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Center for Transportation Research, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Centre for Pavement and Transportation Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo N2L 3G1,
Canada
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 18 May 2015
Received in revised form 10 August 2015
Accepted 10 September 2015
Available online 12 September 2015
Keywords:
Asphalt mixture
Waste PET
Environmental temperature
Response surface methodology
a b s t r a c t
Fatigue is a major distress mode of exible pavements that generally occurs in the form of irregular (alligator) cracking in the wheel paths. This paper evaluates the effects of applied stress and
temperature on the fatigue lives of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) modied asphalt mixtures
using response surface methodology (RSM). As it is shown in this study a quadratic model is
successfully tted to the experimental data. Fatigue lives of mixtures are inuenced by changes
in selected parameters. In addition, the effect of temperature variation is more drastic on the
fatigue lives than the effects of stress level and modier content.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Road pavement is subjected to external loads including mechanical loading induced by heavy trafc and thermal loading induced
by thermal changes. The applied loads, along with environmental conditions result in pavement deterioration which, in some cases,
happens even before its expected service life. Pavement damage is usually occurred in the form of permanent deformation (surface
rutting), fatigue failure and low temperature cracking. Fatigue failure is a common mode of distress of pavement structures which
is caused by successive tensile strain induced by repeated trafc loadings [1]. This form of distress mostly appears as cracking damage
which initially occurs at the bottom of asphalt layer where the tensile stresses are maximum. Then these cracks spread to the surface
of asphalt mixture. Previous studies showed the fatigue life of asphalt mixture has correlation with the mode and amount of applied
loads as well as environmental temperature [2,3].
Stone mastic asphalt (SMA) is gap-graded asphalt mixture which has been developed in Germany in 1960s [4]. It has a high
percentage (60 to 80%) of coarse aggregate, greater than 5 mm in size, high binder content (5.5 to 7% by weight), high percentage
of mineral ller (7 to 11%), and added bers (1%) [5]. Due to inherited structure of SMA, it can provide better permanent deformation
(rutting) performance and durability compared to conventional dense-graded mixture [6,7] but it becomes controversial in case of
fatigue property. However some studies showed that SMA mixture had lower fatigue life [8,9], others concluded that it had better fatigue properties compared to the conventional mixture [10,11]. In SMA mixture in order to prevent draindown (due to high asphalt
content) and improve mixture performance stabilizer additives, bers and polymers are used. In this case, using polymer in asphalt
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mehrtashsoltani@gmail.com (M. Soltani).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2015.09.005
1350-6307/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
239
mixture is very common [1215]. Tapkn has utilized polypropylene bers as reinforcement in asphalt mixture and it was realized that
the mixture fabricated by polypropylene bers had better performance in comparison with control mixture [16].
In many cases, using polymers causes higher construction cost due to high polymer cost. In order to overcome this problem, many
studies have used waste polymers in asphalt mixtures [13,1720]. One of the important industrial plastic materials is polyethylene
terephthalate (PET). PET is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic polymer material which has been used in beverage and food industries
for years. Currently, a large amount of waste PET is being produced worldwide and it is going to cause a serious environmental
challenge due to its non-biodegradability [21]. Hence, some studies have been previously performed to evaluate the effects of using
post-consumer PET as secondary materials in road pavement in order to tackle this potential environmental hazard and, moreover,
to decrease construction cost imposed by application of polymers in asphalt mixture [2,13,22,23].
Mathematical modeling is useful for real-world application as it is robust in terms of its ability to deal with many constraints and
objectives [24,25]. In addition, using statistical analysis in pavement engineering is increasing among engineers and designers because
it helps to have better perspective about the pavement performance parameters. In this case, factorial design of experiments (DOE)
which through the use of techniques such as response surface methodology (RSM) simultaneously consider several factors at different
levels, and give a suitable model for the relationship between the various factors [2630].
The aim of this study is examining the fatigue property of SMA mixtures at elevated temperatures and stress levels for the
unmodied and PET modied mixtures followed by nding interactions between these fundamental factors using RSM based
on central composite design (CCD).
240
Table 1
Properties of materials.
Property
Unit
Used specication
Value
Requirements
Asphalt
Penetration at 25 C
Softening point
Flash point
Fire point
Specic gravity
0.1 mm
C
C
C
(g/cm3)
ASTM D 5
ASTM D 36
ASTM D 92
ASTM D 92
ASTM D 70
87.5
46.6
300
320
1.03
Coarse aggregate
L.A. abrasion
Flakiness index
Elongation index
Aggregate crushing value
Bulk specic gravity
Absorption
%
%
%
%
(g/cm3)
%
ASTM C 131
BS 812 Part 105.1
BS 812 Part 105.2
BS 812 part 3
ASTM C 127
ASTM C 127
19.45
2.72
11.26
19.10
2.60
0.72
b30
b20
b20
b30
b2
Fine aggregate
Bulk specic gravity
Absorption
Soundness loss
(g/cm3)
%
%
ASTM C 128
ASTM C 128
ASTM C 88
2.63
0.4
4.1
b2
b15
Table 2
Physical and mechanical properties of PET.
Property
Unit
Method
Value
Water absorption
Tensile strength
Tensile modulus
Elongation at break
Flexural strength
Flexural modulus
Approx glass transition temperature
Approx melting temperature
Specic gravity
%
psi
psi
%
psi
psi
C
C
g/cm3
ASTM D570
ASTM D638
ASTM D638
ASTM D638
ASTM D790
ASTM D790
ASTM D792
0.11
11,500
4 105
70
15,000
4 105
75
250
1.35
241
Table 3
Summary of mix design.
PET(%)
BSGa
VMAb (%)
VFAc (%)
OACd (%)
0 (unmodied)
0.5
1
2.294
2.296
2.283
18.12
17.34
17.55
77.92
76.90
77.20
6.77
6.36
6.51
a
b
c
d
Table 4 shows the levels and range of the actual values of independent numerical variables. By using Eq. (1) all dened numerical
variables transformed to the coded form.
xi
X i X 0
X
where xi describes the coded value of the ith independent factor which is dimensionless. Actual value is dened as Xi, X0 is the
center point actual value and X refers to the step change of the ith variable.
A total of 34 experiments in random order were performed, together with ve replications at the center points to provide accurate
assessment of errors (Table 4). The fatigue life was dened as the response to develop design of experiment modeling.
(Eq. (2)) was developed to calculate the dependent variables [41,42]:
Xn
Xn
Xn Xn
2
Y0 i1 i xi i1 ii xi i1
x x
j1 ij i j
In Eq. (2), Y is the calculated response, 0 is constant value. Independent variables in coded form are described as xi, and xj. The
coefcients of i and ii are the linear and quadratic terms. ij is the interaction term coefcient, is the random error, and the studied
number of factors is dened as n.
In addition, in order to assess the appropriateness of proposed model, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. The coefcients
of determination (R2 and R2adj) express the wellness of the t to the suggested model. These values can be determined using the
following equations [43]:
2
R 1
SSresidual
SSmodel SSresidual
SSresidual
Radj 1SS
model SSresidual
. D F residual
D F model D F residual
242
Table 4
Experimental design layout and experimental results of the responses.
Run
Fatigue cycles
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
0
1
0.5
0
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
1
0
1
0
0
0.5
0.5
1
0.5
0
1
1
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
1
0.5
1
0
0.5
1
0.5
0
200
400
300
200
300
300
200
400
300
300
400
300
200
400
200
300
300
400
300
400
200
300
300
300
400
300
400
400
200
400
200
200
300
200
10
40
10
40
25
25
25
25
25
25
10
25
10
10
40
25
25
40
25
40
10
25
40
40
40
10
10
25
40
10
25
40
25
10
196,720
1541
184,521
4341
7752
6072
51,421
1243
3019
6063
167,281
3033
385,866
91,291
4329
6061
6059
1544
6088
866
379,731
7739
3133
3141
878
179,491
167,312
1239
7829
91,302
53,320
7931
6077
188,821
V Y
maxY minY
p
V Y
1 Xn
p 2
V
i1
n
n
where Y is the predicted response, P represents the number of model parameters, residual mean square is described as 2, and n
is the number of experiments.
After the F-test had been performed, the insignicant terms were found and eliminated from the model. Thereafter, the nalized
model was introduced based on the signicant variables.
Fig. 3. Fracture patterns (left: ideal fracture, right: single cleft fracture).
243
Checking the adequacy of the model is an important part of the data analysis, as the model functions would give improper responses in case the t is not adequate [39,45]. Hence, in this study, in order to assess the signicance and adequacy of the model,
ANOVA analysis was performed and the results are reported in Table 5. In addition, this table shows the quadratic models for
coded factors, and represents other statistical parameters in logarithmic scale for the fatigue life. In this table, p-values which are
less than 0.0001 imply that the model and parameter are signicant (model and term with p-value b0.05 indicate the model and
the term are signicant for 95% condence intervals) for assessing the value of responses [46].
As the results show, PET (A), stress level (B), temperature (C), C2 are signicant terms with p-values less than 0.05. However, A2,
B2, AB, AC and BC were insignicant (p-value N 0.100). Therefore, in order to improve the model and optimize the results, the insignicant term can be removed from the model [47].
In order to check the tness of model regression coefcients, R2 and R2adj were calculated. Values of 0.9579 and 0.9422 were obtained for R2 and R2adj, respectively. This shows that 94.22% of the total variation in the fatigue life response could be explained by the
quadratic model. The high R2 and adjusted R2 values indicate that there is a good agreement between predicted and actual values
[40,41,48]. Ratio of signal-to-noise is measured by adequate precision to compare the variety of the estimated amounts at the design
points with the average prediction error. Adequate model discrimination was found in this study when the adequate precision ratio of
25.936 was calculated which is much higher than the value of 4 [49]. The lack of t (LOF) F-test was also used to evaluate the adequacy
of the model. LOF depicts the variation of the data around the tted model, and the amount of LOF would be signicant if the model
does not t the data well. It is worth noting that despite the LOF being signicant, a reasonable agreement between the predicted and
adjusted R2 were found for all responses and it can be concluded that the models suggested for all responses can be used to navigate
into design space to nd an optimum condition [50,51].
3.1. Statistical analysis
In order to have better understating about model satisfactoriness, diagnostic plots such as the predicted versus actual values are
worthwhile. Fig. 4 shows the actual versus predicted values of parameters for fatigue modeling. As shown in this gure there is an
adequate agreement between the actual data which were obtained through experiment and the predicted ones. This agreement
Table 5
ANOVA analysis for fatigue life.
Source
Sum of squares
df
Mean Square
Model
A PET
B Stress level
C Temperature
AB
AC
BC
A2
B2
C2
Residual
Lack of t
Pure error
Cor total
Adequate precision (AP)
22.74
0.44
2.76
16.76
5.472E004
7.234E004
0.13
0.082
0.051
1.74
1.00
1.00
4.205E004
23.73
25.936
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
24
5
19
33
2.53
0.44
2.76
16.76
5.472E004
7.234E004
0.13
0.082
0.051
1.74
0.042
0.20
2.213E005
F value
60.73
10.48
66.32
402.84
0.013
0.017
3.12
1.96
1.24
41.83
9017.24
p-value
Prob N F
Model performance
b0.0001
0.0035
b0.0001
b0.0001
0.9096
0.8962
0.0899
0.1739
0.2772
b0.0001
Signicant
Signicant
Signicant
Signicant
Insignicant
Insignicant
Insignicant
Insignicant
Insignicant
Signicant
b0.0001
Signicant
244
Fig. 4. Design-expert plot; predicted vs. actual values plot for fatigue life (logarithmic scale).
can also be understood by AP value (AP N 4) for the fatigue responses (see Table 5). This veries that the predicted model can be used
to navigate the design space dened by the CCD.
3.2. One factor analysis
One factor analysis is changing one factor at a time method. That is to say, in this method a single factor varies while all other
factors are kept constant for a particular set of experiments. This process exists for optimizing other variables which would be time
consuming. In this method, trial and error commonly exist for the optimization of variables, and, moreover, there is always a lack
of reaching a true optimum amount which is obtained by seeing the interaction among different variables [50,52]. Furthermore, in
one factor analysis when the software evaluates one parameter, other parameters are kept constant at their middle ranges. For instance, in case of PET content evaluation, temperature and stress level are kept constant at 25 C and 300 kPa respectively.
Figs. 5, 6 and 7 show the one factor analysis of PET percentage, stress level and temperature on logarithmic scale of fatigue life respectively. The logarithmic scale of fatigue life is shown for better underrating of difference between values. Fig. 5 indicates that by
increasing the PET the fatigue life is also increased. A possible reason for this result might be the mechanical properties of PET particles
in the mix. In fact, because the melting point of PET is high (over 250 C) and is higher than the mixture's fabrication temperature, the
PET particles do not melt during mixing. The solid PET particles can make mixture more elastic and cause higher fatigue life under
loading application. For another factor (Fig. 6) it can be observed that by increasing stress level the fatigue life is decreased. Same pattern is found for temperature when by increasing the temperature the fatigue life is decreased (Fig. 7). Fig. 7 also depicts that
245
Fig. 6. Effect of different stress levels on the fatigue life (logarithmic scale).
increasing the temperature has negative effect on the fatigue life and that at higher temperatures (over 30 C) the fatigue life is
shifting to a constant value. This represents the importance of ambient temperature on the fatigue life of asphalt mixture. The ndings
of this study are based on controlled-stress test mode which are in support of previous studies [8,5356] that found the fatigue life of
asphalt mixtures increased at lower temperatures.
3.3. Effects of temperature, stress level and PET variables on the fatigue life using response surfaces
Three-dimensional response surface plots of the predictive quadratic model for the effect of stress level and temperature on
logarithmic scale is presented in Fig. 8. The response surfaces were generated based on Eq. (7).
Fig. 8 indicates at higher temperature and stress level the fatigue life is decreased. The variation of temperature for all stress level
seems to be signicant. In physical denition, when the ambient temperature increases, the asphalt binder becomes less stiff which
may weaken the fatigue resistance of asphalt mixtures and results in lower fatigue life. On the other hand the variation of stress levels
at higher temperatures is less effective on the fatigue life compared to lower temperature. That is to say, the changes in fatigue lives
are more tangible at lower stress levels and temperatures.
Fig. 9 indicates the effect of temperature and PET percentage on the SMA mixtures. Overall, increasing temperature had a negative
effect on the fatigue life. However, the effect of adding PET for improving the fatigue life is highlighted. Changes in fatigue life cannot
be attributed to the mixture air void content because all the mixtures were fabricated at their optimum asphalt contents with 4% air
246
Fig. 8. Effects of stress level and temperature on the fatigue life (logarithmic scale), 0.5% PET.
voids. In addition, improvement of fatigue life cannot be due to the higher asphalt content in the mixture because as it is shown in
Table 3 all the modied mixtures have lower asphalt contents than the unmodied mixture.
The correlation between stress level and PET content on the fatigue life of SMA mixture is shown in Fig. 10. Higher fatigue life is
found for the modied asphalt mixture associated with lower stress levels. By reducing the amount of PET in asphalt mixture the
fatigue life is decreased at all stress levels. In contrast, by increasing the stress level asphalt mixture experienced lower fatigue life
at all PET content. It can also be concluded that both PET increment and decrease in the stress level have roughly the same effect
on the fatigue life of asphalt mixture.
4. Conclusions
This paper aimed to evaluate the effect of applied load and temperature on the fatigue lives of unmodied and PET modied
asphalt mixture. Statistical analysis was used in this investigation to nd the interaction between selected variables. A good
agreement was found between predicted and actual values which indicated second-order response surface models provide a suitable
model to predict the fatigue life values within the range of dened factors. Based on the results achieved in this study the following
conclusions can be derived:
(1) The results showed that the changes in the fatigue lives are more tangible at lower stress levels and temperatures.
(2) Both PET increment and decrease in the stress level have roughly the same effect on the fatigue life of asphalt mixture.
(3) The effect of temperature on the fatigue lives is more drastic compared to stress level and PET content.
Fig. 9. Effects of PET percentage and temperature on the fatigue life (logarithmic scale), 300 kPa stress level.
247
Fig. 10. Effects of PET percentage and stress level on the fatigue life (logarithmic scale), 25 C.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to the University of Malaya Research Fund (Project No. RP010A-13SUS) for providing the
opportunity to make this research project.
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