared in advance it is called struc
tured observation in such a type the observer decides what to observe what to fo
cus on what type of activity should be given importance who are all to be observ
ed etc in advance. Unstructured Observation: In this type of observation there i
s no advance planning of what how when, who etc., of observation. The observer i
s given the freedom to decide on the spot to observe everything that is relevant
. Participant Observation: In this method the observer is very much present in t
he mindset of what is observed for example, suppose a researcher is studying the
life style of a hill tribe, then he might understand the life style of the trib
e better only when the stays with them. He is a participant in the sense he is p
hysically present on the spot to observe and not influencing the activities.
30
Types Of O B S E R V A T I O N : Non-participant Observation:

Structured Unstructured
Participant
Non-participant
Controlled
This is a method in which the observer remain detached from whatever is happenin
g around and does not involve himself in any activities tapes place. He is prese
nt only to observe and not to take part in the activities. That is the target au
dience does not know his presence at all. For example, the police men not in uni
form is deputed on observation duty whenever a processing tapes place. Controlle
d Observation: In this method the observer performs his work in on environment o
r situation, which is very much planned (or) set. For example, sometimes to the
effectiveness and alertness of airport security system a mock even (like fire ac
cident) is carried out. Then how the security staff reacts to such mock event is
observed. Based on this the weakness on his system are noticed and steps taken
to eliminate them. Merits of Observation Method of Data Collection:
If observati
on is done correctly, the scope for bias is very much minimized. Through observa
tion, the current scenario in which anything is happening noticed and explained
there is no interpretation of how things would be happened in the past or will h
appen in future etc.
31
As there is no need to get any reply or details from the respondents, observatio
n does no require any co-operation of the respondents.
This is fairly reliable m
ethod, provided the observer is well experienced trained and sincere.
Whenever r
espondents are illiterate and incapable of answering any question (due to langua
ge barrier (or) cultural background etc.,) observation is the only method of dat
a collection available
Limitations of Observation: This is a relatively costly method of data collectio
n It could be noticed that what is observed may bring out only part of the facts
. While data collected through questionnaire or interview ensure letter coverage
. There is a lot of scope for the observer to get distracted or influenced by un
expected factors which would affect the accuracy of information collected
How to make observation successful:
First the researcher should have a clear gra
sp of what he should observe and its purpose.
The person should be gained in ado
pting observation The person should avoid his personal likes & dislikes. He migh
t be alert and intelligent He should be able to connect all the things observed.
2.INTERVIEW One of the very old methods of collecting data is the interview met
hod. Interview method involves direct or indirect meeting of the respondents by
the researcher. The researcher determines the questions to be raised at the time
of interview and elicit the response for them. The reply given is either writte
n down in a note book or recorded in audio or video cassette. This method has to
be necessarily adopted whenever details regarding any confidential matter are t
o be collected or the research requires data collection directly from the respon
dents. Interview may be broadly classified as 1.Direct interview and 2.Indirect
interview
32
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
Structured
Unstructured
Focus
Non Directive
Telephone
Direct Interview: In this type of interview, the interviewer and the interviewee
meet personally either with prior appointment or not. Usually when this techniq
ue is adopted the interviewer may brief the respondent about the purpose of inte
rview and its scope in advance. This enables the respondent to be ready with nec
essary details (or) data. This type of interview may be classified as structure
a interview un structured interview focused interview clinical interview and non
directive interview. (A)structured Interview: In this type of interview the per
son collecting information decides in advance the nature scope questions to be a
sked, the person to be contacted etc in advance. At the time of interview no dev
iation is made from the questions to be asked. For example, it is usual for jour
nalist to interview the Finance Minister after the presentation of Budget. In su
ch occasions, the journalist should be were prepared and decide in advance the q
uestioned to be asked etc., Sometimes even the questions to be asked and other d
etails are to be submitted to the authorities concerned, before conducting the i
nterview. The most important advantages of such interview are below.
The intervi
ew is well prepared and so the interview is conducted in the focused manner
Time
of both the interviewer and respondents could be saved.
There is no scope for ir
relevant matter to find a place in the course of interview If the respondent is
informed in advance he could prepare necessary details so that the outcome is re
liable But this method of interview has the following limitations
Since the subj
ect matter is decided in advance there is no scope for extending the interview e
ven in case of need.
33
If the questions are submitted in advance that will tends the respondent to give
wrong informations.
There is a need for the interview to plan the interview prop
erly and so if the plan is not perfect, the interview findings may not be comple
te. (B) Un Structured Interview: In this type of interview, interview is conduct
ed on the spot without any preparations (or) advance information oto the respond
ent. For example, suppose an organization producing a new health drink wants to
know the opinion of the people directly. Then it ight send trained field investi
gators who meet people directly. Then it might send trained field investigators
who meet people at random and offer them a cp of that new drink. After they drin
k, their opinion is asked and the responses are noted down or recorded. Such int
erviews are also conducted when opinion poll is conducted. For example during el
ection ttime, the TV channels would meet people moving around and ask them about
their opinion about different parties and the one to which they would vote. (C)
Focused Interview: In this type of interview the object of the interviewer is t
o focus the attention of the respondent ion a specific issue (or) point /for exa
mple suppose a detective is questioning a person regarding a crime committed in
an area. The detective has to be very much experienced to make the person interv
iewed to answer only about the crime and nothing else. In this type ,the intervi
ewer encourages the respondents to say whatever he likes and feels on a subject
matter. There may not me much questing taking place. The respondent is free to e
xpress his views or opinions without any direction from the interviewer.. For ex
ample suppose in a college strike, an interviewer encourage the students to say
whatever they feel above the reasons for the strike. (E) Telephone Interview: Th
is is basically a type of direct interview and but there is no scope for physica
l presence of both the parties to the interview. This method will be useful in t
When the informant and interviewer are geographically s
he following situations.
eparated. When the study requires responses to five (or) six sample questions e.
g. Radio, TV program me survey
34
When the survey must be conducted in very short period of time, provided the uni
ts are listed in telephone directory.
This method of interview provides following advantages: -More flexible -It is a
quickest way of obtaining information -Less cost -Recall is easy -The rate of re
sponse is more than what we have in mailing method -Replies can be recorded -It
does not require any field staff This method is suffered by following reasons: The respondents characteristics and environment can not be observed -It is not s
uitable for intensive survey where comprehensive answers are required -This meth
od left the respondents who do not have telephone facilities. -This method does
not provide sufficient time to the respondents to respond
3.Questionnaire Method; A questionnaire is a sheet(s) of paper containing questi
ons relating to certain specific aspect. Regarding which the researcher collects
the data. The questionnaire is given to the informant or respondent to be fille
d up. Sometimes questionnaire is also in the form of files generated trough comp
uter. This usually called soft copy of questionnaire. Generally to test the reli
ability of the questionnaire, it should be tested on a limited scale and this is
technically known as Pilot Survey. The objective of a pilot survey is to filter
unnecessary questions, and the questions which are difficult to answer.
Mechanics of Questionnaire Construction / Designing a Questionnaire / Features o
f a Good Questionnaire The following are the points to be given important while
designing a questionnaire:
Questionnaire should be printed / Cyclostyled / Xerox
ed The first part of the questionnaire should specify the object or should be co
nstructed using simple language and technical terms, concepts should all be avoi
ded.
Each question should be specific and clear. Personal Questions on wealth, h
abits etc., could be avoided
35
Questions needing computation / calculation / consultation should be avoided Que

stions on sentiments / belief/ faith should be avoided Repetition of question sh
ould be eliminated Sufficient space should be given for answering questions If a
ny diagram me or map is used then it should be printed clearly Instructions rega
rding how to return the filled questionnaire must be given, it is desirable that
a self addressed sufficiently stamped envelope is sent along with the questionn
aire to enable to respondents the send the filled up questionnaire
TYPE OF QUESTIONS TO BE INCLUDED TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Open ended
Close ended
Pictorial
Dichotomous
Multiple choice
Open end questions: In these questions the respondents are given freedom to expr
ess their views as there is wide range of choice. E.g. How would you describe the
use of this soap? Closed questions: These type of questions do not allow the res
pondents to given answers freely E.g. Would you describe the smell of this soap i
s attractive? Yes / No Pictorial Questions: In this type of questions picture are
drawn, and the respondents indicate the answer by selecting the pictures he pre
fers. Dichotomous questions: In this questions two alternatives are given a posi
tive one and a negative one. E.g. Do you own a watch? Yes --------- No -----36
Multiple choice questions: These questions contains more than two alternatives e
.g. Why have you preferred this brand of two wheeler? -Price -Fuel efficient -comf
ort -others (please specify) Type of questions to be avoided: (a)Leading questio
ns: A leading questions is one which makes it easier for the respondent to react
in a certain way and is not natural. Examples of leading questions are : Are you
against giving too much power to the trade unions? Dont you that yesterdays T.V. Dr
ama was thrilling? (b)Loaded Questions: Loading means attaching emotional feeling
s to particular words of concepts which tends to produce automatic approval or d
isapproval. Here the respondent would react to the word than the Question. Examp
le: Have you tried to get special favours from a business establishment by pressu
ring them? Yes --------(c )Ambiguous questions: An ambiguous question is one that
does not have a clear meaning. It may mean different things to different people
example. Are you interested in a small house? What does the word interested mean
to own or hire? What does the word small mean No---------QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
Decide what information is needed.
Determin
e the type of collecting data Interview
Questionnaire
Determine the content of i
ndividual questions. Is question necessary
37
Does respondent have the information Respondent remembers the same Several quest
ions needed instead of one
Determine the type of questions -open ended -closed dichotomous -pictorial -multiple choice
Decide on wordings of questions
Decide q
uestion sequence -Physical appearance -easy to access -easy to understand -motiv
ate Preliminary Draft
Revision and final draft
(4) SCHEDULES Schedules (contains a set of questions) are being filled in by the
enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. Enumerators go to resp
ondents, ask them questions from the proforma in the same order in which the que
stions are listed and record the replies on the space given. Enumerators should
be trained Example: Population census.
DIFFEERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULE
Basis of difference Usage
QUESTIONNAIRE
SCHEDULE / Enumerator
Respondent himself records the Researcher answers obtained
records the answers obtained
Cost
Relatively cheaper as it is sent Costlier, as the investigators has by mail to t
he targeted to be appointed, trained and meet every informant at the
38
respondents
latters place. Coverage Wide coverage possible, as it Relatively limited coverage

as can be sent to any place by post the investigator can not be sent to every p
lace Time taken for apply It can not be established as the It is possible to pla
n the enquiry respondent may reply at his and depute the investigators convenien
ce accordingly and collect
information within a targeted bine. Degree of response Less, as all the responde
nts, do Relatively not respond good, as the
investigator is more focused and obtain details personally.
Quality of response
Not good, as the respondents Relatively answers the questions the way it investi
gator is understood
better
as
the the
guides
respondents on understanding the questions in right context
Pre-condition for use
The respondent should be a The literate and co-operative
literacy
status
of
the
respondent is not a limitation the investigator can explain the question respons
e and obtain the
Sample coverage
It is possible to cover a wide This is not possible as the range of sample eleme
nts as the investigator has to personally questionnaire is sent only be contact
each respondent post
Accuracy of information
It is not likely to high, as it Relatively accuracy is better in depends on the
structure of the this method, as the investigator questionnaire itself can deter
mine the accuracy on the field and adopt appropriate methods to ensure accuracy.
Presentation requirement
Questionnaire
should
be No such requirement
is
a
designed properly and made condition attractive to encourage the
respondents to fill it. Field control and monitoring This is not possible as the
There is good scope for
39
questionnaire is filled by the controlling respondent himself

editing
and
monitoring information on the field itself.
Bias
There is not way to test the If the investigator is trained and extent of bias o
f the information experienced then there is very given by the respondent little
scope for bias in
information content.
SECONDARY DATA The secondary data, are those which have already been collected s
ome other agency and which have already been processed. Generally speaking secon
dary data is collected by some organization to satisfy its own need but it is be
ing used by various departments for different reasons. For example, census figur
es taken are used by social scientists (economists) for social planning and rese
arch.
SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA: Doing the research with the secondary data is called
as Desk research. The sources for secondary data or the sources for doing desk r
esearch will be gathered by the following ways: Internal Sources: Registers, Doc
uments, Annual Reports, Sales Reports, previous Research papers , Sales records,
invoices etc., External Sources: Journals on magazines, newspapers, public spee
ches, state and central govt., departments, reports etc., The information had fr
om any published documents which may documents the researcher should consider th
e following points:
Exactly what products are included in the statistical classi
fication Who originally collected the data for what purpose, and whether three m
ight any motive for misrepresentation
From whom the data were collected and how r
eliable the methodology might have been and
How consistent the data are with oth
er local or international statistics.
Choice between primary and secondary data: The researcher must decide whether he
will use primary data / secondary data in an research process. The choice betwe
en the two depends on
40
Nature and Scope of Research

Availability of financial resources
Availability of
time
Degree of accuracy desired Status of the researcher (individual, govt., co
rprn,, etc)
PILOT STUDIES AND PRE-TESTS
Pilot Study
It is difficult to plan a major study or project without adequate knowledge of i
ts subject matter, the population it is to cover, their level of knowledge and u
nderstanding and the like. What are the issues involved? What are the concepts a
ssociated with the subject matter? How can they be operationalise? What method o
f study is appropriate? How much money it will cost? investigation is conducted.
This is called pilot study. The size scope and design of the pilot study is a m
atter of convenience, time and money. It should be large enough to fulfill the f
ollowing functions. Functions of Pilot Study:
It provides a better knowledge abo
ut problem. It helps to identification and operationalisation of concepts relati
ng to the study. It assists in discovering the nature of relationship between va
riables and in formulating hypothesis.\
It shows the nature of the population to
be surveyed and the variability within it It shows the adequacy of the tool for
data collection
It provides information for structuring questions with alternati
ve answers. It helps the researcher to develop an appropriate plan of analysis I
t provides information for estimating the probable cost and duration of the main
study and of its various stages Pre-Test Pre test is a trial test of a specific
aspect of the study such as method of data collection instrumentinterview schedu
le mailed questionnaire or measurement scale pre-testing has several Purposes. T
hey are:
41
To test whether the instrument would elicit responses required to achieve the re
search objectives
Whether the content of the instrument is relevant and adequate
To test whether wording of questions is clear and suited to the understanding o
f the respondents field conditions HYPOTHESIS TESTING Hypothesis is an assumptio
n or some supposition to be proved or disproved. A research Hypothesis is a pred
ictive statement icapable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an
independent variable with some variable. Hypothesis is usually considered as th
e principal instrument for research. Its main function is to suggest new experim
ents and observations.
Definition of Hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a predictive statement capabl
e of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to
some dependent variable. The feature of a hypothesis statement are as follows:
It should be clear and precise It should be capable of tested It should state th
e relationship between variables It should be limited in scope and must be speci
fic It should be stated in simple terms
Basic Concepts: Null Hypothesis: The random selection of the samples from the gi
ven population makes the tests of significance valid for us. For applying any te
st of significance we first set up hypothesis Such a statistical hypothesis, whi
ch is under test. Is usually a hypothesis of no difference and hence is called N
ull Hypothesis. It is usually denoted by Ho Alternate Hypothesis: Any hypothesis
which is complementary to null hypothesis is called and alternate hypothesis. I
t is usually denoted by Ha For example if the null hypothesis is that there is n
o relationship between the eye colour of husbands and wives is rejected then aut
omatically the alternate hypothesis is that there is relationship between the ey
e color of husbands and wives is accepted.
42
TYPE I ERROR AND TYPE II ERROR: In the process of testing a hypothesis, a resear
cher may commit two type of errors namely type I error and Type II error. Type I
error: We commit this error when we reject a null hypothesis which is true. Typ
e II error: This error is committed when we accept the null hypothesis which is
false. This could be stated below:
Accept Ho H(true) H(false) Type I Error Type II error
Reject Ho Type I Error Correct Decision
For
example, suppose we want to test the relationship between rainfall and
production. Suppose we set a null hypothesis that rainfall does not affect food
production. From experience and research findings in the past it is well known t
hat rain fall certainly affect food production. Hence the null hypothesis should
be rejected, but instead, if we accept it we commit type II error.
PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING \\ The researcher has to state Ho as well as Ha
The researcher has to specify the level of significance (or the v lue) The rese
rcher h s to decide the correct s mpling distribution The rese rcher h s st te
s mple r ndom s mple(s) nd workout n ppropri te v lue from s mple d te
He h s to c lcul te the prob bility th t s mple result could diver ge
s it h s from expect tion Ho wee true
If this prob bility equ l to or sm ller then
nd /2 in c se 2-t iled test
43
Dr.N.KANNAN, Professor & He d in MBA No
s widely
v lue in c se of one t iled test
M king form l st tement: It consists of m king

form l st tement of the null
hypothesis Ho nd lso of the ltern tive hypothesis H Selecting signific nce
level: Gener lly the hypothesis is tested on pre-determined level of signific
nce nd s such the s me should be specified. Gener lly in pr ctice either 5% l
evel or 1% level is dopted for the purpose. Deciding the distribution to use: A
fter deciding the level of signific nce the rese rcher h s to determine the ppr
opri te s mpling distribution. Selecting
r ndom s mple nd computing n pprop
ri te v lue: The rese rcher h s to select
r ndom s mple(s) nd compute n ppr
opri te v lue from the s mple d t . C lcul tion of the prob bility The rese rche
r h s to c lcul te the prob bility th t the s mple result would diverge s widel
y s it h s from expect tions. Comp ring the prob bility Afterw rds, the rese rc
her h s to comp re the prob bility thus c lcul ted with ithe specified v lue for
signific nce level.
44
Dr.N.KANNAN, Professor & He d in MBA
USEFULNESS OF STATISTICAL TOOLS (ANALYSIS)

St tistic l n lysis of d t serves s
ever l m jor purposes. First it summ rizes l rge m ss of d t into underst nd bl
e nd me ningful form. The reduction of d t f cilit tes further n lysis.
Secon
d, st tistics m kes ex ct descriptions possible. For ex mple when we s y th t th
e educ tion l level of people in X district is very high. The description is not
specific; but when st tistic l me sures like the percent ges of liter te mong
m les nd fem les. The percent ge of degree holders mong m les nd fem les nd
the like re v il ble the description becomes ex ct.
Third, st tistic l n lysi
s f cilit tes identific tion of the c su l f ctors underlying the complex phenom
en . Wh t re the f ctors which determine
v ri ble like l bour productivity of
c demic perform nce of students? Wh t re the rel tive contributions of the c
us tive f ctors? Answers to such questions c n be obt ined from st tistic l mult
iv ri te n lysis
Fourth st tistic l n lysis ids the dr wing of reli ble infer
ences from observ tion l d t . L st, st tistic l n lysis is useful for ssessin
g the signific nce of specific s mple results under ssumed popul tion condition
s. This is type of n lysis is c lled hypothesis testing
PARAMETRIC AND NONPARAMETRIC TESTS
P r metric Tests: The tests of signific nce used for hypothesis testing re of t
wo types; the p r metric nd non-p r metric tests. The p r metric tests re more
powerful but they depend on the p r meters or ch r cteristics of the popul tion
.. They re b sed on the following ssumptions; The observ tions or v lues must
be independent
The s mples re dr wn on r ndom b sis.
The popul tions should h
ve equ l v ri nces
The d t should be t le st t interv l level so th t rithm
etic oper tions c n be used.
45
Dr.N.KANNAN, Professor & He d in MBA
The import nt p r metric tests re ; The z-test, the t-test,

y re expl ined below:
nd the F-test. The
The Z-test: It is b sed on the norm l distribution; it is widely used for testin
g the signific nce of sever l st tistics such t me n, medi n, mode, coefficient
of correl tion nd others. The relev nt test st tistic, z is c lcul ted nd com
p red with its prob ble v lue (to be re ds from the norm l distribution t ble)
t specified level of signific nce for judging the signific nce of the me sured
concerned. The t-test: It is suit ble for testing the signific nce of
s mple
me n or for judging the signific nce of difference between the me ns of two s mp
les. The t-test c n lso be used for testing the signific nce of the co-efficien
t of simple nd p rti l correl tions. The relev nt test st tistic, t, is c lcul
ted from the s mple d t , it is comp red with its corresponding critic l v lue i
n the t-distribution t ble for rejecting or ccepting null hypothesis. The F-tes
t: The F test is used to comp re the v ri nces of two independent s mples. It is
lso used in n lysis of v ri nce (ANOVA) for testing the signific nce of more
th n two s mple me ns t time .It is lso used for judging the signific nce of
multiple correl tion coefficients
NON PARAMETRIC TESTS: Most of the st tistic l test requires n import nt ssumpt
ion into be met if they re not correctly pplied. This ssumption is th t popul
tion of d t from which s mples re dr wn is norm lly distributed. But there
re some situ tions when the rese rcher c nnot or does not w nt to m ke such ss
umption. In such situ tions we use st tistic l methods for testing hypothesis, w
hich re c lled non-p r metric tests bec use such tests do not depended on ny
ssumption bout the p r meters of the p rent popul tion.
ADVANTAGES:
They do not require ny ssumption to be m de bout popul tion follo
wing norm l or ny other distribution
Simple to understand and easy to apply when
the sample sizes are small.
Most non-parametric tests do not require lengthy co
mputations.
46
It is less time-consuming
Non-parametric tests are applicable for all types of d
ata It makes possible to work with very small samples.
DISADVATAGES:
They ignore a certain amount of information They are not considere
d as efficient as parametric test
The important nonparametric tests are the chi-square test the median test the Ma
nn-whitney U test the sign test, the Wilcoxin matched-pairs test and Kolmogorow
Smirnov test. (For detatiled explanation refer Statistical methods by S.C Guptha
.)
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES
MEASUREMENT: Measurement may be defined as the assignment of numeral to characte
ristics of object, persons events according to rules. SCALES: The instrument wit
h the help of which a concept is measured is called a scale. A scale ha a wide r
ange of application is social science research. It is used in all types of data
collection techniques such as observation, interview, projective techniques etc/
. Scaling provides the procedures if assigning numbers to various degrees of opi
nion, attitude and other concepts. Normally this takes place in two ways: Making
judgment about some characteristics of an individual are then directly placing
him on a scale. Constructing a questionnaire in such a way that the score of ind
ividual responses assign him a place on a scale.
47
IMPORTANT SCALING TECHNIQUES

RATING METHOD:
In rating scale, the rater makes a judgment about some characteristics of a subj
ect and places him directly on some point on the scale. These scales can be eith
er discrete or continuous.
(a)Discrete Scales: These scales are used for raising ordinal data about on obje
ct. In these scales two or more categories are provided representing discrete am
ount of some characteristics. The rater can tick the category which he feels bes
t describes the person of object being rated. Thus for examples, the characteris
tics job knowledge may be divided into five categories on a discrete scale thus
Exceptionally good Above average Average Below average Poor
(b)Continuous graphic scales: These scales are used for raising interval data ab
out an object. In these scales just above the category notation, an uninterrupte
d line is provided. The rate can tick anywhere along its length as shown below.
Excepti onally Good
Above Average
Average
Below Average
Poor
Both these types of rating
scales can use three kinds of standards for measuring a
characteristic or alphabetical, descriptive and behavior.
48
ATTITUDE SCALE: Attitude scale are carefully constructed set of rating scales de
signed to measure one or more aspects of an individuals groups attitude some objec
t. The individuals responses to the various scales may be aggregated or summed to
provide a single attitude for the individual the following are the four types o
f Attitude scales. LIKERT SUMMATED SCALE; Summated scales consist of a number of
statements which express either a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the
given object to which the respondent is asked to react. The respondent will tick
his opinion, either favorable or unfavorable the each statement in the instrume
nt. The responses will give a numerical score indicating its favourableness or u
nfavourableness and he scores are totaled to measure the respondents attitude. In
other words the overall score represents the respondents positions. In a Likert
scale, normally a respondent will be asked to respond to each of the statements
in terms of several degrees. Usually five degrees (but at time 3 to 7 may also b
e used) of agreement or disagreement. Suppose a researchers wants to examine whe
ther one considers his job quite pleasant, the respondent may respond in any of
the following ways: strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
In the above scale, each points carries score, the response will be given weight
or scores. The least score will be given to the least favorable degree of job s
atisfaction and the most favorable is given to the highest score.
49
Advantage:
The Likert Type scale is easy to develop in comparison to thurstone t
ype scale it can be performed without a panel judges.
It is more reliable becaus
e under it. Respondents can answer each statements included in the instrument
Th
e likert type scale permits the use of statements that are not manifestly relate
d to the attitude being studied. It can be used in a respondent-centered and sti
mulus centered studies I.e., it shows how response differ between people and als
o between stimuli. It requires less time to construct, it is frequently used by
the students of opinion research
Limitations:
These scales will indicate whether respondents are more or less fav
ourable to a topic and they can not tell how much more or less they are. The int
erval between strongly agree and agree may not be equal to the interval between
agree and undecided.
Thurstone Type Scale(differential scales) Here, the selection of items is made b
y a panel of judges who evaluate the items in terms of whether they are relevant
to the topic area and unambiguous in application. Here, the researcher adopts t
he following procedures:
The researcher collects more differential statements, u
sually 20 or more, that express various points of view toward a group institutio
n idea or practice.
A panel of judges, will arrange them in 11 groups or piles r
anging from one extreme to another in position. The judges will be asked to arra
nge generally in the first pile of the statements which he thinks are most unfav
ourable to the issue, in the second pile to place those statements which he thin
ks are next most unfavorable and he goes on doing so in this manner till in the
eleventh pile he puts the statements which he considers to be the most favourabl
e. The judges will sort out the items and when there is disagreement between the
judges in assigning a position to an item that item will be left out.
The panel
will establish the median scale value between one and eleven
50
Then, the researcher makes a final selection of statements, a sample of statemen

ts whose median scores are spread evenly from one extreme to other is taken. The
statements so selected constitute the final scale to be administered to respond
ents. The respondents will be asked to check the statements with which they agre
e.. The median value is worked out and this establishes their score or quantifie
s their opinion. It may be noted that is the actual instrument the statements ar
e arranged in random order of scale value.
CUMULATIVE SCALES:
It consists of series of statements to which a respondents ex
press high agreement or dis agreement
The statements are related to one another
in such a way that an individual who replies favorable to item no.3 also replied
favorable to no.2 & 3 The individual score is worked out by counting the number
of points concerning the number of statements he answered favorable
SEMANTIC DI
FFERFENTIAL SCALES:
It is an attempt to measure the psychological meaning of an object to an individ
ual. It consists of a set of bipolar rating scales, usually 7 points by which on
e or more respondents rate one or more concept on each scale item.
51
Successful Heavy Strong

Unsuccessful Light
Weak
Fast Slow Strongly Agree Strongly disagree Tree False Regressive
Progressive
-3
-2
-1
0
1 ` 1
2
3
52
DATA ANALYSIS
EDITING AND CODING OF DATA
EDITING
Once the data collection is complete, it is examined carefully to eliminate any
errors or mistakes. For that purpose of editing of data becomes mandatory. Editi
ng means to rectify or to set to order or to correct or to establish sequence. P
ersons with editing responsibility should be trained and experienced in this job
. Editing is performed at two stages and depending on that it could be two types
. Field editing and centralized editing
Field Editing: Field editing refers to the performance of the editing immediatel
y in the field where data is collected. For example if the data is collected thr
ough questionnaire or schedule, then whether all the questions are answered or n
ot whether writing is legible or not etc should be checked out after the collect
ing the questionnaire from the respondent in the field itself.
Centralized Editing: In this type of editing, editing is done by a person or a t
eam after all the recorded questionnaires schedules are collected. So clearly it
is not carried out on the field itself or immediately after the data are collec
ted. In such editing normally the instructions regarding editing are printed and
circulated to the person or the team doing the editing. This is only to ensure
that there is uniformity in editing.
CODING
Coding is a practice which simplifies recording of answers. When standard answer
s for a question could be indicated, each answer is assigned a code. So instead
of writing the answers in full, the investigator simply writes the code. This is
not only saves times but also avoid confusing answers.
53
CLASSIFICATION
Classification of data means grouping the data on the basis of some common chara
cteristics. Classified data can be used for specified purposes with ease. Furthe
r classification adds to clarity and helps to maintain consistency. Classificati
on can be made on the basis of a) common characteristics like sex, literacy, col
our, height, and weight etc. b) geographical regions like north, south, east wes
t etc c) time oriented classification like monthly data, weekly data, yearly dat
a, d) value based classification in which collected data are grouped e) reply ba
sed classification like no of people who answered yes to a question, no to a que
stion etc.
TABULATION Tabulation is the arrangement of classified in an orderly manner, In

other words, it is a method of presenting the summarized data tabulation is very
important because
It conserves space
It avoid need for explanation
Computation of
data is made easier Comparison of data becomes very simple
Adequacy or inadequa
cy of the data is clearly visible A table contains columns and row, these column
s and rows create small boxes. Which are called cells. Tabulation has several ru
les and the most important ones are listed below:
Every table should be numbe
numbering could be in alphabet., Arabic or Roman Each table should have a disti
nct title Unit of measurement of the values in the table must be specified i.e.
Rs. Crores, tones etc Each column should be titled. Each row must be titled Rows
and columns are to be numbered Footnotes of the table should indicate the expla
natory notes on the data in the table and the footnotes must be positioned below
the table Data to be compared must be placed in adjacent columns
54
SIGNIFICANCE OF TABLES It reduces the complexity of data and provides simplicity

of presentations: Generally the table removes unnecessary details and repetitio
ns. They provide data systematically in columns and rows. It presents a very cle
ar idea of what the table presents. Table provides a considerable saving in time
taken in understandings what is represented by the data and hence all confusion
is avoided.
It facilitates comparison: Tables provide comparison. Generally table is divided
into various parts and for each part there are totals and subtotals, the relati
onship between different parts of data can be studied much more easily with the
help of a table than without it.
It gives identity to the data: When the data are arranged in a table with a titl
e and number they can be distinctly identified and can be used as a source refer
ence in the interpretation of a problem.
It provides patterns: Tabulation reveals patterns with the figures which can not
be seen in the narrative form. It also facilitates the summation of the figures
if the reader desires to check the totals.
Part of a table 1.Table number 2. Title of the table 3. Caption (Heading) 4.body
of the table 5.Head note and 6. Foot note.
TYPES OF TABLES:
Tables can be broadly classified to two categories: 1.Simple and complex frequen
cy tables 2. General purpose and special purpose frequency tables.
55
SIMPLE AND COMPLEX FREQUENCY TABLES SIMPLE OR ONE WAY TABLE: Here only character
istics is shown, this is the simple type of table. The following is the illustra
tion of such a table.
Number of Employees in a Bank According to Age Group
Age (in Years Below 25 25-35 35-45 45-55 Above 55 Number of employees TWO WAY TABLE: It shows two characteristics and is formed when either the sub or
the caption is divided into two coordinate parts. The following example illustr
ates the nature of such a table
Number of employees in a Bank at Different age-groups according to sex
Age (in years) Males Below 25 25-35 45-55 Above 55 Total Employees Females -Total
56
GENERAL PURPOSE AND SPECIAL PURPOSE FREQUENCY TABLES These tables are called ref
erence tables. They provide information for general use or reference. They usual
ly contain detailed information and are not constructed for specific discussion
Number of Employees of a Bank according to Age-Groups, Sex and Ranks
Age in years Supervisors M BELOW 25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55&ABOVE TOTAL F T M Rank Assistance F T M Clerks F T -M Total
F T USES OF COMPUTERS Before the advent of personal computers the data processing wa
s always a tedious job. It was time consuming. Establishing multiple correlation
s hips was complex. Accuracies were not guaranteed. However, now the personal co
mputers have emerged as one of the most effective tools in the use of market res
earch. Discussed below are some of the areas where personal computers can find a
pplications. Word Processing: The market survey findings are to be in variably p
resented in the form of a report. Through work processing draft report and final
reports can be easily prepared by avoiding repetitive typing. Data Processing:
Simple software are now available for the processing of data. The work is done i
n a short time with compact outputs. They can be self explanatory or easier to d
raw conclusions. Data Base Management System: Availability of different types of
databases at reasonable cost would save considerable time of the executives and
will help them in decision making.
57
Graphics: Earlier this data had to be manually presented in the form of a graph,
chart or histogram. Now with the help of Pcs after feeding the data and with the
help of simple software this data will appear in different graphical forms. SIG
NIFICANCE: The computer can perform many statistical calculations easily and qui
ckly.
The storing facility of the computers will help the researcher immensely f
or using the data whenever he requires.
Results of computer analysis lead to mor
e accuracy. Errors in the machinery can occur but due to increased efficiency in
error-detecting techniques, these seldom lead to false results. Diligence: Bein
g a machine a computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and la
ck of concentrations. If two million calculations have to be performed it will p
erform the two millionths with exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first.
Automation: Once a program is in the computers memory, all which is needed is th
e individual instructions to it, which are, transferred one after the other, to
the control unit for execution. The CPU follows these instructions until it meet
s a last instruction which says stop program execution.
TYPES OF DIAGRAMS USED IN IRESEARCH REPORT
Generally, the statistical results are presented through diagrams and graphs, We
can see them in newspapers, magazines, journals, advertisements, etc. the stati
stical data may be displayed pictorially such as different types of diagrams, gr
aphps and maps significance of Diagrams and Graphs: 1.They provide birds eye view
of the entire data 2.They are attractive 3. They provide memorizing effect 4.Th
ey facilitate comparison of data
CHOICE OF SUITABLE DIAGRAM; As regards the selection of the diagram to be drawn,
several factors determine this. They are 1. Nature of data 2. The target audien
ce for whom the diagram is drawn 3. The
58
volume of communication to be given 4. The facilities available to draw the diag

ram 5. Purpose of the representation 6. The size of the paper or the sanctioned
size for the diagram etc. Based on these factors, the right type of diagram is s
elected.
Types of Diagram: a. One dimensional diagrams e.g. bar diagrams b. Two dimension
al diagrams e.g rectangles, squares circles and pie diagrams c. Three dimensiona
l diagrams (A) One Dimensional Diagrams or Bar Diagrams
ravilochan .pno.279 A ba
r diagram is thick line whose width is shown merely for attention, the merits of
such diagrams are as follows 1. A reader can easily understand the subject matt
er 2. They are simplest and he easiest to make 3. For comparison of large number
s of items they are the only form that can e used effectively Example for simple
bar diagram: Single bar diagram is the simplest of the bar diagram and is used
frequently I practice for the comparative study of two or more items or values o
f a single variable or a single classification or category of data.
Suppose a simple diagram is to be drawn for the following data:
Country population: (In million)
A 20
B 50
C 68
D 43
E 65
F 25
G 40
59
Examples for multiple bar diagram: If two or more sets of inter related variable
s are to be presented graphically, multiple bar diagram are used. The technique
of drawing multiple bar diagram is basically same as that of drawing simple bar
diagram. In this type of diagramme, the data given for each year is draw togethe
r. As a result for each year there will be a number of bars drawn which are atta
ched to each other.
Suppose a multiple bar diagram is to be drawn for the following data:
Year: Marks: Arts Science Commerce
1
2
3
4
5
6
15 20 30
18 25 35
22 21 32
20 23 36
19 27 34
14 28 37
Percentage bars: This type of diagram in which all the given data for each year
is converted into percentage. Then for each year one bar is drawn for 100%. This
can be understood from the example given below
Year Arts 1 2 3 4 5 6 15 18 22 20 19 14 % 23 23 29 25 24 18
Number of Students Admitted Science 20 25 21 23 27 28 % 31 32 28 29 34 35 Commer
ce 30 35 32 36 34 37 % 46 45 43 46 42 47
60
Deviation bars: Deviation bars are specially useful for graphical presentation o
f net quantities i.e surplus of deficit e.g., net profit or net loss net of impo
rts and exports which have positive and negative values. This could be explained
with the following example.
( C) Circles (D) Pie diagram
Rectangles: A rectangle is a two-dimensional diagram because it is based on the
area of principle. Just like bars, the rectangles are placed side by side, prope
r and equal spacing being given different rectangles, in fact, rectangle diagram
s are modified from of bar diagrams and give more detailed information than is f
urnished by bar diagrams. Square Diagrams: Among the two dimensional diagrams, s
quares are specially useful if it is desired to compare graphically the values o
r quantities which differ widely from one another. Circles: Circle diagrams are
alternative to square diagrams and are used for the same purpose. Pie diagram: A
pie diagram will show how the expenditure of the government is distributed over
different heads like agricultural, irrigation, industry, transport etc. A pie d
iagram can show how the expenditures incurred by an industry under different hea
ds like raw materials, wages and salaries, selling and distribution expenses etc
., Pie diagrams are used while making comparison on a percentage basis and not o
n an absolute basis. When pie diagrams are constructed on a percentage basis per
centage can be presented by circles of equal in size.
61
Sector Agriculture irrigation Energy Industry Transport and communication Social

services and others TOTAL
Percentage 12.9 12.5 27.2 15.4 15.9 16.1 100
Angle 12.9 3.6 = 46 12.5 3.6 = 45 27.2 3.6 = 98 15.4 3.6= 56 15.9 3.6= 57 16.1 3
.6= 58 100 3.6 = 360
YEAR
EXPORTS
IMPORTS [IN Rs. Crores]
NET EXPORTS
1 2 3 4 5 6
230 305 367 411 400 366
248 280 322 440 380 380
-18 25 45 -29 20 -14
62
(B) TWO DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAMS: In the one dimensional diagrams only the length of
the bar is taken in to account. Whereas in two dimensional diagrams the length
as well as the width of the bar is considered, thus the area of the bar represen
ts the given data. (A) Rectangles (B) Square Diagrams
Now a circle shall be drawn suited to the size of the paper and divided into 6 p
arts according to degrees of angles at the center. (the angles have been arrange
d in descending order).
( C) Three Dimensional Diagrams; Pictographs and Cartograms: Pictographs are not
abstract presentation such as lines or bars but really depict the kind of data
we are dealing with. Pictures are attractive and easy to comprehend and as such
this method is particularly useful in presenting statistics to the layman. Carto
grams or statistical maps are used to give quantitative information on a geograp
hical basis. They represent spatial distribution. The quantities on the map can
be shown in many ways, such as through shaded or color by dots, by placing picto
grams in each geographical unit and by placing the appropriate numerical figure
in each geographical unit.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA
63
Diagrams furnish only approximate information and are not much utility to a stat
istician from analysis point of view. On the other hand, graphs are more obvious
, precise and accurate than diagrams and can be effectively used for further sta
tistical analysis. They can broadly classified under the following two heads: i.
ii. Graphs of frequency distributions Graphs of Time series
GRAPHS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS: Frequency graphs are designed to reveal clear
ly the characteristic features of a frequency data. Such graphs are more appeali
ng to the eye than the tabulated data and are readily perceptible, to the mind.
They facilitate comparative study of two or more frequency distributions regardi
ng their shape and pattern. The most commonly used graphs for charting a frequen
cy distribution for the general understanding of the detail of the data are:
HISTOGRAM: It is one of the most popular and commonly used devices for charting
continuous frequency distributions, no matter whether the variable under study i
s discrete or continuous. (for graph refer Research Methodology book P. Raviloch
anan).
FREQUENCY POLYGON: It is another device of graphic presentation of a frequency d
istribution . It facilitates comparison of frequency distribution, Frequency pol
ygon is drawn from the histogram or without histogram .(For graph refer Research
Methodology book P. Ravilochanan).
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY CURVES (OGIVES); This is yet another type of graph represen
ting the cumulative frequency of a distribution. From the given data, two types
of arrangement of data are made i.e. 1. More than table and 2. Less than table.
The procedure for drawing a cumulative frequency curves could be understood with
the example given below:
Marks:
0-10
10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100 11 14 8 15 19 22 25 11 10
No. of students: 5
64
In the above example, mark group-wise the number of students are given.. This ha
s to converted into a less than table and more than table to draw gives. This is
explained below:
Less than Table Marks Less than 10 Less than 20 Less than 30 Less than 40 Less t
han 50 Less than 60 Less than 70 Less than 80 Less than 90 Less than 100 No. of
students 5 16 30 38 53 72 94 119 130 140 Marks
More than Table No. of students 140 135 124 110 102 87 68 46 21 10
More than 0 More than 10 More than 20 More than 30 More than 40 More than 50 Mor
e than 60 More than 70 More than 80 More than 90
Once the above tables are prepared, they can be represented in the same graph Fo
r this first the scale for the X axis should be fixed. Let it be 1 cm = 10 marks
and for the Y axis, let the scale be 1cm=10 students. Using this scale the diag
ram, (For graph) refer Research Methodology book P. Ravilochanan).
65
RESEARCH REPORT Research report is a written document through, which the researc
her intimates to the world the findings of his study, the design of his study, h
is conclusions, the suggestions and recommendations based on his findings, the d
etails of data collected, the method he has adopted for selecting the sample, th
e tools he used for analysis the hypothesis he has set, his objectives, the limi
tations etc.
TYPES OF RESEARCH REPORT: Technical Report: In this type of report the scholar s
hould focus on the assumptions of his study, methods he had adopted and the find
ings of his study. Usually a generalized format is adopted for presenting such r
eports. It included, a an executive summary of the results overview of the study
including ithe problem studied,objectives hypothesis set the data used and the
tools of analysis adopted etc. A general outline of a technical report can be as
follows: Summary of results Nature of the study Methods employed Data collected
Analysis of data and presentation of findings Conclusions Bibliography Appendix
Popular report: As the name itself suggest, this is type of report, which meant
for the understanding and use of common public. It should be in simple but effec
tive language but must be attractive in its presentation. Liberal use of diagrams
, pictographs, graphs and others forms of representation is recommended. Oral pr
esentation: This type of reporting takes place in public viva voce examination c
onducted for PhD researchers. In this type of reporting, the researcher would pr
esent the details of his work orally. He may use different methods of presentati
on like over head projector, slide projector, simple presentation on board manua
l drawings, printed matter etc., but the basic objective in
66
this type of reporting is to make an impact on the people who are informed about
the findings and suggestions.
STEPS IN WRITING A REPORT (Mechanics)
Introduction of the subject matter in a logical manner: In this
archer would develop his subject matter in a logical manner. He
sequence of his subject matter and prepare the draft logically.
esearch outline: Having decided the plan of his subject matter,
stage, ithe rese

would study the
Preparation of R
the
researcher should prepare an outline of his report, by indicating the chapters t

o be developed, the chapter content in terms of headings, sub-headings questions
to be answered etc. Preparation of the rough draft: Once the outline is ready,
it is given a shape through
the preparation of rough draft, at this stage the researcher need not impose any
restrictions with regard to the style, language, presentation, length of report
etc.
Redrafting the report:
In this stage, the rough draft is edited, polished and brought to
actual size, by eliminating all that is un wanted in the rough draft.
Bibliography:
Once the body of the report is finalized the bibliography should be
planned. The bibliography would give useful information for other researchers. T
he bibliography should contain a list of books in some way pertinent to the rese
arch which has been done.
Preparation of the final draft:
In this stage the scholar should study each statement
made. He should avoid contradictory statements, delete questionable and debatabl
e conclusions. Moreover the conclusions should emerge from research study. They
must be original and not borrowed. A scholar remember that so long the report is
not submitted, he has every scope for polishing it and correcting it. Once it i
s submitted the scholar should be prepared to accept any critical comments on it
.
67
PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT 1. The length of the report should be
decided in accordance with the purpose. 2. The report should be interesting to r
ead and must not be loaded. 3. The tables and figures should be added for furthe
r clarity. 4. The report should be free from any type of mistakes. 5. Materials
used as reference should be acknowledged and the details should be given through
either foot notes or end notes. 6. The report should be logically structured. 7
. Repetition should be avoided 8. Appendices, bibliography and index should be i
ntegral part of the research report. 9. The technical tools applied in the proce
ss of analysis should all be explained in details through the methodology adopte
d for the study. 10. The physical appearance of the report should be attractive
neat and clean.
APPENDIX (ANNEXURE) It refers the additions behind the body of the report. Norma
lly it consists of various materials the needed to be included in the report but
it is not an essential and integral part of the main presentation. It does not
find any place in the main body of the thesis and doesnt provide and detailed inf
ormation but provides a place for inclusion of material for record purposes or f
or the sake of those readers who may want or need to read it. Normally every app
endix will be considered as a separate unit and must be numbered as Appendix A,
/Appendix B, etc. The following materials are used enclosed as appendix: Derivat
ions of equations detailed calculations copies of exhibits, questionnaires, samp
le of norms, tables, annual reports diagrams and figures etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: It refers to a list of sources consulted. It will be serially numb
ered and the entries in it are made in the alphabetical order. The details appea
r in the same sequence as in the list of references. Occasionally a list of work
s on the same subject suggested for further reading is also termed as bibliograp
hy. The following are a few examples of entries as they would appear in the list
of Reference / Bibiliography. Books with Authors An essay / paper presented / a
rticles published Journals
68
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This is the last section of the research report. It is customa
ry to conclude with a brief resume or summary, restating the whole performance a
ll over again briefly. A useful way to organize our conclusion is to begin by re
ferring back to the introduction where we stated the problem and also to the hyp
othesis. Normally the executive summary contains the followings: Brief statement
of the study Description of procedures used Main findings and conclusions Recom
mendations for further research
69
INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING After collecting and analyzing the data the re
searcher has to accomplish the task of drawing interferences followed by report
writing. This has to be done very carefully, \otherwise misleading conclusion ma
y be draw and the whole purpose of doing research may get vitiated. It is only t
hrough interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes tha
t underlie his findings. In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses ar
e test and upheld several times, the researcher may arrive at generalizations. B
ut in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start with he would try to explai
n his findings on the basis of some theory. This may at times result in new ques
tions leading to further researches. All this analytical information and consequ
ential inference(s) may well be communicated, preferably through research report
to the consumers of research results who may be either an individual or a group
of individuals or some public / private organizations.\\
MEANING OF INTERPRETATION Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inference
s from the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study. In fac
t, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings, the task of interpre
tation has two major aspects viz.., (i) the effort to establish continuity in re
search though linking the results of a given study with those of another, and (i
i) the establishment of some explanatory concepts. In one sense, interpretation i
s concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping
analysis, Interpretation also extend beyond the data of the study to include the
results of other research, theory and hypothesis. Thus, interpretation is he dev
ice through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by res
earcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides
a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researchers. WH
Y INTERPRETATION Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usef
ulness and utility of research findings lie in proper interpretation. It is bein
g considered a basic component of research process because of the following reas
ons: (i)It is through interpretation that the researcher can be well understand
the abstract principle that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link
up his findings with those of other studies, having the same abstract principle
and thereby can predict about the concrete world of events. Fresh inquiries can
test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in research can be mai
ntained.
70
(ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can

serve as a guide for future research studies it opens new avenues of intellectua
l adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge. (iii)Researcher can bet
ter appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they ar and
can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings. (
iv) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often resul
ts into hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is invol
ved in the transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since an explor
atory study does not have a hypothesis to start with the findings of such a stud
y have to be interpreted on a post-factum basis in which case the interpretation
is technically described as post factum interpretation.
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rathe
r it requires a great skill and dexterity on the part of researcher, Interpretat
ion is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The researcher ma
y at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpr
etation. The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps: (i)
Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has foun
d and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying pro
cesses and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the sur
face layer of his diversified research findings. In fact this is the technique o
f how generalization should be done and concepts be formulated. Extraneous infor
mation, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting the
final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in underst
anding the problem under consideration. It is advisable, before embarking upon f
inal interpretation the consult someone having insight into the study and who is
frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in log
ical argumentation, such a consultation will result in correct interpretation an
d thus will enhance the utility of research results. Researcher must accomplish
the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting
the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpr
eting results, for quite often the conclusions which appear to be all right at t
he beginning may not at all be accurate.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
71
PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION One should always remember that even if the data a
re properly collected and analyzed wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate
conclusions. It is therefore, absolutely essential that the task of interpretat
ion be accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct per
spective, researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct inte
rpretation: (i) At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (
a) the data are appropriate trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b)
the data reflect good homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done t
hrough statistical methods. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors
that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting results errors an arise
due the false generalization and or due to wrong interpretation of statistical m
easure, such as the application of findings beyond the range of observations ide
ntification of correlation with causation and the like another major pitfall is
the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the basis of confirm
ation of particular hypotheses..in fact the positive test results accepting the
hypothesis must be interpreted as being in accord with the hypothesis, rather than
as confirming the validity of the hypothesis. The researcher must remain vigilant
about all such things so that false generalization may not take place. He shoul
d be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures fo
r drawing inferences concerning his study. He must always keep in view that the
task of interpretation is very much intertwined with analysis and cannot be dist
inctly separated. As such he must take the task of interpretation as a special a
spect of analysis and accordingly must take all those precautions that one usual
ly observes while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions concer
ning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison of
results. He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make
sensitive observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and diseng
age the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do
his job of interpretation on proper lines. Broad generalization should be avoid
ed as most research is not amenable to it because the coverage may be restricted
to a particular time a particular area and particular conditions. Such restrict
ions, if any must invariably be specified and the results must be framed within
their limits. The researcher must remember that ideally in the course of a resea
rcher study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis. Em
pirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of i
nteraction between theoretical orientation and empirical observation that opport
unities for originality and creativity lie. He must pay special attention to this
aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation.
72
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING Research report is considered a major component o

f the research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report ha
s been presented and or written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hyp
othesis highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most striking
generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively co
mmunicated to others. The purpose of research is not well served unless the find
ings are made known to other .research results must invariably enter the general
store of knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing research repo
rt. There are people who do not consider writing of report as an integral part o
f the research process. But the general opinion is in favour of treating the pre
sentation of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the
research project. Writing of report is the last step in a research study and re
quires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of th
e earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher
with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the pu
rpose. DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT Research reports are the product of slo
w, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps involved in writing rep
ort are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation of the fina
l outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (e)
preparation of the final bibliography; and (f) writing final draft. Though all t
hese steps are self explanatory yet a brief mention of each one of these will be
appropriate for better understanding. Logical analysis of the subject matter: I
t is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subje
ct. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b) chron
ologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connection an
d associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical t
reatment often consists is developing the material from the simple possible to t
he most complex structures. Chronological development is based on a connection o
r sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making something u
sually follow the chronological order. Preparation of the final outline: it is t
he next step in writing the research report outlines are the framework upon which
long written works are constructed,. They are an aid to the logical organizatio
n of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report
73
Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject
and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance f
or the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his
research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting th
e material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the techni
que of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the v
arious suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned. Rewriting
and polishing of the rough draft: this step happens to be most difficult part of
all formal writing, usually this step requires more time than the writing of th
e rough draft. The careful revisions makes the difference between a mediocre and
a good piece of writing, while rewriting and polishing one should check the rep
ort for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher should
also see whether or not the material as it is presented has unity and cohesion d
oes he report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern like a marbl
e arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick. In a
ddition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough d
raft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing gra
mmar, spelling, and usage. .Preparation of the final bibliography: next in order
comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography,
which is generally appended to the research report is a list of books in some wa
y pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those wor
ks which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alpha
betically and may be divided into two parts; the first art may contain the names
of books and pamphlets and the second part may contain the names of magazine an
d newspaper articles generally this pattern of bibliography is considered conven
ient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader, though it is not the onl
y way of presenting bibliography. The entries in bibliography should be made ado
pting the following order: For books and pamphlets the order may be as under: 1.
2. 3. 4. Name of author, last name first Title underlined to indicate italics P
lace, publisher, and date of publication Number of volumes
74
Examples Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing Hou
se Pvt. Ltd., 1978. For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under: 1. 2
. 3. 4. 5. 6. Examples, Robert V. Roosa, coping with short-term International Mon
ey Flows. The Banker Name of the author, last name first Title of article, in quo
tation marks, Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics. The volume or
volume and number The date of the issue The pagination
London, September, 1971, p.995. The above examples are just the samples for bibl
iography entries and may be used but one should also remember that they are not
the only acceptable forms the only thing important is that whatever method one s
elects, it must remain consistent. Writing the final draft: This constitutes the
last step. The final draft should be written in a concise an objective style an
d in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as it seems there may be and
the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstrac
t terminology and technical jargon. Illustration and examples based on common ex
periences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effe
ctive in communicating the research finding to others. A research report should
not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain interest and must show origina
lity. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some
intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must
add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader. LAYOUT OF THE RESERC
H REPORT Anybody, who is reading the research report must necessarily be conveye
d enough about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific conte
xt, judge the adequacy of its method and thus form an opinion of how seriously t
he findings are to be taken. For this purpose there is the need of proper layout
of the report, the layout of the report means as to what the research report sh
ould contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise (A)
preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter. Let us deal with t
hem separately
75
(A)Preliminary Pages In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title an
d date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of preface or Foreword. Then there
should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so th
at the decision maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily loc
ate the required information in the report. (B) Main Text The main text provides
the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of th
e research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text an th
en follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively beginning with the
second page, each man section of the report should begin on a new page/. The mai
n text of the report should have the following sections; (i) introduction ; (ii)
statement of findings and recommendations: (iii) the results; (iv) the implicat
ions drawn from the results; (v) the summary. (i)Introduction: The purpose of in
troduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should contai
n a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should
be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth inves
tigating. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that
the present study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study if any an
d the definitions of the major concepts employed in the study should explicitly
stated in the introduction of the report. The methodology adopted in conducting
the conduction the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader would li
ke to know in detail about such things. How was the study carried out? What was
its basic design? If the study was an experimental one then what were the experi
mental manipulation? If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or in
terviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview
schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were based on observ
ation, then what instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the sample
used in the study the reader should be told, who were the subjects? How many wer
e there? How were they selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating
the probably limits of genealizability of the findings. The statistical analysis
adopted must also be clearly stated. In additions to all this, the scope of the
study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various limita
tions, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated. (i
i)Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction the research rep
ort must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical la
nguage so that it can be easily understood by all
76
concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be

put in the summarized form. (iii)Results A detailed presentation of the findings
of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables and charts together wi
th a validation of results is the next step in writing the main text of the repo
rt. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several
chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries
and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be
presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections,.
All relevant results must find a place in the report. But how one is to decide a
bout what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primaril
y from the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any with which the study
was concerned. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgment in d
eciding the outline of his report. Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he st
ates clearly the problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by which he
worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived and the bases for his
conclusions. (iv)Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, t
he researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and prec
isely. He should state the implications that flow from the results of the study
for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the h
uman behavior. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below: (a) A s
tatement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to
apply in similar circumstances. (b) The condition of the present study which ma
y limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the inferences drawn from th
e study. (c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new question
s raised by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would
provide answers for them. It is considered a good practice to finish the report
with a short conclusion which summarizes and recapitulates the main points of t
he study. The conclusions drawn from the study should be clearly related to the
hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time a fore
cast of the probably future of the subject and an indication of the kind of rese
arch which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable.
77
(v)Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with very br
ief summary, resting in brief the research problem the methodology the major con
clusions drawn from the research results. (C) End Matter At the end of the repor
t, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as questi
onnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Biblio
graphy of sources consulted should also be given, index (an alphabetical listing
of names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or re
port on which they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the
end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide
to the reader for the contents in the report. TYPES OF REPORTS Research reports
vary greatly in length and type, in each individual case both the length and the
form are largely dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms
prefer reports in the letter form, just one or two page in length. Banks insura
nce organization and financial institution are generally fond of the short balan
ce-sheet type of tabulation for their annual reports to their customers and shar
eholders. Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their investigations in
the form of algebraic notations, chemists report their results in symbols and fo
rmulae, students of literature usually write long reports presenting the critica
l analysis of some writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotations
from the works of the author under discussion. In the field of education and ps
ychology, the favorite form is the report on the results of experimentation acco
mpanied by the detailed statistical tabulations. Clinical psychologists and soci
al pathologists frequently find it necessary to make use of the case-history for
m. News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They represe
nt firsthand on-the-scene accounts of the events described or compilations of in
terviews with persons who were on the scene. In such reports the first paragraph
usually contains the important information in detail and the succeeding paragra
phs contain material which is progressively less and less important. Book reviews
which analyze the content of the book and report on the authors intentions, his
success or failure in achieving his aims , his language, his style, scholarship,
bias or his point of view. Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short repor
t. The reports prepared by governmental bureaus, special commissions and similar
other organizations are
78
generally very comprehensive reports on the issues involved. Such reports are us
ually considered as important research products. Similarly PhD theses and disser
tations are also a form of report-writing usually completed by students in acade
mic institutions. The above narrations throws light on the fact that the results
of a research investigation can be presented in a number of ways viz., a techni
cal report, a popular report, an article a monograph or at times even in the for
m of oral presentation. Which methods(s) of presentation to be used in a particu
lar study depends on the circumstances under which the study arose and the natur
e of the results. A technical report is used whenever a full written report of t
he study is required whether for record keeping or for public dissemination. A p
opular report is used if the research results have policy implication. We give b
elow a few details about the said two types of reports: (A)Technical Report In t
he technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed (ii) assump
tions made in the course of the study (iii) the detailed presentations of the fi
ndings including their limitations and supporting data. A general outline of a t
echnical report can be as follows: 1.Summary of results: A brief review of the m
ain findings just in two or three pages. 2.Nature of the study: Description of t
he general objectives of study, formulation of the problem in operational terms,
the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required etc., 3.Methods
employed: specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance
in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size,
sample selection, etc. 4.Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, char
acteristics and limitations, if secondary data are used, their suitability to th
e problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey the manner in which dat
a were collected should be fully described. 5. Analysis of data and presentation
of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the findings of the study
with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This i
n fact happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over several
chapters. 6.Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy impli
cations drawn from the results be explained. 7.Bibliography: bibliography of var
ious sources consulted be prepared and attached.
79
8.Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating t

o questionnaire mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of
analysis and the like ones 9.Index: Index must be prepared and be given invaria
bly in the report at the end. The order presented above only gives a general ide
a of the nature of a technical report; the order of presentation may not necessa
rily be the same in all the technical reports. This in other words means that th
e presentation may vary in different reports even the different sections outline
d above will not always be the same nor will all these sections appear in any pa
rticular report. It should however be remembered that even in a technical report
simple presentation and ready availability of the findings remain an important
consideration and as such the liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered d
esirable.
(B)Popular Report The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity a
nd attractiveness, the simplification should be sought through clear writing, mi
nimization of technical, particularly, mathematical, details and liberal use of
charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print many subheadings,
even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of the
popular report, besides in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects
and policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular report. 1
. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the fi
ndings of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings. 2.
Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the n of
the study is made in this section of the report. 3. Objective of the study: A ge
neral review of how the problem arise is presented along with the specific objec
tives of the project under study. 4 .Methods employed: A brief and non-technical
description of the methods and techniques used, including a short review of the
data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report. 5. Resul
ts: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of
the study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all
sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
80
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms etc, i

s presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed
if the report is entirely meant for general public. There can be several variat
ions of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The only important t
hing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy impl
ications from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of a
ll sorts to the extent possible. ORAL PRESENTATION At times oral presentation of
the results of the study is considered effective, particularly in cases where p
olicy recommendations are indicated by project results. The merit of this approa
ch lies in the fact that it provides an opportunity for give-and-take decisions
which generally lead to a better understanding of the findings and their implica
tions. But the main demerit of this sort of presentations is the lack of any per
manent record concerning the research details and it may e just possible that th
e findings may fade away from peoples memory even before an action is taken. In o
rder to overcome this difficulty a written report may be circulated before the o
ral presentation and referred to frequently during the discussions. Oral present
ation is effective when supplemented by various visual devices. Use of slides, w
all charts and blackboards is quite helpful in contributing to clarity and in re
ducing the boredom, if any. Distributing a board outline with a few important ta
bles and charts concerning the research results, makes the listeners attentive w
ho have a ready outline on which to focus their thinking. This very often happen
s in academic institutions where the researcher discusses his research finding a
nd policy implications with others either in a seminar or in a group discussion.
Thus research results can be reported in more than one ways, but the usual prac
tice adopted in academic institutions particularly, is that of writing the techn
ical report and then preparing several research papers to be discussed at variou
s forums in one form or the other. But in practical field and with problems havi
ng policy implications the technique followed is that of writing a popular repor
t. Researches done on governmental account or on behalf of some major public or
private organizations are usually presented in the form of technical reports. ME
CHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT There are very definite and set rules which
should be followed in the actual preparation of the research report or paper. O
nce the techniques are finally decide, they should be scrupulously adhered to an
d no deviation permitted. The criteria of format should
81
be decided as soon as the materials for the research paper have been assembled.
The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics of writing a report
are concerned. 1.Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on
unruled paper 8 11 in size. If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-bla
ck ink should be used. A margin of at least one and one-half inches should be al
lowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand of the pap
er. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom. The paper should be n
ear and legible. If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be dou
ble-spaced on one side of the page only except for the insertion of the long quo
tations. 2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly ad
hered (All such steps have already been explained earlier in this chapter) 3.Lay
out: keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem. The layout of the
report should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted (The layout of t
he research report and various types of reports have been described in this chap
ter earlier which should be taken as a guide for report-writing in case of a par
ticular problem). 4.Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quot
ation marks and double spaced, forming an immediate part of the text. But if a q
uotation is of a considerable length (more than four or five type written lines)
then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right
of the normal text margin. 5.The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep
in view the followings: (a) The foot notes serve two purposes viz, the identifi
cation of materials used in quotations in the report and the notice of materials
not immediately necessary to the body of the research text but still of supplem
ental value. In other words footnotes are meant for cross references, citation o
f authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a p
oint of view. It should always be kept in view that footnote is not an end nor a
means of the display of scholarship. The modern tendency is to make the minimum
use of footnotes for scholarship does not need to be displayed. (b) Footnotes a
re placed at the bottom of the page on which the references or quotation which t
hey identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from the te
xtual material by a space of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches
long. () Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in
each chapter separately. The number should be put slightly above the line, say
at the end of a quotation. At the foot of the page, again, the footnote number s
hould be indented
82
and typed a little above the line. Thus consecutive numbers must be used to corr
elate the reference in the text with its corresponding note at the bottom of the
page, except in case of statistical tables and other numerical material, where
symbols such as the asterisk(*) or the like one may be used to prevent confusion
. (d) Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from on
e another by double space 6.Documentation style: Regarding documentation the fir
st footnote reference to any given work should be complete in its documentation,
giving all the essential facts about the edition used. Such documentary footnot
es follow a general sequence. The common order may be described as under: (i) Re
garding the single-volume reference 1.Authors name in normal order ( and not begi
nning with the last name as in bibliography) followed by a comma; 2.Title of wor
k, underlined to indicate italics; 3.Place and date of publication; 4.Pagination
references (The page number) Example John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New Yo
rk; Dover Publications, Inc. 1954, p..315. (ii) Regarding multi volumed referenc
e 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Authors name in the normal order. Title of work, underlined to i
ndicate italics: Place and date of publication: Number of volume; Pagination ref
erences (The page number)
(iii)Regarding works arranged alphabetically For works arranged alphabetically s
uch as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no pagination reference is usually needed
. In such cases the order is illustrated as under: Examples 1 Salamanca, Encyclope
dia Britannica, 14th edition Example 2 Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, Dictionary of n
ational biography. But if there should be a detailed reference to a long encyclo
pedia article, volume and pagination reference may be found necessary. (iv)Regar
ding periodicals reference
83
1. Name of the author in normal order: 2. Title of article, in quotation marks;

3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics: 4. Volume number 5.Date o
f issuance; 6.Pagination. (v)Regarding anthologies and collections reference Quo
tations from anthologies or collections of literary works must be acknowledged n
ot only by author but also by the name of the collector. (vi)Regarding second-ha
nd quotations reference In such cases the documentation should be handled as fol
lows; 1.Original author and title; 2.quoted or cited in,; 3 Second author and work
Example J.F.Jones, Life in Polynesia, p. 16, quoted in History of the Pacific O
cean area, by R.B. Abel, op. 191. (vii) Case of multiple authorship If there are
more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation the name of only th
e first is given and the multiple authorship is indicated by et al. or and others.
Subsequent references to the same work need not be so detailed as stated above.
If the work is cited again without any other work intervening, it may be indicat
ed as ibid, followed by a comma and the page number. A single page should be ref
erred to as p., but more than one page be referred to as pp. if there are severa
l pages referred to at a stretch, the practice is to use often the page number,
for example, pp.190 ff, which means page number 190 and the following pages; but
only for page 190 and the following page 190f. Roman numerical is generally used
to indicate the number of the volume of a book .Op. cit.(opera citato, in the wo
rk cited ) or Loc.cit. (loco citato, in the place cited) are two of the very con
venient abbreviations used in the footnotes. Op. cit or Loc. Cit. after te write
rs name would sugg est that the reference is to work by the writer which has been
cited in detail in an earlier footnote but intervened by some other . 7.Punctua
tion and abbreviations in footnotes: The first item after the number in the foot
note is the authors name given in the normal signature order. This is followed by
a comma. After the comma, the title of the book is given; the article (such as A,
An, The
84
etc.) is omitted and only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are cap
italized. The title is followed by a comma. Information concerning the edition i
s given next. This entry is followed by a comma. The place of publication is the
n stated it may be mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place happens to be
a famous one such as Lond, for London, N, Y for New York, N, D for New Delhi and
so on. This entry is followed by a comma. Then the name of the publisher is men
tioned and this entry is closed by a comma. Then the name of the publisher is me
ntioned and this entry is closed by a comma, it is followed by the date of publi
cation if the date is given on the title page. If the date appears in the copyri
ght notice on the reverse side of the title page or elsewhere in the volume, the
comma should be omitted and the date enclosed in square brackets [c 1978], [197
8]. The entry is followed by a comma. Then follow the volume and page references
and are separated by a comma if both are given. A period closes the complete do
cumentary reference. But one should remember that the documentation regarding ac
knowledgements from magazine articles and periodical literature follow a differe
nt form as stated earlier while explaining the entries in the bibliography. 8. U
se of statistics, charts and graphs: A judicious use of statistics in research r
eports is often considered a virtue for it contributes a great deal towards the
clarification an and simplification of the material and research results. One ma
y well remember that a good picture is often worth more than a thousand words. S
tatistics are usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-gra
phs and pictograms. Such presentation should be self explanatory and complete in
itself. It should be suitable and appropriate looking to the problem at hand. F
inally statistical presentation should be neat and attractive. 9. The final draf
t: Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the reports should be done with gre
at care before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should p
ut to himself questions like; Are the sentences written in the report clear? Are
they grammatically correct? Do they say what is meant? do the various points inc
orporated in the report fit together logically? Having at least one colleague rea
d the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful. Sentences that
seem crystal-clear to the writer may prove quite confusing to other people; a c
onnection that had seemed self evident may strike other as a non-sequitur. A fri
endly critic, by pointing out passages that seem unclear or illogical and perhap
s suggesting ways of remedying the difficulties, can be an invaluable aid in ach
ieving the goal of adequate communication. 10.Bibliography: Bibliography should b
e prepared and appended to the research report as discussed earlier.
85
11. Preparation of the index: At the end of the report, an index should invariab
ly be given, the value of which lies I the fact that it acts as a good guide, to
the reader. Index may be prepared both as subject index and as author index. Th
e former gives the names of the subject-topics or concepts along with the number
of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in the report whereas the lat
ter gives the similar information regarding the names of authors. The index shou
ld always be arranged alphabetically. Some people prefer to prepare only one ind
ex common for names of authors, subject-topics, concepts and the like ones. PREC
AUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS Research report is a channel of communicati
ng the research findings to the readers of the report. A good research report is
one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it must be prepar
ed keeping the following precautions in view: 1. While determining the length of
the report (since research reports vary greatly in length), one should keep in
view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the subject but short enoug
h to maintain interest. In fact, report-writing should not be a means to learnin
g more and more about less and less. 2. A research report should not, if this ca
n avoided, be dull; it should be such as to sustain readers interest. 3. Abstract
terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research report. The re
port should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible. This, in other w
ords, means that report should be written in an objective style in simple langua
ge, avoiding expressions such as it seems, there may be and the like. 4. Readers are
often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and as suc
h the report must provide a ready availability of the findings. For this purpose
, charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the various results
in the main report in addition to the summary of important findings. 5. The layo
ut of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in accor
dance with the objective of the research problem. 6. The reports should be free
from grammatical mistakes and must be prepared strictly in accordance with the t
echniques of composition of report-writing such as the use of quotations, footno
tes, documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes and
the like. 7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter
. It must reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of analysis relating
to the research problem fit well. 8. A research report should show originality a
nd should necessarily be n attempt to solve some intellectual problem. It must c
ontribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the store of knowledge. 9
. Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications relating t
o the problem under consideration. It is usually considered desirable if the rep
ort makes
86
a forecast of the probable future of the subject concerned and indicates the kin
ds of research still needs to be done in that particular field.. 10. Appendices
should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the report. 11. Bibli
ography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must necessarily be
given. 12. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as s
uch must be prepared and appended at the end. 13. Report must be attractive in a
ppearance, neat and clean, whether types or printed. 14. Calculated confidence l
imits must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting th
e research study may also be stated in the report. 15. Objective of the study, t
he nature of the problem, the methods employed and the analysis techniques adopt
ed must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in the form of intr
oduction.
87

Research Methodology Full Notes

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Research Methodology Full Notes

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RESEARCH MEANING

Research is a serious academic activity with a set of objectives to explain or a

Determining frequency quencyquency

Criteria of Good Research (characteristics)

FUNDAMENTAL (OR) BASIC RESEARCH:

Sampling design CONCENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN Statistical design Operational desig

Collecting the Data: Collection of data is on important stage in research. In fa

DESCRIPTIVE AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH DESIGN: Descriptive research design is conce

1.Types of Random (or)Probability Sampling (a) Simple (or) unrestricted sampling

NON- RANDOM SAMPLING OR NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

of sampling involves selecting the sample e

PRIMARY (DATA) SOURCES

Types Of O B S E R V A T I O N : Non-participant Observation:

Questions needing computation / calculation / consultation should be avoided Que

latters place. Coverage Wide coverage possible, as it Relatively limited coverage

questionnaire is filled by the controlling respondent himself

Nature and Scope of Research

v lue in c se of one t iled test

M king form l st tement: It consists of m king

USEFULNESS OF STATISTICAL TOOLS (ANALYSIS)

The import nt p r metric tests re ; The z-test, the t-test,

nd the F-test. The

IMPORTANT SCALING TECHNIQUES

Then, the researcher makes a final selection of statements, a sample of statemen

Successful Heavy Strong

TABULATION Tabulation is the arrangement of classified in an orderly manner, In

SIGNIFICANCE OF TABLES It reduces the complexity of data and provides simplicity

volume of communication to be given 4. The facilities available to draw the diag

Sector Agriculture irrigation Energy Industry Transport and communication Social

stage, ithe rese

researcher should prepare an outline of his report, by indicating the chapters t

(ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can

SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING Research report is considered a major component o

concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be

8.Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating t

6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms etc, i

1. Name of the author in normal order: 2. Title of article, in quotation marks;

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