Module V

CONDUCTIVITY - A measure of a materials ability to conduct current.

PERMEABILITY - The degree of magnetization of a material in response to a magnetic field or
the ease with which a material can be magnetized.
IMPEDANCE (Z) - In an eddy current coil is the total opposition to current flow. In a coil, Z is
made up of resistance (R) and inductive reactance (XL).
RESISTANCE - The opposition of current flow, resulting in a change of electrical energy into
heat or another form of energy.
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (XL) - Resistance to AC current flow resulting from
electromagnetic induction in the coil.

Edge Effect
Edge effect is a phenomenon that occurs when an inspection coil is at the end of the test piece. In
these instances, eddy current flow is distorted as currents cannot flow at the edge. So, in order to
avoid the confusion with flaws, inspection is limited near edges. The distance where the edge
effect is present is from approximately one to three times the diameter of the inspection coil in
the case of encircling probes. So a reduction in coil size reduces the edge effect, although there is
a limit, as the diameter of external encircling coils must be higher than that of the inspected
materials. Phenomenon of distortion of eddy current flow which occurs when the inspection coil reaches
the edge of the specimen.
End effect
Distortion to eddy current flow when inspection probe reaches the end of specimen.
Depth effect
Exponential decrease in eddy current density with depth. Flowing eddy current
causes an opposing field which decreases the current flow with depth.

ELECTRICAL ANALOGUE OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Eddy current path is unidirectional. CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic) are partially
capacitive (jumping b/w fibers) & partially resistive (along fibers).At lower test frequencies,
reactance of the capacitive path become appreciably high and current path across the resin matrix
becomes an unfavorable path. Consequently the eddy currents flow along the fiber and the
current flow from one fiber to another. This path is known as resistive path and eddy current
circuit based on electrical analogue of resistive path is used for the detection of crack.
At frequencies in excess of 15MHz, the inter fiber reactance become comparable to the
reactance of alternative fiber condition path. At very high frequencies, the inter fiber reactance
become quite low as compared to the reactance of the alternative conduction path. Consequently
an eddy current path which is resistive-capacitive becomes more appropriate. This eddy current
path is partially resistive and capacitive shunted by a longer resistive path.
Eddy current circuit possesses inductance by virtue of its area and, therefore,
conventional electrical analogue of eddy current testing is represented by two coupled inductance
with a resistor in series with the second inductor.
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
electromagnetism as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other methods such as
Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen Noise also use this principle.
Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating
current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around
the conductor. This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and
collapses as the current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the
close proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor.
Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They get their name
from eddies that are formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles
when conditions are right.
One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections and
measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:

Crack detection

Material thickness measurements

Coating thickness measurements

Conductivity measurements for:

o Material identification
o Heat damage detection
o Case depth determination
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o Heat treatment monitoring

thickness of thin metal sheet and foil, and of metallic coatings on metallic and
nonmetallic substrate

cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods

thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic substrates

ADVANTAGES
Sensitivity to surface defects. Able to detect defects of 0.5mm in length under favorable
conditions.
Can detect through several layers. The ability to detect defects in multi-layer structures (up to
about 14 layers), without interference from the planar interfaces.
Can detect through surface coatings. Able to detect defects through non-conductive surface
coatings in excess of 5mm thickness.
Accurate conductivity measurements. Dedicated conductivity measurement instruments
operate using eddy currents.
Can be automated. Relatively uniform parts can be inspected quickly and reliably using
automated or semi-automated equipment, e.g. wheels, boiler tubes and aero-engine disks.
Little pre-cleaning required. Only major soils and loose or uneven surface coatings need to be
removed, reducing preparation time.
Portability. Portable test equipment is very small and light, some of the latest equipment being
as small as a video cassette box and weighing less than 2kg.
Results with less delay. Non destructive testing gives immediate results. Can inspect complex
shapes and can be employed to find thickness of conductive materials.
DISADVANTAGES
Very susceptible to magnetic permeability changes. Small changes in permeability have a
pronounced effect on the eddy currents, especially in ferromagnetic materials. This makes testing
of welds and other ferromagnetic materials difficult but, with modern digital flaw detectors and
probe design, not impossible.
Only effective on conductive materials. The material must be able to support a flow of
electrical current. This makes testing of fibre reinforced plastics unfeasible.

Will not detect defects parallel to surface. The flow of eddy currents is always parallel to the
surface. If a planar defect does not cross or interfere with the current then the defect will not be
detected.
Not suitable for large areas and/or complex geometries. Large area scanning can be
accomplished, but needs the aid of some type of area scanning device, usually supported by a
computer, both of which are not inexpensive. The more complex the geometry becomes, the
more difficult it is to differentiate defect signals from geometry effect signals.
Signal interpretation required. Due to the many factors which affect eddy currents, careful
interpretation of signals is needed to distinguish between relevant and non-relevant indications.
No permanent record (unless automated). Normally the only permanent record will be a paper
print out or computer file when using automated systems.
Surface must be accessible to the probe: though direct contact is not needed, the surface must
be accessible to the probe.
Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
Surface finish and roughness may interfere: if the surface finish is low, when we are
employing NDT it will detect dimensional changes and may refer it as a defect.
Reference standards needed for setup: for employing NDT, we have to preset the reference
values. (From the same object or from a similar object)
Depth of penetration is limited
Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan direction
are undetectable

RELATION BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND DEPTH OF PENETRATION IN ECT

Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the
magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding and flow is limited to the area
of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an
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excitation coil and their strength decreases with distance from the coil as shown in the image.
Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known as the skin
effect.
The skin effect arises when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any depth produce
magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing the net magnetic flux and causing
a decrease in current flow as the depth increases. Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface
can be viewed as shielding the coil's magnetic field, thereby weakening the magnetic field at
greater depths and reducing induced currents.
The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of the
excitation current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the specimen.
The depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency and increasing conductivity
and magnetic permeability. The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or
about 37% of the surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration. The word
'standard' denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation within the test sample. Although
eddy currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration, they decrease rapidly with
depth. At two standard depths of penetration, eddy current density has decreased to 1/e squared
or 13.5% of the surface density. At three depths, the eddy current density is down to only 5% of
the surface density.
Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current density at the
defect location, it is important to know the strength of the eddy currents at this location. When
attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often selected which places the expected flaw depth
within one standard depth of penetration. This helps to assure that the strength of the eddy
currents will be sufficient to produce a flaw indication. Alternately, when using eddy currents to
measure the electrical conductivity of a material, the frequency is often set so that it produces
three standard depths of penetration within the material. This helps to assure that the eddy
currents will be so weak at the back side of the material that changes in the material thickness
will not affect the eddy current measurements.

The applet below illustrates how eddy current density changes in a semi-infinite conductor. The
applet can be used to calculate the standard depth of penetration. The equation for this
calculation is:

Where:
= Standard Depth of Penetration (mm)
= 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
= Magnetic Permeability (H/mm)
= Electrical conductivity

APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Eddy current testing has a wide variety of applications. The most important applications and
research are described in this section.
Eddy-current testing provides a high level of sensitivity for material identification and for the
characterization of the microstructure state.
Absolute coil probes can measure physical parameters via the impedance which is related to the
electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of test pieces.
Because of the relation between hardness and these variables, eddy current testing permits heat
damage detection and heat treatment control.
Eddy current techniques also take advantage of lift-off variation to measure the coating thickness
of non-conductive materials or the oxide thickness of conductive materials.
Eddy current testing has many applications as a method of crack detection. The aeronautical and
nuclear industries have invested many resources in the development eddy current testing.
Eddy current coil probes can also detect very small stress variations in ferromagnetic steels due
to the magneto-elastic effect based on the measurement of changes in impedance.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF ECT

Crack detection
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Eddy current crack detection equipment can be divided into high frequency instruments for
finding surface breaking cracks in ferrous and non-ferrous materials and low frequency
instruments for finding cracks in non-ferrous materials.
Detection of subsurface cracks in ferrous materials is possible but only when they have been
saturated magnetically to remove permeability effects.
Tube and wire testing

Automated eddy current test systems have been developed for inspecting tube, bar and wire at
speeds up to 3 m/s.
Condenser tube inspection

This application is currently receiving a great deal of attention in connection with the heat
exchangers of pressurized water reactors.
Other recent developments include use of computers to analyze the X and Y channels for defect
signals. Inspection can then be done in real time.
Material sorting

Ferrous segregators and electromagnetic sorting bridges are useful tools in sorting steels which
have been hardened.
Conductivity meters can be used to sort aluminium and copper alloys, both for compositional
variations and hardness variations.
Weld testing

Simple high frequency eddy current testers have been used for some time to detect toe cracks in
ferrous welds. The method has the advantage of being able to detect cracks through paint layers.
The disadvantages lie in the high noise levels caused by permeability changes in the weld and
lift-off noise from rough cap surfaces.
Coating thickness measurement

The high near surface resolution of eddy current testing makes it useful for measuring coatings,
both metallic and paint, on metal substrates.

THEMOGRAPHY
Thermography is a method of inspecting electrical and mechanical equipment by obtaining heat
distribution pictures. This inspection method is based on the fact that most components in a
system show an increase in temperature when malfunctioning. The increase in temperature in an
electrical circuit could be due to loose connections or a worn bearing in the case of mechanical
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equipment. By observing the heat patterns in operational system components, faults can be
located and their seriousness evaluated.
The inspection tool used by Thermographers is the Thermal Imager. These are sophisticated
devices which measure the natural emissions of infrared radiation from a heated object and
produce a thermal picture. Modern Thermal Imagers are portable with easily operated controls.
As physical contact with the system is not required, inspections can be made under full
operational conditions resulting in no loss of production or downtime.
The Land Cyclops Thermal Imager is a device designed for plant condition monitoring,
preventative maintenance and process monitoring applications.

Principle
All materials, which are above 0 degrees Kelvin (-273 degrees C), emit infrared energy. The
infrared energy emitted from the measured object is converted into an electrical signal by the
imaging sensor (micro bolometer) in the camera and displayed on a monitor as a color or
monochrome thermal image. The basic principle is explained as follows:

Potential applications include:

Inspection of electrical equipment
Inspection of mechanical equipment
Inspection of refractory lined structures
Objectives of Test:

To detect hot or cold areas

To determine absolute temperature
To view Thermal profiles
To detect temperature loss

Advantages

Non Contact
Non Intrusive
Can work at a distance
Fast and Reliable
Portable
Convincing Results
Infrared is non hazardous

Limitations

Non Intrinsically safe

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There must be a temperature difference for certain surveys

Operator experience is essential
Filters may be needed for certain applications
Sensitivity and Resolution reduce with distance and angle of view

Infrared Radiation
The infrared ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation the same as radio waves, microwaves,
ultraviolet rays, visible light, X-rays, and gamma rays. All these forms, which collectively make
up the electromagnetic spectrum, are similar in that they emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of light. The major difference between each band
in the spectrum is in their wavelength, which correlates to the amount of energy the waves carry.
For example, while gamma rays have wavelengths millions of times smaller than those of visible
light, radio waves have wavelengths that are billions of times longer than those of visible light.
The wavelength of the infrared radiation band is 0.78 to 1000m (micrometers). This is longer
than the wavelength of visible light yet shorter that radio waves. The wavelengths of infrared
radiation are classified from the near infrared to the far infrared.
Emissivity
Infrared radiation is energy radiated by the motion of atoms and molecules on the surface of
object, where the temperature of the object is more than absolute zero. The intensity of the
remittance is a function of the temperature of the material. In other words, the higher the
temperature, the greater the intensity of infrared energy that is emitted. As well as emitting
infrared energy, materials also reflect infrared, absorb infrared and, in some cases, transmit
infrared. When the temperature of the material equals that of its surroundings, the amount of
thermal radiation absorbed by the object equals the amount emitted by the object. The fractions
of the total radiant energy, which are associated with each of the above modes of dissipation, are
referred to as the absorptive (a) transmissivity (t) and the reflectivity (r) of the body. According
to the theory of conservation of energy, the extent to which materials reflect, absorb and transmit
IR energy is known as the emissivity of the material.
Non contact thermo graphic inspection method
Thermograhy makes use of the infrared spectral band of the electro-magnetic radiation.
Thermography involves the evaluation of thermal signatures of the test objects. Thermal
signatures are use to evaluate various flaws, including leaks, cracks, deboning, corrosion etc. It is
most common and widely used NDT technique. It is characterized by the use of thermal and
infrared sensors to measure temperature variations in the variety of test. It also access overall
thermal characteristics. Infrared camera having infrared color film is used to measure
temperature distribution. Different colors indicate different temperature zone.
The detection system for infrared image can be a contact system such as cholesterol liquid
crystal or a non-contact tele-system such as thermo graphic camera.
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Non contact thermo graphic system is basically of an infrared scanner, monitor control unit and a
calculator for field applications. The output can also be stored in a video thermal recorder which
can be analyzed later using a personal computer with image processing facilities. The infrared
scanner essentially consist of an optical system, scanning mechanism, infrared detector and
associated electronics.
The optical system collimates the incoming infrared radiations into the detector. The scanning
mechanism scans the surface within the field of view. Thermo grams can be subjected to image
processing and enhancement to obtain the minute details not otherwise visible.
ADVANTAGES
1. It is a flexible NDT method.
2. Can be applied to a variety of materials or situations.
3. It is a noncontact, noninvasive NDT method that can be used to inspect both curved and
flat surfaces.
4. It shows a visual picture so temperatures over a large area can be compared
5. It is capable of catching moving targets in real time
6. It is able to find deteriorating (i.e. at higher temperature) components prior to their
failure
7. It can be used to measure or observe in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other
methods
8. It is a non-destructive test method
9. It can be used to find defects in shafts and other metal parts
DISADVANTAGES
1. Emissivity variations and external reflections affect the temperature pattern.
2. Lack of information in non-controlled environment.
NON-CONTACT THERMO GRAPHIC INSPECTION
Infrared imaging
Infrared thermography (IRT),is a a non-contact and real time temperature sensing
method used for the inspection of materials and structures using the principle that all the bodies
with temperature above 0 K emit infrared radiation. Through the measurement of this emitted
radiation, IRT allows the detection and characterization of internal defects by analyzing
alterations or contrasts in the surface thermal pattern.Thermographic cameras detect radiation in
the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum(roughly 9,00014,000 nanometers or 914
m) and produce imagesof that radiation, called thermograms. Since infrared radiation isemitted
by all objects above absolute zero according to the black bodyradiation law, thermography makes
it possible to see one's environmentwith or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation
emittedby an object increases with temperature; therefore, thermographyallows one to see
variations in temperature. When viewed through athermal imaging camera, warm objects stand
out well against coolerbackgrounds; humans and other warm-blooded animals become easily
visible against the environment, day or night.As a result, thermography is particularly useful to
military and other users of surveillance cameras.
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Advantges

Non-Contact

Non-Intrusive

Can work at a distance

Fast and Reliable

Portable

Convincing Results

CONTACT THERMOGRAPHIC INSPECTION

Liquid crystal thermography
Liquid crystal thermography can be used to measure wall temperatures and heat transfer
distributions in industry. Thermo chromic liquid crystals respond to a local temperature change
as a local color change. Liquid crystal color can be used as an accurate indicator of temperature.
The main advantages of this technique are the direct measurement of local temperatures over the
heat transfer model with great spatial resolution and no obstruction to the flow or local heat flux.
Using surface mounted liquid crystals for qualitative heat transfer investigations has been a
recently encountered practice. Liquid crystals have been successfully applied to even complex
three-dimensional heat transfer models.
Liquid crystals are conventionally divided into three classes: smectic, chiral-nematic
andcholesteric. Cholesteric and chiral-nematic liquid crystals show a very interesting feature
from a heat transfer point of view. They progressively exhibit all colors of the visible spectrum as
they are heated through the event temperature range. The phenomenon is reversible, repeatable
and the color can be calibrated accurately with temperature. The color response of liquid crystals
to temperature is very fast and the response time is no more than a few milliseconds. Liquid
crystals are presently available for a temperature spectrum ranging from -40 to 285 0C. A mixture
can be obtained with event temperature spans as small as 10C to as large as 500C.
Advantages

Provides a quick visual qualitative observation of the surface temperature profile.

A high spatial resolution of around 1 micron, depends on camera optics.

Provides both transient and steady state surface temperature profiles.

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A Fast time response of around 100ms.

It is less costly.

TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE PAINTS

Temperature Sensitive Paints (TSP) is optical sensors for measuring the temperature of a remote
surface. These sensors are based on the quenching of luminescent molecules that are sensitive to
the local temperature. High resolution non-intrusive measurements of temperature using
temperature sensitive paint have been demonstrated by several researchers. These measurements
include boundary layer transition in a cryogenic wind tunnel and heat transfer measurements on
the impingements surface of compressible impinging jets. A typical TSP consists of the
luminescent molecule and an oxygen impermeable binder. The basis of the temperature
sensitive paint method is the sensitivity of the luminescent molecules to their thermal
environment. The luminescent molecule is placed in an excited state by absorption of a photon.
The excited molecule deactivates through the emission of a photon

Fig.1 Basic Temperature Sensitive Paint system.

A rise in temperature of the luminescent molecule will increase the probability that the molecule
will return to the ground state by a radiation less process; this is known as thermal quenching.
The temperature of the painted surface can be determined by monitoring the fluorescent intensity
of the painted surface.
The luminescent intensity of the temperature sensitive paint at a given point is not only a
function of temperature. For practical applications of TSP, spatial variations in illumination,
probe concentration, paint layer thickness, and camera sensitivity will result in a variation in the
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detected luminescent intensity from the painted surface. These spatial variations are eliminated
by taking the ratio of the luminescent intensity of the paint at the unknown test condition (windoff) with the luminescent intensity of the paint at a known reference condition (wind-on). The
experimental setup for temperature sensitive paint measurements is shown in Fig 1.
The relationship between paint temperature and paint luminescence is determined by calibrating
the paint. This is accomplished by painting a small coupon with the TSP and exposing the
coupon to a series of temperatures while monitoring luminescent intensity from the painted
surface. The luminescence at each Temperature is normalized by the luminescence at a reference
condition and Plotted Vs temperature. The calibration of two typical temperature-sensitive paints
is shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2 Calibration of two temperature sensitive paints.

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