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geometry

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By the Rev. Dionysius Lardner.

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Waud, Samuel Wilkes.

A treatise on algebraical

a Geometry, Analytic

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TREATISE
ON

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

REV. DIONYSIUS LARDNER,

LL.D., F.R.S.

PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.

LONDON

WHITTAKER, TREACHER, AND ARNOT.

1831.

LONDON
HENRY

BAYLIS, JOHNSON's-COURT, FLEET-STREET.

PREFACE.
The

first

thirteen sections of the following

work were written immediately

my degree.

tained

qualified

Sensible

how

after I ob-

imperfectly

I must have then been for

the

execution of a work of such extent, I laid

aside

expectation

the manuscript, in

that

some one*bf more years, experience, and talent,

would supply what was, and has continued
to be, a desideratum in science a complete
and uniform system of Algebraic Geometry.
After the lapse of several years, no work of
this description having been announced, I
again resumed my labours with increased experience and knowledge, and therefore with
increased confidence.

The

part of the work

now published has

been submitted to the best

test

by which an

elementary treatise can be estimated, the purposes of instruction.

been made

as

Such alterations have

were suggested, and

that the treatise, as it

now

it is

hoped

stands, will

be

PREFACE.

VI

found properly adapted to

initiate students

in the elements of the science.

Such principles of algebra

in the text,

mon

as are

and not to be found

assumed

in the

com-

elementary treatises in our language,

have been explained and proved in the notes.

In these the student

will

also find a con-

siderable portion of historical information re-

specting the invention and progressive im-

provement of the
which

fall

under

different parts of

his consideration

geometry

throughout

the work, and other matter which,

duced into the

text,

if intro-

would have broken

its

uniformity.

Those who are acquainted with foreign

works on this subject will easily estimate the
extent of my claims on the score of originality.

Much new

matter

is

not to be looked for at

any elementary work, and therefore one may justly assume a double portion
of credit for whatever may be found. Conthis period ip

siderable

improvement

will

be perceived in

the method and arrangement.

The

formulae

which have been given by other writers are

rendered more general, and therefore more
prolific in results, and more symmetrical in
form,

A very considerable portion of the ex-

PREFACE.

Vll

amples and illustrations, both geometrical and

physical, will, I believe, be found to be ori-

The

ginal.

which
the

transformation of co-ordinates,

in general so operose,

is

mean

and which

is

ordinarily used for discovering the

properties of curves,

is

properties being dis-

duced, most of the

covered without

it

very sparingly intro-

with more clearness and

facility.

I have been very attentive in supplying a

defect which exists in every treatise
subject

which I have ever seen, a

on the

total

want

of examples illustrative of the application

of the abstract rules and principles of the

This deficiency

science.

prevails,

without a

single exception, in all the continental writers.

Some

will,

perhaps, be of opinion that I have

fallen into the opposite extreme,

too

much

To

illustration.

this I

and given
have only

to answer, that in this science the illustrations

and examples are not confined

in their effect

merely to the practice they afford in the

analytic art, but that they also store the

mind

with independent geometrical and physical

knowledge.

Besides,

it

method of impressing
formulae and rules upon the memory,

that the only effectual

abstract

should be considered,

PREFACE.

Vlll

and, indeed, of making them fully and clearly

apprehended by the understanding,

is

by ex-

The

amples of their practical application.

make the

quantity of examples necessary to

mind

grasp any general principle

is

different

according to the various degrees of talent.

sufficiency, at least,

should be given for stuIt will be

dents of very moderate capacity.

much more easy

omit what they
for those,

whose

ard, to supply

The

for those of superior parts to

shall feel superfluous,

than

talents are of a lower stand-

what they might find deficient.

Geometry" has been

title " Algebraic

preferred to either of the

Geometry" or

* Analytic

titles,

" the Application of Algebra

to Geometry," because the one

is

equivocal,

and the other circumlocutory. The use of the

transcendental analysis has been brought as

an objection to the present

title.

I do not,

however, think this a sufficient reason for

rejecting
It

is

it.

but justice to myself to state a

cumstance which, though

it

cannot

intrinsic excellence of this work, if

it

affect

cir-

the

have any,

yet must materially influence the estimation

in

which

its

author will be held by the reader.

During most of the period

in

which

have

PBEFACE.

IX

been employed upon the present treatise,

from eight to ten hours daily of my time were
occupied in the labours of instruction
that this

work may

so

truly be said to be the

few spare hours, and these always

hours of fatigue both of body and mind. This
I hope will plead, my apology for any overresult of a

sights

which may be found throughout the

work, of which probably there are not a few.

The

typographical errors have been very

carefully collected in the errata. Their

number

has been principally caused by the circumstance of

my

residence in a different country,

and nearly four hundred miles from London,

where I have found it expedient to publish
the work.

The

difficulties

of transmitting

the proof sheets for correction with sufficient

punctuality and despatch were very great.

would have been nearly insurmountable, owing to the enormous charges

of the post-office, were it not for the kindness

These

difficulties

and attention of some members of parliament,

through

whom

the necessary correspondence

with the publishers in London was conducted.

INTRODUCTION.

Geometry, in its most extensive sense, is the

science whose object is the investigation of the
properties of figure.
lation of
is

Figure #

the limits of space

is

the mutual re-

among each

other.

It

therefore an affection of lines and surfaces; lines

being the limits of superficial, and surfaces those

The

by the terms
line and surface admit no definition, and for
They are conthe same cause require nonej\
of solid space.

* " Figure

is

ideas expressed

the relation which the parts of the termination of

extension, or circumscribed space,, have amongst themselves."

Locke.
f Although the abstract terms
definition,

line,

and surface, admit no

yet their species, with the exception of right lines

and plane surfaces, do

these, being simple ideas,

are

un-

definable.

" The

several terms of a definition, signifying several ideas,

they can altogether by no means represent an idea, which

has no composition at

all

and therefore a

definition,

which

properly nothing but the showing the meaning of one word

several others, not signifying each the

names of simple
D'Alembert

ideas,

have no place."

same

is

by

thing, can, in the

-Locke.

entertains a different opinion on the necessity of

defining those terms, and yet, at the

same time, seems

to

admit

INTRODUCTION.

Xll

ceptions so simple and obvious, that any necessity

of explaining them
to the senses.

is

only necessary to observe,

It is

that the term solid

superseded by an appeal

is

used without any reference

to body, merely to signify the space which a solid

body might occupy. Lines and surfaces are subr

divided into numerous classes, marked by various
characteristic properties.

The

first

division of lines

is

into straight lines

and curves, and of surfaces into plane and curved.

and plane surfaces admit no further

subdivision, for they are without any variety.
One indefinite straight line is so applicable to any
Straight lines

impossibility.

its

He, however,

thinks a

bad

definition better

than none.

" Nous ne pretendons pas pour cela qu'on doive supprimer des
elemens de geometrie
la ligne

droite.

Ces

les definitions

de

la surface plane et

definitions sont necessaires; car

de

on ne

sauroit connoitre les proprietes des lignes droites et des surfaces

planes sans parler de que] que propriete simple des ces lignes et
la

premiere vue de

consequent etre prise pour leur

definition. Ainsi

des ces surfaces qui puisse etre appercue

Pesprit, et par

on

a,

definit la ligne droite, la ligne la plus courte qu'on puisse

mener d'un point a un autre ;

et la surface plane, celle a la-

quelle une ligne droite se peut appliquer en tout sens. Mais ces

deux

definitions,

quoique peut-etre preferable a toutes celles

qu'on pourroit imaginer, ne renferment pas

que nous nous for mons de

l'idee

si

la ligne droite et

simple et pour ainsi dire,

definition

ne peut

la

de cette idee meme,

D'Alembert.

si

rendre plus
soit

de

l'idee

indivisible et
claire,

primitive

la surface plane,

soit

si

une, qu'une

par la nature

par l'imperfection du langage."-

INTRODUCTION.

Xlll

other as perfectly to coincide with

effect,

become one.

the two lines will

lines, then,

can

so that, in

it,

Straight

one from another only in

differ

magnitude and position

but the figure of all

must be the same, and they must

straight lines

same properties.

therefore possess the

Similar

observations apply with equal force to plane surThis, however,

faces.

and curved

surfaces.

is

not the case with curves

Each of these

classes con-

an endless variety of species, the investiga-

tains

tion of the

properties of which

of the geometer.

more

is

the business

particular subdivision

however, be necessary before proceeding to

will,

the discovery of these properties.

Lines

may

always be conceived to be described

Under this point of view, curves reThe first emsolve themselves into two classes.
braces those whose points, all situate in the same
plane, may be conceived to be described upon a
plane surface \ and the second, those whose points
upon

surfaces.

not lying in the same plane, can only be conceived

to be described

upon a curved surface. The former

and the latter curves of

are called plane curves,

double curvature.

The

investigation of curved

surfaces involves necessarily the nature

perties of curves of double curvature,

fore the whole range of

into

two principal parts

The Geometry
The Geometry

and pro-

and there-

geometry may be divided

:

of Plane Curves, and

of Curved Surfaces.

INTRODUCTION.

XIV

In conformity with

the following treatise

this,

is

divided into two parts, under these denominations.

The

first

part might naturally be called plane

Names, however, are invented, not

knowledge has reached its full extent, but in

geometry.
after
its

progress to that state.

After the limits of a

science have been extended by the gradual ac-

terms are always to be

cession of discoveries,

found which are used in a much more confined

sense than they might admit of; because their inventors, unacquainted with the extent which lay

undiscovered, only applied them to the parts then

known

;
and the difficulty and inconvenience
which always attend the alteration of received

names induced

their successors to invent

new

terms rather than disturb the accepted sense of

To

the old ones.

this

cause the very limited

sense of the term, plane geometry, must be attributed.

In the

earliest

infancy of the science,

were confined to the

figures,

into

The

properties

its limits

of rectilinear

or rather to the properties of triangles,

which

all

rectilinear figures

circle probably served at

may be

first as

resolved.

a mere in-

strument in the construction of rectilinear proThe properties of this curve, however,

blems.
soon became the object of investigation, and were
discovered in a very early stage of the science.

The

right line

of the

first

and

circle

terminated the inquiries

geometers with respect to

lines.

They

XV

INTRODUCTION.

next turned their views to surfaces, and in these

they confined themselves to those generated by
the revolution of an angle round the line which
bisects

it,

a rectangle round one of

a circle round one of

its

its sides,

and

They thus

diameters.

acquired the notions and investigated the properties of cones, cylinders,

and spheres.

They

accordingly divided their geometry into two parts,

called plane

The term
same

sense,

and

solid

geometry.

plane geometry

and

is

so

much

is

still

used in the

of the geometry of

plane curves as includes the right line and circle.

In plane geometry, treated according to the ancient method, nothing

is

permitted to be done

but what may be effected by a rule and compass,

and nothing is allowed to be true without proof,

except a few simple and general propositions
called axioms,

On

ments.

and prefixed by Euclid

to his Ele-

these axioms, and on the definitions,

the whole structure of plane geometry rests.

The

science continued within these limits until

the time of Plato, about four hundred years before

the Christian era.

The

institution of the Pla-

tonic School forms a most striking epoch in the

progress

of geometry.

conic sections,

the

In

it

geometrical

originated

the

analysis, /geo-

and the discussion of the celebrated

problems of the duplication of the cube, and the
metric

loci,

trisection of an angle.

The geometers of

this

school, finding that the ingenuity of their pre-

INTRODUCTION*

XVI

decessors had nearly exhausted plane and solid

geometry as they had descended to them, con-

by the combination of these

produce new subjects for speculation.
trived,

sciences, to

They

con-

ceived a conical surface intersected by a plane,

upon the plane by the points

common to it, and the surface of the cone. Hence
arose the conic sections, the properties of which
have employed the talents of geometers from that

and a

line traced

time to the present, and which have been since

discovered to be the lines traced by the planets

and comets
their
first

round the sun,

in their revolutions

common

These are the

centre of attraction.

curves to which the attention of the student

is

directed in the following work, though defined in

a different manner, and conformably to the general system which has been adopted.

The

invention of the geometric analysis, besides

its intrinsic

arising

excellence, has the additional interest

from our knowledge that

it is

the invention

of Plato himself. The other discoveries are known

to have originated in the Platonic school, but

we

have no authentic record to prove their particular

inventors.

It

does not appear that Plato wrote

The

any work purely mathematical.

authority

of Proclus, however, proves him the inventor

Any

of the geometrical analysis.

question,

whether problem

submitted to analysis,

is

or

theorem,

assumed

be a problem, and as true

if a

geometrical

being

as solved if it

theorem.

From

INTRODUCTION.
this

XV11

assumption a chain of consequences

drawn,

is

which, by the ingenuity of the geometer,

is

tinued until he arrives at some proposition

known

con-

to be true or false, if the question be a theorem

possible
final

or impossible if

The

be a problem.

it

consequence points out whether the question

be true or possible, and, by retracing the

may be

synthetical proof or solution

Geometric

loci

found.

Platonic school were

the

in

steps, a

conceived to be produced by indeterminate geo-

manner explained

in the

the following treatise.

The

metrical problems in the

commencement of

principal use to which they were applied

by the

ancients was the solution of determinate problems,

by the

intersection of

two

loci

To

determinate problems.

determined by

give

in-

a very simple

instance; if the problem to be solved be the de-

termination of a triangle, whose base, area, and

ratio of sides are given, the

problem

by the intersection of a right

line

and

is

resolved

circle

the

former the locus of the vertex, where the base

and area are given, and the latter its locus when
the base and ratio of sides are given.
The celebrated problem of the duplication of
the cube was solved mechanically by Plato.

nechme, a pupil of

by the

his,

intersection of

Me-

solved the same problem

two parabolas*, and by the

* See art. 585,

INTRODUCTION.

XV111

intersection of a parabola

was one of the

first

and hyperbola.

This

applications of geometric loci

to the solution of determinate problems.

Geometers next began to

extend their

in-

vestigations to the discovery of the lengths of

curves, and the areas contained

by them.

This

gave birth to the Method of Exhaustions, the most

and subtle invention of the ancients. In

method, which was employed with such ad-

refined
this

mirable ingenuity and address by Archimedes,

and by the use of which he

discoveries in geometry,
tention, observe the

most of

his

we may, by minute

at-

effected

germ of the

differential

must only be

This, however,

integral calculus.

and

understood of the metaphysical principle of that

wonderful science

for in

their

application

geometry, to say nothing of the physical and

to
al

gebraical sciences, the powers of the calculus are

far

beyond those of the ancient method.

By

the

Method of Exhaustions,

the lengths

and areas of curves were compared, by comparing

those of inscribed and circumscribed rectilinear
figures.

As

the

number of

sides are increased,

the differences between the figures, and therefore,

a fortiori, between each of them and the curve, are

continually diminished.

It is

always possible so

number of sides, that these differences shall be made less than any assignable
magnitude. Under these circumstances, any proto multiply the

INTRODUCTION.

XIX

perty of the rectilinear figures which

pendent of the number of their sides

also a property of the curves.

is

inde-

will

be

This would ap-

pear to a modern geometer sufficiently evident,

but the ancients were more fastidious, and to

remove

possibility

all

of objection, they con-

firmed the proof in every particular instance, by

an argument

eoc

ahsurdo*

Although the ancients passed the

limits

of

geometry, yet, from the nature of the

plane

method of exhaustions,

all

were tedious and elaborate.

their demonstrations

When we enter upon

the investigation of any curve beyond the circle,

by

this

method, we are perpetually embarrassed,

not with the

difficulties

of the subject, but with

the inadequacy of the method, the insufficiency of

which

is

supplied at the expense of an

immense

quantity of valuable time and talent.

From

the

time

of Archimedes,

Apollonius,

Conon, Nicomedes, and Diocles, who lived about

three centuries before the Christian era, until the

seventeenth century, an interval of two thousand

years,

geometry made no considerable progress. In

the year 1687 Descartes published his Geometrie.

This work disclosed to the world his discovery of

the application of algebra to geometry, which

vanquished a great number of the

which had
science.

so long

difficulties

impeded the progress of that

In assigning to Descartes the entire

b 2

INTRODUCTION,

XX

honour of the invention of Algebraic Geometry,

it is not meant that no mathematician before him
had applied algebra to the resolution of geometrical questions.

On

the contrary,

we

find

many

such applications in the algebra of Bombelli, an

algebraist, nearly
also in the

contemporary with Cardan, and

works of Tartaglia a mathematician of

5

the early part of the sixteenth century, and even

Regiomontanus

so far back as the time of

more

particularly in the works of Vieta.

but

The

general method of representing curves by equations

between two unknown

quantities,

and thence

deducing their various properties by algebraic

operations performed upon these equations, was,

however, unquestionably the invention of Descartes.

This discovery suggested

itself to

Descartes in

the investigation of the following problem, which

had. been attempted without success by several

ancient

geometers

among

Apollonius, and Pappus.

upon a given

"

others

by Euclid,

To determine

plane, from which, if a

a point

number of

right lines be drawn, inclined at given angles, to as

many

right lines given in position* the continued

product of half the number of lines so drawn,

shall

bear a given ratio to the continued product of the

remaining

lines, if their

number be

even, and so

that the continued product of half their

number

diminished by one, shall bear a given ratio to the

INTRODUCTION.

continued product of the remaining

number be

odd.

lines, if their

Thus, if n be the

number of

drawn, the continued product of

lines so

y of

these shall bear a given ratio to the product of

the remaining lines, if n be even, and so that the

continued product of

^-

of them shall bear a

given ratio to the continued product of the re-

maining

n be odd." Descartes observed

was indeterminate, and that an
infinite number of such points might be found
in other words, that the solution of the problem
lines, if

that the problem

was not effected by a point, but by a curve which

might be considered
point.

He

also

as the locus of the

found that

all

related to the lines given in position,

common

given angles by one

sought

these points were

relation,

and

to the

which he

expressed by an equation composed of constant

quantities, representing the several data of the pro-

posed problem, and which therefore are supposed

to remain the same,

however the sought point

may

and two variable quantities

vary

its

position,

representing lines, the magnitudes of which de-

pending on the position of the sought point,

change as
through

it

its

changes.

The sought

point passing

various positions being supposed to

describe the locus, he assumed this equation to

represent

the curve

for,

any value being

as-

XXU

3NT110DUCTI0N,

signed to one of the variables, the equation solved

for the other determines a point of the locus.

not

is

difficult to

It

conceive one of the variables

uniformly and continually to change

its

mag-

nitude, and the other at the same time to undergo

such a continuous change of magnitude, that the

condition of the equation will always continue to

be

satisfied

the generating point will thus,

by

continued motion, trace out the locus.

Descartes perceiving the importance and power
of the principle which he used in this solution,

immediately conceived the notion of founding

upon

it

the whole geometry of curve lines.

By

this felicitous application of equations of two un-

known

quantities, the science

of geometry was

Every curve described by

utterly revolutionised.

any given law being expressed by an equation

between two variables deducible from that law,
was thus brought under the dominion of algebra.
This equation, including the essence of the curve,
its

various properties flowed from

branches, the limits of its course

diameters, centres

word,

may be

its

its

its different

asymptotes,

inflections, cusps,

all its affections

deducible from

it

and, in a

he found to be algebraically

equation.

Thus the equation

considered as a short formula in which

all

the properties of the curve are embodied, and

from which the analyst

is

always able to deduce

them by fixed and general

rules,

which are not

INTRODUCTION.

XXIII

peculiar to the equation of any particular curve,

but indifferently applicable to those of

all

curves.

The immediate consequence of this memorable

discovery was, that geometry at once oversprang
the narrow limits which

had circumscribed it for

ages, and took a range, the extent of which is
literally infinite.
Instead of a few simple and
had hitherto constituted
the only objects of the science, the geometer dis-

particular curves, which

cussed the properties of whole classes of curves,

distinguished and arranged according to the de-

grees

The

equations which represent them.

of the

variety of curves thus

that of equations.

The

became

as infinite as

ancient geometry pro-

ceeded upon no general methods.

It consisted

of scattered propositions arbitrarily put together,

connected by no necessary

tie

or general law.

The

discovery of each particular property there-

fore

cost the

vention, and
intellectual

geometer a distinct

demanded

effort

in-

energy; and, even when successful,

he was as often indebted to chance as to

sagacity.

of

a separate expenditure of

his

own

Thus, for example, their method of

drawing a tangent to one curve furnished no clue

which could lead to the solution of the same pro-

blem with another curve, and therefore the geometer was beset with the same difficulties every

new

curve he approached.

The

application of

algebra at once removed these defects.

It de-

termined uniform and general rules for the

in-

INTRODUCTION.

XXIV

vestigation of the properties of every curve whatever.

Nay,

it

did not alone assist the operation

of the reasoning faculty, but actually supplied the

place of invention by furnishing means of dis-

covering curves in infinite variety.

No

equation

between two unknown quantities can be proposed

but a corresponding curve is immediately discoverable,

whose nature and properties

afford

matter for geometrical speculation.

To

algebra

we

are indebted for the classification

of curves in different orders, forming, says Cramer,

a sort of geometrical arsenal, where the imple-

ments of the science are

out hesitation,

so arranged, that, with-

we can choose whichever may be

best adapted to the resolution of any proposed

problem.

Notwithstanding the extent and importance of

the invention of Descartes, something

mained

to

still

re-

be done before geometry could be con-

sidered to have reached that perfection of which

it

seemed

given by

No method had

susceptible.

Descartes

for

lengths and areas of curves

the
j

been

discovery of the

problems,

the names rectification and quadrature.

known by
Rectifica-

tion had even been by some geometers considered

impossible.
in a very

Quadrature had been effected only

few instances.

Archimedes had effected

that of the parabola,

and given an approximation

to that of the circle.

Besides these deficiencies,

the method of drawing tangents, given by Des-

XXV

INTRODUCTION.
cartes,

many

although general, was, in

tended with considerable

difficulties,

cases, at-

and required

frequently the resolution of equations of the higher

orders.

very short period, however, gave to

the world a science which

ficulties,

removed these

dif-

and may justly be considered to have

brought geometry to a state

little

short of positive

perfection.

The

investigations which

had arisen from the

invention of Descartes, directed the attention of

all

the great geometers of the world to the dis-

covery of a general method of drawing tangents

which should be free from the objections

to which both the methods * which Descartes had

to curves,

delivered were liable. Fermat, Roberval, Barrow,

Sluze,

and

others, severally

solution of this
cess.

attempted the general

problem without complete suc-

Their methods were operose, frequently

impracticable, and never applicable to transcen-

Although the essays of

dental curves in general.

these geometers did not subdue the difficulties of

the problem, yet every

ditional light

upon the

facilitated the solution.

sideration of the

new attempt shed

subject,

At length

ad-

and gradually
attentive con-

subject conducted two great

geometers to the discovery of the true and general principles

upon which

all

such problems de-

pended.

Newton and

Leibnitz each claim the honour of

* See note on

art.

132.

XXVI

INTRODUCTION.

the discovery of the Fluxionary or Differential

Calculus, which at once presented easy
neral

methods

for the solution of all

and ge-

problems of

tangents, rectification, and quadrature.

The

in-

vention of this science, unquestionably the most

human mind

splendid conception the

ever enter-

tained,

whether we regard the nature of the

science

itself,

portance of

or

the

extent,

applications,

its

variety,

and im-

was too grand an

achievement of genius not to rouse the ambition

even of the greatest

The mathematicians

men

to claim the credit of

it.

of the continent, on the part

of Leibnitz, and those of England, on the part of

Newton, each advanced

their claims,

and hence

arose the greatest and most protracted contest

which ever agitated the philosophical world. With

the exception of

Newton

himself, the parties dis-

played on both sides a degree of asperity and personal acrimony very inconsistent with the dignity

of the prize for which they contended.

Without entering into any

ticulars of this

memorable

merely observe, that in

nitz appealed to the

detail of the par-

scientific war,

its

we

shall

commencement, Leib-

Royal Society for justice for

the injuries done to his fame by the British ma-

upon which the Society appointed

a committee to examine into and report upon the
thematicians

rights of the illustrious

candidates for the in-

Their report was published in 1712? under the title " Commercium

vention of the Calculus.

INTRODUCTION.

XXV11

Epistolicum D. Johannis Collins et aliorum de Analysi

promota."

The

principal part of this pub-

lication consists of extracts

from a correspondence

between Newton, Barrow, Gregory, Wallis, Keil,

Collins, Leibnitz,

Upon

this

Oldenburg, Sluze, and others.

the

correspondence,

committee

re-

ported as follows

" That Mr. Leibnitz was in London in the

I.

beginning of the year 1673

or about

March

to Paris,

and went thence in

where he kept a corre-

spondence with Mr. Collins, by means of Mr. Oldenburg,

till

about September^ 1676, and thence

returned by London and Amsterdam to Hanover

and that Mr. Collins was very free in communicating to able mathematicians what he had re-

Newton and Mr. Gregory.

" That when Mr. Leibnitz was the first time

ceived from Mr.

II.

in

London, he contended

for the invention of an-

other differential method, properly so called

and,

notwithstanding that he was shown by Dr. Pell

that

it

was Mouton's method, persisted

own

in main-

by reason that
he had found it by himself without knowing what
Mouton had done before, and had much improved
taining

it.

it

to be his

And we

find

invention,

no mention of

his

having any

method than Mouton's before

his letter of the 21st of June, 1677? which was a
year after a copy of Mr. Newton's letter of the
other differential

10th of December, 1672, had been sent to Paris

to be

communicated

to him,

and above four years

INTRODUCTION.

XXVill

Mr. Collins began to communicate that letter

to his correspondents in which letter the method
of Fluxions was sufficiently described to any inafter

telligent person.

" That by Mr. Newton's

III.

of June, I676,

it

of Fluxions above
that letter.

to

five years

And by

numero terminorum

Barrow

letter of the

13th

appears that he had the method

per equationes

his Analysis

infinitas,

Mr. Collins

before the writing of

communicated by Dr.

in July, 1669,

we

find that

he had invented the method before that time.

IV. " That the differential method is one and
the same with the method of Fluxions, excepting

name and mode of

Mr. Leibnitz
calling those quantities differences, which Mr.
Newton calls Moments or Fluxions, and marking
the

notation

them with the letter d, a mark not used by Mr.

And therefore we take the proper
Newton.
question to be, not

who invented

method, but who was the

method.

And we

or

nothing

or that

inventor of the

who have
inventor knew

believe that those

reputed Mr. Leibnitz the

little

first

this

of his

first

correspondence

Mr. Collins and Mr. Oldenburg long before

of Mr. Newton's having that method above

with
;

nor

fifteen

years before Mr. Leibnitz began to publish

it

in

the Acta Eruditorum of Leipsic.

" For which reason we reckon Mr. Newton the

first

inventor

and are of opinion that Mr.

in asserting the same, has

Kiel,

been no ways injurious

INTRODUCTION.
to

And we

Mr. Leibnitz.

XXIX

submit to the judgment

of the Society, whether the extract and papers

now

presented to you, together with what

tant to the same

may

volume,

The

is

ex-

purpose in Dr. Wallis's third

not deserve to be

made public/

foreign mathematicians, as might be ex-

pectedj were by no

means

of this decision., in which

satisfied
it

of the justice

was more than

in-

sinuated that Leibnitz was guilty of a disgraceful

Even

theft.

to the present

day a difference of

opinion on the subject exists, and the

zeal

is

from

far

being extinct.

fire

of party

The

foreign

writers generally contend that Leibnitz has the

merit of the invention, though some of them, at

the same time, allow that

with

principles

its

first,

Newton was acquainted

although he

did not

them to the world. Bossut insinuates

that Newton, being president of the Royal Society,
must necessarily have had a strong influence on
also, that it was made ex parte, and
this report
that its publication was hastened to avoid introducing a defence which Leibnitz had in predisclose

paration.

The

deny the

foreign writers, in general, strongly

fact,

that the principles of

Newton's

method, or any hints which could lead to them,

and papers alluded to in

Montucla, one
it.
with
published
and
the report,
of the most candid of the French writers on the
are contained in the letters

subject, says, "

ne

soit

le

On

ne peut douter que Newton

premier inventeur des calculs dont

il

XXX

INTRODUCTION,

en sont plus

Les preuves

s'agit.

mais

Leibnitz

comme

sienne

lejour;

pubKe

que

claires
?

coupable d avoir

est-il

une

auroit puisee dans les 6crits

decouverte

m6me

qu'il

de Newton."

At the same time he insists upon the

Newton to Leibnitz, in suppressing in

injustice of

the edition

of the Principia, published in 1728, a scholium

which appeared in the former

Newton

is

edition, in

which

alleged to have allowed Leibnitz the

He

merit of the invention.

Newton

also accuses

of having been secretly the author of the notes

which accompany the Commercium Epistolicum.

One
of the

of the latest attempts to keep the discord

scientific

world

upon

alive

this subject, is

the preface to the last edition of Lacroix's Traite

du Calcul
all

Differentiel et Integral, repeating again

the former arguments on the subject, except

those on -which the claims of

He observes,
de

la

du Calcul

Differentiel, d'apres le

Epistolicum, imprime par ordre de

Soci6t6 Royale de Londres, ne pent laisser

aucune doute sur

les droits incontestable

nitz a la decouverte de ce calcul

le

are founded.

" L'expose fidele queje viens defaire

la naissance

Commercium

Newton

et

de Leib-

comme

il

est

premier qui Fait renclue publique, tandis que

Newton, preferant son repos a

sa gloire et h Tin-

ter6t de ses contemporains, semblait avoir oublie

sa

methode,

nommer

le

n'est-il

pas

aussi celui qu'on

premier dans cette decouverte

Although there certainly

still

doit

5*

exists a difference

XXXI

INTRODUCTION,

of opinion as to the proportion of the merit of the

discovery to be allotted to each of these illustrious

seems to be generally agreed 5 that

claimants, yet,

it

a proportion

due to each.

is

It is generally

acknow-

ledged that, although Newton did not promulge

method of Fluxions, yet that he has the

Even some of the
priority as to the invention.
the

partisans of Leibnitz do not dispute this.

other hand, Leibnitz

to that effluxions

countries

The

it

first

first

the

gave formal publication

His notation also

to the calculus.

On

so much

so,

is

very superior

that even in these

has nearly superseded

it.

subject on which this surprising science

began to work

its

wonders was geometry.

Pro-

blems, which solved by the ancient methods, or

even by those of Descartes, were tedious and embarrassing,

were solved by the dash of a pen.

Problems which had foiled the talents of Archimedes, eluded the sagacity of Apollonius, and

under which, even the method of Descartes sunk

powerless, yielded with the utmost facility to the

new
of

calculus.

its

processes,

By

the uniformity and generality

it

rendered geometry at once an

imposing and magnificent

edifice, raised

an unity of design, a

solid foundation, displaying

justness of proportion,

upon a

and a stability of structure,

an ancient geometer with

which would

strike

astonishment

and admiration! were he to

from the tomb to behold

it

rise

#
.

* Si les deux plus grands geometres de Pantiquite, Archi-

INTRODUCTION.

XXX11

From

the date of

its

discovery to the present

day, the calculus has been rapidly advancing to-

wards perfection under the hands of the great

mathematicians of Europe, who have
their talents to

its

devoted

Every impulse

improvement.

given to the advancement of this science has pro-

duced a corresponding impression upon the other

parts of mathematics and physics, but on none
more perceptibly than Geometry. This branch
of mathematics
It

is

largely indebted to the calculus.

owes to the integral calculus

all

solutions relative

and quadrature, and to the differential calculus, the general method of tangents,
the general principles of contact and osculation,
to rectification

the methods of detecting singular points, and

its

power over transcendental curves.

One of the most remarkable circumstances attending the progress of Geometry is the different

entire

routes pursued by the British and foreign geo-

meters since the time of Newton.

man

That great

entertained a strong predilection in favour of

the ancient geometrical methods.

proof of

this

discovered,

stronger

cannot be offered than his having

by the aid of the modern analytic

and fluxionary calculus, most of those wonderful

medes

et Apollonius, pouvaient revivre,

ils

seraient

eux-memes

frappes d'etonnement et de l'admiration, en contemplant les

progres que les sciences exactes ont

faits

depuis leur temps

jusq'au notre a travers des siecles barbares qui ont tant de fois

interrompu la march e du genie.

Bossut.

INTRODUCTION.

XXX1I1

communicated to the world in his Prinand yet presented them in all the repelling
tediousness and circuitous complexity of the antruths

cipia

cient geometry.

The method followed throughout this stupendous

work

is

such, as to induce foreign mathematicians

which could
never have influenced a mind like Newton's. " La

to ascribe the adoption of it to motives

clef des plus difficiles problemes," says Bossut,

" qui y sont resolus est la methode des fluxions ou

Panalyse infinitesimale, mais presentee sous un

forme moins simple qui rendait Pouvrage penible a

suivre.

Aussi n'eut

il

d'abord tout

les

succes qu'il

on y trouva de Tobscurit^ des demonstrations puisnes dans des sources trop detourn^es,
meritait

methode synthetique
des anciens tandis que Panalyse aurait beaucoup
mieux fait connaitre Pes'prit et le progres de PinL'extreme concision de quelques envention.
droits fit penser ou que Newton doue d'un sagacity extraordinaire avoit un pen trop presume

un

de

usage, trop affect^ de la

la penetration

de ses lecteurs

faiblesse dont les plus grandes

pas toujours exempts

il

ou que par une

hommes ne

sont

avoit cherche a surprendre

un admiration qui le vulgaire accord facilement

aux choses qui passent ou fatiguent son intelAlluding to the superiority of the moligence."
dern analysis over the ancient methods, D'Alembert says, " Peut etre serons nous contredits

par les Anglois grands partisans

die

la

ici

Geometric
c

INTRODUCTION.

XXXIV

Ancienne

stir

la foi

de Newton qui

la louoit et

qui s'en servoit pour cacher sa route en employant

Though
of Newton can,

Panalyse pour se conduire lui m6me."

no
it

knowing the character

moment, assent to these imputations

one,

for a
is

much

yet,

to be regretted, that through an

ill-

founded prejudice, he should ever have given occasion to them.

In the hands of

Newton

the powers

of the

ancient geometry were extended to their extreme

limit.

Supplying their inadequacy by his own

Archimedes had previously astonished

made them effect.
But even Archimedes would shrink from the competition, if he beheld the miracles wrought by the
sagacity,

the scientific world by what he

more than human genius of Newton, with the

same feeble instruments, very little improved.
Deeply impressed with the wonders they thus
beheld effected and guided by his avowed judgment, the English schools of science, until a few
years since, have uniformly pursued the ancient

geometrical methods.

The consequence

has been,

that the progress of mathematical science has been

much dower
At the death

in

Great Britain than elsewhere.

of Newton,

Geometry had done

all

that geometry could do, and the highest efforts

of human talent
farther.

The

could stretch

students

at

powers no

our universities have

traversed the same ground in

again and again.

its

every direction

Ingenuity has been exhausted

INTRODUCTION.

XXXV

supplying them with employment by the invention of collections of contemptible geometrical

in

quibbles for their solution, which possess no other

excellence than their difficulty.

Instead of ex-

panding the mind and invigorating the

intellect,

presenting enlarged views, extended and general

theories,

and storing the memory with useful and

elevating knowledge, they confer very

little

benefit

but what may justly be called geometrical trick.

While the schools of Great Britain were thus
wasting the splendid

abilities

by which they have

ever been distinguished, on objects so unworthy

of them, and throwing away the golden opportunities of

honour which the progressive improve-

ment of analysis each year presented, far different

were the objects which exercised the rest of the
learned world.

The Algebraic and Transcendental

Analysis were embraced with eagerness, and pro-

moted with

rapidity.

Every year witnessed new

accessions to these sciences, and consequent ad-

vancements in geometrical and physical knowImpelled by these powerful engines, the

ledge.

Newtonian philosophy, which

where

its

illustrious

at

home stood

founder had

left it,

nearly

abroad

advanced with the speed of light, and we find the

result of the various improvements it has received

up to the present day in the great work of Laplace.

The immense advantage thus gained upon us
by the philosophers of Europe in mathematical
and physical science became at length too apc 2

INTRODUCTION.

XXXVI

The

parent to be longer overlooked.

of Cambridge was the

tion.

The works

first

of Euler, and the French ma-

thematicians Laplace,

numerous

Lagrange,

Lacroix,

and

were introduced and studied

others,

The

with activity.

university

to begin the reforma-

notation of fluxions and fluents

was superseded by the more elegant and powerful

algorithm of the Differential and Integral Calculus.
Students,

who

hitherto seldom

had courage to

labour through more than a few sections of the

now becoming

familiar with the

pages of Laplace and Lagrange.

That the change

Principia, were

effected in this great national institution

radical,

in the

and permanent, we have

is

deep,

public proofs

works of Herschell, Woodhouse, Babbage,

Peacock, and Whewell.

The university of Dublin, though later

in adopt-

ing these measures of improvement, has not been

less vigorous in their prosecution, and will soon ac-

company her

British sister passibus acquis.

something worthy of notice

There

is

in the circumstances

attending the introduction of what is called the

" new science" into this university. Great changes
in the literary

and

scientific

arrangements of an

extensive institution are generally slowly effected,

and produced by a combination of the industry

and talents of a number of individuals co-operating
for the attainment of the

same end.

stance, however, the revolution

and the work of one man.

In this

in-

was great, rapid,

About the year

1811,

XXXV11

INTRODUCTION.

Dr. Bartholomew Lloyd, then a junior fellow, was

elected to the professorship of mathematics.
state in

The

which he found the knowledge of that

science amongst the students, and, indeed, the

which

state in

it

had remained

for a century,

was

nearly as follows.

Students in Dublin must be four years in the

university before they

become candidates

degree of bachelor.

Of

this

time,

were spent in the acquisition of the

third,

and s?xth books of Euclid.

stituted the entire

for the

ten months
first,

second,

These con-

mathematical knowledge ex-

pected even from the candidates for the highest

mechanics, taken from an old treatise by Helsham,

accompanied by a popular introductory pamphlet
academical honours.

short selection of

to Natural Philosophy (both replete with errors),

a very few of the

optics,

first

elementary principles of

and a selection from

Keil's

Astronomy,

gave the under graduate employment for twelve

months.

The remainder

of the course (two years

and two months) was divided between the ancient

and modern Logic, and the Ethics of Cicero and
Burlemaqui. Such was the state of the undergraduate course. The mathematical and physical
knowledge requisite in candidates for fellowships,
the situations of highest honour and emolument
in the university,

metic,
trically,

consisted of Newton's Arith-

the properties of Conic Sections geomeSolid

Geometry, Keil's Trigonometry,

INTRODUCTION.

XXXV1U

Newton's Optics, and a selection from the Principle; Maclaurin's Fluxions were touched upon,

Such was actually the

but with reserve.

state

of scientific knowledge in this national academy

about the year 1812.

Such a course of study might have been very

proper in the university of Dublin in the year

1712

but in the year 1812, with the accumulated

discoveries of a century,

the

various

scientific

establishments of Great Britain and the continent

all

actively cultivating physical and mathematical

science in

their

most improved

state,

the con-

tinuance of such a system must have been con-

Deeply impressed with this

feeling, Dr. Lloyd, singly and unassisted, conceived and executed the most important and rapid
sidered disgraceful.

revolution ever effected in the details of a great

public institution.

In order to appreciate the

benefits derived from his exertions,,

it will

be only

necessary to compare the state of science already

described, with

Among

its state

in the present year 1822.

the under-graduates, those

for high

who now

look

academical honours read the works of

Cagnioli and Wood'house on Trigonometry, Brinkley's

Astronomy, a course of Algebraic Geometry,

equivalent to the extent of the

first

part of the

present treatise, the Elementary Treatise of Lacroix on the Differential, and part of that on the
Integral Calculus
praxis

with Peacock's examples as a

a selection from the Mecanique of Poisson,

IN TRODUCTION.

XXXIX

including the Statics, the Dynamical principle of

D*Alembert, with

various

its

applications

the

theory of the moments of inertia, the motion of a

body round
namics

a fixed axis,

also the subject

propositions,

of the

first

seventeen

and the seventh section of the Prin-

and the theory of

cipia,

and most of the Hydro-

projectiles in vacuo, all

treated analytically.

The

course of science read by the candidates

for fellowships has also advanced, but not nearly

in the

until

same proportion and it is to be feared, that,

some change takes place in the manner of
;

conducting the examination for fellowships, there

can be

little

This

hope of improvement.

is

viva voce examination held in the Latin language.

The

object being to ascertain the knowledge which

the candidates have acquired in the different de-

would appear that the medium of communication between

the examiners and candidates ought to be that

partments of science and literature,

it

which would be most readily and clearly apprehended by both, and, therefore, that the English
language would be much preferable to any other.
For whatever

facility

may be

acquired in speaking

a foreign, not to mention a dead language, no

have the hardihood to assert that it can

ever be spoken as freely and fluently as our
native tongue. Waving, however, for a moment
one

will

the objection to the language, concerning which

there

may

possibly exist

some

difference of opi-

INTRODUCTION.

xl

nion, what reason can be given for the exclusion

Will

of writing?

it

be credited abroad, that in

the university of Dublin, at the election of

lows/there
physics

in

is

fel-

actually held an oral examination

and mathematics, without any use

The development* of

whatever of writing?

function by the theorems of Taylor or Lagrange,

or the integration of a differential equation effected
vivd voce,

new

and

in Latin, are probably

to the learned world

extend our observations on

its

absurdity

is

It is

this subject further, as

so very apparent, that the strongest

exposure which can be given to

statement of the
It

phenomena

unnecessary to

it

a simple

is

fact.

has been attempted here to present to the

student a very brief sketch of the history of geo-

metry to the present day.

That the

analytical

methods have been almost universally adopted by

the moderns in

all

questions which pass the mere

elements of geometry
time, however,

it

undeniable.

is

is fair

Britain the ancient

At

the same

to state, that in

geometry

is

Great

not altogether

without some remaining partisans, who, in spite of

the

many proofs of its inefficiency, and in

to the

opposition

judgment of the great mass of

talent of 'Europe, wish to found

the whole theory of curve

upon

lines.

vain such an attempt must prove,

cessary to examine

when seconded by

how

its

scientific

principles

To show how
it is

only ne-

far it has succeeded,

talents of the first order.

even
Pro-

INTRODUCTION.

xll

work upon the

fessor Leslie has lately published a

Geometry of Curve Lines, which runs in some

measure

parallel with the present,

and

in

which

he avows himself the champion of " a juster taste

in the cultivation of

mathematical science. "

plainer terms, the object

In

to produce a counter

is

revolution in geometrical science in Great Britain,

and

to restore

to the state

it

the introduction of the

it

modern

had been

in before

analysis.

This work presents the most conclusive proofs

how inadequate

the

method adopted

in

elucidate most of the subjects to which

Its failure

plied.

it

it is

has betrayed the author in

to

is

ap-

many

instances into the use of a phraseology very unsuitable to a mathematical work.

becomes necessary
curves which
analysis,

which

Whenever

it

to explain those properties of

demand

the higher instruments of

the Professor uses sometimes language

really admits

no meaning whatever, and

sometimes endeavours to remedy the weakness of

the method by the use of an highly metaphorical

and

figurative style.

lating circle

may be

He

states that " the oscu-

derived either from the con-

sideration of three approximating points, or from

that

of a tangent and a point merging

contact."

He

describes

"

points

extreme remoteness, and "vanishing

the

same

shooting into
in the

distance"

"lines thrown off to indefinite distances/' "points

vanishing towards one another" " points absorbing

one another/' " curves migrating into one an-

INTRODUCTION.

xlii

5
other/ " tangents melting into the curve,"

&a &c.

If the author had used Taylor's theorem in the

investigation of the singular points,

and

in the

determination of the tangents, he would never

have been driven to the humiliating necessity of

invoking the aid of poetry to establish the theo-

rems of geometry.

Had

he effected

rectification

by the use of the integral calculus, his work

would never have been encumbered with such a
sentence as the following
gregation of increments

"

The gradual

constitute

the

ag-

line to

which the cumulative amount of the elementary

arcs which compose the curve is equal."
But
these absurdities are not the worst consequences

which the imbecility of the geometrical method

The Professor
has produced in this treatise.
has been in

The

many instances

led into positive error.

investigation of the osculating circle of the

logarithmic, and

its

point of greatest curvature,

presents a remarkable example both of absurdity

of style and fallacy of conclusion.

After va-

and

divisions of

rious compositions, conversions,

and comparisons of minute lines and segments, he concludes, that " the radius of a circle
osculating at any point of the logarithmic curve is
ratios,

a fourth proportional to the corresponding ordinate and tangent.;" this is immediately followed

up by a corollary to discover the point of greatest

" incurvation," as the Professor calls it. After
spending more than a page in describing the

INTRODUCTION.

xliil

radius of curvature as " occupying a stationary

and " suffering a decrement at one end

and an equal increment at the other," in the course

limit,"

of a slight mutation, he concludes, that the point

found

so

is

the point of greatest incurvation,

because the line which represents the radius of

curvature

is

placed in the limit where

has,

it

on

the whole, neither increase nor diminution, and

has therefore contracted into

its

radius of the osculating circle

what he professes to prove

however, not

neither

it,

The

minimum.
is,

is

the point

assigned by him the point of greatest curvature.

Numerous other

objections might be brought

against this work, and, indeed, against any other

proceeding upon the same principles, such as that

by the method of marking the order of a curve by

the

number of

many

its

intersections with a right line,

curves of the fourth order would be reduced

to the second,

and therefore

classed^

among

the

conic sections, though having no properties in

common

with those curves.

served that there are

many

It

may be

also ob-

singular points, the

existence of which are not even recognised

are conjugate points,

Neither

is

such

any method given for determining the

different degrees of contact

and osculation, nor

for finding in general the eyolutes

of curves.

points of undulation, &c.

Even those of the

and involutes

lines of the

second

degree are omitted with the exception of that of

the parabola, which

is

casually thrown

among

INTRODUCTION.

xllV

the properties of the semicubical parabola, which

the Professor

the Paraboloid.

calls

It

is

un-

necessary, however, to pursue these observations

farther

*.

Professor Leslie

is

most justly esteemed a man

works

of the highest talents;

his

ments of science are

sufficient

fame, and are so

much

many

in other depart-

to establish

unanswerable proofs

his

how

work on Geometry is to
the method, and how little to the

the failure of his

be ascribed to
author.

The

Professor engaged in an enterprise

which could not have been attended with success

had it been supported even by the genius of

Newton.
That the preceding observations may not be
misconstrued,, nor wrested to a sense never con*

It is a strange

work the author

circumstance, that in the preface to this

states, that

culus" really derives

its

fe

the differential and integral cal-

main advantage from

its

algorithm, or

that clear and

compact form of notation invented by Leibnitz,

and improved on the continent by his followers, the Bernouillis,
Euler, and Lagrange, and yet at the same time states, that

where he has found

it

necessary to depart from the ancient

method, he has substantially applied the principles of the calculus without

its

algorithm, which amounts just to this, that

finding the ancient methods, of which he

admirer,

fail in

is

so enthusiastic an

carrying him even to the limited extent to which

he has penetrated

into the

geometry of curves, he has been

driven to the disagreeable necessity of having recourse to the

more powerful

calculus of the

moderns ; but that

in these cases,

he has uniformly taken care not to introduce the use of that

from which these methods derive

their cardinal excellence.

INTRODUCTION,
templatecL, the student

following treatise

is

xlv

not to suppose that the

meant to supersede or replace

That science must always

is

the ancient geometry.

be viewed with admiration by every person capable of appreciating the clearness, elegance, and
variety, which,

by the mere exercise of reason,

may be drawn from one

of the simplest of our

But that admiration can only be co-extensive with the perspicuity and facility it confers
on the investigation of the properties of figure.

ideas.

This science then, confined within proper bounds,

must always continue to be cultivated and taught;

but they are really
tempt, by straining
limit, to

its
its

greatest enemies

who

at-

powers beyond their natural

apply them to subjects which they can

involve in obscurity and difficulty.

As
tend,

far then as the elements of

the

siderable
traction

ancient methods

geometry ex-

are used with con-

Not requiring that abswhich the more powerful analysis of the

advantage.

moderns demands, and directly addressing the

senses

as

well

as

the understanding, they are

adapted with peculiar

a student into the
point, the

fitness for the initiation of

science.

young geometer

greater efficacy

But, beyond this

will require

engines of

and even though the requisite

expertness in the use of these should cost him

some labour, the acquisition of the powers with

which they will invest him will amply repay him.

INTRODUCTION.

Xlvi

The

clearness,

and exactitude of the

rigour,

ancient geometry have been

extolled,

and

it

it

may be and

has been car-

tied

beyond the

it*

The modern methods have been

inferior to

limits

them

deservedly

not to be denied that, by great

is

of ingenuity,

efforts

much and

in

which have been assigned

two

stated to be

respects,; in giving less

occasion for the exercise of the reasoning faculty,

and

less rigour to

the demonstrations.

It

may

very fairly be answered, that the extent of the

knowledge to be acquired

is

allotted by Providence to the

and the

so great, the space

of

life

limits of his intellectual

fined, that

it is

man

so small,

powers so con-

perfect folly to create difficulties

mere purpose of vanquishing them. Surely

the natural obstacles which every where present
for the

themselves

in the prosecution of scientific

spe-

culations are sufficient to exercise our faculties

without raising up

two

artificial

When

difficulties.

methods of arriving at the

same truths pre-

sent themselves, to select the most intricate and

difficult,
little

As

purely for the glory of the conquest,

is

short of wilful sacrifice of time and ability.

to the second objection, that the

modern

analytical investigations are inferior in rigour to

those conducted upon the principles of the ancient

methods,

it is

absolutely unfounded.

The

truth

is, the objectors here confound the terms clearness and rigour, or probably have not a very

INTRODUCTION.

xlvil

distinct notion of the true nature of their

own

Without taking advantage of the ob-

objection.

we

scurity of their ideas,

will first explain the real

nature of the objection, and then refute

Locke

it.

very justly observes, that demonstrative truths are

but not

less clear,

he

less certain

observation

his

illustrates

than intuitive, and

by the very ap-

propriate simile of a face seen after

Owing

flections.

many

re-

to the aptitude of the mirrors

to absorb part of the light, the brilliancy of the

but the features

by every reflection it suffers,

continue the same faithful copy

of the original.

So

image

deteriorated

is

it is

demonThat certainly admits of no

conclusions to which
process.

strative

with the certainty of the

we

are led by the

degrees, although the clearness of our perception

As

of it does.

the

number of intervening

requisite to establish
so in proportion

certainly
tities

is

proofs

any proposed truth increases,

does

it

lose in clearness

in nowise impaired.

but

it

That equal quan-

increased or diminished by equal increments

or decrements continue

still

equal,

and that the

squares of the lines containing a right angle are

together equal to the square of the line joining

their

extreme points, are propositions equally cer-

tain,

but by no means equally clear.

of

this

is,

that the former

ceived without

whatever

it

the

is

intervention

carries its

The

reason

immediately perof any proof

own evidence with

it,

so

INTRODUCTION.

Xlviii

that

it

never presents itself before the mind with-

out being accompanied by the reason of

but with the latter

tecedently

quite otherwise.

it is

upon a long

tainty depends

series

truth

Its

cer-

of truths an-

which have been rememory, and which themselves

established,

gistered in the

must be ultimately capable of

self-evident elements.

Now,

were so capacious

to

neously

its

as

if

a resolution into

the

mind of man

contemplate simulta-

these, then the clearness of the one

all

proposition would be equal to that of the other.

But

not

this is

scribed in

The human mind, circum-

so.

powers of contemplation, can en-

its

tertain ideas only in succession,

and must there-

fore arrive at demonstrative truths

by a succession

The number and nature of these

of proofs.

proofs

regulate the clearness of our perception of a truth,

but do not

To
tion

if the partisans

asserting
to

its

affect its certainty.

apply these reflections to the point in ques-

its

of the ancient geometry in

superior rigour,

mean

that

it

imparts

demonstrations a% higher degree of cer-

tainty, they speak illogically,

out any distinct import

degrees. If they

mean

and use terms with-

certainty does not admit

that the conclusions to

which

the modern analytic method conducts are short of

certainty,

and must therefore be considered

only probable

as

the charge can be easily refuted.

This method reposes upon the same principles as

INTRODUCTION.

Nothing

the ancient geometry.

without proof, but what

It is true that

science.

and

in this

it is

xlix

is

assumed

assumed

also

much

is

in

it is

in it

in that

mechanical,

very circumstance that one of its

Regulated by certain rules

perfections consists.

previously established by proof, the pen of the

analyst

relieves

mind from many painful

demonstrative

the

in

details

his

process,

without

shaking the validity of his conclusions, and leaves

him

free

and unwearied to pursue new

truths.

If

be desired, he can always give his demonstra-

it

tions

all

that pretended rigour

which they are sup-

posed to want by translating the algebraic opera-

language 3 and which

tions into ordinary

is

pre-

what Newton has done in his Principia *. But

most probably what is meant to be imputed to the
modern methods is a deficiency in that clearness
and perspicuousness with which the use of the
cisely

ancient

method

is

To

attended.

this it

may be

answered, that in elementary questions the excellence of the ancient

that in

all

method

is

not denied, and

geometrical investigations beyond these,

this boasted clearness is

not to be found; but on the

contrary, that the demonstrations are intricate and

embarrassed in the extreme, frequently indirect,

* Mais

il

ne tiendra qu'a l'analyste de donner ensuite a sa

demonstration ou a sa solution "la rigueur pretendue qu'on croit

lui

manquer

il

lui

suffira

pour cela de traduire cette demon

stration dans le langage des anciens,

plupart des siennes.

comme Newton

D'Alembert.

fait la

INTRODUCTION.

always tedious, and requiring such a degree of

none but an expert geometer is

able to follow the thread of the proof; and all
this applied to questions that are solved by the
acuteness, that

moderns with perfect facility. On

the other hand, the want of clearness in this analysis arises not from any fault in the instrument,
but from the very abstruse and general nature of

analysis of the

the

questions

to

which

it

is

usually applied

questions which are utterly beyond the most ex-

Those,

tended powers of the ancient geometry.

however, who are skilled in the analytical method

feel too sensibly the extent

dervalue them

decried by those

who,

of their powers to un-

and the truth

who

is,

they are only

and

are ignorant of them,

as a learned writer observes, derive a species

of consolation from stigmatizing as useless that

which they do not understand.

The following treatise is designed to embrace

Geometry in its full extent. It is conducted by the
modern Analytical Method in its most improved
state. It is

divided into two parts ; the

first

contain-

ing the Geometry of Plane Curves, and the second

the Geometry of Curved Surfaces,

The processes

throughout the work have been rendered as

mentary

as the extensiveness of its object

admit.

It

passed the

is

desirable that students

first

ele-

would

who have

elements of plane geometry and

the rudiments of algebra should be qualified to

commence

algebraic geometry.

With

this

view

INTRODUCTION.

ll

the differential and integral calculus

duced into the

first

is

not intro-

part until after a very detailed

investigation of the properties of lines of the se-

cond degree, and an extensive

tions,

collection of ques-

adapted for exercise, as well in these pro-

perties as in

the general principles of algebraic

As

investigations.

far as this point the student

may proceed without the aid of the calculus, and

this part may precede the study of that science
with considerable advantage, as

it

familiarises

with the species of investigations which

to its invention.
will

first

him
led

Previously to advancing further,

be necessary to acquire a knowledge of the

principles of the calculus.

of Lacroix, as far as the

it

first

The elementary work

section on maxima and

minima, with the ordinary methods of integrating

algebraic and trancendental functions of one variable will
first

part.

be

sufficient for the

remainder of the

In this part the simplest and most

elementary principles of integration are uniformly

adopted.

Those who are more expert

in the use

many

instances,

of the calculus
find

will probably, in

methods more

expeditious or elegant than

those which have been used.

These have

in ge-

neral been chosen, as better suited to the limited

knowledge of a junior student, and possibly

instances from oversight.

The

in

some

general method

of drawing rectilinear tangents, rectification and

quadrature, the theory of evolutes, the general

INTRODUCTION.

Hi

principles

of contact

and osculation, and the

manner of discovering singular points, are explained by the calculus, and these principles applied to lines of the second degree.

Passing to

transcendental curves and algebraic curves ex-

ceeding the second degree, the properties of

these, which

offer

whether arising from their

from their

intrinsic beauty, or

utility in physical applications, are

fully discussed.

all

any interest to the geometer,

very

These, besides possessing the

student with a large portion of interesting and

various geometrical knowledge, serve for exercise
in the

manner of investigating

algebraically curves

in general.

The geometry

of plane curves

is

next applied

to the illustration of a variety of important theo-

rems relating to the roots of algebraic equations,

and the method of determining these roots by
explained, and ex-

the intersection of curves

is

amples of

given.

its

application

The

general

properties of algebraic curves are developed as

far as they
terest.

To

appear to possess any particular

in-

enter further into the discussion of

them would have swelled the bulk of the volume

without any adequate advantage to the student.
Those who may be desirous of further information
on this subject are referred to Cramer's Introduction
a V Analyse des Lignes Courbes, Euler's Analysis
Tnfinitorum,

Stirling

on Newton's

lines

of the

INTRODUCTION.
third order,

and

De Gua's work
The

de V Analyse\ &c.
a very copious

lill

first

part

entitled V
is

Usage

concluded by

collection of questions in geo-

metry and physics,

for general exercise

in the

principles thus far explained, as well as to point

out the utility of this science.

The

questions in

physics are adapted to the junior students

this

work being altogether superfluous for,

those who are more advanced.
The second part, which will contain the Geo-

part of the

metry of Curved Surfaces, will necessarily require a more extensive knowledge of the calculus.
The student, however, as he advances, will find
little difficulty in gradually extending his knowledge
of that science.
~*e>^
Exiguus nascitur, sed opes acquirit eundo.

Hitherto, no

treatise

Geometry has appeared

even

in

Great Britain, and

France no complete treatise upon the

in

subject

whatever on Algebraic

has

ever been

published.

The works

of the different French mathematicians, entitled

" Geometrie Analytique" and " V Application de FAl-

Geometrie" do not in general include

any curves beyond those of the second degree

gebre a

la

and even
is

their discussion of the properties of these

very incomplete.

None

of them whatever ex-

plain the application of the calculus to the geo-

metry of curves;

this part

of the science hieing

llV

INTRODUCTION.

confined to works upon the calculus.

One com-

plete system of geometry, proceeding uniformly

upon the most improved algebraic and transcendental analysis, seemed a desideratum in
science, to supply which has been attempted in
the following treatise.

PART THE

FIRST.

THE GEOMETRY OP PLANE CURVES.

,,,

CORRIGENDA.
Page

6, line

27,
29,

12 and 14, for CD, read

4, /or

r^^

2/a/,

for

15,

22, et seq., /or

31,
32,
42,

1,

57,
58,

60,
.

,read

11, /or
last,

21,-/or

.r,

90,

23, /or

<p

91,

7, 10, 13, /or

.93,

99,
100,

107,
115,
126,
141,
144,

149,
157,
165,
168,
172,
224,

229,
230,
231,
252,
254,

81,
82,

b"

=,

read
for b(w)3, rer^ b() 2
x")
a,", read s(x'
26, /or sa/
2 from bottom, /or 4ae, r^^ 4af
2
8, /or u , read R
3 from bottom, for >0, razd <0
12./or (99), read (100)
6 from bottom, for b, read c
14, for xx', read yy'
last, for B, read D

77,

6a/

b', rearZ

30,

45,
47,

cb

21, for c. read c'.

x, razd &?/#
3 ; for ly'

for

ex'

2
,

read

mzd

a,

e*jf*

a/

read m <p
, read

/>r p , re^ b 2
13, for (203), read (204)
5 from bottom, for Acy', read Acy'
12, for point, read part
17, 19, for p, ready'
3 from bottom, for as the, read as the squares of the
19, /or (167), read (92)
6 from bottom, /or 2' 2', read 2' z
2
5, /or : it , read : R
4 from bottom, for 4cf, read 4af
-{, read
3, for
9,

13, dele
13, for

r,

16, for (y'

read z

?/)da? + (a/

read (?/

.r)d?/,

2/)d?/ + (#' x)dx

/or ab have a limit, but ac, read ac have a limit, but ab

1
last, for n
1, read ^
22, for Ary, read 8ry
1, 2 from bottom, for c, read d
5, /or c, read d
6, for 0, read (p
4, /or ap, read ay
5 from bottom, for point of contact, read origin
2,

for

to?

+ v = 0, read

266,

I,

271,

7,

311,

2 from bottom, /or wth, read

334,
351,
355,
390,
392,
393,
408,
417,

cut, for

-f-

de/eof a

-- th
1

epb, read ep'b

2i

3 from bottom, for ad =, read ad' ==

13, /or b'd', read bd'
1 3, for ed, read e
3 from bottom, for e4, read e 2
11, for 0, read
1 5, 2 1 , /or m, read p
cut, for ab'c and af'v, read abc and at v.

TREATISE
ON

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
SECTION

I.

Of the connection between indeterminate geometrical questions,

(1).

and

The

algebraical equations between two variables.

object of Algebraic

Geometry

is

the investiga-

tion and analysis of the figures and properties of geometrical

magnitudes, by means of the symbols and operations of

Algebra.

No necessary connection

subsists

between the notation of

Algebra and the ideas required to be expressed in geometrical investigation.

Some

conventional connection must

therefore be established between these sciences, in order that

the magnitudes and figures contemplated in the one

may

find corresponding expressions in the symbolical language of

the other.

Let several

finite

right lines,

a, b, c, d, be related to any
right line v, in the same

man-

ner as the algebraical symbols,

a, b, c, d, are related to unity.

The

symbols, a,

b, c, d,

are then

said to express the right lines

v.

A, B, C, D.

The

square of the right line v, bears to the rectangle

B

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Z
under, b and

duct

c,

the same relation as unity bears to the pro-

be.

The

rectangle under two lines

therefore expressed

is

the product of the symbols which express those

by

lines.

In like manner, the square of any symbol represents the

square of that line which the symbol expresses.
If

a9

a.:

b, c,

::

and thai a,

d,

and c be expressed by

b,

then d will be expressed by

In like manner-,

all

geometrical

repre-

relations find

sentatives in algebraical symbols.

When
ing
or

the expression

that a or b

is

is

=a

or b

is

used, the mean-

the algebraical expression for the line

b.

(2.)

Having thus

established a connection between the

language of algebra and the magnitudes, which are contemplated in geometry, either

may be conceived

to represent

That is, a geometrical question can be expressed

algebraically, by translating its conditions into algebraical

the other.

notation, and, vice versa, an algebraical question

may be

expressed geometrically, by using geometrical magnitudes

as representatives of the algebraical symbols.

An
A

example

will illustrate this.

geometrical problem reduced to

A
line (ab),

To

|~

an

algebraical question.

cut a line (ab), so that

the rectangle under the whole

and one part (bc),

shall equal the square of the

other part (ac).

Let ab *=

By

ac

= Xy and

ab

ac a ~
w) =
x.

the conditions of the question, a(a

a? + aw = a

one,

a,

scil, to

2
;

at*

\*

thus the question becomes an algebraical

find the roots of

w2

aoo

a? =

0.

ALCxEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

An

algebraical question reduced to a geometrical problem.

To find the roots of the equation x 2 -f ax = a 2

Let # = ab, and
By transposition #(a oc) a
ac = x v bc = a # v rectangle under ab and bc must
.

be equal to the square of AC.

Hence

duced to the geometrical problem,

rectangle under the whole line,

the question

to cut

is

re-

line so that the

and one part,

shall equal the

square of the other.

(8.)

which

It is therefore apparent, that geometrical

relate to

problems,

mere magnitude, without involving the ideas

of figure or position,

by the notation of

may

with great

And

algebra.

facility

that,

be expressed

on the other hand,

algebraical questions can with equal facility be represented

by geometrical

quantities., in

But

mere magnitude.
tween

tliose sciences,

of the other,

which nothing is considered but

in order to institute a

and

much more

connexion be-

to bring each

under the dominion

necessary.

Figure and position

is

are affections of magnitude, in which the geometer finds

objects of investigation

much more

extensive and interesting

than magnitude, considered merely with respect to quantity,

could supply.
principles

It

is,

therefore, expedient to establish

by which figure and position, as

some

well as magnitude,

can be expressed algebraically.

method of representing the figure of a line by

an equation is furnished by a striking analogy, which subsists between indeterminate geometrical problems and equa(4.)

tions in

which there are two unknown

quantities.

In a geometrical problem, whose data are

its

solution 5 the point

mined, but yet

its

for the conditions

place of the point,

position, within

which

position

is

may be

which are not

may

insufficient for

sought cannot be deterconsiderably restricted

sufficient to fix the exact

yet be sufficient to confine

certain limits.

That

is

to say,

it,

as to

though an

b2

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

number of positions may be assigned

indefinite

to the

sought

point, which will all equally fulfil the conditions proposed,

yet positions might be assigned which would not

The

conditions.

which

fulfil

the conditions of the question,

is

called the locus

If the conditions require the sought

of the sought point.

point to be always in a given plane, the locus

line

those

fulfil

space on which those points are placed,

is

usually some

on that plane, the figure and properties of which de-

pend on the conditions of the

is

A very familiar example will illustrate

To find a

quired.

from a

commonly
this.

Let

a surface.
it

be

is

fulfil

yet all points will not

An

given.

indefinite

number of

the conditions of the problem, but

The

condition excludes every

first

The

point of space except those situate on the given plane.

second excludes

all

re-

point in a given plane, whose distance

given point

points will equally

If the point be not

question.

restricted to a given plane, the locus

points on the plane, except those situate

of the plane, with a sphere, whose radium

the given distance, and whose centre is at the given
If the first condition were removed, and the second

at the intersection

equals
point.

retained, the locus

would be the surface of the sphere

second were removed, and the

if the

first

and

retained, the locus

would be the given plane.

Every

line described

upon a plane may be considered

the locus of a point, restricted

by

certain conditions

have a necessary connexion with the nature of the

(5.)

Analogous

unknown

quantities, neither can

A great diversity of values can

equation.
tities,

The

line.

an equation containing two

to this, in

representing them, which will

as

which

be absolutely determined.

be assigned to the symbols

all fulfil

the conditions of the

symbols, expressive of the

unknown quan-

thus capable of receiving different values, are thence

called variables, in opposition to the other

in the equation,

symbols involved

which are called constants, because

their

ALGEBliAIC GEOMETRY.

values are supposed to remain the same through

Any

changes which the variables undergo.

the

all

value being

assigned to either variable, a corresponding value of the

other will necessarily result, and thus each variable

is

sus-

ceptible of such a series of values as render the correspond-

Therefore, though each

ing values of the other possible.

variable cannot be absolutely determined, yet certain limits

and

may be

restrictions

assigned to

its

and those

variation,

are deducible from the conditions expressed in the equation,

just in the same

manner

an indeterminate geometrical

as in

problem the position of the sought point

not absolutely fixed,

restricted,

though

deducible from the conditions pro-

is

posed in the problem.

Thus,

for example, in the equation

variables

are

susceptible

Their variation

shall

infinite

ax

and x y the

of values.

series

however, by the condition that

Again, in the equation y 2

/a z

--

x2

shows that x

ceeding that of a

render

-!-

x2

a2 ,

results

y =
first

of an

restricted,

vary as y.

from which

The

is

for

impossible.

x
is

,%/a 2

susceptible of

y2

all

values not ex-

any value of x exceeding a would

The

second equation shows that the

values of y are subject to the same restriction.

(6.)

The

cumstance

analogy just pointed out originates in this

soil, if

cir-

an indeterminate geometrical problem be

expressed by an algebraical equation, that equation will contain

two unknown quantities

and, vice versa,

if

an equa-

tion of two variables be represented geometrically, the result

will

be an indeterminate problem which

will

generate a

locus.

An indeterminate
Given the base

(ab),

problem reduced

to

and the sum of the

of a triangle, to find the vertex

(c).

an equation.
sides

(ac and uc)

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
Let ab
and

let

sides

values of

and

j/

which

a?,

Ac

+x=

fulfil

cb

3/,

above the base be

\>y

Any

the excess of the

sum

of the

d.

-f d*

the conditions of this

equation, represent the sides of a triangle, whose vertex

solves the problem.

An

equation represented by

an indeterminate geometrical

problem.

y +

In

y and

#.

ab, ac

That

is,

sides

ac

cd

-(-

d,

cb

a,

<^?

sides of
is

equation

+x

any

placed on

the locus described, will be representatives of y and

AC and

and the sum of

and then the

on the given base, and whose vertex

triangle

'"

describe the locus of the

vertex of a triangle, whose base ab

whose

y and x

to express the values of

d,

Let a

geometrically*

cd represent

-f-

in the

+ d.

Since an equation of two variables can be represented

by

an indeterminate problem, from which a locus may be deduced, the figure of which depends on the conditions of the

problem proposed, and therefore on the equation from which

the problem results, an equation may, therefore, be conceived to represent the figure of a line, that
species of the line

is

meansjfigwtf, as well

The
is

is,

the figure or

By

deducible from the equation.

as magnitude,

is

this

expressed algebraically

equation from which the species of any line

said to be the equation of that line,

and the

deduced

is

line is said to

be the locus of the equation.

(7.)

In both the preceding examples the process

arbitrary,

and

at the discretion of the analyst.

the sides of the triangle were represented

is

partly

In the

by the

first,

variables,,

These might, however, have been made the representatives

of other lines, as the perpendicular and either segment.,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
either side,

and the

cosine of the angle

it

forms with the base,

or any trigonometrical function of that angle, or trigonometrical functions of the angles at the base, or, in fine, any

two

quantities, either of

which being given would, with the

Hence,

data of the problem, determine the vertex.

presenting an indeterminate problem
quantity, which, being given,

by an equation,

blem determinate, may be represented by a

by

variables

The form

(8.)

on the quantities

6t

any

would have rendered the proSub-

variable."

ject to this restriction, the choice of quantities to

sented

in re-

be repre-

arbitrary.

is

of the equation of a given locus depends

If, in

selected as variables.

the example

given, the variables represented the perpendicular and either

segment, the equation would have been of the second degree

is

if

one of the sides and cosine of the angle, at which

inclined to the base,

also

the

had been

selected, the equation

have been of the second degree, but

still

it

would

different

from

last.

From
1st,

these observations

"

Any

line,

it

appears that,

being considered as the locus of a point,

restricted in its position with respect to

lines

by

given conditions,

2d, "
line,

The form

may be

some fixed points or

expressed by an equation."

of the equation, expressing any given

depends on the quantities represented by the variables."

(9.)

In the second example, the geometrical

selected to represent the algebraical symbols, of

equation

is

composed, are arbitrary.

quantities,

which the

Thus, instead of

being represented by the sides of the triangle, they might

have been represented by the perpendicular and segment, or

in

any other manner whatever.

But on

the

manner of

re-

presenting them depends the nature of the line which the

equation generates.

Thus, had they been represented by

the perpendicular and segment, the locus would have been

a right line.

Hence

it

appears,

ALGEBRAIC. GEOMETRY,

8
1st,

Any

equation between two variables

ceived to generate a line which

may be

con-

called the locus of the

is

equation."

Sd, "

The

species of the line

which a given equation

generates depends on the manner in which the symbols in

that equation are geometrically represented,'"

SECTION
Of' the

(10.)

secuted

II.

manner of representing equations between two

variables by relation to axes of co-ordinates,
In the investigation of the

loci

of equations, pro-

in the following part of this work, the

method

most usually adopted, of representing geometrically the

symbols composing those equations,

is

as follows

Let y and x be the variable symbols

Two
(yy')

in

indefinite

and

any equation.
right

(xx') 5 being

lines^

assumed

in a given plane, intersecting at

a given point (a) at a given

angle,

are

ordinates*

values of the variables (y and x)

/x
resulting

axes of coEvery system of

called

from the equation, are represented by portions

(Ap and ap) of those axes, measured from the point (a) of
their intersection.

Through
pu)

values, parallels (pm,

the extremities (p, p) of those

to the axes of co-ordinates are

drawn, the intersection (m) of which

corresponding to the
the variables y and

is

the point of the locus

assumed system of values

;

and in the same manner

(ajp,

all

ap) of

points of

the locus are determined.

In order to make a geometrical

distinction

between the

ALGEBHAIC GEOMETRY.
and negative values of the

positive

they are

variables,

(a) of intersection of the axes in

measured from the point

Thus,

opposite directions.

if

the positive values be taken

towards Y and x, the negative are taken towards

Any

and x

y'

!
.

system of values of the variables are called the co-

ordinates of that point whose position they determine.

The
is

point of intersection (a) of the axes of co-ordinates

of co-ordinates.
Suppose the positive values of y measured from a towards

called the origin

y,

and those of x from a towards x, then,

+y
-f

ij

"~

characterises a point in the angle

x
~~ x
4" X
+x
x

/,

~
=

~~

y>

y
y

-\9

Oj
0,

x ay

"

"

x AYf

XAY

on the

line
t

-the

0,

Particular values of the variables y,

usually

by

stinguished
?/V,

y x\
!!

(11.)

by

&,c,

y x\
]

thus,

traits,

AX

AY
AY

origin

are distinguished

point on yy'

Another method of

ax

x \ &c. and the points

values are

those

'

y x=

-f-^,

xay

di-

denominated the points

is

expressed

y o and on
!

re-

7'

presenting equations geometrically

is

also occasionally used.

preceding method,
(a)

and one only

be

given

in

let

In the

the origin

(xx') of the axes

A -X

Let the

position.

other axis (zz ) be inclined to

(

a variable angle.

IP

it

at

Let each system of values of the variables

be thus represented

let

one of the variables (x) be ex-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

10

pressed by any trigonometrical function of the angle (zax)

at

which the axes of co-ordinates are inclined, and the other

(y) as before, by a portion (Ap) measured along the axis

whose position is variable. The extremity ( p) of this

(zz')>

portion (Ap)

The

is

the corresponding point of the locus.

value of that variable which

is

represented by the

distance of the point in the locus from the origin,

The

the radius vector.

origin

is

called the pole

called

is

of the equa-

tion.

An
and

equation represented thus

is

called a polar equation

for distinction the variables represented

and the variable angle by

vector

is

tion

thus expressed, z

is

called z,

by

traits,

As

equa-

are in this case also usually

sV, &c, and

sW, sV, &c.

thus, z w\
]

racterised are called the points

(12.)

The

w.

f(w).

Particular values of z and

distinguished

by the radius

thus cha-

the angles which the axes of co-ordinates form

with each other, and with lines which intersect them, and
also the angles

which

become frequently

lines in general

form with each other,

objects of investigation,

it is

expedient to

adopt a concise and clear notation to express them.

yx

The angle of ordination is expressed thus,

The angle under radius vector and fixed axis The angle under any line and an axis of co-or-

dinates

The

angle under two lines

-Ix^ly

-ll

of ordination.

Thus,

sin.s/tf is sine

Sin. VI

= sin. ofthe angle under the lines thus denominated.

All angles are supposed to be measured in the same

direction.

(13.)

The

Equations are classed according to their degrees.

degree of an equation

is

estimated by the

number

ex-

pressing the highest dimension of the variables which enter

it.

Thus an

equation, in which single dimensions only

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
occur,

called

is

in

dimensions not exceeding two,

an equation of the second degree^ he.

called

A general equation of any degree

within

One, in

an equation of the first degree.

which the variables enter

is

11

its

one which embraces

extension every particular equation of the same

Such a formula must

degree.

is

necessarily consist of a series

of terms, including every dimension and combination of the

variables not exceeding the proposed degree,

and an ab-

which for symmetry might be conceived to be

solute term,

involved with dimensions of the variables, whose index

In

cypher.

this

formula each term must include a

coefficient, expressive, in general,

or

of any value,

>

literal

0,

<

Thus, the general equation of the first degree

0.

Ay

-f

b#

Dy

is

0,

is,

0.

That of the second degree,

A?/ 2 -f tsxy

And

-{-

ar 2

in all such formulee the

Er

symbols

understood to represent quantities,

the case

The

may

loci

of

its

0, &c.

&c.

A, b, c, &c. are each

>

0,

<

0, or

= 0,

as

be in particular instances.

of equations are investigated according to their

degrees, beginning from the

The

-f-

first.

discussion of a general equation

is

the investigation

locus, and the effects produced on the locus

various values and signs which

have in particular

its

by the

constant quantities

may

cases.

SECTION

III.

Discussion qfthe general equation of the first degree.

(14r)

Let the

fixed axes yy'

In the general equation. Ay

and xx' be assumed.

b^

+c=

0j the coefficient

12

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

of one or other of the variables must be

b~0, v

and

= 0, and the

also c

finite

for if a

= 0,

equation would cease to

exist.

Let a represent the

under

tion

and putting the equa-

finite coefficient,

this form.

y+

B
'

A
Let Ap and ap be any system of

y and x

values of

resulting

Let ab

this equation.

vp~y +

from

Let

~~

A
A
AP
parallels pm and pm be drawn,
"

the

and

Bp

pm

is

the locus of

sin.

Ix

sin.

ly

a constant ratio

m must

This right

(15.)

be a right
line

Bp
~~

pM

since

-.

~~

and

since b

jsp

pm

ap

~~

pm
is

a fixed point,

line, l'l.

being designated by the symbol,

Hence all equations in which

/,

is

the same, represent parallel lines.

(16.) If b

to

xx , L
f

e.

0,

sin.

in general,

0, the equation is that

=r-

Ix

0,

" If the

the line ll'

is

parallel

coefficient of either variable

of a right line parallel to the axis

,,
on which the values of that variable would be measured,

Ay

and bx
the

=
+ =

first,

is

the equation of a parallel to the axis xx,

a parallel to yy'.

by dividing by

dividing by b, gives

a,

In these cases,

gives y ~
:

0,

and the

if c

= 0,

latter,

by

these are the equations of the

axes themselves.
(17.) If neither of the coefficients (a, b)
line,

= 0,

being parallel to neither axis, meets both.

the right

To find the

13

A LGEB11AIC G EOMETIlY,

where

points
%

-,

where

it

-f Br

0,

is

oc

have the

c,

and

are both negative,

the

right line intersects both axes of

co-ordinates at the negative side

of

A.

a and b have a sign

(20.) If

different

from

c,'

and

the right

meets both axes at the po-

sitive side

of the origin.

(21.) If

a and c have a

different sign
&

is

are positive,
line

negative,

tive,

in the general equation,

from

and

To find

-, the distance AC.

the points c and b coincide with A,

the equation of a right line through the

a and

same sign
with
to

^y

let

(19.) If

let oc

the distance of b from the origin (a).

meets xx y

(18.) If c

Ay

meets yy',

it

b,'

v
is

A
posi-

the right line meets

yy' at the negative and xx' at

the positive side of the origin.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

14

(.) If b

from

different

and

have a sign

a,

po-

is

and

sitive,9

negative,
'
&

is

the right line meets yy' at the

positive,

and xx'

at the negative side of the origin.

SECTION
Of

the equations

of right

IV.

by certain con-

lines restricted

ditions.

PROP.

To find

(23.)

the co-ordinates

two right

lilies,

I.

of the point of intersection of

whose equations are given.

Let the given equations be

&y

bx

-f

0,

Ay

b'%

+ d

0.

The
must

point of intersection being that point whose co-ordinates

the equations of both right lines

fulfil

in these equations express them,

BC7

ba'

a'b

ab'

But
and

if at

bc7

=
a

. 7, L

are,

a'b

e.

ba'

finite,

and

of intersection

This condition of paral-

infinitely distant.

was offered before, where

if
are parallel
r

the variables

formula be

0, the lines are parallel, the point

being supposed
lelism

let

acJ a'c

b'c
b'a

(24.) If the numerators of these

ab'

and the resulting values

it

was established that

b'a

lines

0.

a'

the same time that ab' a'b

b'c 0,

= 0, also ac'a'c =

the two lines coincide, for then their

equations being put under the forms.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

e/

A x
B

C
A

= o,

A = A" and A
B

are identical, since

= 0,

b'

15

B'
r,

PROP.
(25).

To investigate the
will have

II,

condition on which three right lines

a common point of intersection.

lines be

Let the equations of the

+ c = 0,
+ d = 0,
+ b"# + c" = 0.

hy

Jr

bx

Ay

b'x

A 'y
f

By

equating either of the co-ordinates of the point of in-

tersection of the first

and second, with

the^

corresponding

co-ordinate of the intersection of the second and third, there

will result, after reduction, the equation,

a(b"c'

b'c")

+ a'(bc" - b"c) + a"(b'c BC = 0,

f

expressing the required condition.

If any of the lines he parallel to either axis of co-ordinates,

the formula

common

must be determined by that variable which

PROP.
(6).

is

to the three equations.

To find

the equation

III.

of a right

line passing

through

a given point.

Let the point be ijx\ and the sought equation

Ay
Since

by

t/af

is

on

the

+c=

0.

right line,

Ay

subtraction

bx

My

y)

Ay

(Ay +
+ K x ~~
1

b#')

')

= 0,
= ^

or

bx

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

16

This formula might

be demonstrated thus

also

when

equation must be such as that

in

it

yx, the whole

for

= (Ay

To

(27.)

B,r

the

are substituted

y'x?

shall

be equal to cypher

PROP.

IV.

hence

).

of a right

express the equation

passing

line

through two given points.

Let the co-ordinates of the points be y x\ y x u

f

yx
Ax -

the equation of a line through

A (.y

But

yo +

}]

]]

since this line also passes

this

(x
or, (x

x'

and the former, the

By

(26)

<

through y x', the equation

f

A(y ~ /) + b(x

is

after substituting y'x for yx

must hold good

From

,,

#")

result

0.

is

x )y (y y )x + y x y x = 0;
x") {y y) (y
(x # = 0.
,!

]l

!f

f/

PROP. Vc
(28.)

To

express the equation of a right line

making given

angles with the axes of co-ordinates*

Let the given angles be

of the right

be divided by A, and

line

*y

Let

__

equation

sin.

x
+
A
Ix
ancj

sin.

lii

-\

sm# ly
^

~- sin.

te

PROP.

To

the

c';

sought

the axes

# + c

0.

VI.

of a right line passing

and making given angles with

express the equation

through a given point,

The

becomes

0.

it

is

sin. ly

(29.)

Let the general equation

Ix, ly.

of co-ordinates.

given point being

y x\ and
]

the given angles ly and

17

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
Ix

it

follows from (26) and (15) that the sought equation

sin. ly

(y

y
!

PROP,

(30.)

To

(x

sin* Ix

x)

0.

VII.

express the angle under two lines as a function

their equations ,

is

of

and of the angle of ordination.

Let the equations be

At/

~BX

ky

%'x

sin.
sin.

By expanding

sin.

Vx

b'

ly

sin. I'y

a'

0,

'

= j/#

Vy

ix,

Ix

## Ix)

sin.
sin. (

0;

= yx

ly

tit,

Ix

+ C =
+ d=

sin.

--

Vx\

fe

sin. (j/#

l x)~~
!

a'*

the denominators, and dividing both numera-

tor

and denominator of the

by

cos.

first

by cos. lx and of the second

}

Vx 9 the results solved for tan. Ix and tan. Ux are

t&xi.lx

b sin.

yx

,
B COS. j/^T A'

Let the angle under the

W=

tan.

be

lines

(/#

Ar

sin.

yx

B COS. 2/X

'
1

//',

fe);

tan. Ix
~
I

tan. /'#

+ tan.Z#tan./'#"

Substituting in this formula the values found above,

tan IV

^J^l^l^^^

yx
aa'

which expresses the angle

tions,

(ab' -f a'b) cos.

-f bb'

U as

a function of the two equa-

and the angle of ordination.

(31.) Cor.

1.

If the angle of ordination be right,

cos.
,

tan, IV

yx

ab'-a'b
r-

aa'

-,.

bb'

^8

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
(32.) Cor. 2. If the angle

is infinite,

under the

aa'+bb' (ab' + a'b)

If#'=yr,
AA + BB %AB
1

Cor.

(84.)

If

(35.) Cor. 5.

and B ="0,
r

BB

0.

0.

90,

0.

= &;

In

(36.) Cor. 6.

ofy, //'= /#;

like

cos.

manner,

V coincide with the axis

if

VIII.

To find the equation ofa

angle

0,

right line inclined at a given

a given right

to

be W,

angle

given

yx
yx B

sin.

cos.

PROP.

v
tan. /

the

yx
yx A

b sin.

=
B

+ b# +

yx

(16.)
,

Let

tan. //

If/' coincide with the axis of x, #'

tan. fx

A2/

cos.

COS. ?/X

= yx =

/Z'

AA

37.)

be right,

lines

(38.) Cor. 3.

line.

the

and the sought

line

given

Ay
f

-f b'x

right

line

c'

0.

In the formula
tan.

;W=
aa'

-.

-1-

found in

(30),

(ab'-~ a'b) siu.yx

bb'

'

>

(ab'

+ a'b) cos. yx
>

>

by dividing numerator and denominator by

b'

a a', and solving for

B

p,

""
a'

the result

is,

sin.

(yx

sin.

(yx + ll )

ll

therefore the sought equation

after reduction,

+ a sin. IV
b

'

sin. IV

is

{Asm.(yx+lV) Bsm JV }y+ [b $in.(yx~- ll ) + a sin.ll ]x -\1

c"

where d

is

indeterminate.

0,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
Cor.

(88.)

(a

If the angle of ordination be right,

1.

(yx + lV)

sin.

vin

cos.//';

To find the

Cor. 2.

to

cos. yo?

(a cos. yx

b)

j/

sin.//')

+ d 0.
1

a?

line.

Z7=90,

let

the equation sought

-f-

equation of a line perpendicular

a given

In the general formula (37)

/

formula becomes

this case the

cos. //'- b sin. IV) y -f (b cos.

(39.)

19

(b

cos.yx

v sin. (yx It) =

is

a) x

-f

=z 0.

(40.) In this case, if the angle of ordination be right, the

equation

is

By
which

ax

f/

0,

the equation of a right line perpendicular to a given

is

and referred

line,

to rectangular co-ordinates.

To find the equation of a right line inclined

a given right line at an angle equal to the angle of

(41.) Cor. 3.
to

ordination.

= v sin. (yx = 0, and sin.( yx +

= 2 sin. yx cos.yx v the sought equation
0.
(a cos. yx B)y + ax + d

luetyx
sin.

2yx

//')

//',

The

(42.)

//')

=.

formulas established in the preceding questions

by subjecting the right lines sought

may be

further modified

to pass

through a given point ; the general formula (37)

(26) become
{a sin. (yx + ll ) b

in this case,

by

-f

(43.)

{b

==

is

sin.

The

(yx

//')

4-

;
sin. //

sin. IV)

(y
(x

x =
1

formula in (40) becomes

b (y

y)

- a (x x )
f

0.

,1

0.

will 9

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

20
It

is

clear that (9) is a particular case of (37),

deduced from

and can be

it,

PROP. IX.

(44.)

To express

the length

of a

line joining

two points.

Let the points be yx, y x\ and l the sought length

]

l=

/(y2/

y+ (%z'y + %{y~ y

(xri)

cos.j/#.

If the co-ordinates be rectangular,

= v{y -yj + (*-

a!)*.

These formulae are derivable from the common

principles of

geometry.

prop. x.

(45.)

To

express the intercept of a given right line between

two points situate on

Let the right

be A y
!

line

(a?

+
;

(# #)

V
l

b'x

|^= - ~

yx y tmdy'xL By (26)

~~

0,

and the points

since

(a?

af)

~7

Va'

ar)

it.

-h

b' 2

2a'b' cos.

v^

PROP. XI.
(46.)
line

To
and

Let the

express the distance between any point on a given

the point
lines

where

be k y
]

it

intersects another

+ b x + c' = 0, and
!

and let the point given on the

first

Ay

be y xL
!

-j-

given

bx

line.

c =.0,

In the formula

ALGEB11AIC GEOMETRY.

in (45), substituting for

found

section

its

the

(S3),

in

SI

value for the point of interresult

expresses

sought

the

distance,

az/-M#' + c
AB'

A'B

/2
V*!* + b

PROP.

(47.)

To

point

XII.

drawn from a given

express the length of a line

meet a given right

to

Sa'b'cos. yx-

line,

and

inclined to

it

in a

given angle.
In the formula of (46) substitute for a' and b' the values
them in the formula found in .(37), and the result will

for

be the formula sought; but for brevity,

be only made

symbols

a',

in the

Ay
~~ ~~

(48.) Cor,

formula

the substitution

under the radical, signifying, however, the

values in (37), the result

let

terms of the denominator, retaining the

+ xx

is

Va + b ~ Sa'b' cos. yx
a 2 +b 2 Sab cos, yx
12

'

sin. IV

If the co-ordinates be rectangular, the

1.

is

az/4- B# -fc
r

~"
sin. II

for cos.

yx

0,

v^aHb 2

and by the values

To

(49.) Cor. S.

In

(47) let

sin.

in (38), a' s -f b

express the length

drawn from a given point

W=

1,

to

'
:

=a +b
2

line.

v
'

of a perpendicular

a given right

*/ a * -f
v

'

B n Sa'b'

AM- b 2 Sab

cos.

cos.

yx
7/<r

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
(50.)

If the co-ordinates be rectangular, also

Cor. 3.

=a/a 2 + b 2

(51.)

Cor.

To

a given point

to

of a line drawn from

and inclined to it at an

express the length

meet a given

line,

angle equal to the angle of ordination.

In (47)

let

= yx^

//'

in (37) restricted

and

let

and b have the values

j

a'

by the condition of VI

+ B#'+C
+ B 2 ^AB COS. j/a?
Ay

//

= yx

SECTION

V.

Propositions calculatedfor exercise in the application of the

equations of the first degree.

PROP. XIII.

(52.)

To

of the three perpenof a triangle on the opposite

investigate the intersection

diculars from the angles

sides.

Let the base 3 acs of the

triangle be taken as axis

of

)&

<r 5

and a perpendicular

ax through

y
^\oo
r

4 l>

let

it

be the three perpendiculars.

from the formula of

as axis of

the co ordinates of

h be x'y , those of
!

y'

sides result

The
(S7).

0,

Let

c,

x",

aa! 3 ho\ cc\

equations of the three

Hence,

ALGEB11AIC GEOMETRY.

The equation of ah is
The equation of ac is
The equation of 5c is (a?'

%6

x y ~ y'x

j/(<r

f/

)?/

== 0.

y =
x =

0.

fl

0.

Hence, those of the three perpendiculars result from the

formula (43):

The
The
The

equation of

is

is

equation of ce

is

equation of

Eliminating

from the

the point of intersection

stituted in either,

we

intersection of aa!

and cc\

$y

(x

^)a; =

!l

0.

##' = 0.
yy + x\x ^ = 0*
-

/;

and

first
is

third, the value of

and

oc\

this value

find the co-ordinates of the point,

(x

]]

x )x
f

for

being sub5

of

!
f

(58.)

Cor.

Hence,

it

diculars intersect in the

for the points h

and

follows

same

the

that

three perpen-

point; for since the values of

are the same., the

same perpendicular,

hh\ must pass through both,

PROP, XIV.
(54.)

To investigate

of' the three sides

the point erf intersection of the bisectors

of a triangle drawn through the several

vertices.

The

axes of co-ordinates

being as before, and aa\ bh\

cc\ being the bisectors,

the point h being

c, x'

and

x y\ and
]

on

^-
J

If

The

co-ordinates of point

a!

are

The

co-ordinates of point

are

The

co-ordinates of point d are

\~ X

-.
;

x!

if
~~
5

~^>

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

24

Hence, by formula (87),

The equation of act! is (x + x )y y x = 0.

The equation of 55' is (2^' x ')y y (&r x ) = 0.
2x )y y(#
# ) = 0.
The equation of cd is (a/
The values for y and x found from first and second are
v,

The same

,!

"

"~~~

f/

values being found from the second and third,

proves that the three bisectors meet in this point.

It is obvious

bisector

is

from the proportion of

divided at their

the ratio of

(55.) Cor.

common

y' to

y\ that each

point of intersection in

%
From

vious that this point

the principles of Mechanics,

qfgravity of the

the centre

is

it is

ob-

triangle.

PliOP. xv.

(58.)

To

investigate the point

diculars to the three sides

their several points

qf

qf a

qf perpendrawn through

intersection

triangle,

qf bisection.

The

axes of co-ordinates being

as before, the equations of the

three perpendiculars result from

the

equations of the sides ex-

pressed in (52), and of the coordinates of the points a\ h\ c\ in (54) ?

(43).

by the formula

Hence,

The

equation of do

The

equation of do

The

equation of Vo

is

y\y

is

is

x
!

V'

-f

x\x -

0.

25

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

By

the

and second equations we

first

of the point of intersection of do and

i/*

+ a?* afx n

gy

find the co-ordinates

do

to be,

x"

'

'

Hence, since the same values result from the second and
third,

appears that the three perpendiculars meet in this

it

point.

The

(57.) Cot.

distance

may be hence

angles of the triangle

r2

y" 2 4- x" 2

Let ab

c,

xn

By

<?",

be

also, c2

substituting for

r of the point
a

c" 2

c'

y +
2

from each of the

found,

+ 00* - x x f + y *x
!

]]

Hence, y h

d\

+ 2d x\ v ^ =

fl

--

and ac

d,

4-

a/ 2 , its value,

=c

2
-f x'
c'

/2

2
,

and changing xn into

d\ we have
""

4yT

"

And

since

Also,

2d x

c2

+ d

12

c2

c'

2 2
)

-f-

x'*

and

substitutions,
(c 2

c f2 ,

4c (c
i

r^s

.'

f2

we

c" ),

f2

these

d' Q ) 2

find that

=
v yd =
]

Making

~.

(c 2

that
2

Let the area of triangle be a,

cV =

c2

-rfa

observing

2 2
__ c c'

c" 2

cc c

2a, hence

ff

-:

4a

This expression being symmetrical with respect

to the

three sides, must be the same for each of the three vertices,

and

therefore the distances of the point o from the three

angles are equal.

is

Hence

it

appears

also, that

the point o

the centre of the circumscribed circle, and the value of

is its

radius, expressed as a function of the three sides.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

26

The

equation r

cd

~-y,

which gives 2Ry

any two

that the rectangle, under

sides of a triangle, is equal

and the diameter of the circumscribed

2
0, c

cd, proves

under the perpendicular on the third

to the rectangle

If y"

and hence d2

c'V,

fore, the angle is a right angle

side,

circle.
2

c"

= d\

v, there-

hence the angle in a semi-

circle is right.

>

If y"

and

acute,

2
0, c

> d x\ v
]

c2

cH

>

d'%

the angle b

is

v the angle in a segment greater than a semicircle

acute.

is

If y

<

,!

obtuse

0,

ti

< d x\ v e +
1

ch

<

d%
!

the angle b

is

and, therefore, the angle in a segment less than a

semicircle

is

obtuse.

PROP. XVI.

The

(58.)

three points of intersection^

of the perpendicu-

1,

of a triangle on

lars from the angles

the opposite sides ;

of the bisectors of the sides ; 8, of the perpendiculars

drawn through the points of bisection of the sides, will be

2,

in the same right

The
y x'
;

line.

equation of a right line through the points

yx and

is,

y -

y')

(x

-x f

(y

{x

= 0.

Substituting, in this form, the values already found,

it

be-

comes, after reduction,

y(% -y)
The

O'-O -

values for Y n and

equation, will

fulfil

S(x"- x)ri-y^

x being
f/

(3x

substituted for

--#")

= -

y and x in

this

-x

the conditions, and therefore the right

line joining the points

yx and

y'x must pass through

!

yV.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETltY.

27

PROP. XVII,

To

(59.)

investigate the intersection

three angles

The

of the

bisectors

of the

triangle.

axes of co-ordinates being

placed as before,

and cd

let aa!

angle

the

sect

of a

and

bi-

respec-

tively.

The

equation of aa!

The

and

tang. |

=y
(c
(<y

is,

0.

-f tang.

sin.

=
a

(x

COS.

cos.

by

the equations,

From

sin.

\a x

tang.

equation of cd

But since

is,

'

and tang.

Sill.

= y^

-Jc

>

COS. C

<?'

these substitutions, become,

+ af)y - ya? = 0,
+ c _ ^y + y(o- "

d>)

0.

the two equations, the co-ordinates of the point of in-

tersection are,
y<?"

= 2 a, vy'" =

But yc"

"

2cV =
(c

c2

+ d

+d
1

r
)

(c

c"

e/

2a
c+c' + c"
2

%c\c

also

cOvx"' =

The

values of

will

be the same, whichever side

hence
point,

it

y"
!

#')

(c

c") 2

c.

___

x,n being symmetrical with respect to the

is

assumed
meet

follows^ that the three bisectors

sides,

as axis of
at the

same

and that the perpendicular distances of that point,

from the
point

+ c' + c"'

is

Hence,

sides of the triangle, are equal.

the centre of the inscribed circle

also, that

and the value of

expresses the radius of that circle as a function of the

sides of the triangle.

28

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

PROP. XVIII.
(60.)

To find

drawn

the locus of'a point from

which two right lines 9

at given angles, to two lines given in position,

shall have a given ratio.

Let the equations of the two right

lines given, in position

referred to rectangular co-ordinates, be,

AJ/ -f

The

BX

+C=

and

given angles being

sought, being yx\ let

= -^
sin.

<p

A'^

(at/

+ b^ +

(p ,

c'

0.

the point, whose locus

But by

is

(48)

Ay -fB^+c

=
"~

BX

0, A[y -f

sin.
!

+ B^-f-c'

oVX^Tb^

+
2
Va +

c) a/a

Va 2 +b 2

fQ
,

2
.

rn! sin.

7w sin.

<p

(A y

+ b'^'

-f c')

pi,

which being a simple equation, the locus

is

a right

line.

PROP. XIX.
(61.)
its

A parallel to

the base

of a triangle being drawn, and

points of intersection being connected with the ex-

tremities

of the

base, to find the locus

of the

intersection

of

the connecting lines.

Let ac be tne
that of

also, let the

for the point

is

it

perpendicular di-

d and

from the base, be

b.

Since the

equation of ab

yx ~~i/x~Q,

and d
value of

and

stance of the points

bx

axis of x,

perpendicular to

is

is

E,

a point on

it,

the

~-y.

The

equation of bc being


ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
y(x

y\x x

a;' )

1
f
value
of

.r

!l

) == 0,

for the point

20

and the point e being on the line, the

Hx'X^+y'x
x + y'a
,!

is -

tj

Hence,

The

equation of

The

ae

equation of cd

is,

is,

by

=
b(x

Inl

x
,!

j'

^(x x

UX

IjX

we

Eliminating 5 from these equations,

+y'x

).

find the equation of

the locus of the point of intersection,

7/(2x

x')
#'7

yW --^-)

%y'x + y x = 0, or
]

"^ +

y] ~'^

which by (27)

is

the points j/V,

and

line, bisecting

the base^ and passing through the vertex*,

the equation of a right line passing through

x
f!

hence, the locus sought

is

a right

PROP. xx.

A parallel being drawn, as

(62.)

the intersection

before, io find the locus

of perpendiculars

to

the sides through

of
its

extremities.

The

co-ordinates of the points

as above,

e,

being expressed

sides,

as in (52) the

b and

and the equations of the

equation of the perpendicular through d

is,

bx

equation of perpendicular through e

The

4)

& - *)

is,

x _ *JfL=!>Z2-

Eliminating b from these equations, the result

(y'y

+ sdsc) {y

But,

+ [si - x"f = {y'y + (x - x

l

!!

0.

is,

)(xx) } (y *

+ a!*)

ALGEBF.AXC GEOMETRY".

30

x]

A expressing the

c^+e^ e' 2
9^r~
~%$

^a,

the equa-

becomes,

tion, after reduction,

)-(c f2 -c 2 ) 2 }

which, being an equation of the

sought to be a right

<y =

Making these substitutions,

area.

4 Ay (c * c*) + ^ { c" 9

first

+ cPc*

c'

/2

'

= 0,

degree, shows the locus

line.

PEOP. XXI.

of a pointfrom which the sum of the

perpendiculars, drawn to several right lines given in po-

(63.)

To find

sition,

may

the locus

have a given magnitude.

Let the equations of the right

Ay
Ay
!

The

given in position be.

b't

+ c = 0,
+ d = 0,

b'#

+ bx
+

a'V+

lines

c"=0,

co-ordinates of the point, whose locus

is

sought, being

expressed by the general symbols yx 9 the perpendiculars respectively are,

Ay + BX +
\/a

+ b*

A y + b'# + c
!

A 'V + B

T>"

^+C vV + b'
/;

/2

p()

/;

,:

A {n \y + BxW + c {n)
;

VA

(n)2

+B

ln,a

the conditions of the question give the equation y

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

lVA

A (n)

A'

-f.B

/3

B (w)

IVA + B a Va^+bV

VA

Va^+B^J

^A + b'

31

(n 8
'

->

+B

(n a
'

c'

VaHb

v^+b'

which being a simple equation, shows the locus to be a

right line

PROP. XXIL

To express

(64.)

equations

within

the area

of

it.

Let the equations of the

By

prop.

= _ (y /).

c being the

be expressed as in the

sides

l]

appears that i}x\

it

side of the

y (y ~f)^ + (x x f=c,

polygon

are the successive sides

c,

d, c

f/

Let the figure be supposed

lines

]]

c \

and

same rea-

for the

p',

?/

he.

&c

be resolved into

to

f{

son, the several denominators of the values of p,

by

Hence, ^a*+b^=

first

last

y x \ being
first
side,
Ax x\
of the extremities of the

the formula (27)

the co-ordinates

of a polygon as a function of the

the co-ordinates of a 'point

and

the sides,

drawn from the point within

it

triangles,

to the several angles^

a being the area

= vc + v'd + pV ..:.. p- w n (1) v

2a = (aj/ + bod' + c) +
+ bW + c')
(A y 4- B< n W + d
(2),

2a

?c-

(a[2/'

n)

(n)

),

which

is

the required function,

yx
]

p'

p7

pendent of yx\

is

? (n)

being the co-ordinates of

If the figure be a regular

the point within the polygon.

polygon, of which c

the side, (by equat. 1),

we have

2a
c

This value being

inde-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

sum

(65.) Cor. It follows that, in a regular polygon, the

of the perpendiculars on the sides from any point within

of a certain magnitude.

is

If,

it,

same time, the per-

at the

pendiculars are equal to each other,

p

which

is

an expression for the radius of the

in a polygon,
is

2a
=

whose side

c,

is

circle inscribed

and whose number of

sides

n.

PROP. XXIIIo

To

(66.)

inscribe hi a triangle

a parallelogram, whose sides

shall have a given ratio.

Let abc be any given

triangle

ac be assumed as axis of

let

#,

and ay making the angle yac

equal the angle of the proposed

The

parallelogram.

A D

x y\
h

of b being

co-ordinates

those of

c,

oc

o,

the

equations of ab and bc are expressed as in (52.)

s

and by the terms

s

s'

of the question,

and

be the sides of the proposed

parallelogram

A.

Let

Sub

the equation

stituting in

of ab

p/yif

for

ner,

y,

we

find

and,

'

AE

AD

man-

like

ae

in the equation of bc,

be

==

y
If the parallelogram

in

substituting s for
#, or

ad

or

#,

situate

as

we

find

#".

in

the

first

figure,

-'sW'

-,

and

this

combined with die

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

= sn
m

equation
^

5'

a/
p
mi/
ny + mar*
1

gives

6"6

I> u t

if

the paralL

lelogram be inscribed as in the second figure,

v5=
r

r-

general,
&

and, therefore, s

= ~

Hence,

jr.

in

paral
according
* as the side of the r

...

ny mx?n
f

lelogram parallel to the base

may be two

Hence, there

p^

ny
mai

lies

above or below the vertex.

parallelograms inscribed, which

will equally fulfil the conditions of the question.

It

m=

Ifm

n, s

t/tf1
-

and the angle of the parallelogram be

n,

right,

the formula solves the question, to find the side of a square

In

inscribed in a triangle.

and

z/#"

2a, .$=

-;

this

case /

the altitude,

is

>,.

y #

Hence two squares may be inscribed on each side of a

when the side and perpendicular on it are

triangle, except

equal: in that case, the lower sign renders s infinite;

the other value of

s,

and

half the side on which the square

stands.
(67.) Cor. 1.

The

sides of squares inscribed

of the same triangle, are inversely as the

and the perpendicular on

sides
side,

it.

?/ x^

points out a

geome-

construction for the inscription of a square,

by the

(68.) Cor.
trical

% The

on the

sum of each

formula
f/

equation being expressed as a proportion >

n
y + x
!

7/

xn

s.

If the upper sign be taken through

parallel to AC,

draw cf

and take ce

parallel to ed,

ad and

bd be drawn

b, let

join de,

and through e

and through

let

a parallel

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
ac be .drawn, and gi

to

be the

will

side of the inscribed

square.

If the lower sign be taken,

take ce upon ca and equal

(3>

ad ? and draw ed, and padraw cf. The

to

rallel to it

ac through f

parallel to

will

determine gi, the side of the

square.

If

y=

x \ ed
]

and

coincides with ad,

s is infinite.

TUOP. XXIV.

To find the

(69.)

equation of a right

such that the per-

line,

several given points to

pendiculars drawn from

shall

it

have a given magnitude (M.

The

points being ifx\

sought equation be ky

By

yV, ...
c 0.

y x\
bx +
v,

y< n >x<n >,

let

the formula (50), the condition of the question

is

the

ex-

pressed thus
Aj/

+ B^ + C

A^ + B^ + C

^+b
or,

v^-M

- a (y +y-f

dividing

by

ft,

(3/

y+y

line
is

.r

the value of the angle Ix

still

-f

11

for let c be a point,

^) -

-^
-)-

.t

4- #''

x (n)

)-

0.

remains undetermined, the

sought cannot be absolutely determined ; but

limited

0.

lx(x -

sec, loo

0.

+ B2 =

tan.

c,

r;

-)

n)

2/

+K^ + C ~~
_

Va + b

(^

-J-

B [X

V-A 2

As

and eliminating
)

or

'"*

(n)

~ M Vk

f/C

By

...

ky (n)

its

position

whose co-ordinates are

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

_ y +y

A perpendicular,
will

be (50)

centre,

>

Hence

and a radius

drawn, touching

__

drawn from

^ +%

2>

it

M
=

..

-,

circle

Cor.

line

have the required property.

0, scil. that the

sum of all the perpensum of those on each

0, there-

and any right

line

would have the required property.

this point

The point

line,

be described, any

fore the circle vanishes into the point c,

(70.)

^w;

on the sought

side of the sought line should be equal, then

drawn through

follows, that if with this point as

If the question required, that the

+.

this point

this circle, will

diculars should be

!l

85

is

manifestly the centre of gravity

of a rectilinear figure, formed by joining the given points.

SECTION
Of the
(71.)

It

is

VI.

transformation of co-ordinates.

frequently desirable to express the equation of

the same locus referred to different systems of co-ordinates.

This

is

effected

by expressing the values of the

co-ordinates

of any point related to one system of axes, in terms of the

co-ordinates of the

same point referred

to the other system,

and in functions of this position of the two systems of axes

with respect to each other.

The

values thus expressed, being

substituted in the equation, related to the one system, give

the equation of the same locus referred to the other system.

Let yx be the co-ordinates of any point

system of axes, and
the other system.

yx
]

Let m, n p

mined by the mutual

related to one

those of the same point referred to

3

q,

tf,

#,

be quantities deter-

position of the axes.

Suppose., then,

d2

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

36

y = my

-f ntf

values ofy and

= ?/

and x

a,

related to the axes of

tween the variables

If these

-f

and x, an equation

and x\

be resolved when

it

will result

be-

one of the same locus

i. e.

The question will,

related to the other system of axes.

fore,

g.r'

-f

be substituted in the equation of any locus

there-

shown what functions of the

m, n 9 &c. are/'

is

position of the axes the quantities

Let ay, ax, and a y',

;

(72.)

a'x

be the two systems of axes. Let

the co-ordinates of the point

= MP,
= aV.

referred to these axes bej/

y =

mp',

Draw A A and

p'p 7

ap,

ff

FP
ax.

Let aa"

= y' +
(

?/

~X

parallel to

a^", and p^/ parallel to

ay and

= y, v y = y + pp +
f

!l

a'a"

p[p -f p'M,

and #==#"

(l

+ p'y.

a';?

j/m, or

Expressing

by the notation

the angles under the respective axis

ex-

plained in (12.)

xx

sin.

rp
r
Aip
^

sin.yx

sm. yx

sm.

p'

yx

sm. w #

T-^-.y,

sin.?/?/

-y

sm.^/x^

Hence,
-.

-ji

y^^+#' sin. # #
;

y sin

sin.

a;

a?"

sin.

y =y +y
y/

z/r

be parallel to ay, ax,

o;

a;

4- #'

v sin. yx = 1, sin. ^y =
= cos. y'x, v
y =-y + y sin. y^r + x\ sin. #'#,
# = x u 4- # cos. rfx + y cos. y^.

(74.) If j/#
sin.

+y sin. y^

sm.

(73.) If the axes a'y', a'x

and

x[y

yx

90,

cos.

xx
!

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
(75.) If

(76.)

y^ =
=

y+y

00

^"

= y -f
=x +
u

cos.

# .r + oo

sin.

y#

sin.

#'#

y cos. yx

sin./r

90,
#' sin.

a?'a?

#' cos.

a/#

y cos. #'#,
y sin. ^^r.
-f

two systems have the same

(77.) If the
jl

Ifya?=y^ =
#

and x

90,

31

origin,

y ~ 0,

0.

SECTION VIL
jF$ discussion

(78.)

of the general equation of the second decree.

When

an equation

described in (10),

its locus,

is

constructed in the manner

if it

have any,

is

a line in the

plane of the axes of co-ordinates, whose points are deter-

mined by supposing each variable susceptible of an unlimited

series

of values, positive and negative, and the equation

thereby furnishing a corresponding unlimited series of values

of the other variable, and thus determining the course of the
locus.

Under

this view, it

might appear that the

every equation whatever, was

a line of unlimited extent.

did

it

locus, of

(like that of the first degree)

This would,

in fact, take place

not frequently happen, that certain values being as-

signed to either of the variables, the equation furnishes im-

Such values,

possible symbols for the values of the other.

since they have no arithmetical,

have no geometrical repre-

sentatives; or, in other words, the locus has

sponding to such values.

In what manner

no point corre-

this

circumstance

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

88

of the locus, whether by limiting

affects the figure

in

its

extent

one or more directions, or by completely circumscribing

it, is

determined by certain relations between the constant

parts of the equation.

The

values of these

times the form and properties of the

only

its

The

general equation of the

line,

nerate a right

line,

first

degree was found to ge-

therefore, in
;

but

this
its

case they merely

degrees,

This, however,

In equations of the higher

found that not only the position of the locus,

it is

nature, form, and properties,

values of the constant parts

is,

and properties

figure

were independent of their particular values.

does not happen in other cases.

that

and sometimes

whatever the values of the constant

affected the position of the line

its

some-

position with respect to the axes of co-ordinates*

parts might be, and,

but

affect

and that

depend on the
loci

relative

of different species,

having different forms and properties,

will

be ge-

nerated by equations of the same degree, according to the

relative values of the constant parts.

The

(79.)

of the different species of lines

classification

included under a general equation, and the investigation of

the functions of the constant parts, which characterise each

of those

species,

called

is

the discussion of the general

equation.
(80.)

An

equation of the second degree

is

one which

in-

volves the variables in powers or products not exceeding two

dimensions.

Hence, an equation of the second degree, pre-

sented under

its

a?/ 2 -f

Where

most general form,

Bxy

a, b

coefficients of the

-f cx~

-j-

is,

v>y -f Er

(a).

e represent, generally, the respective

dimensions of the variables admissible into

an equation of the second degree, and f the sum of

all

the

terms not involved with the variables.

The

solution of this equation for the two variables gives

89

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

87

=_

?lt? J- A 7nB i:=: ^c)^ a + 2(BD--2AB)a?+ (d*-4af)

(6)

2a

2a

= - 5^1^7i^l4Ac)y + 2(BB-2cD)y + (d -4c7)

2

(c).

to exclude those equations of the

These solutions appear

second degree which do not contain the squares of one or

both variables. But

be shown in (86) that these cases

will

it

can be brought under the above solutions.

mediately follows the values of

a and

In what im-

c will be considered

finite.

construct the equation, let any fixed lines, yy'

To

be assumed as axes of co-ordinates. Let the

2
radical in (b) be represented by r , and that in

The
ot

value of

two parts
\/ R 2

and

~tz

(<?)

xx',

of the

by b>.

consists

scil.

The

2a

suffix

first is

the

value of?/ in the equation

2ky
fore,

+d=

bx

the

if

the locus of

signed to
pp'

bv.

this

bd

drawn through p

The

m =+

be

parallel to yy' to

other part -^

and any

equation,

value,

the corresponding value of

according as
p

0, there-

line

sponding to x

u2

>

and

0,

M =

ap, are

is real,

or

<

0,

~,

ap, be

as-

will

meet the right

line

0, or impossible,
0.

If

e,

>

be

0,

ac
let

and the values of y corre-

pm and

pm', and, therefore, m,

m7 ,

are the points in the locus.

If it 2

0, there

would be but one value of y, scil. pp',

p' of the locus would be on the

and the corresponding point

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
If R 2

line bd.

<0, y would be

impossible, or, in other

words, the locus would not meet the parallel pp

any

in

point whatever.

In

like

manner the value of x

+E

and

B2/

~~^
2c

consists of

two

parts, scih

V^
The
x

in

fore

%cx

the equation

mj

the value of

first is

0;

the

if

there-

right

line,

EF 3 be the locus of this

equation and any value,
,

be assigned to y^ the

a^> 9

will
<2c

be ft p\ a parallel to

xx'j

a/R

of

value

corresponding

drawn from p

to

/2

meet the

The

line ef.

other part

If
f

_p

r/ 2

m m
9

If

> 0,

let

pm = +

>

possible, according as p' 2

b!

0, or

< 0.

and p m

0, or

im-

-^-

are the values of x 9 corresponding to

!

is real,

3/

andpm and

Ap,

and

^, scil.

pp ,

therefore the points are the locus.

e/ 2

0, there

would be but one value of

and the corresponding point, p\ of the locus would be on

the line

e-'f.

< 0,

If

r'

the locus

would not meet the

parallel,

pp\

in

any point whatever.

The

lines

bd and ef have the property of bisecting a

system of parallel cords in the locus.

Such

lines are called

diameters; and the cords which they bisect are called their
ordinates.

The

course of the locus of the equation of the second

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*
degree

limited to that series of values of each variable

is

which give

real values of the other.

that series,

r2 <

all

values of y 9 which

R2

the sign of

that of r /2

condition,
it'

As

by the values of y.

0,

4 ac

>

and
b2

b/

be convenient to consider the

will

it

b2

0,

4 ac

< 0,

these circum-

stances depend on the roots of the equations, u 2

2

by the values of #, & n d how

affected

is

affected

is

the

fulfil

the condition,

fulfil

be necessary to determine

It will therefore

are excluded.

how

appears that from

It

which

of x,

values

all

and

0,

41

and b 2

0,

4ac <

0,

cases,

(See

0,

Notes.)
2
(81.) If b

!,

be real and unequal,

all

<

between x and
]

r 2 <0;

render

x'L?

series of values of

all

or

<

x\ render r

n2

0;

all

r2

>

If

>

x\

all

0,'

and

and

since b 2

4ac

corresponding to such a

All values of
or

u
,

x >

x'

render

all

all

values of x give

2
- R j >

-^

0,

values of y real.

of

values

(except

x')

render

4ac >
all

r2

>

0,

the same reasoning,

equation

r'

let

x\ gives
R2
6

,!

y[y

be the roots of the

= 0.

If y y" be real and unequal,

7/

and x

such values give real values of y.

By

and

0,

= x\

and x

0,

included

such give real values ofj/.

0; '.Tender

b 2 ~4ac

values of

]]

b2

values of

are impossible.

x x be impossible,

If

equation^

c 9

the roots of the

let

0,

be x\ x K

0,

If x\

>0,

- 4ac >

all

give impossible values of #,

values of

and

all

between

others real values

of x\
If
of x.

yy

be impossible,

all

values of

give real values

ALGEBKAIC GEOMETRY.

48

y = y\

If

values of ^ give real values of x.

all

(8) IfB 2 --4AC^0, v p. 2 ^^(bd-2ae>+(d 2 ~4af).

all values
If bd $ae > 3 let x be the root of u 2 =
]

of
b,

r->
# > x give
?;
b
2(bd-2ae)
]

0;

all

a?

<

0,

>

u2

such values of x give real values of y.

R*

values, of

and # gives
&

0,'

^TJ^Zg^ <

give

x'

>

<

li3

All

g lve

"*

>

impossible values for y.

If (bd

>

j-

In

<

4af)
like

<

values of

all

impossible.

v & >
l

0,

and

0,?

corresponding to such

2,

ua

2,

4af be not <

4aFj

*.*

values of

all

and impossible,

0,

if

0.

manner

r,z

in this case, let

2(be

2cd)j,'

4cf).

(e*

If be

2cd >

real values of

If be

a?.,

2cd

0, all values of

< y,
y >y

Scd), on condition that b 2

and

give

but

all

are impossible,

if

impossible

a?

real.

values of

2ae =

are fulfilled at the same time, for bd

Also, if b

= y,

give impossible values of x.

observable that bd

renders

0,

Sen = 0, all
4cf < 0, real if not.
is

or

and j/

If be

It

y > y\

<

other values render

e*

values of

all

give

are real.

are real, if

(d*

R2
-77
give&
bd Sae

2ae) = 0, v

If (bd
j/

G,

x > x

values of

all

0,

R2 <

<#

x gives R2

values of

0,

All values of x
a?

<

Sae)

4ac =

0,

4ac =
and bd

(e 2 - 4cf), will have the

same

x
0,

and be

2cd 0,

2ae = ;t-(be
0.

2ae

sign,

0, (d

and be

at the

4ae),

same

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

0, for

e2

(83.) If b 2

4ac

time

= -

4cf

<

(d 2

4af).
x x n be the

roots of

as before, let

48

=a 0.

If x'x

be real and unequal,

l!

x between x

values of

all

and #" give

B 2 4AC

give r 2

0;

<

r2 >

<

or

x\?fcgive
>

v all

and x

0,'

.*',

a?

#",3

such values of x give real values of y.

all

> x\

All values of x

0,

>

r2

<

0.

~R 7

>

0,

0,

4ac

corresponding values of y impossible.

2

If xhc u be impossible,

and

If

<

r2

*.

0,

give

values of y impossible.

all

values of

f/

? , all

values of

all

(except

# , or a?
f

f/

give

~R ^
os

>

>

Ogives r 2

v a^

values of

impossible; but

y y be real and unequal, all values of

between 7/ andy, as well as y = y, and 3/ = y,
f

if

give real values of

If

v y real.

0,

In like manner,

y included

>

'

u2

""

<r?

l!

and

other impossible values.

all

yy be impossible, all values of

give impossible values

?/

of x.

If

y = y,

all

corresponding to

To

(84.)

values of

y = y,

are impossible, except those

y.

3/

determine the conditions, by which

yy

are real, equal, or impossible, let the equations

and

r'

be solved

where

ae 2

b2

4ac

(BE - SCD) 2
^

2
b

4-

cd 3

r2

hence the roots are respectively

(bd 2ae) 2 V AM

/CM

'

-4ac

b2 f

bbe

4act,

and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY

44

Since a and c are both supposed finite

If x x" be impossible

am >
cm >
m =
am <

yy be impossible

cm <

If

x x be

If

yy be real and

if

x'

fl

real

ft

and unequal

ory = y

If
(85.)

To

unequal

investigate the course of the locus

condition, b 2

4AC

>

0,
0.

0.
0.
0.

under the

0.

Let x x' be
!

1.

real

and unequal;

let x'

ap' ?

xu

ap,

and through

p and p

let

definite

the in-

parallels,

yy and y y
tf

be draVn

to yy'

flf

No point

of the locus lies be-

tween these parallels

meets the

and the

line 2/y at a point

line

Beyond the

yy

,;

i;,

at the point

limits

of the

such, that py

x>',

so that

(81);

but

it

bx' + D
~
sJT

pV -

BX

,!

2a
un-

parallels, the locus spreads to

limited extent in two opposite branches (81), touching those

lines at

v andV.

Let x x' be impos!

sible, all

values of y are

in this case

real

(81).

Let ap be that value

of x, which renders

the least possible value

draw
to

pp' parallel to

meet

the

line

whose equation

+
p'm

bjt

= +

Rj

and

is

0;

yy

bb,
%aij

take

pV =

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Through

r.

h d,

bd be drawn..

to

h-dl

m7

the points M,

let

45

the indefinite parallels

Since p'm, p'm'

is

the least value

must be ex-

that the radical in (b) can receive, the locus

cluded from between those lines;

susceptible of every magnitude,

but the radical being

however great

it

extends in

two opposite and unlimited branches beyond them, touching

them
3.

at the points m,

Let x

and as

all

x'

values of

mK

in this case

2,

it

4a

x )^/b %

(x

are real, the equation

is

that of

c,

two

right lines.

Similar inferences follow with respect to the roots y y u

f

1.

right lines parallel to xx',

and extends
2. If

indefinitely

-f

indefinitely
S.

If

excluded from between them,

is

beyond them.

they be impossible, the curve touches two right

lines parallel

sx

the

to

0, is

diameter, whose equation

is

beyond them.

y = y,

the character, b 2
satisfy

9,oy -f

excluded from between them, and extends

the equation represents two right lines.

Hence, in order that the locus of an equation,

also

If they be real and unequal, the curve touches two

4ac >

the condition,

fulfilling

0, should be a curve,

m>,

<

or

if not,

it
it

must
will

represent right lines.

Curves thus characterised, are called Hyperbola.

(86.) If the squares of

one or both variables be not con-

tained in an equation which does contain their product,

comes within the character b 2

ferences which have been just

4ac

>

made with

0.

But

it

the in-

respect to the locus

cannot be immediately applied to this case, because they

were made on the supposition, that the equation contained

the squares of both variables.

However,

ordinates, to which such an equation

formed by the general formulae given

is

if

the axes of co-

related,

be trans-

in Sect. VI. (72), such

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

46

may be

a position

assigned them, that the values of the co-

of the squares of the variables shall be

efficients

finite.

In the equation

-j-

Suppose

a',

itfxy

dx*

-f vly -f

or both

or c ,

+d=

e'#

but

0,

0.

finite,

b'

the

let

equation resulting from transformation of the axes be

a?/

+ vyx

Such values

-f ex'

2,

D2/

a and

formulae in Sect. VI. as will render

From

eo?

.being assigned to the quantities

0.

composing the

c finite.

the values of a, b, c, in terms of

a', b',

and the

angles under the axes of co-ordinates,

b2

4ac =

- 4a'c
,

(b' 8

xx
f

sin ify sin

.

( si

n yif
.

si n

.r <r'

sin.

The
> 0,
can

quantity

it

yy

be

0; for
l

yy

if

would be
sin.

in

yx

sin.yy

xyr>

"'

xx

coincident.

dJ-~L = v*.
.

n x ly

si

sin

y#), must be

sin.

<

cannot be

it

sin.

x'x

the

new

same locus

0,.

axes of co-ordinates

Hence, since the quantities B f2 and

finite,

as that in

0, neither

xy sin.y# =

are essentially positive, the quantity B 2

which a and c are

yx) 2

/#.

sin. x

sin.

sin.

and*.'-; ^-r- -
sm.
sm.j/'x

##

sin.

for being a complete square,

sin,

(sin,

sin xkj si n i/x) 2

which

and which
a'

is

4ac >

0,

an equation of the

and d

been proved of curves characterised by b

0, all that has

4ac

>

on

the supposition that A and c are finite also, apply to the

cases, where

A or

c,

or both, are

0,

provided that b

is

finite.

To

(87.)

investigate the course of the locus

E2

Let ap

x\ Ap

= y,

4 AC

and

let

when

o.

the indefinite parallels yy

and xx be drawn.
1

If bd

2ae >

0, the locus touches

at the positive side of

it.

See (82).

yy\ and

lies entirely

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

If BD

&AE <

47

0,

the locus touches yy\

and

the

lies entirely at

negative side of it*

If be

2cd

>

0,

the locus touches xx\

and

entirely at the

lies

positive side of

If be

it.

2cd <

0,

the locus touches xx\

and

lies entirely at

If bd 2ae = 0,
equation

and

and

v
v

e2

also

class

&ae

and

also

>
4cf <

0, or

4c.f

be

If n 2

that of right lines.

also e 2

This

bd

is

if

the negative side of

but

0, there is

it.

2ei> =
4af >

no

d2

if

(82), the

0,

- 4af <

0,

0, or

locus.

of curves characterised by b*

4ac

0,

and

and consisting of one unlimited branch,

finite,

extending in one direction, are called Parabolce.

Equations of the second degree, in which the square of

one of the variables and also their product

under the character b 2

4ac

is

wanted, come

0; but for the reason

before stated, the conclusions preceding cannot be

However,

diately applied to them.

axes be effected as before,

and

also

or

= 0, v

has been proved

finite

formation, A and c
b*

4ac =

bola?,

(86).

become

those loci

4ac

Hence,
finite,

To
- 4ac >
To fulfil

investigate

since

and

at

come under the

the

0,

0, for the other factor

and the preceding references apply

(88.)

imme-

a transformation of

will follow that since b'

it

if

course

by the

trans-

the same time

class

of Para-

to them.

of the

locus

when

0.
this condition,

a and c must have the same

sign*
1.

If

#V

and

also

y\ 9/ be

real

and unequal,

let

48

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

=
=

AP

kp
Let

yt
AFp/
X\

y\ Ap
the

W\
,//

y\

indefinite

andy y"
fl

parallels, 2/2/

to yy', and x x and

x x m to xx'be drawn.
!

]]

Let p^

2a

n^/yi'f _

vv'

B?/+E

,,

B?/

2a

from (83)

that the locus touches those parallels at

appears

it

*/, v' ,

and

111

is

included between each system.

If

oc

and

]}

also

yy

be impossible, no locus

exists (83).
3. If

f/

and

each but one real value,

the locus

Hence,
b2

is

scil.

the variables have

~4"

B07

y=

I)

a?

B^

;/

+E

in this case a point.

order

in

that

may be

4ac <

the condition

y = y\
l

also

m >

an

equation

characterised

that of a curve,

it

must

by

also fulfil

0.

Curves, thus characterised, are called Ellipses.

(89.)

If b

To

recapitulate the preceding results.

4ac>

and

not

=0,

the equation represents loci^

called Hyperbolas*

>

m=

bd 2ae not =^0

=0
^0
=0
<0
<0

<

Right

lines*

Parabolce.

bd 2ae=0,d''4AFiiot <Q Right lines*

No locus.
bd Sae = 0, d 2 4af<
Ellipses.
m>
A point,
m=
No locus,
m<

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

SECTION
Of the

49

VIII.

and asymptotes of the

diameters i axes,

of the

lines

second degree.

In the discussion of the general equation,

(90.)

proved that two right

lines bisected

respectively to the axes of co-ordinates.

An

definition of a diameter.

it

was

systems of chords parallel

Hence

arose the

inquiry naturally presents

it-

whether every system of parallel chords has not a cor-

self,

responding diameter.

To determine this, let

ay

-f

line

+c=

bx

be

meeting the

curve at

c,

To

c'.

consider this as one

of a system of paralchords, let

lel

be

considered as given,

and

as

indeterminate.

By

eliminating

y by

this

and

the general equation, the roots Ap, Ap of

!

^Abc Bcavba + Tza 9

x*

which

a& 2 Bba + ca2

is

oc +
w

Ya^+Ac^Dca

'

Aff

Bba + ca

-0,

the resulting equation, will be the values of

the points c, c

Let

cc'

for

be bisected at m, mp be drawn

parallel to ay,
.'

Af -f Ap

AP

By

,
.'

AP ~
V *"
'

substituting for c

denominating ap by
locus of

(b

is

oc 9

its

%Abc Bca vba -{- e&2

^(Abt-Bba + cazy

value in ay

+ bx +

0,

fotand to be,

- %Ab)y

-f

and

and pm by y, the equation of the

(2c

b6) x + %a -~ d6 == 0,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

50

This being an equation of the

is

a right

the condition b 2

%\y

by

eliminating

c.

4ac

bx

The

$a(e&

Dh)
a ,-

As

0,

co-efficients of the variables in this

equation being constant, prove that

%hy

are parallel to the line

which the

gives

-f

to

If the curve be a parabola?

chords are ordinates.

parallel

degree, the locus sought

first

and consequently a diameter

line,

B*

bx

may

%a, the equation

all

diameters of a parabola

0.

be expressed

also

2c(e& d5)

PItOP.

Given a diameter,

(91.)
1.

dy

If b

4ac be

Vx + d

XXV.
to

determine

its

ordinates.

and

its

ordinates

B#

5'

gctf

a'

b& 2a&

djy

+ to + c =

^ca

Bd-~%hV

equations determine either the diameter or

dinates

when

If b

the other

4ac = 0,

is

let

its

or-

given.

the diameter be Qky

2a(e d6)

0.

B&

&

Which
2.

be

not =; 0, let the given diameter

+ bx

_2ae B6*

-\-

d 0,

PROP. XXVI.
(9$.)

To find

the equation

of a diameter through a given

point.

The

equation of any line through the given point yW

dy

-Y

Vx

v d=Ba

2a,
jf

(dy

6W)

let its

ordinates be ay

Sea b5, y

~~

~~"

Therefore the equation of the diameter

is

is

0.

+ bx + =
=
+ SW = vb Ea.
B _ 4 AC )y + (be 2cd)
(b 4ac)o?'+(bd ae)

This being a diameter,

&'

AL & E B It AI C G EOME T It Y
.{(b*

{(b

The

- 4Ac)^

4<Ac)y

equation of
(2 Ay -f

where

is

b#

its

+ (bd 2ae)}
+

(be-cd)}(jt

ordinates

d)j/

(7/

y-)

a?')

0.

is,

(2co?

By

-f

e)#

-f-

+ e = 0,

indeterminate.

GV.

(93.)

OI

..

3
If b

1.

BE 2CB
^
=
bv - 2ae

= 0,

4ac

$a = 2C

.'

7T"

and therefore

the diameter becomes either or

y) + b(# ^) = 0,
2c(a? #') = 0.
b(j/ y)

2a(#

4-

(94.) Cor.

If b

bd 2ae v

4ac be not

diameter being divided by (b 2

0, the equation of the

4ac) becomes
be 2cd

c + ir^-c) ^-y)-(y+^-_^) <* - *o =

which

o,

a right line through the pointy

is

bd 2ae

be 2cd
-~ ~~

y
therefore

diameters of an

all

~~

B 2--.4ac'

ellipse, or

4ac

hyperbola, intersect

each other at this point, and, vice versa,

all

right lines

passing through this point are diameters.

(95.)

Def The

point

n
yx
Vl

is

and hyperbola are thence

ellipse

Since b 2

of central curves.

called the centre,

by the common name

called
4s

ac

and the

renders the co-

ordinates of this point infinite, the parabola

may be

con-

ceived to have a centre at an infinite distance.

PROP. XXVI I.
(98.)

In central curves, if any diameter

ordinates

rallel to the ordinates

For, in (91),

if

of the former.

determine the position of a diameter,

V
-7
a!

be parallel to the

of another diameter, the latter will he also pa-

determines that of

Def Such

its

ordinates,

and

vice versa

diameters are called conjugate diameters.

52

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

PROP. XXVIII.

To

(97.)

any and what diameters

discover whether

intersect

their ordinates perpendicularly .

If b

1.

4ac be not = 0,

x being

+ bx+c =

- 2a

= ^^ly
4- &#) cos. ?/# =

2(a - c) 6W + (2c

ordinates
(3.2)

hence,

yx s)a' 2 = 0,

cos.

2
a/(C A) -hB 2 -f 2cOS. ?/^(2ACCOS./^ BA BC)

""

a'

the radical be arranged

we

2a. cos. yx

These values of - are always

a
with zero,

its

and by

-^

(91),

(a b

cos. /#)# 2 4-

by

0,

bB

aci -f
(b

0,

the co-ordinates of the centre; and

fl

ay

the sought diameter be

let

+#(#-#") =

a!(y~y)

For

real.

if the

by the dimensions of

quantity under
b,

and equated

shall find

B 2 -j- 2(a -f- c) cos.

b h 4ac cos. yx 4- (c~a) 2

2/jr.

= 0,

which, solved for b, gives after reduction

b

= (c+a)

2/^(c a)

cos.

which being impossible, the

values of

V
2.

(b

2a cos, yx) (y y

a)- 4- b

is

it
,

Making

always positive.

{c

The

is

If B 2

Since

2a&

sin.

suffix

4-

yx

(2ac

x)

(a?

4ac'

0, let the

2aj/
^

b#

a)

yx

')

(c

cos.

(2a6

ba

bc)

0.

2a (e& d#)

Ba

1 =
- ^-r
2a6

4-

bx

+c=

b cos.

b)cos. ^wa?

0.

z/^

bx

= 0, v =
b
2acos.?/;f
&

2a{be4-2ad-(bd+2ae)
yx\
+

f-^^ =
b 4ab
4a
f
cos.

^
2

COS.

?/<

2a

this substitution

2ai/ -f

sought diameter be

perpendicular to the line ay

1;

equations sought are

cos.

-f

y%\/

of the radical in the

0.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
Such diameters are

called axes,

and

it

53

appears that ellipses

and hyperbolae have two, and parabolae but one.

The two

(98.)

values of

fulfil

the condition (82), there-

Qi

fore the axes of central curves are at right angles.

Hence

(99.)

also the axes are conjugate diameters.

PROP. XXIX.

Tojind

(100.)

%z/

The

If b 2

1.

-f

bx

0.
~
& 0.

elimination of

tween

diameter.

P\

be-

its

Let the equation of the diameter be

4ac
-f

of a curve with

the intersection

c/

and the ge-

this

neral equation gives

2(bd-2ae)

'

Therefore every diameter

of a parabola meets the

curve in one, and but one

point.

2. If b 2

0, the

where y x
,!

4ac be not

diameter
!l

is

is

(y

of'

v,

y,

x'')

we

0,

find

+ ca 2

expunging the terms which mutu-

s/

by

b*

4a c,

b*-4ac

'

are

Afr-Bba + ca

-'

retains its signification in (84).

Supposing these values of x

and

h (x

each other, and dividing both terms of the frac-

tion under the radical

Where m

-f

Ab 2 Bha

roots of which, after

ally destroy

')

Eliminating

the centre.

The

yv

to

be

v the points of intersection.

real, let

c be the centre,

Since vp and v'p are the

'

54

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

two values of the

radical, they are equal

which meets an

fore every diameter

bisected at the centre.

has received

is

from

this

cv

= cV;

there-

hyperbola

is

property that the centre

name.

its

The

(101.) Def.

It

ellipse or

points where a diameter meets the curve

are called the vertices of that diameter.

(108.) Def.

The vertex

of an axis

is

called a vertex of the

curve,,

(108.)

When

a diameter of central curves

is

spoken of as

portion of the diameter intercepted between

finite line, that

vertices is meant.

its

prop. xxx.

To find what

(104.)

qf central curves meet

diameters

them.

It will be necessary to determine how the values of a and b

affect the suffix

The

of the radical in (100) negative, and what not.

b
B

y c

a and b

^
o,

b
-

z.

e.

-
= b + v b 4ac
3

r render
]

a2

jz

__

or

AbzBoa+ca 2

2
A& 3 -~ b6^4 ca

If r

>

If they
J be real and un-

js

0, all values of

infinite;

0.

and

nr-~j
AoV

If =
a

and r be impossible,

render

b between

<

Bba^ca2*

if

scil. if

>

2a

4ac

re-

to the roots of

Let these values of be r rL

a
equal, sciL if b*

depends
on the
l

Ab^T-Bba+ca 1

lation of the values of

b2

-7

sign
& of the factor

^.

b3

r,

or

b ~
a

r\

r and

have any
J value

4ac

<

>

r9

0? all values

ALGEBRAIC GKOMETUY,

The
which

roots r

is

If b 2

and r cannot be equal,

f

for then b 2 ~~ 4ac

contrary to the hypothesis.

4ac >

and

0,

m>

therefore the real values of

Boa +_
ca
a2

ao 2

0, the factor

B2

4ac <0,

are those corresponding to

a
b

< o

or to those values of

intermediate

between r and r\ and the impossible values are those which

correspond to values of

> r, or < r\

sin. doc

be called d9

'.*

a ~sin. dy

the lines ss and

,

sin.

,,

Through

sV be drawn,

Ix

sin.

Let the diameter

the

centre c,

so that, calling

ss, I,

let

and

Vx

sin. I'y'

sin. Z#*

In order, therefore,

diameter

that

should meet the curve,

dx
dy

sin.
sin.

sin.

>

Vx
5

sin. I'y

sin.

te

sin. ly

ss

and sV extend ad

infinitum

without

meeting the curve.

Those diameters fulfilling the condition ^-7-, > V-~-, or

sm. ay
sin. /?/

<
s

*
.

sm.

7/

"3

do not meet the curve.

Hence the

I'y

scs' and
angles

cs include between their sides all those diameters

meet the curve, and consequently include the curve

and the angles

s'cs

and scs include

f

all

which
itself;

those diameters which

56

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRIC

do not meet the curve, and consequently exclude the curve

itself.

(105.)

The

values of

r, r\

being

b Vb 2

4ac

""

2a

b-^b'-j^

Si nce

may

_*__

b+v^b 2 4ac

2a

the vai ues

f r , /,

be expressed thus.
B-f v'B 2

4 AC

2c
r':

Vb -4ac
2

B-f

The

equations of the lines ss and

2A(y y) +

2c{x

Though

a:")

(b

-f (b

-i-

sV

4ac)

+ y'B
Vb 2 3

are therefore,
(.r

7
a? )

4ac) (y

*/')

=
=

0,
0.

these right lines pass through the centre, yet they

are not diameters, for if they were, the equation of their

ordinates would be (9&) respectively,

c
Zhy

2c#
That

is,

(b 2

(b

the ordinates would be coincident with the diameters

themselves, which
(106.)

+ </'& 4ac)# + c 0,
+ v/ b - 4ac)/ + c 0.

is

contrary to the definition of ordinates.

These lines,

therefore^ are not themselves diameters,

but may be considered as the

limits of diameters.

They

se-

parate those diameters which meet the curve, called transverse diameters,

from those which do not meet

second diameters.

As

it,

called

the diameters, both transverse and

second, approach to coincidence with these lines, they also

approach to coincidence with their ordinates; and the

ss

and sV are the

takes place
(107.)

limits at

lines

which that coincidence actually

these lines are called asymptots*

From

the position of transverse and second dia~

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
meters,

it is

0/

plain that the ordinates of the former intersect

the same branch of the curve, but those of the latter opposite

branches.

(108

If b 2

to those already

4ac

made

>

m <

and

0,

0,

inferences similar

will follow, with this difference, that

the angle scV, scs\ will then include the curve

diameters which meet

and the angles scV,

it

and the

s'cs,

include

the second diameters.

2
(109.) If b

4 ac

present an ellipse ,
values of r 9

real

intersects

m >

In

0.

>

this case ? if the

equation re~

>
M

0, therefore

are impossible,

r',

ways

<

-^

but the

and therefore
-

hence the values of

oc,

in (99), are al-

and unequal, therefore every diameter of an ellipse

it

in

two

points.

(110) If the axes of an

be unequal, the greater

ellipse

is

generally called the transverse, and the lesser the conj ugate
axis.

In an hyperbola, the axis which meets the curve

called the transverse,

and the other the conjugate

SECTION
Of the different forms of the
degree , related

is

axis.

IX.

equations of lines of the second

to different

axes of co-ordinates.

That an equation of the second degree should include under it any or all of the three classes of curves which
(111.)

have been investigated

in the discussion,

it

is

not necessary

that every dimension of the variables, consistent with

neral character, should

be found among

its

terms.

its

ge-

term

wanted does not

necessarily' render the equation less general,

if its generality

be estimated only by the curves included

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

58
under

it.

But, in another sense, the generality

impaired by such deficiency, which, though

it

always

is

may

not ex-

clude from the extension any of these classes of curves, yet

it

may

restrict the

curve in

its

position with respect to the

axes of co-ordinates by which the equation

As

the develop-

this circumstance gives great facility to

ment of the
be useful

constructed.

is

properties of lines of the second degree,

to ascertain the

form of the equation, (that

will

it

the

is,

terms of which

it

ticular positions

which the curve may assume with respect

corresponding to certain par-

consists,)

to the axes of co-ordinates.

PROP. XXXI.

(11

the form

To fnd

of

when

the equation

passes through the origin of co-ordinates

In order that

and x

this

Bxy

-f

should happen, the conditions

By

ex

0, should be co-existent,

kf

the curve

ex

4-

0,

the form

is

0.

PROP. XXXII.

and

the form

To Jlnd

(IIS.)

of the equation when a diameter

ordinates are parallel to the axes

of co-ordinates.
ordinates
are
parallel
to yy is
whose
The diameter,
=
0.
d
%\y + bx
its

In order that
b

is

this

necessary
Aj/

In

this case, also,

should be parallel to xx', the condition

therefore the form sought

ex

9,

By

e#

4-

is

0.

provided that a and b are both

finite,

the

diameter

2cx
has

its

+ By +

0,

ordinates parallel to xx', and therefore the curve

central,

and

the axes of co-ordinates parallel to a system

conjugate diameters.

is

of

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

59

PROP. XXXIII.

To find

(114.)

co-ordinates

the form
is

of the equation when

either axis

of

coincident with a diameter whose ordinates

are parallel to the other.

In addition to the condition b

then the diameter 2ky

b#

with xx', in this case the form

1

ky

But
diameter %cx

if in

and the form

will

(115.)

-f

cr

-j-

=
=

in (113) let

0,

be coincident

will

is

e^

addition to b

m/

+F=
=

0.

0, also

0,

then the

be coincident with yy',

will

be

Ay
In

i>

this case, if

9,

+ By + f =

ex*

0, the origin is at the vertex

0.

of the

diameter, and the equation becomes

ky %

cx %

+ nx =

(116.) If all these conditions,

0.

0,

0,

0,

be

fulfilled together, the axes of co-ordinates coincide with a

system of conjugate diameters, and the form

aj/

2,

In any of these

(117.)

the form

is

cx z

cases, if the origin

had by omitting

is

+ f = 0.
be on the curve,

f.

(118.) In case b == 0, if the curve be a parabola,

must

also

or c

0.

PROP, xxxiv.
(119.)

To find

theform of' the equation

when

the centre

of

the curve is at the origin.

The

co-ordinates of the centre in (94)

must each
;

0.

order that the centre should be at the origin

BD
If d
b2

and e were

4ac

ditions,

&AE = 0,

0,

finite,

BE

2CD

these equations

0, in

would give

which united with either of the above con-

would render the equation

either impossible, or that

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

60
of right lines

therefore, in order that the equation should

be that of a curve, the conditions must be

and e

0,

origin, the

satisfied

which shows that when the centre

form

by d

on the

is

is

Aj/

BXJ/

CX~

0.

PROP. XXXV.

To find

(120.)

when

the

lel to the

the

form of

the equation

of

the hyperbola

axes of co-ordinates are, one or both, paral-

asymptots.

In order that

should be parallel to yy', a

ss (105)

and in order that

s's

xx

should be parallel to

in order that both should take place together,

=
0,

05

and

= 0;

hence,
(121.) If an asymptot be parallel to

nxy

The

ex

By

xx , the form
f

Er + w

is

0.

equations of the asymptots are in this case

(

- x)=
,!

c(x

')

0, or

b(?/

=
B

-!-

(122.) If an asymptot be parallel

,!

to

B(*

the form

Ay + vxy + vy + e# + f
and the equations of the asymptots are
E

~ /) +

0.

xx ,

A(2/

0,

tf")

is

0.

0.

(123.) If both axes be parallel to the asymptots, the

form

is

Bxy

-f

ay

-f

e#

-f

and the equations of the asymptots are

-d -

0,

y +

-E

0.

(124) If an asymptot be coincident with yy',

therefore the form is
b =
;

0,


ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
ex 2

Bxy

E^

81

and the equations of the asymptots are

ex

0,

B(y

-f

y' ) =
!

0.

(125.) If one asymptot be coincident with xx', c

0, the

form

0,

is

Ay*

Bxy

Ey

-f

{-

~-

and the equations of the asymptots are

aj/

0,

b(^

7
<r' )

0.

(126.) If both asymptots be coincident with the axes of

co-ordinates,

:~ 0,

>xy -f

= 0, e =
f = 0.

PROP, XXXVI.
(1S7.)

To

find the form of the equation of the parabola

when one axis

is

a diameter and the other parallel

to its

ordinates, the origin being at its vertex.

If the equation be that of the parabola 5 c

origin being on the curve ? f
Aj/ 3

and the

form

0, therefore the

EX

is

0.

PROP. XXXVII.

To express the equation of a central curve related to

a system of conjugate diameters as axes of co-ordinates,
and in terms of those parts of the diameters which are

(1S8.)

intercepted within the curve.

In (116)

Jv

<z

y =
let

gives x*

z=z

A f2 5 and

a = b

intersects the axes of co-ordinates, 2a'

~~

and x

parts intercepted 5 and the equation sought

If the curve

/c
.

and 2b
is

gives

will

be the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

b%

A ^ft
a'

curve
for b

be an

will

ellipse, if

4ac = 4a'

(129.) If

In

made

being positive, or

a'

r'

from the

To

(130.)

nn

curve

this case the

distance

b'

B '%2

>

/2

by changing the

so

signs, the

an hyperbola,

if b !q>

<

0,

B f2 and

y*

+ #
a

is

A !* B te

yx =

90, the equation

is

/2
.

circle, since all points

are a given

origin.

express the equation of the circle in

most

its

general form, the origin and inclination of the axis should

not be limited.

A circle being defined to be a curve,

point of which

equidistant from a fixed point

is

every

tfoo\

its

equation must be (44)

y') (x x cos.yx = u'%

x*
2cos.
yx
or?/ +
yx
+ 2(y + x' cos.

r' = 0.
2(a? + / cos.^r)# +y + # + 2y x cos. yon

(y

yy +
l

(x

xy +

Q(y

j/.r)j/

f2

represents a circle, if a

Hence the general equation

and the axes of co-ordinates are assumed

.

cosine

is

at

an angle, whose

b
~-.

(131.)

To

express the equation.

Ay 2

c# 2

~ex

0.

In terms of the conjugate diameters; ify = 0, the value of

x being 2a ,
!

2a!

= -

a'

if

a',

the value of

will

be B

hence

,ft

E
-r-

4ac

h2

and the equation

Afy

B f2 zr ?

bejcomej

2a'b'*#

= 0.

6B

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

SECTION
Of the

X.

equations of'tangents, normals, subtangents,

and

subnormals.
Previous to an investigation of the properties of those
curves already defined,

it will

be necessary to determine the

equations of certain lines related to the curve, and on which

those properties depend.

PROP. XXXVIII.
(132.)

To

express the equation of a line passing through a

given point and touching a curve of the second degree.

Let the value of

b(x

x) =

in

y +

the equation a(y

of a right

line (pm) passing

through

the point (r) y x be substituted in the general

}

solved

second

of the

equation

and

degree,

the

result

x 9 gives

for

an

equation of the form

x
in

ma A/R

,2

a2 - %vab +

b,*6
,

which E 2 and Rf2 represent the quantities under the

radicals in (80) (6)

and

being substituted for yx,

(c), jfoi

and

p=

(b 2

4ac)j/W+(bd

2AE)y + (BE

(de bf)
the values of

2cv)x

and n being of no importance

to the present

inquiry.

In

like

pm being

manner

the value of

in the equation of the line

substituted in the general equation,

solved, for

gives

and the

result

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

64

m h ,/R
1

The
pttc,

line is

;2

fl

- %p fl6 + R 6 8

m and

a tangent when the points

m' unite as in

therefore they must have the same co-ordinates

it'

2p&5

4-

hence,

0,

which gives
b

p + Sa/mf'
~~

Where m
f

R f2

n ?2

a =

pVmf'

represents the formula (84),

= &y + B^y
]%

-f

hence, the equation sought

u 2 (?/

-y) +

Since the radical

two right

lines

their equations

n \y
K

r2

^
or

and therefore

+ ^Vmf'

~~

is

-\-

Dj/

and

-f-

ejt'

+r

is

(p

cx

jz

Vmf^

(a?

#)

= 0.

susceptible of two signs, there

may be

from the same point touching the curve;

may

separately be represented thus,

- y) +
+

(p

<*/)

(p

+' 2

vw) (# #0 =

+a

vm7) (/

o,

- y> = o.
f' = 0, and

(133.) If the point y x be on the curve

]

p __R /2 __

~~

~"~

It

2ca?

"""^Ay

+ By + E
+ B^ + D'

therefore the equation of a tangent to a point

curve

j/V on the

is

(SAy+B^+D) (y-y)+(2c^ +By+E) (#-#') =

f

Hence, and by (9$),

meter are

it

parallel to tangents

through

its vertices,

and

therefore, these tangents are parallel to each other.

follows, that the tangents

are parallel to

(134.) Def.
tact,

its

o.

follows that the ordinates to a diathat,

It also

through the vertices of a diameter

conjugate.

A right line passing through the point of con-

and perpendicular

to the tangent,

is

called a normal.

ALGEBKAIC GEOMETRY.

65

PROP. XXXIX.

To find

(135.)

From

the

may be

l(2cac!

bj/'

-[(^aj/

B.v

mal

of the normal.

equation of the tangent and the formula

it

in. (39),

the equation

inferred that the equation of the nor-

is

e)

-f
f

+ b^ +

(Sa/

+ v)-(2cx +
f

By

-j-

d) cos.

yx\ (y tf)
(%- ri) = 0.

e) cos.jat]

PROP. XL.

To find
(186.)

the subtangent*

The portion

of either axis of coordinates intercepted

between the points

p,

~b>

where the tan-

gent and a parallel

p'p to the other axis

through the point p

of contact intersect
is called

it,

a subtangent.

In (133) the value of

(x

?/=

x) corresponding to

tangent

the value of the sub-

is

on the axis of x, and the value of

responding to

is

the subtangent

s'

(j/

y)

cor-

on the axis of y;

therefore
s

2A^ + B^-fB
= ~ y 2cy+By+E
;

'

__
x
_

^c^+^y+E
f

Ayf.\- B x +i)'
!

PROP. XLI.
(137.)

portion,

pb

To find

the subnormal*

of each axis

of co-ordinates similarly

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

66

situated with respect to the normal

called a

subnormal, and

its

value

and the

parallel

pp

is

found in the same

is

manner from (135),

S

(2cr'-j-By-FE) (2Aj/

""^

\%Al/

'

+ B#' +

(2 A.?/ -f B#
"

+ B^ +D)
f

cos,

yx

I>)

(2c^ +

BJ/'

-f E) C0S./27

+ P) (^C^ -f By + E)

COS. ya?

(2c^ + By + e) (Saz/' + b^+d)

COS.Z/tfc*'

SECTION XL
Of the general properties of lines of the

second degree.

PROP. XLII.
(188.)
to

If several pairs of intersecting right

lines parallel

two right lines given in position meet a curve of the

second degree, the rectangles under their segments intercepted between the several points

of

intersection

and

the

corresponding points of occurse with the curve, will be in

constant ratio.

Let the

axis of co-or-

dinates be those lines which

meet the curve, the points

where they

intersect

it

are

found by supposing suc-

^~

cessively y

in

the

therefore

mined by the

az/

deter-

roots of

+ ejt + f = 0, (8)
+ vy +f = 0,(8).
F

Hence, ap x ap'

general equation,

and are
ex*

and #

= +

and Ap x Ap

therefore

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
AP'

AP X AP

AP X

67

'

The

values of a and c are not affected

by a

trans-

formation of origin without a change of direction, and there-

of co-ordinates are supposed parallel to

fore, since the axes

.

right lines given in position,

is

If the roots of (2) or (8) or both are

(139.) Cor. 1.

ax or ay or both

equal, the lines

constant.

rectangle under the roots

be tangents, and the

the square of the tangent;

is

hence the proposition (138)

will

extended to the squares of

is

tangents intersecting secants or intersecting each other.

(140.) Cor.

If a

which

place has but

this takes

and the

one root,

ore

equation in

(2) or (3), the

in

secant in-

curve in but one

tersects the

point.

Cor.

(141.)

Ap

0, in like

Ap meets

this

case

AP,

oc

If

(142.) Cor. 4,

0,

intersects the

curve but once, in

Ap

If c

8.

ax

the right line

manner

the

curve

but once, and

ap x AP

oc

(143.) Cor.

and

of the

lines

Ap.

If

5.

0, each

ax and ay

meets the curve but

once,

and ap

do

(144.) Cor.

when a

Ap.

If

6.

0, or c

0,

b be

finite,

the curve must be an

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

68

and ay or

hyperbola.,

ax

parallel

is

to

an

asymptot. Hence, in an
hyperbola,

if

asymptot,

to an

rallel

and App

ap be pa-

be a secant

parallel to a line given

in position,

Ap X Ap'
(145.) Cor. 7.

But

if

or c

the curve must be a parabola 5 and

Hence a

00 AP.

0,

and

also b

or

ax

a diameter.

ay

0,

similar inference follows with respect to the dia-

meter of a "parabola, as the parallel

hyperbola

scil., if

(146.) Cor. 8.

to the

ax be the diameter, Ap x
If a

and

0,

asymptot of an
Ap'

ap.

the curve

is

an

hyperbola, and the lines ax and ay are parallel to the asymptots.

Hence,

in this case

(147.) Cor. 9.
parallel to the

By

ap

so Ap.

(141) and (144),

it

appears that a

asymptot of an hyperbola and a diameter of

a parabola intersect the curve but once.

(148.) Cor. 10.

In central curves the rectangles under

the segments of secants are as the squares of the diameters

to

which they are

(149.) Cor. 11.

parallel.

In central curves the squares of the

ordinates are as the rectangles under the segments of the

diameter to which they are applied,

(150.) Cor. 12.

In a parabola the squares of the or-

dinates to any diameter are as the intercepts between

and the vertex of the diameter

(151.) Cor. 13.

to

them

which they are applied.

In a circle the rectangle under the seg-

ments of secants and the squares of tangents drawn through

the same point are equal.
(152.) Cor. 14.

In central curves intersecting tangents

are as the parallel diameters*

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
(153.) Cor. 15.

and dce be

If ap, ap'

dc x de dp
:

ap'

to Art. 157) be tangents,

(fig.

dc df e.

parallel to ap, then

2

69

For

ap

2
:

df

dp 2

2
:

prop. XLIII.
(154.)

To

express the equation of a line joining the points

of contact of two tangents drawnfrom a given

In the equation found

in (133), let

yx

'point.

be considered con-

and the co-ordinates y x' of the point of contact

variable, and their denominations consequently changed, the
f

stant,

equation becomes
(2aj/ -f- bx -f i>)y f (ftcx
1

by considering

+ Bj/

that the point

e)# -f ny +ET

4-

yx must

fulfil

+ 2f = 0,

the conditions

of the general equation of the curve.

PROP. XLIV.

The

Vine joining the points

of contact

to the

diameter passing through

the point

of the

tangents.

(155.)

For the equation found

to the line

whose equation

in (158)
is

is

is

an ordinate

of intersection

that of a line parallel

found in (9%) 9 as that of the

ordinates of a diameter through

y xK
]

PROP. XLV.

of the intersection of tangents through the

extremities of a chord parallel to a line given in position
is the diameter to which that chord is an ordinate.

(156.)

The

locus

For tangents through the

tersect

on the diameter

extremities of

to which

it is

any ordinate

in-

an ordinate.

PROP. XLVI.
(157.) Every

secant

drawn from

the point

of intersection of

meeting the curve in two points^ is cut

two tangents , and

harmonically hy the curve and the line joining the points

of contact*
Suppose the intersection a of the tangents, the

origin,

and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

70

the secant (acc'J. the axis of

,

hence,

ac'

AC X

AC'

and ac

'

In the equation (154) of

the line joining the points of

lety=0, which gives

contact,

ab

<2aC

Qt?

therefore

,
?

ab

X AC^

= AC+ACr,
:

and hence, ac, ab,

Ac' are in harmonical progression.

(158.) Cor. If acb intersect the curve in but one point c,

ab

be bisected

will

at c, since in that case

therefore the ratio of

when ac

is

ac

to

ab

1:2.

is

AC

is infinite,

and

This takes place

the diameter of a parabola or parallel to the

asymptote of an hyperbola.
PROP. XLVIT.
(159.)

To Jlnd

of

the locus

the intersection

of tangents

through the extremities of a chord passing* through a

given point.
In the equation found

in (154), let the variables

yx be

changed into constant co-ordinates (j/V) of the given point,

and

let

the co-ordinates y'x of the point of intersection of

f

the tangents be changed into variables yx, and the equation

becomes

(SAy + B^ + D)j/ + (^C^4-By4-E)^4-Dy+Er -fSF==0.

Hence, the locus sought is a right line parallel to the orf

dinates of the diameter passing through the given point,

and

intersects that diameter

when

the tangents through the

extremities of the ordinate through

(160.) Cor.

Hence,

if

y ri

intersect

the given point be

it.

upon the

the locus will be a right line perpendicular to the axis,

axis

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

71

PROP. XLVIII.

The

of contact of every pair

of tangents drawnJrom points in any right line intersect

(161.)

lines joining the points

each other at the same point.

For

the diameter be

if

to this right line,

drawn whose ordinates are

and from

parallel

their point of intersection

two

tangents be drawn, the point at which the line joining the

points of contact of these tangents intersect the diameter, is
that through which the line joining the points of contact of

every such system of tangents pass.

(162.) Def.

through

its

Any diameter being

AJ/

The

axis of #,

vertex axis of #, the equation

2

C# 2

line representing

+ E# =

0.

called the

is

and a tangent

is

parameter of the

diameter, which coincides with the axis of x.

To

express the equation of the curve in terms of the

parameter

p we have
%B

by which

fz

becomes

substitution the equation

It appears that the parameter of any diameter of an ellipse

or hyperbola

is

a third proportional to the diameter

the diameter conjugate to

(163.)

Def

itself,

and

it.

The parameter

of the axis

is

called the

principal parameter.
(164.)

Def

A point of the axis> whose ordinate

to half the principal parameter

is

is

called theJocus.

PROP. XLIX.

To find

the distance

of thefocus from

Let the equation be

Ay

7
-

-f

ex

7,

-\-.?.x

0.

the vertex.

equal

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

In

this,

*vA

being substituted for j/, the result

4ac#

4ae#

~f

is

= 0,

e*

4-

the roots of which are

The
A 'B
r

value of

i+\Arj-

= --{

*
x

expressed as a function of the semiaxes

is

+yl ^)

= A fl

If the curve be an

ellipse,

,Q

A'

and B

VA'*-B' 8

have the same

and therefore the value of x

is

Hence, there are wo foci on the

lesser axis

real only

where A

of an

sign,

>

ellipse,

b'.

and

there are two on the greater axis, equally distant from the

and the square of

centre,
is

their distance (c)

from the centre

equal to the difference of the squares of the semiaxes

Cl

If

a'

Af2

b'

the distance between the foci vanishes, and

b',

The

is

quantity j

is

called the eccentricity of the ellipse,

circle is

an

whose eccentricity

ellipse

If the curve be an hyperbola,

real,

In

this case, if

and c

value of

is

*/a!

nofoci on the one

axes

axis,

a'

and

b12 ; but

if

Hence,

and

<
<

b'

,a

b'

0.

have different

0, the value of

and

b'

>

is

0, the

an hyperbola there are

in

but two on the other equally distant

and the square of their distance from the

equal to the

is
i.

a 12 >

impossible.

from the centre

centre

when

circle.

and therefore a

signs.

i. e*

they both coincide with the centre, which takes place

the ellipse

sum

of the squares of the semi-

e.

C2

Af2

If the curve be a parabola, c

x becomes

infinite,

b' 2 .

and the other

is

therefore one value of

zz

p} where p

ex-

presses the the principal parameter.

Hence, in a parabola there

is

but one focus on the axis

at

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

73

a distance from the vertex equal to a fourth of the principal

parameter.
N

The

bola

axis passing through the foci of

an

ellipse or hyper-

the transverse axis, and the other the conjugate

is

axis.

The

(165.) Def.

right line, which

tersections of tangents

drawn through the

chord passing through the focus,

PROP.
(166.)

The

To

the locus of the in-

is

is

extremities of

any

called the directrix.

L.

determine the position of ilie directrix.

equation related to an axis and a tangent through

its

vertex being
Aj/

and

+ or + ex = 0;
2

the co-ordinates of the foci being

the equation of the directrix must be (159)

'-^{v'lr-cbut

if

0, the

equation of the locus

x = 0, or x
f

oc

1 }.--

^r-

'

is

0.

If the curve be the ellipse or hyperbola, the equation of

the directrix expressed as a function of the axes,

is

A*

4-

Hence

An

the distance of the directrix from the centre

is

ellipse

or hyperbola has

therefore

two

directrices

equally distant from the centre, and perpendicular to the

transverse axis, and a parabola but one, which

pendicular to the axis-

is

also per-

74

A LGEBRAIC GEOMET-KYe

SECTION
The

properties

of the

An

and hyperbola,

ellipse

PROP.
(167.)

XII.

LT.

hyperbola being expressed by an equa-

ellipse or

of co-ordinates, to express
lengths of any semidiameter^ and its semiconjugate, in

tion related to its axes as axes

the

terms of the co-ordinates of its vertex.

Let y x be the vertex of the

given semidiameter cd = a',
]

3)

but by equation of curve

A%/2

+ bV =
2

a*b 2 ;

hence,
A'*

Where c

a/a2

=
-

C 8^a

AsB 2

B%and

=~
A

b4

-f e*x'\

the distance of the focus

from the centre.

The

equation of cd being

yx yx
!

0, that of

cf

its

conjugate must he, (9$),

A2y^

By

this equation,

B 2 a?at

0.

and that of the curve, the co-ordinates of

their intersection are.

BX*

y
Therefore,

if

=B
_ BV

cf
f2

ellipse

"~~

or

In the

>

A 2y a _A4

b'

eat,

a2

CV

e 2 #' 2

and in the hyperbola a

<

ex

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

hyperbola B f2

is

f3

and

b'

negative,

hence, in ellipse A

75

are both positive; but in the

&

impossible,

is

in each sys-

tem of conjugate diameters of an hyperbola, one

is

a trans-

verse diameter,and the other a second diameter.

PROP.

In an

(168.)

sum of the squares of any system

is equal to the sum of the squares

ellipse, the

of conjugate diameters
of

an hyperbola,

the axes ; and, in

squares

is

equal

LII.

the difference

to

the difference

of

the squares

of the

of

the

axes.
2

For, by adding the values of a /2 and

result for ellipse

in (167), the

is,

A '2

And,

b'

since in hyperbola
A'

(169.) Cor, Hence,

b'
b'

if

B''

A2

B 2.

and b 2 are both negative,

2

A2

B2

the axes of an hyperbola be equal,

every system of conjugate diameters will be equal

curve

is

called

such a

an equilateral hyperbola.

PROP. LIIT.

Tofind the

(170.)

relation between the angles, at which

two conjugate diameters are inclined

axis*

By

(167) the equa-

tions of

on and cf

yx y x
!

a 2j/z/

are,

0,

b*xKv

= 0,

hence,
tang,

dc a

=y
-~r,
tang,
5

and tang, fca

dca x

tang,
to

fca

=
=

b 2 jt

-,;
~

As

any

to the transverse

therefore,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

?6

In the

ellipse, therefore,

signs,
if

cd

and

cd

must

the angle bca, cf

in bce,

lie

cf must

bce

bca.

lie in

In the hyperbola the same product

positive, since b' 2 is

is

and therefore cd and cf

negative,

Hence

in the angle

lie

is

different

the angles must have different affections.

lies in

if

the product of the tangents

and therefore they must always have

negative,

both in the same

lie

angle.
(171.) Cor.

In an

1.

ellipse, if

a second system of con-

jugate diameters were at right angles,

b2

it

fca

for in this case tang. dca. tang,

would be a

+1 =

A 2 , therefore the curve would be a

fca

1,

circle.

(178.) Cor, 2. In an hyperbola, if b 2

tang,

circle

0, therefore

a 2, tang. dca.

hence in an equilateral hyperbola, the con-

jugate diameters make complemental angles with the transverse axis.

PROP. LIV.

To

(173.)

express the polar equation

bola, the

centre

being the pole,

measuredfrom the transverse

By
z

(167)

is

b2

will

ellipse,

the

or hyper-

angle being

axis.

e*x 2 , for a

and the equation

^

cos. w,

which

a'

of an
and

substitute

become

z*

z,

and

for

1
e Q cos. w
=-

the equation required.

PROP. LV.
(174.) Diameters which

make equal angles with

the trans-

verse axis are equal.

For z

in the last

iiameters

Prop,

make equal

when measured

in the

is

a function of cos. 2 w, and

if

two

angles, the angles which they form,

same

direction, are supplemental

squares of their cosines are equal.

the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
PROP. LVI.

To find

(175.)

The

the greatest

and

least diameters.

value of z in the polar equation

is

maximum, when

maximum. In the ellipse e < 1, v e cos. cv < 1,

v 1 e cos. tv is a minimum, when cos. to a maximum, i. e*
when w = 0. Also # is a minimum, when cos. w a minie cos.

mum,

a; is

when w

2. e.

diameter

Hence,

an

and the

the transverse axis,

is

in

ellipse,

the greatest

least the

conjugate

axis.

In the hyperbola, z

1a
A +B

be

will

infinite

when

cos. 2

-~

Between

this value

of

cos.

w and
9

and between

the values of s are impossible,

it

cos.

(a

0,

and unity

they are continually diminishing.

Hence,

if

a line be drawn through the centre, represented

tang, w

by the equation y

0, or

Ay > bx

0, all

the diameters between this line and the transverse axis meet
the curve, and
diameters.

perbola

is

all

between

Hence

and the conjugate are second

the transverse axis.

(176.) Cor. 1.

The

line represented

Ay
is

it

the least transverse diameter of an hy-

by the equation,

bx = 0,

an asymptote (105) for similar reasons: the other

at/

bx

is,

0.

PROP. LVII.

The asymptots of an hyperbola make equal angles

with the transverse axis, and are the diagonals of a recU
angle, formed by lines drawn through the vertices of each

(177.)

parallel to the other.

For the tangents of the angles which they make with the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

78

transverse

measured

axis

same

in the

and

direction, are

which are

therefore supplemental,

H CE
f

angles

the

therefore

are equal,

ch,

and

hca,

ch

are the asymptots.

PROP, lviii.

To find whether any and what

(178.)

system of conjugate

diameters in an ellipse are equal.

In order

with

angles
tang,

dca

tang,

fca

be equal they must, by (174), make equal

to

the

tang,

axis,

fca

==

tang,

'

dca

tang,

dca

tang, fca,
-,

but

and

the equation of the equal conjugate

diameters are,

(179.) Cor.

Ay b#
The
1.

0,

Ay

+ bx =

0.

equal conjugate diameters are the

diagonals of the rectangle, formed

by tangents through the

extremities of the axes, and are in that respect analogous to

the asymptots of an hyperbola.

(180.) Cor.

If an ellipse and hyperbola have the same

axes, the equal conjugate diameters of the ellipse are the

asymptots of the hyperbola.

(181.) Cor. 3.

The

equation of the

ellipse, referred to

equal conjugate diameters as axes of co-ordinates,

y%

-j~

x*

= A%
f

being analogous to that of the

(182,) Cor. 4.

The

is

circle.

co-ordinates of the vertices of equal

conjugate diameters are found from the equations

Ay - bx

=. 0,

and a 2 ?/ 2

-f b

V=a

b2

AL GE ERAIC GEOMET R

They

79

are, therefore,

r
(183.) Cor. 5. If A be one of the equal conjugate diameters,

The

(184.) Cor. 6.

pendent of

value of

and that

b,

one axis of an

in the cor. 4. being inde-

of?/ independent of a, shows, that if

given the locus of the extremities of

ellipse is

equal conjugate diameters are parallel lines,

PROP. LIX,
(185.)

To find when

By
(a*

(167), a!*

e*x*) (B

For the

sign,

mum

when they

e*x\ b ?s

a2

~-e*x~,

a^

e*x*).

the factors of this product have

ellipse,

same

is

b*

under a system of cona maximum and minimum.

the rectangle,

jugate diameters,

sum

their

constant,

is

are equal

v the product

the

a maxi-

is

hence, the major limit

is

the

equal conjugate diameters.

product

It is evident, also, the

are most unequal,

i.

e.

hence the minor limit

is

when x

limit.
.L e.

is

The minor

a,

minimum when they

maximum,
a
vx = a

is

the axes.

For the hyperbola, the

fore their difference

is

have different

factors

given, consequently there

limit is

signs, there-

no major

is

found by taking x a minimum,

the minor limit

is

the axes.

PE-OP. LX.

(186.)

To

find the limits of the

sum and

difference

of a

system of conjugate diameters.

Let

s2

In an

a'

ellipse,

b'

a'

+
+

2a'b',

,z

is

and d 2

a' 2

b' 2

a given magnitude,

2a'b'.

s is


ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

80

maximum

or

minimum

the major limit

same time with

at the

a'b'

hence,

and the

the equal conjugate diameters,

is

minor the axes.

For the same reason the major limit of d

it has no minor limit.

is

the difference

of the axes, and

In the hyperbola, Afa

creases without limit, b'

must

must increase without

Also, since sd

a'

d must diminish without

Also

It

is

constant,

and

since a' in-

also increase without limit,

and

limit.

B ri , and

increases without limit,

limit.

minimum where

s is

they are the axes.

a

b' 2 is

and B are
f

a'

evident that d

so

at the

is

i. e.

where

same time

maximum.
prop. Lxr.

(187.)

system of conjugate diameters being axes of co-

of a tangent through a

ordinates, to Jlnd the equation

given point*

The

y x\

given point being

stituting for

f2

j/

ie' ,

A l2y y
!

its

by sub-

the equation sought

value a,2 b' 2

b'V#

a,2 b' 2

is,
.

PROP. LXIX.
(188.)

To

ellipse

and subnormal of an
a system of conjugate

express the subtangent

and hyperbola

related to

diameters as axes of co-ordinates*

Let

subtangent,

the subnormal, and

the

angle under the conjugate diameters.

ByJ the formula, in (136),

h
v

'

m the ellipse

f2

y' 2

b'

(a' 2

= ~r, S T-,
B

-x

f2

A'y -

'

=-

Vr
,

COS.

xK

0"

And

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

A,
f

if

hyperbola a/2 / 2

Cor.

(189.)

ch

2
2
b' (#'

#'

CH

a?

')

j-;

and if

it*

a' 2

+s=

For the

Since in ellipse

1.

a' ),

be the axes of the curve s

a', b'

BV
= -

be the axes of the curve s

b' ;

81

and

= a!

in hyperbola

It follows that,

in an ellipse or hyperbola, if a tangent

and ordinate be drawn from any point

meet the same diameter, the

to

semidiameter

is

mean

between

proportional

the parts of the

dia-

meter

intercepted be-

tween

them

and

the

centre.

Cor. 2.

(190.)

value of

s,

The

being independent of B ,
f

is

the same for

any num-

ber of ellipses or hyperbolas described on 2a' as diameter,

and having the conjugate diameters coincident with

cf.

prop. LXIII.
(191.)

To

express the magnitude of the normal related to

the axes, as axes

If

be the subnormal, and

being the normal,

s"

But A 2*/2

bV
=L+

of co-ordinates.
y x the point on the curve, n
]

2
-f-

but by the

+ bV

last

Prop.

'

A 2 B 2 ~~ B 2 #' 2 ,

A 4J/ /2

A2

BV = B (A
2

C2

2
)

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY^

82

PROP. LXIV.

Any semidiameter is

(19&)

a mean proportional between the

parts of the tangent which

is

parallel to

it,

intercepted be-

tween the point of contact, and any system of conjugate

diameters*

Let the semidiameter cd

through the point of con-

and

tact,

its

conjugate cf

be the axes of co-ordinates,

and

and

let cd',

cf'

be any

other system of conjugate

diameters.

The

point d' being #y, the

equation of cd'

is

y x = 0,

yaf

and that of cf'

is

+ B V# =

A yy
,2

In each of

these, let a' be sub-

stituted for #,

and the

responding values of

dt

-.

and bt

corare.,

^od
7-7.
A'y'

dt x

Hence,

The

-^-,
= aV

0.

dt'

B 2.

sign being negative for the ellipse,

and

positive for the

hyperbola, shows that they are at different sides of cd in the

one, and on the same in the other.

PROP. LXV.
(193.)

The

trianglesformed

by ordinates

to

any diameter cd

from
of a system qf conjugate diameters
and the intercepts between them and the centre are equal.
the extremities

For

if

the point v! be

',

y x\ the
f

co-ordinates

yx of the point

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

f'

by

are

A
= by

B'X'

(167),

83

oc
-j,
IT''

Since the angles y#', and j/a? are supplemental, their sines
are equal, therefore the area of the one triangle

y'x

sin.

is

yx
and of the other

yx sin. yx

bx
!

Ay
f

is

sin.

yx

y af
l

sin.

yx

PROP. LXVI.

If on

(194.)

the axes

of an

ellipse as

diameters circles be de-

scribed, that on the transverse axis will be entirely outside

the ellipse, touching

it

at

tlie

extremities

of this axis ; that

will be entirely within the ellipse, touch-

on the conjugate

ing at the extremities of its conjugate axis.

Let A be the

semi-

transverse axis,

and b the

semiconjugate

let

y be

the ordinate of the large

circle

on

a,

az

but in the

ellipse

and

a2

since

>

b 2,

y > y,

must be outside the

In

like

manner,

of the other

but in the
b

<

therefore every part of the circle

ellipse.

let

x be the ordinate of the diameter 2b

circle.

ellipse

a? x <

X2 =
A2

B2

*/ 3

= ~(B y ) = A
b*
B
;

"

'

;
2,

And

since

x, therefore every part of the circle lies within

the ellipse.
It is obvious that they touch as stated above.

a 2

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

84

(195.) Cor.

Y = A

all

ordinates to the diameter

the circle are cut in the same ratio

by the

ae of

ellipse.

PROP. LXVII.

If a

(196.)
to

which

be

an

circle be orthographically projected

it is

an angle

inclined at

projection of the diameter of the circle, which

The
it.

on a plane,

projection will

ellipse.
is

on the plane equal and parallel

parallel to the plane, is a line

to

(#), its

Ordinates being supposed to be drawn to this diameter

be perpendicular to the

circle, their projections will

of the

projection of the diameter,

and have

to the ordinates

them-

selves the ratio of the cosine of angle of projection to radius,

which being a constant

must be an

ellipse,

of their extremities

ratio, the locus

by (195.)
PROP. LXVIII.

The angles in

(197.)

the semiellipse, whose base is the trans-

verse axis, are obtuse; those in the semiellipse^ ivhose base

is its

conjugate , are acute.

The

proof

is

obvious from (194), and the angle in the

semicircle being right.

PROP. LXIX.

To find

(198.)

the limits
ellipse

Let any point on the

lines passing

of the angle inscribed in a semion either axis.

ellipse

be y x } the equation of two

f

through the extremities of the axis and that

point are,

y(x

By

a) y\xh) =

y{x

0,

+ a) y\x +a)

the formula, in (31),

tang. IV

=-

-j;

;.

0.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

85

But by the equation of curve

If A

>

b this

negative, therefore the angle being ob-

maximum when

tuse, is a
is

is

when y

b, since

is

angle being acute must be a

Hence

tangent

its

ab 2

is

minimum

But
is

is

whose base

the

And

in a

the conjugate axis, the least angle

is

which can be inscribed

b,

case.

that whose

is

at the extremity of the conjugate axis.

semiellipse,

<

a transverse axis,

the greatest angle which can be inscribed

vertex

if

same

in the

whose base

in a semiellipse,

a minimum, which

invariable.

that whose vertex

is

at the ex-

is

tremity of the transverse axis.

PROP. LXX.
(199.)

If two

drawnfrom

right lines be

diameter of an ellipse or hyperbola

the extremities

to

any point

oft

ofa
the

curve, the diameters parallel to these are conjugate.

In order that the two

through the centre,

lines

ax

0,y

a!jo == 0,

should be conjugate diameters, the conditions

must be

But

fulfilled.

if

ad

the two right lines connect a point

in the curve with the extremities of a diameter, their equations related to that diameter,

y{xl

a)

y\x

and, in this case, aa

a)

=
0C

curved =
hence

? (a- - *), v

'~

Hence

is

its

conjugate are,
a)

y\x

-f

a)

= 0,

% and by the equation of the

-^ = - ^, v

lines parallel to these

(200.) Cor, 1.

and

0, y{p

ad

= - -;

must be conjugate diameters.

obvious a geometrical method of

drawing a diameter conjugate

to a given one.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

86

Let cd be the given

dia-

meter, and ae any other;

from e draw a
to

lel

cd,

line

join

el paralal, and

through c draw a diameter,

cf, parallel to al; cf

is

the

semidiameter conjugate to cd.

(201.) Cor.

which

% To

shall contain a

find a system of conjugate diameters,

given angle.

On the transverse axis describe a

segment of a

circle,

which

and join the extremities of the

shall contain the given angle,

axis with the point where, this segment intersects the ellipse,

diameters parallel to these lines will be conjugate, and contain the given angle.

(Q02.) Cor. 8.

The

equal conjugate diameters are parallel

to the lines joining the extremities of the axes.

(203.) Cor.

4<.

The

property expressed in the proposition

furnishes a geometrical

given point.

that through the point,

to this

is

method of drawing a tangent

Find, as in Cor.

and a

at a

1,

the diameter conjugate to

line

through the point parallel

the tangent.

prop. lxxi.
(204.)

To find

the most oblique conjugate diameters.

Let a perpendicular p be

drawn from the extremity d of

any diameter a' on its conjugate,
sin.

dcf(9)

But the equa-

tion of cf being

A V#

By

formula (50), p

+ bV# =
-

0.

</A 4y*+BV*

But by theequa-

87

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
tion of the curve,

a 2 b 2 (a 2

e*ri%

AB
But, by (167),
b'

a2

eV% v

sin. 9 == -7-7.

Hence the sine 8 is a minimum, when a'b is a maximum, z. e

when A = B hence the most oblique conjugate diameters
;

are those which are equal.

(205.) Cor, Since a tangent through the vertex of

diameter

is

any

parallel to its conjugate, the value of the sine of

the angle under any diameter and the tangent through

vertex

its

AB

is, -7-7.

a'b'

prop. LXXII.
(206.)

The

rectangle under the normal to

any

point,

and

the transverse axis is equal to the rectangle under the

conjugate axis, and the semi-diameter conjugate to that

passing through the point.

For, by (191),
b'

a/a

*/a 2

- e*r 8

and by (167),

- e'W v 2an =

2bb'.

PROP. LXXIII.

magnitude qf a parallelogram formed by

tangents through the vertices of a system qf conjugate

(207.)

Tojind

the

diameters.

Since the sides of the parallelogram are parallel respectively to the conjugate diameters 2a', 2b', they

to them,

and

inclined at the

of the parallelogram

same angle

is 4a'b' sin. 0,

0.

must be equal

Hence the area

which, by

(204?), is

equal

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

88,

Hence,

4ab.

all

parallelograms formed by tangents through

the vertices of a system of conjugate diameters are equal

the rectangle under the axes.

PROP. LXXIV.

To find

(08.)

of any point in an

the distance

ellipse

or

hyperbola from the focus.

The

axes of the

curve being assumed

of

co-or-

the

equa-

axes

as

dinates,

tion

is,

+ b = a bV
c)
(x
=
sought,
distance
the
be
+
Let d

B
+ A c)
V A D = A + A%X cy = A B
a 2/ 2

x>

?/

9 2
j/

in

tf

which substituting

(ff

c* its value,

and taking the square root of the

result,

ad

= +

VD = (A
where

For the same value of

values of d, which

cx\

,
#)= (A<?#),

two equal

#, there are, therefore,

what should be expected

is

values of d correspond to these.

represented in the figures

by fp and FP
r

if was

values of d are

the point from the focus F

and the two

_y 9

The two

If c be taken negatively the distance

d' will

on the negative

be that of

side of the

Hence,
i>

ellipse

d and

In an

e expresses the eccentricity.

eliminated, which has two equal roots

centre.

(a 2

d'

x)

+ ex

must have the same

being both less than a,

must be

less

)-

sign, for c

than

it also.

and x

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

But

in a hyperbola, since c

must

a,

D have
f

and x are both greater than

be greater than a

also

89

v in an

hyperbola d and

By the solution of the equation,

A y + B*# 2 = A 2 B 2
in the ellipse, and
consideration that b 2 >

different signs.
9

and from the

<
x > a
b2

render

in the hyperbola,

in the

and

ellipse,

it

is

obvious that any value of

< a

in the hyperbola,

would

impossible.

PROP. LXXV.

In an

(209. )

from

sum of the distances of any point

and in an hyperbola the difference of those

ellipse the

thefoci,

distances, are respectively equal to the transverse axis.

For adding the values of d and

d

D being
f

d'

jJ in

the last Prop.

2a,

and negative

for the hy-

ellipse is the locus

of the vertex

positive for the ellipse,

perbola.

Hence, an

(210.) Cor. 1.

sum of the
locus, when the

of a triangle, of which the base and

given; and an hyperbola

difference of the sides

is

is

the

sides are

base and

given.

PROP. LXXVI.
(311.)
1.

To

describe

an

ellipse

and hyperbola mechanically.

Let the extremities of a cord be

pencil looped in the cord,

moved

fixed to

two points, a

so as continually to keep

the cord stretched, will describe an ellipse of which the

points are the foci,

and the length of the cord the transverse

axis.
2.

Let one extremity a of a

that the ruler can

another point b

move round

let the

straight ruler
it

in the

be fixed, so

same plane, to

extremity of a cord be fixed.

The

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

90

ruler being turned so

as to pass

through the

point b, let the cord

pass through a ring

attached to the ruler

and capable of

at p,

sliding

be fastened to

moved

it

at

any

distant point

The

c.

same plane round the point

in the

upon

it,

and

ruler being

a, a pencil at-

tached to the sliding ring at the point p will describe an

hyperbola.

PROP. LXXVII.

To

(212.)
pole,

express the polar equation, the focus being the

and

the transverse axis the axis

from which

the

angles are measured.

For the value of d found

and %

cos.

c for

x
%

the result after reduction

e2 )

is

a(1-^)

=
1

or since (1

in (208), let z be substituted,

+ 0COS. W
Ba

= -,

p
2

P
~~

2(l-f-*cos.o;)'

If the angle w be measured from any right line making with

the transverse axis an angle

a(1-<?

2{1 + ecos.

<p 9

(p

w)}

2{l + cos. (p

>)}"

PROP. LXXVIII.
(213.)

The

thefoci

jugate

rectangle under the distances

is

of any pointfrom

equal to the square of the semidiameter con-

to that

passing through the point.

For from (208) dd'

a2

e*x% and by (167),

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

91

PROP. LXXIX.
(214}.)

To find the length of a perpendicular ^ from the

focus on a tangent through any point (y x )
!

The

equation of a tangent being

^y y +

b2

the value of p
P

is

b2

o,

found by (50),

a 2 cx

= -

ft

(Ay2 4-BV a y

But by the equation of

A4yfz +

^a

B x iz

the curve,,

P A

2(

appears that

it

).

Hence,

/ a g^ \4
r

If e be taken negatively, the length of the perpendicular

p"

from the other focus on the tangent

*

is,

= - b(^V.
\&ex /
J

PROP. LXXX.
(215.)

7%e

rectangle under

the perpendiculars

foci on a tangent through any point

is

from

the

equal to the square

ofthesemiconjugate axis.

For by the

last

Prop.
p'p"

b2.

PROP. LXXXI.
(216.)

Theperpendicularsfrom thefoci on a tangent through

any point are as

the distances

of

focus*

For, from (214),

a eod

p'

p"

~~

A + ex

r>

""

Dr

that point from the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

92

PROP. LXXXIX.
(217.)

The

lines connecting

any point with

the foci are

equally inclined to the tangent.

For the angles

tangent being

and

sm.

but by

last

which d and

at

vf are

fl

and

sin.

0'

Prop.
p'

(218.) Cor. 1.

B f2

sm.

n/-

and dd'

inclined to the

Sin.

2
$

sin.

p'p"

but by (215), PP"

B*

by (213)
Sin.

(219.) Cor. 8.

(7

= r.

The normal

bisects the angle

under the

focal distances.

(220.) Cor. 8.

The

property expressed in the

Prop, points out a geometrical

method of draw-

ing a tangent to a point

on the curve.

For
be drawn from the point to the

foci,

ellipse

which

and

let lines

if

df, df',

the curve be an

df produced, the
;

line

bisects the angle FD/*is a

tangent.

If the curve be an

hyperbola, the line which bisects fdf' is the tangent.

(221.) Cor.
foci

Ifoneofthe

be a point from which rays emerge, which obey the

same law of

reflection as those of light,

and that the curve

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

9$

be a reflecting substance, the reflected rays,

an

converge to the other focus

ellipse, will

hyperbola, they will diverge from

It

it.

is

if

the curve be

and

if it

from

be an

this pro-

perty that the foci have received their name.

PROP. LXXXIII.
(82.)

contact
to

line

being drawn

and

the centre

Let the

line

=
=

tangent

Hence, z

the length

0,

thejbcus to the point of

line from the centre parallel

of a tangent, and a

it, to find

tangent

from

the latter intercepted between

of

the tangent.

sought be

and the angle

z,

and the perpendicular from centre on the

^-

AB

but p

~^~ by (808), and by (818),

r,

A.

Hence, the locus of the intersection of

is

makes with the

p.

sin. 8

tangent

it

this line with the

the periphery of a circle described on the trans-

verse axis as diameter.

PROP. LXXXlV.
(823.)

To find

a right

of a tangent and
passing through the

the locus of the intersection

line perpendicular

to

it

focus.

The

equation of the tangent

A*t/y

The

xw
!

is

A*B 2

equation of the perpendicular

A2y x
!

Eliminating

yW,

*a!y

Acy

1
.

observing the condition,

A2y 2

B *rf2 _-

A 2 B 29

and arranging the terms according

we have

is

to the dimensions of

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

94

+ (2#* 2c# ~B% 2 + (#4 ~ %CX - B

?/

# 2 + 2a 2 C,T~ AQC2 ) = 0,

which resolved, gives

^=

~2^+2c^ + b 2 (2c^-!-b
,

-~2a 2 )

which gives the two equations,

%
y +

The first

is satisfied

- cf =
A2

only by y

ordinates of the

(x

+^ =

0,

0,

c,

which are the co-

one extremity of the perpendicular

the

of the circle described on the transverse

latter is the equation

axis as diameter, which

is

therefore the locus sought.

PROP. LXXXV.

In an ellipse or hyperbola the semitransverse axis is

proportional between the distances of thefocus and
mean
a

(224.)

directrix from the centre.

A by
2

For

the distance of the directrix from the centre

is

(166.)

(225.) Cor. 1.

Hence, in an

ellipse the vertex lies be-

tween the centre and directrix ; but in the hyperbola, the

directrix lies

between the centre and the vertex ; for

C

(226.) Cor.

y#

>

A,

The

A2

perpendicular distance of any point

in the curve from the

A >

directrix is

A 2 CX

~~

~~

PROP. LXXXVI.
(227.)

from

The

distance

of any point in an

ellipse

or hyperbola

the focus has a constant ratio to the perpendicular

distance

of the same pointfrom

For by (208) d

the directrix.

and by the

last

Prop., the

95

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
from

distance

directrix

is

the ratio of which c

a,

c
is

independent of the co-ordinates of the point.

This

a ratio of minor inequality for the ellipse, and of

is

major inequality for the hyperbola.

PROP. LXXXVII.

(228.)

line

being drawn Jrom the Jbcus

to

any point in

of the intersection of a perpenthe Jbcus with the

the curve 9 to find the locus

drawn through

dicular to this line

tangent

The

equation of the line drawn from the focus to the

yx
f

point

being

y'x +y c ~

(x -~ c)y

The

equation of perpendicular to
y'y

If

(#' -

c)x

c(c

-f

be eliminated by means of

/'

the tangent through

0.

it is

x =
1

0.

this equation^

x, the result after

and

reduction

that of

is

A2
Hence the

locus sought

is

the directrix.

PROP. LXXXVIII.
(229.)

The asymptol of

position

Jrom

of the tangent,

the hyperbola is the limit

the distance

tangent solved for

it,

y
*

the

the centre being indefinitely increased.

Let the point of contact be

in

of

of the point of contact

yx
]

the equation of the

and the value of y being substituted

f

r/

gives

= _
+

BX

A Ar

,a

AB

x
--A 2

^ -A
ft

AB

V^

~-A 2

4/l-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

96

As

rf

is

indefinitely increased, the value of

as a limit

=+

but y

approaches

the equation of the

is

asymptots.
(280.) Cor.

Hence,

1.

it

appears that the asymptots are

the diagonals of a parallelogram formed by tangents through

the vertices of every system of conjugate diameters.

bisected

drawn connecting the ex-

If a line be

(231.) Cor. 2.
tremities of

any pair of conjugate diameters,

by one asymptot, and

it

will

parallel to the other

be
for

these extremities are the points of bisection of the sides of

the parallelograms., of which the asymptots are the diagonals.

PROP. LXXXIX.
(282.)

To find

the equation

of

the asymptots related to

any

system of conjugate diameters.

The

equation of the tangent related to any system of

aV is
y y + ^x'x =

conjugate diameters
kH

/I
orA

The

--^r +

when

form

when

fft

*=

a'b'

od is indefinitely increased is the

equation of the asymptots,

as

fft

1^

'n/

limit of this

A B

Ay
f

b'x i= 0,

which

is

the same

related to the axes.

prop, xc,
(288.)

The

intercept

of a tangent

to

an hyperbola between

the two asymptots is equal to the diameter to which

parallel^

The

and

is bisected

at the point

it is

of contact.

diameter through the point of contact and

its

con-

jugate being axes of co-ordinates, the equation of the asymptots

is

Ay
f

nx
f

0.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

If in this

A,
f

= +

97

B , hence the proposition

f

is

manifest.

PROP* XCL

If any right

(234.)

duced

to

and asymptots are

the curve

The
it

is

line intersect

an

hyperbola,

and

be pro-

meet both asymptots, the two intercepts between

equal.

diameter parallel to the right line and that to which

an ordinate being taken as axes of co-ordinates 3 the

equation of the hyperbola

is

the equation of asymptots,

Ay +
!

From

six

0.

the form of these equations,

axis of

is

it

evident that the

bisects the part of the line intercepted between the

two asymptots, as the two values of y are equal with opposite

signs.

It also bisects the part intercepted within the curve

and hence

it

follows that the

and the asymptots are

two intercepts between the curve

equal.

PROP. xcn.
(235.)

A right line bping intercepted betzoeen

the rectangle
is

equal

The

under the segments of

to the

it

the curve

square of the parallel semidiameter*

axes of co-ordinates being as in the

the segments are

W
V
-_#'
a'

a!

being the

the asymptots?

made by

sum and

v^'a

a'

last Proposition,

2
,

difference of the values of y for the curve

and asymptot, which, when multiplied, give

b'

2
.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

98

PROP, XCIII.
(236.)

of a parallel to an asymptot
between the curve and the directrix.

To find

the intercept

Let the point where the

meets the curve be y x

f

parallel

the perpendicular distance of the point from the directrix

f2

by

(226) 3

Gcc

is

parallel to the

an d tne sine of the angle at which the

asymptot

inclined to the directrix

is

Hence, the intercept of the

is

parallel required is

A * ~ QOd
>
A
f

and therefore the distance of any point

the focus (208),

is

in the curve

from

equal to a parallel to the asymptot drawn

from the same point to the

directrix.

prop. xciv.
(237.)

The asymptots of an

equilateral hyperbola intersect

at right angles.

For

their equation is

3/

+ x=

0,

each

is

inclined to

the transverse axis at half a right angle, and therefore they

make with each

other a right angle.

prop, xcv,

Iffrom any point in an hyperbola, parallels to each

asymptot be drawn to meet the other, the parallelogram
under these is of a constant magnitude, and equal to a

(238.)

fourth part of the parallelogram formed by

the extremities

The

lines joining

of the axes*

equation of hyperbola related to

its

asymptots

is

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

The

line joining the vertices

since

it is

v x =~c

x=i of other
F

hence

lelogram under

yx

is

equal to c; and

one asymptot, and bisected by the other,

parallel to

when y \ c,

of the axes

99

is

diagonal of rectangle under axes,

-r-

"."

yx

=
C2

And as the paral-

equiangular with that whose side

is c,

they are equal.

PROP.XCVI.
(239.)
tots,

The subtangent of an hyperbola

as axes of co-ordinates,

is

related to its

equal

the asymptot between the ordinate

of

asymp-

to the intercept

the "point

of

and

the

centre.

Since the point of the tangent intercepted between the

asymptots

is

bisected at the point of contact, the ordinate

parallel to each

asymptot from the point of contact, must

bisect the parts of the other intercepted

and the

between the tangent

centre.

SECTION
Of the

XIII.

parabola.

PROP. XCVIT.
(40.)

A parabola

is the limit

of an

ellipse or hyperbola, the

parameter of which being given, the transverse axis

is

increased without limit.

For the equation of an

being at the vertex,

Ay

is
-1-

ellipse or

hyperbola, the origin

(181),

bV -

2ab% =

the parameter being p,

AP

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

100

making

and dividing by

this substitution,

A*, the equation

becomes

If

a be supposed

be increased without

to

limit,

remaining

unvaried* the second term disappears, and the equation be-

comes

which

is

that of a parabola.

PROP. XCVIII.
(241.)

Tofind

the equations

of a tangent and normal of a

parabola*

The

equation of the parabola related to a diameter and a

tangent, through

its

vertex as axes of co-ordinates,

2

3/
f

jp

px =
]

0,

being the parameter of that diameter (162).

tion of the tangent

is,

or since

pfat =

#')

equa-

Pi x

- #) =
f

0,

9nfy

The

The

therefore, (133),

%y\y y*

is

p(x +

equation of the normal

is

%>)

= 0.

therefore

(p + %/ cos. j/^) (# y) -f (%/ + y cos. yx) (x - a? )

and if the axis of x be that of the curve, it becomes
p\y y) + %'(# - x ) = 0.
;

PROP. XCIX.
(&42.)

To

j^wd

tffte

subtangent and subnormal of the

parabola.

The

subtangent being

by the formulae

s,

and subnormal

(136), (137),
s

become

%oc\

y +%/ cos. yx

s, their

values

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
If the axis of

x be

101

that of the curve, the value of the sub-

normal becomes

Hence,

in a parabola the subtangent

and the subnormal

is

bisected

by the curve,

relative to the axis is constant,

and equal

to half the principal parameter.

prop.
(243.)

To find, the

distance

c.

of a point in a parabola from

thefocus.

Let the sought distance be z9 and j/# the

f

co-ordinates of the focus being

To find

0,

-j-,

X + ~r.
1

PROP.
(244.)

The

point.

CI.

the polar equation

of a parabola^ thejbcus

being the pole.

Let

<p

be the angle which the axis of the parabola makes

with the fixed axis from which the values of w are measured,
If yx be any point on the curve,

(#

-~) = s

cos*

(w

p).

by (243)

=x+ P

Hence,

P
%~% cos* (-?) + -g-,

v
or,

since

sin.

...

(o>

__'

"{1 cos. ( <?)}'

- p) = 2(1 cos. (w -

<?)},

but

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

102

and

if

sin.

'

p)

axis

<p

0, there-

is

z
(v

i (w

2,

w be measured from the

the angle

fore the polar equation

If

~~

sin.

..

iw

be measured on the negative side of the focus, these

equations become

P_

r
Z
~~

Hence

(245.) Cor.

cos. 2 -|w

=
2(1

all

+e cos.

o>)

three species of lines of the second degree.

represents an ellipse if e

hyperbola

a>)

the equation

includes

cos.

_.

2(1

if #

>

<

1,

a parabola

if #

1,

It

and an

prop. en.
(246.) J. rigAf Zm<?

6^i^ drawn

through thefocus of any

line of the second degree and terminated in the curve,

',

to

find the relation between the parts intercepted between the

focus and the curve.

By

the polar equation the intercepts z 9

S-

x=s
2(1
z

<

follow,

by

+ e cos. (it + w)

multiplication
2'

are,

-h e cos. oj)

2{ 1

Hence

.z

+y=

...

2(1

cos.

w)

-^

Ia

e cos. w)

and addition^

4(1 e*

=
}

cos. 9

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRYo
and therefore

That

is,

4#3

= p{% + s

the rectangle under the

principal parameter,

103

).

sum of the segments and

the

equal to four times the rectangle

is

under the segments.

The

(247.) Cor. 1.

rectangle under the segments varies

as the whole intercept.

(248.) Cor. 2.
cal

mean between

Half the

principal parameter

The

focus

distance

equal

is

an harmoni-

the segments.

cm.

prop*
(249.)

is

of any point in a parabola from the

perpendicular distance of the same

to the

pointfrom the directrix.

By

(166), the perpendicular distance of the directrix from

a tangent through the vertex

is

therefore

the perpen-

dicular distance of a point in the curve from the directrix is

"*~

>

"

3Ut

^is

^ (^^)

*s

tne distance of the same point

from the focus*

prop. civ.
(250.)

To

describe

a parabola mechanically.

Let F be the focus, and v

the vertex of the proposed
parabola.

Take bv

and bc perpendicular
will

be the

directrix.

fv,

to

ab

Let

a square abc be applied to

the right angle under the
axis

and the directrix. The

"

extremity of a cord being

*V

3s

A,

fastened to any distant point on the side ba of the square,

104

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

and being passed round a

the point f.
direction

sliding pin at v, let

it

be fixed to

If the square thus adjusted be moved in the

bc parallel to

the point

itself,

will describe

parabola, since b'm always equals mf.

prop. cv.

To find

(251.)

the length

of a perpendicular from

the focus

on a tangent.

The

equation of the tangent being

!

%& y

~~

pi

and the co-ordinates of the

The

+ ^} =

focus,

perpendicular required

is

(V + P )*"*
8

'

PROP, CVI.

(25%) The perpendicular on the tangent through any point9

is

a mean proportional between the distances of that point

and

the vertex from thefocus.

For, by (243), the distance from the focus

the distance of the vertex from the focus

by

(251), the perpendicular

is

is

is

-,

-, and

therefore,

a mean proportional between

these.

prop. CVII.
(253,)

To find

the locus

of the point of intersection of

the

perpendicularfrom the focus of a parabola, with the tangent.

The

equations of the tangent and the perpendicular are^

105

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,,
p(a!

4n/x

^y =

%py
Eliminating

oo)

y x by means of these
]

%fy
]

0,
3

equations,

and the equa-

tion of the parabola, the result, after reduction,

*{i6jf

is

+ (p~^xy\ =0,

which gives
Z

1% +
The

locus of the

(p

first is

*?

<>,

0.

4a?)

the axis of

y and
9

the latter can

only be fulfilled by the conditions.

v9
0,

x
*,

-JL

which are the co-ordinates of the focus.

Thus, one of the

results gives the co-ordinates of the point

from which the perpendicular

is let fall,

that the locus of the extremity

and the other shows

which meets the tangent,

is

the tangent to the curve which passes through the vertex.

PROP. CVIII.

The part of the axis ofa parabola intercepted between

a tangent and the focus is equal to the distance ofthe point

(254.)

',

of contact from the focus.

For, by (243), the distance fp from the focus
is,

and
is

x + P

since the subtangent

bisected

by the vertex

(42), the intercept of the axis between the tangent

vertex

is

and

x, and therefore the intercept between the tangent

and focus

is

% +

-7-,

FP

FSo

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

106

PROP. CIX.
(%55.)

tangent

diameter,

any point of a parabola being drawn, a

to

and a

line

through the focus from the same

pointy are equally inclined to the tangent.

For, by the

last proposition, the line pf,

from the focus,

being equal to the intercept fs of the axis between the focus

and tangent, the tangent must be equally

the axis

but, since

all

and

inclined to pf

diameters of a parabola are parallel

to the axis (93), the diameter

pd and pf are

also equally in-

clined to the tangent.

(56.) Cor. If any rays, which obey the law of equality

of incidence and

reflection,

move

in right lines parallel to

the axis of a reflecting surface, generated by the revolution

of a parabola round

its axis,

verge to the focus ; or

if

the reflected rays will

all

con-

they diverge from a lucid point placed

at the focus., they will be reflected parallel.

prop. ex.
(257.)

The

distance

of any point in a parabola from

focus, is equal to a perpendicular

to

the axis

the

passing

through the same point, intercepted between the axis and

thefocal tangent.

In the general equation of a tangent through any point

2/W, substitute

P
-

for

x\ and

P
-

for

y\ and the equation

becomes

that of the focal tangent; but this value of y

that of % in (843).

is

the same as

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRYo

107

PROP. CXI.

To find

(858.)

and

the

the relation between the principal parameter^

parameter of a diameter passing through any

given point.

The

equation of the parabola related to the axis, and a

tangent through the vertex,

is

= par,

y*

p being

axes of co-ordinates,

-as

Let the co-ordinates of

the principal parameter.

The

the point through which the diameter passes be y-x\

axes of co-ordinates being removed to this diameter as axis

of x9 and a tangent through

The

vertex as axis of y.

its

transformed equation, by the formulae (74), becomes

2

j/

sin.

tec

-\-

Since the

a being

p cos.

(%/ sin. tx
sin.

xx
!

and

0,

px -fy'a 'px = 0.
w x = 1, the new axis of

tx)y

cos.

and expressing by

parallel to the former,

angle under the tangent and diameter, which

is

too

the

the same

with y x in the formula.

}

Also, since the point y x

f

since tang, tx

Qy

Hence

sin.

Hence
,

is

tx

2
observing;
that sin, tx

-^-7, (241),

cos. tx

0.

the transformed equation becomes

y#

on the curve,

is

prf Q

ya

And

-j-

4<r

)^

= y#,

= r-r- r
1>

la?
jp+4^

the parameter^' of the diameter, through the point

equal to four times the distance of the point from the

focus, since the distance

(259.)

Cor.

Sin. 2 tx

from the focus

P
-

-.

Hence

is

x +

p.

the parameters of

diameters of a parabola are inversely as the sines of the

angles at which these diameters are inclined to their ordinates*

108

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY

SECTION XIV,
Problems relative

to lines

of the application

of the second

degree, illustrative

of the preceding principles.

prop. cxn.

Given the base

(260.)

(ab),

and

to find the locus

of a

vertical angle

of a

triangle,

vertex.

The

base

(ab)

being

as

axes

of #,

assumed

and a perpendicular (ay)

through

extremity (a),

its

as axis of

let

ordinates of c be

ab

b 9 and acb

tang.A-|,tan g

tang.c^^

^^^^^

+#

Hence the equation sought

+ x*

2,

which (130)

whose centre

obtuse;

and below

.B=^

-bx

bx

0,

is

fl

0,

#'

6,

v / =

0,

^#.

which shows that in

this

at the point of bisection of the base*

positive or negative, according as c is acute or

is

\ cot.

cot.

case the centre

8

let

are,

= --,

Cot.

9,

the equation of a circle, the co-ordinates of

y=
If

is,

cot.

is

yx

yh

tang. Atang.B / 2

t/

the co-

the centre

it

is

above the base in the former case,

in the latter.

From

these results

may be

in-

ferred,
1st,

equal.

That

all

angles in the same segment of a circle are

109

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*
2d, That the angle contained in a semicircle

That the angle contained

3d,

a semicircle,

is

right.

acute.

in a segment, less than a

That the angle contained

4th,

is

in a segment, greater than

semicircle, is obtuse.

PROP. CXIII.

Given

(261.)

of a

the base (ab)

the sides, tofind the locus

The

axis

and

triangle,

the ratio

of the vertex

of

(c).

of co-or-

dinates being placed as

ac = a and
= c and let
= nc, v a = wV,

before, let

cb

7,

but

A
a2

The

= y*

#2

B
c2

= y2

equation of the locus sought

a
# +

which

\-

is

&?i 2

a*

+-

1 7l".6a?

+. (5

is,

ft

a?)

2
.

v
6a

1 W 2 =
'

0,

the equation of a circle, the co-ordinates of whose

centre are

n*b

The

n2

points where the circle intersects the base are found

supposing y

0,

by

which gives

no
W-f 1

which values show that the

and externally

circle cuts the

in the given ratio,

between these points

is

base internally

and the part intercepted

the diameter of the circle.

prop, cxi v.
(262.) Given the base (ab)

squares of the sides,

Let the point of

of a

triangle,

to find the locus

and

the

sum of the

of the vertex.

bisection (d) of the base

be taken as

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

110

origin, the base as axis of x 9

and the

perpendicular through d as axis of

Let ad = b, and let the given

sum of the squares of the sides be s a

y.

EC 2

_|_

V
which

is

(x

b)%

^2 =:|.s2-. 2
,

the equation of a circle, whose centre

and whose radius

origin,

2
j/

is

Vi&

is

at the

&*

prop. ex v.

Given

(63.)

the base

and

of a

vertical angle

triangle, to

find the locus of the intersection of tlie perpendiculars Jrom

the angles on the opposite sides.

The

axis of co-ordinates

being

placed as in Prop, cxii., and the significations of the

symbols being re-

tained, the co-ordinates of the inter-

section of the perpendiculars are

(b

x)x

y
y and x

and from these the values of

being found, and

substituted in the equation for the locus of the vertex found

in (53), the result

Y
This

is

is,

x2

cot.

the equation of a circle

#Y

and

bx

= 0.

since

differs

it

from the

equation in (60), which gives the locus of the vertex, only

by

the sign of cot.

circle,

9,

the locus sought

is

containing an angle supplemental to

a segment of a
0.

PROP. CXVT.

(64) Given the base (ab), and vertical angle

locus

By

of

the intersection

of the

bisectors

(g), to find the

of the

sides.

(54) the co-ordinates of the intersection of the bi-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Ill

sectors are

x-\-b

1L
8'

substituting the values of y

and x

in

these equations in that of the locus

of the vertex in (260) , the result

y*

-i-

x2

which

-J-

cot Jbx

bx -f f 6 =
2

is

0,

the equation of a circle, the co-ordinates of whose

is

centre are

To
Y

of

find the points

in the

IT

y]

where

Q.b
~6~
cot.

"'

this circle

meets the base,

let

above equation, and the corresponding values

are,

which shows that the

circle intersects the

base at the points

of trisection.

Let

<p

be the angle contained

whose chord

is

this

segment of

this circle,

one-third of the base,

Tang.

Hence

in the

<p

p- =
~b
y

tang. L

segment contains an angle equal to the

vertical

angle of the triangle.

prop. cxvu.

and vertical angle of a triangle tofind

of the centre of the inscribed circle.

(%65.) Given the base

the locus

The

lines bisecting the

base angles intersect at the centre

of the inscribed circle (59)?

they form with the base

the

sum of the

angles which

being the vertical angle

is

+
^-.

if

and

v the

angle formed by the two bisectors

is

This

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

112

being a given angle, the locus sought

circle

which contains

the segment of the

is

it.

PROP. CXVXII.

To

(268.)

The

express the circle by a polar equation.

general equation of the circle related to rectangular

co-ordinates., is
(

- y)2 + ( X _

Let the distance of any point

be

&,

and the angle

distance of the centre be

axis of x,

&

By

<p'.

cos.-0', for

y y\
9

r Q-.

axis of

and the angle

&'',

from the pole

in the circle

makes with the

it

rfy

substituting %

sin.

x be

sind the

makes with the

it

.s'sin.

<p,

(p 9

<p 9

cos. 0,

x 9 x\ respectively, and observing the con-

ditions,

sin. 2

cos. 2

1, cos.

cos.

-f

^n

sin.

cos. (0 - 0'),

the equation becomes

2

2%%

and

if,

at the

C2

= r and the equation

2r cos. (0 ) = 0,

If the pole be on the curve z

z

cos. (0
1

becomes

same time, the axis from which

passes through the centre,

z

<p

2r

0,

cos.

is

measured

and the equation

is

0=0.

PROP, CXIX.
(67.)

right line being

a given

drawn from a given point

circle, to find the locus

(p) to

of the point at which

it is

divided in a given ratio.

Let the

intercept between the given point,

whose locus

is

sought, be

z",

and

let

nz u

stitution in the polar equation of the circle,

fl2

+ - - %Z

!I

COS. (0

and the poinj

By

=..s.

dj)

we

find

-4-.

this sub-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Hence the

locus sought

is

113

whose centre

circle,

found by

is

dividing the line connecting the given point with the centre

of the given

circle in the

given

that of the given circle as

and whose radius

ratio,

is

to

n,

prop. cxx.
(268.)

To find

drawn

to several

shall be

from which lines being

the sum of their squares

the locus of'a point,

given points,

of a given magnitude.

Let the given points be y x\ y x

]

the point whose locus

is

]]

]]

sought yx.

.... y (n) x (n) , and

The

squares of the

lines respectively are

{y-y'f +-(*-*') s
(y

(y

t/i)*
,l!

- *")*,
+ (#y")s

(*

which being added, and their sum expressed by

result divided
2
V*-f*
&

by

3^

is

2
,

and the

n, give

T.fr

Tff

,y

+
which

T
n

the equation of a circle, whose centre

>
is

the Centre

of Gravity of the figure formed by lines joining the given

points (70).

prop, cxx I.

To find the locus of a point, from which lines being

drawn at given angles to the sides of a given rectilinear
figure, the sum of their squares shall have a given mag-

(&69.)

nitude.

The

equations of the sides of the figure being respectively

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

114

+c=

Ay + bx +

Ay

4- B'\r

Ay

+ b"x+ c"=0,

,!

A^jH-BKr-f c^ = 0.
Let the angles the

make with

lines

the sides he

<p 9

<p'

the squares of the lines are respectively,,

(at/

(a

(a'#
(a'

bx

c) 2

+ B^mTo'
+ six 4- c ) 2
+ *'* sin. 2
f

/5

(A^jZ+B^^ + C^) 8
which being added together, and

their

sum equated with a

constant quantity, give a complete equation of the second

degree^ which

is

that of the locus sought,

PROP. CXXII.
(270.)

To find

lines

the locus

of a point, from which two right

being drawn at given angles

lines, the

to

two given right

rectangle under them shall have a given

mag-

nitude.

Let the equations of the two

Ay
Ay
!

The

lines

lines

+ bx + c =
+ b x -f o =
!

be
0,
0.

making given angles with these from the point

yx, are
Jr

Ay

bx

+e

A/A a + Bsin.

A y-\-B x + d
!

^/a'

+ b' 2

sin. ?'

115

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

These being multiplied, and

constant magnitude,, the result

second degree, which

product equated with a

their

a complete equation of the

is

that of the locus sought,

is

PROP. CXXIII,

Given the base of a

(271.)

tween the base angles ,

The middle

the difference be-

of the

vertex.

point d of the

base being assumed as

and the base

and

triangle,

to find the locus

origin,,

as axis of #, let

the co-ordinates of the vertex

be yx> and ad

and the

&,

difference of the angles

0.

tang, a

Tans:,
1 -f tang,

Hence

b*

tang, b

the equation of the sought locus

of

This

tai

yx ~

cot.

a?

x* -f h

is

+b =
z

0.

manifestly the equation of an hyperbola, since

is

4ac

4(cot.

The

1)

position

>

4 cosec*

its

of the diameter conjugate

is

the origin.

to

ab may be determined by the equation found in

which becomes in

(167),

this case

centre

_=:

tango

the diameter conjugate to

ab

.r,

inclined to

is

it

at

an angle

8.

The

axis of y being transformed

to coincidence with the

point Dp by substituting y

x 3 which

are

from

its

present position

conjugate diameter through the

.

sin.

for

?/,

and x

what the formulae (74) become

transformed equation

which shows that the hyperbola

(272.) Cor. 1.

is

for

in this case, the

is

t-&=
semiaxis squared

y cos.

5 9 sin,

Hence

is

i s,

equilateral,

and that

its

(189).
it

follows, that in

an equilateral
i

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

116
hyperbola,

be drawn from the vertices of any dia-

if lines

meter to any point in the curve, the difference of the angles

which they form with the diameter

under that diameter and

equal to the angle

is

conjugate.

its

(273.) Cor. 2. If the difference of the angles be a right

angle, the base

the transverse axis, and vice versa,

is

prop, cxxiv.

Given

(274)

the base

of a

The

and

triangle,

tangents of the base angles,

of the

vertex.

axes of co-ordinates being placed as in the last Pro-

be m,

position, let the product of the tangents

if -f

which

the product of the

to find the locus

is

mx - mb =
'

0,

the equation of the locus sought.

therefore an ellipse if

m >

0,

This locus

is

m <

0,

and an hyperbola of

the base being the transverse axis.

prop, ex xv.

Given the base of a

(275.)

triangle,

and

the

sum of

the

tangents of the base angles, to find the locus of the vertex.

The
given

axes of co-ordinates being placed as before,

sum be m,

let

the

v
c
2by

xz

hence the equation of the locus

ma:*

4-

is

2% mb =
2,

0.

This equation being put under the form

mb

26

m
shows that if the origin be

removed

"
to a point in the axis
fjfjfib

of

y whose
9

distance from the present origin

equation becomes

is

-,

the

117

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Hence

x1

the locus sought

is

2b
y.

a parabola, whose axis

a per-

is

pendicular through the middle point of the base, and whose

vertex

from the base equal

at a perpendicular distance

is

m&

.26

-q-9 andj whose principal parameter

i

is

to

PROP. CXXVI.

of a

(276.) Given the base

and

the difference

of

the tangents of the angles at the base, to find the locus

of

triangle,

the vertex.

The

axes of co-ordinates being placed as before,

m=
the equation sought

is

9yx
This

the

let

given difference be m,

-\~

7oa

2yx

v
-f

mx*

mb =
2

0.

the equation of an hyperbola (124), the axis o y

is

being an asymptote, and the origin at the centre (119)

base of the triangle

is

the diameter conjugate to which

4-

is

the

is

nix

Hence the tangent of the angle

diameter

therefore a diameter, the equation of

(0),

inclined to the base,

is

0.

at

which

this

conjugate

equal to the difference of

the tangents of the angles at the base.

The

axis of y being transformed to coincidence with the

conjugate diameter by substituting

-\-y cos.

for x,

and

cos. 2

tan.

for

z
2
y - %

sin.

for y,

and

m, the equation becomes

b2

0.

Hence, the square of the semi-second diameter conj ugate

the base

is

sec.

0.

to

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETEY.

118

PROP. CXXV1I.

To find

(277.)

diculars

the locus

drawn

of a point (-p) Jrom which perpenof a given angle (xay), shall

9

to the sides

contain a quadrilateral of a given area,

The
(0)

sides of the given angle

being assumed as axes of

co-ordinates,,

and

the

co-or-

dinates of the point r being

the area of

\y

and that of vm&

sin.

0{#

-|-

cos,

pma

is

i#

of the locus sought

g/

Since
locus

is

-1-

2
b3

sec.

fl),

sin. $(3/ -f

cos, 0).

Let the magnitude of the quadrilateral be

3

yx

is

fl

2
,

the equation

is

S^ sec.
= 4(sec. - 1) =

yx

4ac

-f

^a

cosee,

4tan.

a
8

0.

>

0,

the

an hyperbola, of which the vertex of the angle

is

the centre (119).

PliOP. c XXVIII,

(278.)

To find

given right

The

locus

of a circle touching a
and passing through a given point.

the locus
line,

of

the centre

must be a parabola, of which the given point

the focus, and the given line the directrix, as

from (249).

is

is

evident

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

119

PROP. CXXIX.

Tofind

(2 79.)

the locus of* the centre

given right

of a

and a given

line

circle

touching a

circle.

Let p be the centre

whose locos

sought,

is

and c the centre of the

given

circle

pd = pw.

Let vm be produced,
so that

mm!~CD and
9

through

rn!

parallel to

the given line

other

right

drawn,
is c,

let

an-

line

be

v vm =

pc

and whose

the locus

directrix

is

is

a parabola whose focus

m'o.

PROP. CXXXo
(280.)

Tofind

the locus

centre

of the

of a

circle

which

touches two given circles.

This

is

equivalent to being given the base and difference

of the sides of a triangle to find the locus of the vertex.

The

locus

is

centres of the

therefore

an hyperbola whose

two given

circles,

foci

are the

and whose transverse axis

is

the difference of their radii.

peop. cxxxi.

To find the locus of the intersection of tangents

given parabola which intersect at a given angle.

(281.)

Let the
tersection

points of contact be

yx

the given angle

given parabola

9,

vx.

The

through the given points are

y x\ yV,
]

0,

to

the point of in-

and the equation of the

equations of the tangents

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

120

=
=

%jy - px - y 2
2fy - px - y *
!!

The

(1),
(2).

make with

tangents of the angles which these

the axis

V
P
and ^r
^

of the parabola being

4^

^fe&
p +4yy

t.

(8).

Subtracting (2) from

we

find

% y=

(1),

and dividing the

by (/'#'),

result

Substituting this value in (3), and

z/'.

multiplying by the denominator^

Stan.

4p# 4tan.

.i/y

Multiplying (1) by 4tan.

4tan.

tan.

.>

+ 4/?y

and subtracting

0,

by p is
x -f tan.

the result divided

s/

fl

-f-

it

4y =

4y

== 0.

from

this 3

and hence,

= y i.tan.

tan.

#,

which substituted in (1) gives

?/-

tan/2

which

is

jt

-_p(l

a?

fl)

T^tan.

4ac)

>

4tan. s

2
.

p*

0,

This must be an

the equation of the locus sought.

hyperbola, since (b^

The

+ i-tan.

0.

co-ordinates of the centre are

rr.

0^

|p

(cot. 2

i)

the origin being removed to this point, the equation becomes

y*

tan. 2 x~

p2

-^-cosec 2

0,

which shows that the squares of the semiaxes are

4
In

tan.

this

COS.*
*

sin.

b2

-,

= ^p

investigation the tan. 2

0, i. .

tan.

and

tan.

cosea 2

(tf

includes +tan,
0),

and

which shows that the

process includes the locus of the intersection of tangents,

which contain an angle supplemental to

branches of the hyperbola 3 one

is

0.

Of the

opposite

the locus of the intersection

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
of tangents containing the angle
containing

0,

becomes

=*

the equation of the directrix of the given parabola,

is

Hence,

tan. 2

by

the equation after division

*
which

and the other of tangents

supplement.

its

= -

If

0,

181

if

tangents to a parabola intersect at right angles*

the locus of their intersection

is

the directrix.

prop, ex XXII.
(282.)

To find

ellipse

verse axis
is

of the

the locus

intersection

angles,

at

the

product of whose

y + ax
y + dx

lines,

y by

an

tangents

+b
+ V=0

meeting the curve be

(1),

(2)

curve being A y z

srx*

a2b 2

and each of the equations of the right

this,

and finding the value of x in the resulting equation 5

and equating the

radical in each with

A~a

V+

b*

bq

- #2 =

we

find

0.'

values of b and b in (1) and (2) being substituted, and

]

by the dimensions of a and a\

the equations arranged

The

lines

of the

equation

Eliminating

The

to

given.

Let the equations of two right

the

of tangents

or hyperbola, which shall be inclined to the trans-

b2 yz

a2

2xy
z-a
+
A X

rf .

-f^

AX 4-^=0.

values of a and

equations, let

ad

wi 5

a'

A2
A^

\=
2

0,

X-

being the roots of either of these

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

\%%

if

B2

A X~
2

Hence, the equation of the locus sought

_ mx

y%
the locus

is

mA ~
z

4-

b2

m <

or

mA b
hence a

b /2

>

0.

B f2

a', b',

= ?M3 +

when niA% < b%

this curve the

b2

m.

m<

If the curve be an hyperbola, and

impossible

therefore an ellipse or hyperbola, according as

Let the semiaxes of this curve be

/z

is

0, the locus is

B2

orwz<

which shows that in

product of the tangents of the angles, which

two tangents make with the

axis,

cannot be

less

than the

product of the tangents of the angles, which the asymptotes

make with

it

(176).

PROP. CXXXIII.

To find

(283.)

to

In the

an

the locus

ellipse

intersect at

last Proposition,

perpendicularly,

intersect

the intersection of two tangents

of

which

if

m= ~

a right angle.
the tangents will

1,

the equation

of

the

locus

is

therefore

if 4-

which

is

x~

A" -f

B%

the equation of a circle concentrical with the ellipse,

and whose radius equals the

line joining the extremities

of

the axes.

prop, cxxxiv.
(284.)
to

To find

the locus

an hyperbola^

of

the intersection

zvhich intersect at

In this case, in (282),

m=

and

of two tangents

a right angle.
b"

<

0,

the equa-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETltY.
tion of the locus

is

if

which

X*

Ba,

>

if

a,

a2

which shows

b2

To find

that, in

This equation

is

an hyperbola of

at a right angle.

intersection

of the

the locus

ex xxv.

Pit op.

an

*J

two tangents cannot intersect

this kind,

(285.)

the equation of a circle concentrical with the hyper-

is

impossible

to

A2

and whose radius equals

bola,

123

of two tangents

which make angles with the

ellipse or hyperbola,

transverse axis, which, measured in the same direction,

are together equal

In

to

a right angle.

this case, in (282) 5

?/

is

m=

x*

1,

(a

the equation of the locus

2 )?

the equation of an equilateral hyperbola, whose

which

is

axis

the distance between the foci of the given ellipse or

is

hyperbola.

prop, ex XXVI.

To find

(286.)

ellipse,

In

this

the locus

qf the intersection of tangents

which are parallel

case,

locus sought

m~

a/ 2 .a,

the equation of the

is
l

is

an

conjugate diameters.

(170),

A y z + b-x
which

to

to

2a 2 b'~\

the equation of an ellipse, whose semiaxes are

b,

and which

is

therefore similar to the given

ellipse.

This

is

obviously equivalent to finding the locus of the

vertices of the angles of parallelograms circumscribed

systems of conjugate diameters,

round

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

124

PROP. CXXXVII.

To find

(287.)

the locus

of the

intersection

of tangents

to

an

hyperbola, which are parallel to conjugate diameters.

In

this case,

m = ~
A

(170),

a 2# 2

is

which

resolved into

is

the equation of the locus

bV = 0,
Ay + bx =

b# =

and Ay

0,

which are the equations of the asymptotes, which are the locus
sought.

PROP. CXXXVIII.

To find the

(288.)

ellipse,

locus

intersection

of the

qf tangents

to

an

which make angles with the transverse axis, the proB2

duct qf whose tangents

is

A*

q2

In (282),

if

m~B*-, the equation of the locus

A

which

is

ft

#2

is

0,

resolved, as before, into Ay -f

bx

= 0,

aj/

Br =

0,

which are the diagonals of the rectangle formed by tangents

through the vertices of the axes, and which are therefore the
locus sought.

prop, ex XX IX.
(289.)

To find the

locus

of the

intersection

a parabola, which are inclined

product qf whose tangents

Let the equations of two

of two tangents

to

to its axis at angles, the

is constant.

right lines meeting the para-

bola be

y ax b =
y ~ a!x - V =
By

these

(1),
(2).

and the equation of the curve finding values

for

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
#,

and equating the

radical in each with 0,

4<ab

= p,

4ta!V

V by means

eliminating b and

we

find

= p;

of these and

(2), the

(1),

results are

a2

+ - ~ 0,
oo

4tx

4x

'

the values aal being the roots of either of these equations,

and the given product being expressed by

m=
which
axis,

or

&mx p

we have

0,

the equation of a right line perpendicular to the

is

and meeting

vertex

-f

is

at a point

it

whose distance from the

V
+ f

If the tangents intersect at right angles,

the locus

is

m=

1, and

the directrix,

PROP. CXL

Two

(290.)

lines

any point in
circle

1.

being drawn from thefoci of an

the curve 9

to find the locus

Let the

ellipse

of the centre

figure,,

Let
(p)

be jjx\ and those

The

(c) yoc.

of the triangle fpf'

focus from the centre.

=j/(a +c) 9 since a

-\~

i/c 9

area

where c

is

the distance of the

Also the area of the same triangle

is

the semiperimeter of the triangle;

v ijc = y{A +
also, since

axis.

touch the

circle

the co-ordinates of the point

on the

of the centre of the

which touches these and the transverse

three lines as in the

ellipse to

c)

the line fc bisects the angle pff',

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

126

PFF'

Slil.

CFF

tan.

1 -f cos. pff'

but

sin.

tan.

Now

by

pff'

and

cos.

PFF

'

and

also

y
y ^
= hence
c
x'
x
z-\-c x v
c
cx>
(208) z = a which being substituted, the
cFF

-,

values of ifx resulting from this and the

]

equation are

first

A-fe

AX
Substituting these values in the equation

the result after reduction

an

ellipse

11*X

B 2 C%

of the sought locus, which

this is the equation

2'

is

+ C)Y +

(A

aYH^V^a^
is

therefore

whose axes coincide with those of the given ellipse,,

Let the semiaxes be

a', b',

a/

c,

A+C

&

JLVX^x
^C

Let the

case, if

*'

=
;

= tan,

tan.

cfp

but

also tan.

~{rt

touch the three

fp

s, f'p

In

V =

yip

-|z'

hence

Ay

(a

pff'), v tan. cfp

this

= %\ we have
z)

but by (208),

circle

*ines as in this figure.

x\y

also

C-f-X'

^
,1

Eliminating

after reduction

-^~ hence -^
xe
xc

cfp

by

this

c+x'

and the former equation, the

is

0,

result

ALGEBRAIC G EOMET R Y.
which shows that the locus in
ellipse passing
3.

Should the
three

the

figure,

this case is the

tangent to the

through the vertex.

touch

circle

as in this

lines

same

retaining the

symbols,

fpf'=^(a --c)=yc

(1).

Also, since
tan. i(tf

PFF
sin.

pff'

1 cos

pff'

AlJ

(a

And,

c) {a+x )'
1

since

fc

below the base,

th
angle
bisects the

tan. |(tf

pff')

y
c

Bv

this

~x

(a

and the equation

(1)

hence 9

c) (a-\~w

we

find

c
A.X

Substituting these in the equation of the ellipse, the result

after reduction is

(a

which

is

e)

j/

the equation of an

b 2x*
,

ellipse,,

whose semiaxes a , 3

are

Be
CU

A C

ALGEBRAIC GEOMKTHY.

128

PROP. CXLI.

drawn connecting any point

(291.) Lines being

perbola with the foci, to find the locus

circle,

which shall touch these

lines

of

and

in

an hy-

the centre

of a

the axis.

1.

Let the

circle

in

this

touch,

as

The same

figure.

symbols being used

as in the last Proposition ,

= y(z

fpf'

-f-

c)

y'c,

tang. cff'

C X

but cff'

-I-pff',

".

CFF'

Hence, since z

tariff.

sin.
zr

pff'
,

COS. PFF'

= - yr-
ZW+C

ex-

Mf

c-oc ~"(c a) (a+ X )'

1

The

co-ordinates

equation,

we

y'a;'

being eliminated by this and the

#
which

is

first

find

0,

the equation of the tangent through the vertex of

the hyperbola, and which

is

therefore the locus of the centre

in this case.

If

2.

the

circle

touch, as in this figure,

FPF-'

The
a

= y(c + A)==yc.

tang, cff' having

similar

value

as

above, a similar equa-

189

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
tion follows,

which gives
y(c + A)

Making

_ BV = A B
a

the result after reduction

2
5

is

3 2
(c Hh a) j/

is

these substitutions in the equation

Aya

which

AX
'

b 2^2

=-

b 2c2,

the equation of an hyperbola, whose semiaxes are co-

incident with those of the given hyperbola,

are

A
3,

Let the

=C

bc
;

A +

and whose values

V 1.

circle touch, as

in this figure,

fpf' =y(z

Also 5

+ a c) =y c,
f

-^ = tang. 4 (tf-pff'

),

but
sin. pff'

tang.

=nr^r-^ = ^^="c

^(*-pffo

Eliminating a by *

eliminated as before,

we

a, and the values ofy\ x'

being

find

x + a
which shows that the locus

is

0,

the tangent through the vertex

of the opposite hyperbola.

PROP, CXLII,

To find the locus of the vertex of a parabola, having

point as focus, and touching a given right line.
given
a
Let f be the given focus, and lt/ the given right line,

(292.)

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

130

v the vertex, and fp a perpenr

dicular from the focus

line

By

= a?.

Prop. (cvi), fl x fv

fv

Let
PFV

on the right

a.

and

z,

angle

the

W,

cos. w

If fp and PL be taken as axes

f

of co-ordinates.

yy + (a xf
ax
and

cos,

hence the equation of the locus sought

which

is

is

the equation of a circle passing through the points

F and p, and whose diameter

is

fp.

PROPe CXLIII.
(298.)

To find

the locus

the

of

focus of a parabola, which

has a given vertex, and "which touches a given right

Let v be the vertex, f the

given

line,

focus,

line.

ap the

and va a perpendicular

to

it.

This perpendicular being taken as axes of

X-p

x, and a parallel to ap through v as axis of

j/ 5

*V~

\^

(252), FV

fb
fp

FV

fb

By

the co-ordinates of f be yx.

let

Hence

FP

-f x,

= FB

Q
5

but FV a

= if + x\

av being expressed by $, and

the equation of the locus of f

is,

after reduction,

f ax ~ 0.
The
v,

locus

is

therefore a parabola, whose vertex

whose axis coincides with

'av,

is

the point

and whose parameter

is

av,

131

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY".
PROP. CXLIV.
(294.)

Given a diameter ofa parabola,

curve intersects

and

it,

the point where the

tofnd

parameter,

its

the locus

of

thefocus.

The

distance of the vertex of

from the focus

is

any diameter of a parabola

a fourth part of the parameter of that dia-

This being given, the locus sought

meter.

which the point, where the curve meets

centre,

its

is

circle,

diameter,

and a fourth part of the parameter the

is

of

the

radius.

PROP. CXLV.
(295.)

Given

diameter,

the point

and

where a parabola intersects a given

also the

parameter of that diameter,

to find

the locus of the vertex

of the curve*
Let the given diameter and a perpendicular through

The

vertex be assumed as axes of co-ordinates.

its

equation

of the parabola related to a diameter, and a tangent through

its

vertex as axes of co-ordinates being y

angle under the tangent and diameter be

?/

px
8,

0, if the

and the axis of

changed to a perpendicular to the diameter, the equation

becomes
y%

The

j^ .p sin.

co-ordinates y

y =.

,l

20

sin.

2
.

px

_Lp sin. 25,

JL/p

y
which

is

0.

cos. 2

Eliminating from these equations the angle

,s

of the vertex are

+ 4# +
f/z

px"

0,

we

find

o,

the equation of an ellipse, whose transverse axis co-

incides with the given diameter,

whose conjugate

axis equals

and

is

equal to -^-,

and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY

132

PROP. CXLVI.

Given the diameter of a parabola, and a tangent

through its vertex, to find the locus of the vertex.

(298.)

The

axes of co-ordinates being placed as before,

by the

eliminated

The

let

be

values of the co-ordinates of the vertex.

result

y
shows that the locus

is

2 tang.

= 0,

a right line,

PROP. CXLVII.
(297.)

The

On

the

same conditions

to find the locus

of thefocus.

axes of co-ordinates remaining thevsame, the co-

ordinates \jx of the focus are

]

y = \p
Eliminating

p from

sin. 20,

these, the result

y tang.

29

which shows that the locus sought

%p

cos. 29.

is

is

0,

a right

line.

PROP. CXLVIII.
(298.)
sides

right line of a given length

ofa given angle, to find

it in a given ratio.

terminated in the

is

the locus

of a point which

divides

Let the sides of the given angle

bac

be taken as axes of co-

ordinates,
_

and the co-ordinates of

_

= mn
bp

yx, and
p being
*
cp

AB
AC

n~^~>

(m + n)x

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

But ab

2,

Sab

ac 2

ac

cos.

138

bc 2

Hence,

after

reduction

m y^
2

which

cos.

yx +

rfx*

=mn
z

2
,

the equation of an ellipse, since

is

4ac = 4m w

b*

If

2mn

(cos.

1)

= 4mVsin. 2 <

0.

it

the equation becomes

my + nW =. mV,
which

the equation of an ellipse, whose axes are equal to

is

the segments of the given line, and coincide with the sides of
the given angle.

If

m=

the locus

is

a circle in this case.

PROP. CXLIX.
(S99.)

right line passes through a given point,

terminated in the sides of a given angle 3

ofthe point which

divides

it

and

is

to find the locus

in a given ratio.

Let the sides of the given angle

bac be taken as axes of co-ordinates,

and

let

the co-ordinates

of the given point d be tjx\ those

yx

of the point p be
tion of bc

the equa-

is

a(j/ 3/)
In

this, if

y and x

AC

Let the

Alf -f

aw'

n
>

its

first

value -,
b

0.

0,

we

find

m
m

segments bp, pc be

A%~~m-\-ri

AC

ab

x')

+ BX
AB = ~

b^

-U.

ratio of the

Dividing the

b(# -

be successively supposed
f

w,

x
Ac~~m-\-n

by the second, and substituting

for

134

AI. G E B II AI C

G EOM IS T 11 Y

ky
bx

nx

my

hence the equation of the locus sought

{m
This

is

n)xy

is

mxy nifx =
f

0.

the equation of an hyperbola, the axes of co-ordinates

being parallel to the asymptotes (128).

The

co-ordinates of the centre being

x
show that

= mr

m +n

ny

ya

m + n'

the co-ordinates of the given point be divided

if

each in the given ratio, parallels to the sides of the given

angle drawn through the points where they are divided
thus, are the asymptotes.

PROP, CL.
(300.)

Given in position a right

outside

a right line(pm)

it,

right line;
to the

from

is

line (ab),

and a point

(p)

drawn intersecting the given

the extremity

m ofwhich, a perpendicular

given right line intercepts qd of a given magnitude

(a), to find the locus

of the point m.

By

the

question,

conditions

pa

if

be

of

the

perpen-

dicular to ab,

md__pa

CD

~~AC

"EI*

Now,

if

p be the origin of rect-

angular co-ordinates, parallel

and perpendicular
condition

is

to ab, this

expressed

xa

a
where b

pa*

Hence the equation of the

yx

The

curve

is

ay

bx

locus

0.

therefore an equilateral hyperbola.

is

by

185

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

To

find the centre, substitute in the formulae (94) the

values of the terms in this case, and

we

find

_
y
7

Hence

if

ae

a,

the centre, and eb and eb' are the

is

asymptotes.

PROP. CXI,
(301.)

From a given point a

a right line af

tersecting two right lines bc

apart ap

assumed on

is

always equal

to the

right lines bc

and

is

drawn, in-

and cd given in position , and

this linefrom the

given point a,

pari ef intercepted between the given

it is

cr> ?

required to find the locus of

the point p.

Let the

origin

sumed

at a,

parallel

as-

and

lines

and perpencd be

dicular to

sumed

of

be

co-ordinates

as-

as axes of co-

ordinates.

LetAG r

and the equation of bc

and af be respectively
AJZ-hBtf-f C

Ay
!

-f b'x

= 0,.(1),

0, (2).

Eliminating y from these equations, we find the value of x

for the point e,

AB
and

ca'

therefore

HO

+ BA'

CA'

but by the conditions of the question,

dinates of p,

hg

hence

if

yx

be the co-or-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

136

By

this

and

locus sought

(2)

sx 2

-f

or since A?/ =

(bx

Ay os

since

-B A
r

being eliminated, the equation of the

is

kyx

and

CA'

= X+-

yx

Ax y (bx + c)x =
-f c),
1

bx'

cot.
cot.

<p

where

x2

gc,

Ay'x

where y

&x y

<p 9

the angle bcd,

is

<p

+ yx =
]

x'y

0,

0.

The locus sought is therefore an hyperbola.

The co-ordinates of the centre are
x
The

x\y

==

cot.

<p

removed

origin of co-ordinates being

to this point, the

equation becomes

yx

cot.

Hence (l&l) the

asymptote

line

a right

is

co-ordinates

<p

a?

cg

gk

line

if

(cot,

is

<p

y =
f

0.

an asymptote, and the other

(105) to the latter system of

line, related

by the equation

y=
Hence

Ag

cot.

<p

x.

ag, and gi be drawn parallel to bc, and

ic, the point

is

the centre of the hyperbola, and a

through k parallel to bc

is

one asymptote, and cg the

other.

prop.
(30.)

If through

clii.

the vertices

of two similar

second degree, whose axes coincide

',

drawn

lines

of

the

two right lines be

intersecting fhevn 9 they will be cut 'proportionally

by those curves.

Let the equations of the two curves be

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Since a
y

B
B'
= = --
A'
A

these

187

Let the

curves are similar.

equation of a right line intersecting them be

y=

ax, which,

being substituted in each of the equations, gives

= -~P
2

and dividing the one by the other,

Hence the
the origin

'
1

intercepts of the intersecting right line between

and the points where

it

meets the curves are pro-

portional to the principal parameters,

is

and therefore the

independent of the inclination of the secant to the

Cor,

This question applied

to the

ratio

axis.

circle will furnish

solutions for the following problems

1.

To

describe

circle

and touching a given

2.

To

describe

touching two given

3.

To

passing through two given points

circle.

circle

passing through a given point and

circles,

describe a circle touching three given circles.

Puissant Propositions de Geometrie, pp. 119 ? 180.

creations

No.

6,

Mathematiques of Ozanam,

torn.

i.

Correspondence sur I'Ecole Poly technique.

p.

See

Re-

377.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

138

PROP. CL1II.
(303.) Let two similar ellipses or hyperbolas have

centre

and

smaller

the vertex

a tangent be drawn intersecting

any two chords of

where

and through

coincident axes,

let

of the

the other;

passing through the point

the greater

this tangent meets it,

a common

and

equally inclined to this

tangent, are together equal to two chords

of the smaller
and passing through the vertex.

ellipse parallel to them,

Let the equation of the smaller be

+B

A2?/ 2

#2

2b2 ajt

0,

the origin being at the vertex; this changed into a polar

equation, gives
(a 2

sin,

cv

b 2 cos. 2 w)r

2b 2 a

cos.

oj

or if e be the eccentricity,

(1

cos. 2

w)r

- p cos. w =

and hence

cos.

OJ

e 2 cos. 2

oo

origin being at

Let the equation of the greater curve, the

the centre, be
a' 2j/

If the origin be
intersects

it,

b' .t 2

removed

a'V 2

to the point

where the tangent

and whose co-ordinates are therefore

A,

= j ^/a' a
2

and y

2
,

the equation will be

Since the ellipses are similar, their eccentricities are equal,,

and therefore

equation becomes, by dividing by A fQ, and

this

fa

observing that
y*

(1

B -^ =
)x*

+2

v 'l

e% and 2(1

e*

s/a!"

2 )a

a2

p,

~-

px =

0.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY..

139

This changed into a polar equation, and solved

The two
of y^

z=z

them by r and r

if

sin. cv

with the axis

w, and therefore repre-

sin.

+
T ji^JP^JL-.
l^cos/w'

= %\

-}~ r"

This proposition

Cor.

/;

a' 2

make equal angles

only in the sign of

j
hence r

a/

1 0*COS. 2 W

values of r , which

differ

senting

2a/1 e 2

pcos. w

r\

for

apply also to two parabolas

will

they be equal.

This proposition
la Terre, and

is

is

given by Clairaut in his Theorie de

by which he proceeds

the principle

investigation of the figure of the planets,

in his

when they

are

supposed to be homogeneous.

PROP. CLIV.

Three unequal circles being given9 if to every two of

them common tangents be drawn, the three points of in-

(304.)

of the tangents
same straight line,

tersection

the

Let

c,

to

each pair of circles will

c v , be the centres of the circles, p 5

p',

three points of intersection of the tangents, r, r ,

!

three radii,

and

of co-ordinates.
the centre
as

r',

be y'x

therefore

Hence p

is

pV = y n

Let

The

compounded of y
:

and pc be taken

let the lines p p"

f

n
:

ratio y'

p c, or

,!

on the axis of x.

and

fl

r'

y may be
!

r,

in

p" the

r'

the

as axes

the co-ordinates of

let

lie

considered

and of p c

but c"p

c'p

y, or

rn

r\

140

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
PROP. CLV.

Two

(305.)

being given in magnitude and position,

circles

a tangent

one of them intersect the othery to find the

locus of the intersection of tangents to the second passing
let

to

through the points where the tangent

contact of the tangent to the

locus

through

it

p be y x and
]

Let

sought.

is

dicular to

to the first

centres be c, c7, the radii r,

Let the

cp

cc'

c,

r,

r',

be the axis of
:

let

#,

and a perpen-

the co-ordinates of

cd-=af^ and the angle pc'x

Since the equation of the tangent through p

yy
and

cp
f

ocx

it.

and p the point whose

first,

the axis of y

meets

the point of

= w*

is

r2 ;

perpendicular to the tangent, therefore the portion

is

of c p between
f

d and

the tangent,

(6), is

a?V-R2
R
r'

but r

'

= 7-

and x

cos. w, therefore

R f2

R x" COS.
This

is

CO

the polar equation of a line of the second degree, the

pole being the focus, and the values of

the axis.

The parameter and

cv

measured from

eccentricity are given

by the

equations,
2r' 2

The

locus

is

therefore a parabola, ellipse, or hyperbola, ac-

cording as x == r,
11

<

R, or x'

>

R.

If the locus be an ellipse or hyperbola, the axes are

determined by the equations,

B2

r'*

~~

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
A2

B
A

Hence

it

JIQ

R2

"

follows that

B2

=
=

r'

]l

**

rr' 2

R*-#" a

'

the ratio of the axes are therefore */ r 2

The

141

locus will be a circle if #"

112
:

r2

0, scil. if the

two

circles

are concentrical.

If the centre of the second

locus

is

the ellipse;

parabola; and

if it

if it

be on

be outside

be within the

first,

the

circumference,

it is

the

circle
its

it, it is

the hyperbola.

PROP. CLVI.
(306.)

To find

the equation

of a

line

of the second degree,

touching the three sides of a given triangle.

Let the

sides of the given triangle

be represented by the

equations

+ bx + c
+ Vx + d
avy + b"x + c' =
ay

a!y

Ma),
J

Let y be eliminated by each of these equations and the

general equation of the second degree, and the results ar-

ranged by the dimensions of x y are

Bab -f ca?)x 2 -{-(%Abc bcic Dab -f e# 2 )#

+ ac 2 nac + Fa z =
(a// 2 - bcW -f ca )^ 2 -f (SAftV - Bad - daW + e tf 2 )a?
+ Ac - Wc' + Fa =
- bA" - W6" +
(a6" 2 - Brf'fi" + caf'V + (2a
)*?
2
Ac
-DaV
=
+ Fa
+
(aZ^

f2

f2

That the

00.

ffl

'

f/a

three sides of the triangle

may be

tangents,

the roots of each of these equations must be real and equal,

which furnishes the conditions

algebraic geometry,

142

4ac)c + (d ~ 4af)6 + (e - 4cf> 2(BD ^AE)6c S(BE 2CD)aC-S(DE 2BF)a5 --0,

(b - 4ac)c' 2 + (d - 4af)&' + (e* - 4cfW 2(bd - 2ae)6V- 2(BE-2cp)aV 2(de - 2BF)a'&' = 0,
(b* - 4ac)c" + (d 4af)&" + (e --4cfK
(b 9

2(bd-2ae)W'2(be 2cd)V' 2(DE--2BF)fl

These three equations are
coefficients

ff

(<0

y'==oJ

sufficient to eliminate three

of the

of the general equation, and the remaining ones

continue indeterminate.
If the two sides of the triangle represented by the second

and

third equations in (a) be taken as axes of co-ordinates,

these equations

and therefore V
conditions (c)
(b 2

0,

become

4ac)c 2

The

must become

(de

respectively

0,

d =

0, c

and x

0,

0, and hence the

in this case

2(bd

2bf)6

2ae)5c

2(be

%ci>)ac

0,

Ea

4CF

d2

4af

0,
0.

where the curve touches

co-ordinates of the points

the axes of co-ordinates, are in this case

PROP. CLVII.

To find

the equation

of the

locus

of the centre of a
of the second degree, which touches the sides of a
given angle in two given points.

(307.)

line

Let the

sides of the given angle

co ordinates, and

let

be assumed as axes of

the distances of the points of contact

from the origin be respectively

?/

and x\

If the equation of

the curve be

Alf

BXy

-f

CX 2

D/

-f-

'EX

-\-

== 0.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

The

148

conditions of the question give the equations,

d2

4af

e2

4cf

The

=
=

0,

0,

2a'

"~

_E

2c'

co-ordinates of the centre are

bd~2ae
~~

The

b2

4ac

BE 2CD

_^
-

~~

b2

4ac

quantities c, d, e, f, being eliminated from these

means of the former equations, the

_
~

2aj/ 2
2aj/

+~~BX P

~~
2Aj/-}--B#;

The

equation therefore of the locus sought

eliminating b and

by the

the one

a from

other,

these,

The

therefore a

is

which

is

is

found by

by dividing

clone

and gives

yx xy
locus

by

results are

0.

right line passing through the

vertex of the given angle5 and bisecting the line joining the
Since

points of contact.

_ 4ac = Xfu

b*

the curve

or

>

%/',

distance.

is

an

and

ellipse or hyperbola,

it is

The

a parabola

if

J
X,
1

according as

y <
]

2//?

the centre be at an infinite

species of the curve therefore

depends on

the side of the line joining the points of contact at which the
centre

is

assumed

of the given angle

side

an

ellipse.

if it
it is

be at the same side with the vertex

an hyperbola, and

if at

a different

144

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

If

y=

which

is

x\ the locus

the

common

is

the bisector of the given angle,

axis of

all

the curves.

PROP. CLVIII.

To inscribe an ellipse or hyperbola in a triangle

(308,)

to touch its base at the point

of bisection,

and also

so as

to touch

one of the sides in a given point.

By

the last Proposition, the centre must be

upon the

line

through the point of bisection of the base, and the vertex of

And

the opposite angle.

tact

the line joining the points of con-

of the other two sides must be parallel to the base;

may be found

hence

the point of contact with the other side,

and the solution of the problem

is

evident

the given

if

point of contact with the side be in the production of the

side, the

curve

is

an hyperbola,

if otherwise.,

an

ellipse.

PROP. CLIX.
(309.)

To find

the locus

of

of ellipses or hyperof a triangle, and touch

the centre

bolas which touch the three sides

one in a given point.

Let two

sides c,

c',

of the triangle be assumed as axes of

f/

co-ordinates, and the equation of the third side (c

) is

dy + ex cd = 0o

The

condition of contact with the axes of co-ordinates and

this line are

D2

4CF =
_ 4CF =

DE-2UF__
BE-2CD ,
C ~
3
2i7-31a7 b^4a"c

E2

cc

TCD-2AE
2

"^=4lc

0,
;

0.

Let the distance of the point of contact with the axis of x

from the origin be

rf,

#'=

E
.

'

G EOM K T RY.

AT, GEE R AT C

The

1 45

co-ordinates of the centre being

4ac'

BD- &AE

b2

We find,

4ac

after elimination, the equation of the locus sought*,

c
2(d

which, proves the locus sought to

If y

zz

and

cc = 0,

+ to

af)y

if

a:

pears, that if a right line be

he a right

~rr- 9 7/

line.

Hence it ap

drawn connecting the given

point of contact with the vertex of the opposite angle, the

right line which

is

side of the triangle

the locus sought bisects this line, and the

on which the given point of contact

lies,

PROP. CLX.

To find

(310.)

the locus

of the vertex of a triangle conof whose base angles is

structed on a given base, one

double the other.

The

extremity of the base being taken as origin, and the

base as axis of

let

one base angle be

a,

&tan.

but tan. a

Hence,

---.,

tan.

2a

and

tan.

%a

is

;
'

where x

is

after reduction, the equation of the curve

'if

is

= -~

x'

trigonometry,.

= T7-
1 tan.*

&r +
2

which

and the other 2a,

By

and the co-ordinates of the vertex yx.

%x?x

the base,

sought

is

0,

the equation of an hyperbola, whose transverse axis

two-thirds of the base,

ALGEBRAIC CUEOMETKY,

146

PROP, CLXX,

(SO.) Given in magnitude and position the vertical angle

triangle, whose area is also given, to find the locus

of a

of appoint which
Let the

divides the opposite side in

a given

ratio.

be assumed as axes of

sides of the given angle

The co-ordinates of the point, whose locus is

being yx the equation furnished by the conditions

co-ordinates*

sought,

of the question, after the requisite reduction,

2a
,y

where

<p

'

sin.

{m

'

is

n)^

the given angle, a the given area, and

the

given ratio.

The

locus

is

therefore an hyperbola, whose asymptotes are

the sides of the given angle,

PROP. CLXIL

To find

(3 IS.)

the locus

turned upon the

ference of its

By
locus

the extremity

of

qfan
chord and versed

of a

arc^ equal to the

sine

'portion, as-

sum

or dif-

sine.

the conditions expressed, the equation of the sought

is

y =
where r
radical,

is

the radius

/%rx

JK

which,

X,

when disengaged from

the

becomes
if

which

is

+ %yx +

#3

%ros

0,-

the equation of a parabola.

It is evident that the axis

of the parabola

angle of 45 to the diameter of the

circle,

is

inclined at an

a E O M E T it Y

A L CI E B R A. 1

147

PEOP. CLXJII.
(813,)

The

distance

of a

ordinate to the axis

gree being produced

of the point where

line

of

the second de-

part produced equals the

to until the

meets the curve from the

it

focusjojind the locus of the extremity ofthe produced pari*

A.

Gr

If

Let the ordinate pm be produced

until

being the focus of the proposed curve

Mm

equals fm, f

the object

is

to find

the locus of the point m.

The

polar equation of a line of the second degree

"~

2(le

which represents an
cording as e

<

>

1,

wn

cos,

1,

or

By

to)

hyperbola, or parabola, ac-

ellipse,

Let im be drawn.

1.

the conditions of the question

2r cos. tofm

2r

sin.

wfp.

Iyx be the rectangular co-ordinates of the

fy and fx, as axes of co-ordinates,

to

sin,

and

since

mfp

wifp

00

is

point m, related

ALGEBRAIC. GEOMETRY,

148

y
Vyz+x*

(1

2#

sin

wfp cos. mFp)

reduced becomes

which

j/

which

is

9xyoo i-

ac*

pj/ ~

0?

the equation of an ellipse, hyperbola^ or parabola 9

according as e

<

1,

>

1,

or

The

1.

locus sought

therefore a line of the second degree of the

same

is

species as

the proposed.

The

x shows that the curve

solution of the equation for

touches the axis of

at f.

If the equation be solved for y, the roots are

To find
of

%,

ex

ip

a/(^

1)#* + F^ +

-J/?

the values of y, which touch the curve, let the values

which render the radical

responding values of

be found, and the cor-

0,

are those sought.

These values of

are

V
2(1

+
P

e)

and the corresponding values of

spectively.

are equal to these re-

These being the distances of the

vertices of the

proposed curve from the focus, indicate the following

cir-

cumstances with respect to the position of the proposed

locus.

If a perpendicular to ax, the transverse axis of the pro-

posed curve, be drawn through

the locus sought touches

its

vertex a, and ab

ay and ax

at b

and

af^

f.

If bf be drawn, and bisected at e 5 a right line passing

through a and e

is

the axis of the locus.

focal tangent of the proposed curve,,

locus

whose ordinates are

The

parallel to

is

The

line

bh the
5

a diameter of the

ay.

axes of the locus are inclined at an angle of 45 to

those of the proposed curve.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

149

If the proposed curve be a parabola, e will be the focus,

and bf the parameter of the

locus.

If cd be drawn through the centre of the proposed curve

perpendicular to Ax, and intersecting ae in d, d

is

the centre

of the locus*
If the proposed curve be a parabola, whose parameter
the parameter of the locus

jp 9

= -~>

If the proposed curve be an ellipse or hyperbola,

semiaxes.be a and

v ad = u

&,

And

*/%,..

gents af and ab are at right angles, ad

co

s/%

Hence

7=r~.

a(a

v a (a
It will appear

by

-f

de

V2

a!

and

a,2 3 and

follows that

it

a+c

let its

since the tan-

^/d

being the semiaxes of the locus; also ad

be

is

= rf
=V

c)

c)

XVIII.

Sect.

2
,

2
.

that the areas of the two

curves are equal

PROP. CLXIV.

To find

(314,)

the locus

mal

to

of the point of bisection of the nor-

line

Let the equation of the

of the second

degree.

line related to its axis

and

vertical

tangent as axes of co-ordinates be

Ay a +

B2

2B 2 A<r

0.

Let the

co-ordinates of the point of bisection of the normal

be yx.

By

the conditions of the question

y,

%
b 2 (a~~0
B 2 (A X')

since the

subnormal

is

equal to
A-

The

co-ordinates

y x being
]

eliminated

by xneans of

these

150

ILGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.-

equations,

and the

sions of

and x, we

(B a

'

&A

ft

\-

) J/

dimen-

result arranged according to the

lied

2b*A # - B4 (B - 4

B a A 2#2

the equation of the locus, which

ft

0,

therefore a line of the

is

second degree, of the same kind as the given one.

If the given curve be a parabola, the equation of the
locus (since a

which

becomes

is infinite),

1% 2 4p# +i> a =

0,

the equation of a parabola, whose vertex passes

is

through the focus of the given one, and whose parameter

is

equal to a fourth of the parameter of the given parabola.

If the given curve be an ellipse or hyperbola,

origin of co-ordinates be

removed

to the

let

the

and the

centre,

equation of the locus becomes

(2A 2

B*)Y

Hence the semiaxes

a',

+A

B 2#2

(&A a

Ba )s

b of the locus are

A'

A~

B'

i,B.

Fit OP.

(315.)

= JLB

CLXV.

right line (bm) being related by

its

equation to

rectangular co-ordinates^ ifa right lime be drawn from the

origin (a), meeting the ordinate
at (q), so thai

Let aq

qap

--

w;

equation

aq

-r,

and

let

the

of

the

right line .be

ax
=

by

Since
thesis

0.

hypo-

=y

r cos.

equation

a;,

of

and
the
the

= pm

of the proposed right

hens of the point

tofind the

line
(q).

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

a cos* w)

(I

The

locus

is

parameter

is

151

therefore a line of the second degree,

2b$ and eccentricity

that the right line

bm

a.

It is

whose

obvious also

the focal tangent.

is

PROP. CLXVI.
(316.)

Iffrom

of an

the centre (c)

fected on the ordinate (pm)

to find the locus

A y~

line (co) he in-

cq

pm,

a.

Let the equation of the given

,a
3
-r'

to the axis, so that

of the point

ellipse

#'
.^ 2
s

be

ellipse

A'*B'\

and

let

the co-ordinates of

a be y%.

the point

By

the conditions of the question 5

the

locus

is

// Jr **

equation of the

^(A'

- X%

which reduced becomes

A/2j/ 3 +
Hence

the locus

of the given one.

is

an

(a' s

ellipse,

B'

)#

whose axes coincide with those

Let the semiaxes of the locus be a ? B f

V A +B
f2

Hence,

if

*> R ta
A'*B"-

the angle

bca be

perpendicular to ca ? ce

bisected
a.

'

,a

by c, and

m be drawn

ALGEBRAIC G E0MET11Y.

152

SECTION XV.
Of the application of the

differential

and integral

calculus

to curves.

normals,

Of'tangents?

The

(317.)

differential

fyc*

and integral calculus

is

peculiarly

adapted to the analytical investigation of the properties of

curves

and the application of that science

to this

purpose

cannot but be considered as one of the most interesting and

We shall therefore in the

useful parts of Jlgebraic Geometry.

present section proceed to apply the calculus to the discovery

of those properties to which

in which the principles of

it is

common

particularly adapted,

and

algebra, used in the pre-

ceding sections, are either inadequate or incommodious.

PitOP, CLXVII.

(318.)

To

the position

determine

through a given point

is

^{yx)

x ) on a
!

of a tangent passing
curve, whose equation

0,

Let the equation of

the tangent sought -be

(# y) (# #0=G,
where

sin.
--.

sin.

la.

-.
-.
ly

Let

v be the given point, and

Pp
then

= AX

by.,

Taylor's theo-

rem.

dy

AX

dx

n.rJ

If a

J!

'dx

pp

a^y

AX"

dx 2

dx 3

A PC

_
'

cPy

AX*
5CC

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
Ax'

In this series such a value

render the

will

pp

vp render the

= pp

!l

--

pp

Ax 2

is

will

be true for

Ax

be assigned to

as will

,f

first

Hence

term greater than the remainder,

have the same sign with "-y^ 5 since

will

positive whatever
all

series,

be greater than the remainder of the

of A# between that and zero.

series for all values

Ax =

may

term greater than the remainder of the

first

and the same term

if

ax

cPy

(T-y
,,

153

be the sign of

points between p and

Ax and

the same

Hence

<p.

fol-

it

lows, that at each side of the point p the curve lies at the

same

side of the right line,

- and

according as

~~

case in which

curve

is

shall

-----

convex towards the axis

y and

concave

if

ot

-e
oo 9 it

ffiy

it

The
The

be considered hereafter.

curve

~rz has the

Hx

they have different signs,

for let its equation

be

(y -?/) a (x

x')

/ pp" =:

a!

Ax

pp

ay

Ax

therefore

first

if

Ace 3

Ax-1
'

series

this

render the

Oj

of)

ax
'

;:

cly

In

above or below

other right line passing through the point p must inter-

sect the

it lies

y have the same or different simis.

dx Q

same sign with

Any

and that

172

'"

"

1.2,

dx 3

such a value niay be sissignee to A#? as will

i

term equal to the remainder of the

series,

and

the sign of Ax be in that case different from that

of the remainder of the

and the right

line will

series,

the value of

meet the curve

pp

j!

will vanish,

at that point,

every point between that and p the right line will

the curve*

lie

and

for

within

ALGEBHAIC GEOMETRY.

154

the equation of the tangent through the point

Hence

y#

is

=
(y-y)-&-^)
ch

o.

lK

A point can be found on a curve, through

(319.) Cor. 1.

which a tangent
sition.

shall

be parallel to a right

Let the equation of the right

mj

The

-Y

bx

+c=

line

line

given in po-

be

0.

co-ordinates of the point of contact

may be found by

the equations

dy

dad

ittya!)

the latter being the equation of the curve.

If -yj

(320.) Cor, 2.
axis of

oc 9

and vice

0, the tangent is parallel to the

cc

versa.
7-

(821.) Cor, o. If ~j~

on a

line of the

the tangent

is

parallel to

we

versa,

The

equation of a tangent to a given point

the axis of y 9 and

(322.) Cor. 4.

second degree,

may be found by

differen-

tiating the equation

aj/ 2 4*

sxy

Co;

4
-j-

DJ/

E# ~f

*'

0,

which gives

^
dx

2or
~~
9>K.y

+
+

EJ/

-4-

b*' -f

E
d'

and therefore the equation of the tangent

(gAy+BA-'+D)
which

is

is

(#y) + (Sc^'+uy+E)

the same with the result of (133),

(x-rf)

o,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.'

155

PUOP. CLXVIII.
(823.)

To find

a given point on a

the subtangent to

In the equation of the tangent

of the subtangent

s is

x
]

oc

let

y=

0,

curve.

and the value

dx

and, in like manner, the value of the subtangent measured

on the

axis of y 9

is

~~"

dx

'

(3M.) Cor. If the length of the tangent be

t,

z
^r)
- y (y + d*' + %dydx cos,
-"-'
"
a

%'*

'"

it

which,

when yx

--,

becomes

riiop.

(825.)

To find

the equation

clxix.

of

the

normal and

the sub-

normal.

The
by

equation of a line perpendicular to the tangent

dtf

{cos.yx+jg) (y - f)
which,

when yx

The
dinates,

is,

(39),

di/

(- cos.^ + 1)

(a;

^)

0,

becomes

subnormal, taken relatively to each axis of co-or-

may be found by

supposing

in these equations, which gives

y and x

successively

AIJlEmiAlC GEOMEXIIY.

156

'

'

which,

when y^

~~

-\-cos. yx
dx
dx + cos. yx dy

dy

dx

dy

+
+

dy

cos.

y qs

cos.

yx ufo n

if

s
'

become

="

"*/

PROP. CLXX,

To

(326.)

donates

transform any expression involving the co-or-

yx

o/*

am/ point, and

their differentials, into one

involving the polar co-ordinates

z,

and

their dif-

ferentials,

The

angle

yx may

be taken as a right angle,

in this case

which would re-

to avoid the complexity of the expressions

sult

Any

from any other supposition.

oblique angled co-ordinates

may

formula related to

be transformed

first to rect-

angular, and then to polar co-ordinates.

The

angle yx being a right angle, the point y'x the pole,

!

and the angle

cv

with the axis of

being measured from a line which makes

x an angle

/',

~ z sin. (w + a/),
= z cos, + a/),
dy = cos. (w + oJ)dw + sin. (w + vJ)dz
dx = cos.
/)&; 2sin. (w + a/)^,
y

[oo

so

2;

(a;

-j-

tan. (w -f w )zdw
d y~sm>(tv + w^ ^ 4- 2 cos. ( w + w )dzd<az sin. (w+w')i y
cos. (a> f w')d 2 g sin. (w -f vJ)dzdw ~ # cos. w + )dw K
rf#

i2

By

cfe

these formulae

oo

any .expression involving^ and

their

157

ALOE Bit AIC GEOMETRY,

first

and second

pression involving

and

in like

can be converted into an ex-

differentials,

and

srw,

their first

and second

differentials

manner, by continuing the process, the substitu-

tion necessary for the differentials of higher orders

may be

found.

PROP.- CLXXI.

(327.)

To

express the angle under the radius vector of a

curve, whose equation

any point

is z

f(w),

and a tangent through

zw

Let the angle under the radius vector and fixed

axis be

zx 9 and that under the tangent and the same tx 9 and the
angle under the tangent and radius vector
tan. tx
tan. tz

tan. tx

-f

Now,

tz.

tan. rx
.

tan.

rx

but
tan.

du

y
#= ~,

tan.

tec

= -~

ax

hence
tan. tz

= ydx
cedx

xdy
-\~

ydy

Substituting in this expression for y,

found

x dy dx9
9

in (326), the result

is

z~dw{ sin. 2 (w

w').+ cos. 2 (w

a/)

w)

tan, te
3

jz;&| sin. (w

v tan.
hence

tz --,

dz

cos. 2 (w

also

.sin.

tz

zdw

=
(s

ft

rfca*

+ <fe 8

)' 5

the values

ALC1EBRATC GKOMETET,

158

PROP. CLXXl.

Given the polar equation %

(828.)

f(w) of a curve,

.to

express the polar suhtangent*

Let the polar subtangent be p ?

z tan.

tz,

= z*dw

Of rectification and quadrature,

'

PROP. CLXXII.

(329^)

yx

The equation qf\i mrve being given*

of any arc of it*

If the equation be related to fixed axes of co-ordinates

let

A be the
dh.

v
in

to find the length

arc,

and

it is

plain that
i

(dy"

a =f(dy 2

+ J# + 2% dr cos. yxfT +
4- ^% do? cos. $y#)
+
2

fl?#

which the value of the constant c

is

c?

determined by the

co-ordinates of the extremities of the arc sought.

Ifyr

=:-J,

^/{df + dx*Y +

2. If the curve be expressed

let the

values of

dk/

and

dsc

(326) be substituted in the pre-

ceding equation, and the result

a =y'(* a diw
where c

is

c.

by a polar equation ^=f(w),

ft

is

dz*y

c,

determined by the values of % and w for the ex-

tremities of the proposed arc.

The determination of the length

the rectification of the curve.

of an arc

is

usually called

ALOEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
PROP. CLXXIII.

To find

(380.)

the area included by two values

of

y, the

curve and the axis ofx, or by two radii vector es, if the
curve be expressed by a polar equation,

Let the equation be v(yx)

and

0,

the sought

a'

area*

da!

v
and

if

z=zfijdx

a/

sin. ycc.y

sin.yx Jr c

the co-ordinates be rectangular,

a
where

ydx

-fy dx '+

c;

determined by the values of y, which include the

c is

area.
2.

If the curve be expressed by a polar equation,

dA

-*-sin.

tz

zdx

where dA

= (fdw + dz*)
1

and

(329),

zdw
sm,

tz

(z

dA!

where

c,

as before,

= ^z
= 4y2

d*?+dz*)\

9
'dctJ

a'

is

determined by the values of z 3 which

ft

rfw

C,

include the proposed area,

The

determination of the area

is

usually called the qua-

drature of the curve.

Of osculating

circles

and

evolutes.

(SSL) The principles on which the investigation of a line

touching a curve is founded being generalised, produce some
results of considerable importance in the analysis of curves.

The

object sought in that case,

was a right

line

meeting the

curve in such manner, that no other right line passing

through the same point could pass between

but must pass at the same side of both

it

and the curve,

Now

a circle

may

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

160
be sought

between

meeting the

fulfilling similar conditions, scil. so

curve, that no other circle through the

it

and the curve.

and that of the sought

(y

~~

y'f

Let the equation of the curve

circle

lV

same point can pass

be

riy

R2

(2),

where y x are the co-ordinates of the centre of the

!

the

is

In order to

radius.

curve at the point yx,

case,,

result

first differential

to each other, for,

the same right line shall touch

By

point p.

necessary that the

two equations be equal

coefficient in the

in that

it is

and

circle,

limit the circle to touch the

them both

differentiating the equation of the

at the

the

circle,

is

~~y )dy
!

(y

(x

- x )dx =
!

(3).

Qrtl

value of -~ resulting from equation (1) being

The

and y x being supposed

!

stituted in thisj

constant,
circle

it

such

all

question then

is,

on the normal

circles are

among

those

circles-

{y

- y')d\tj

and

(3) will

+ (x

determine that

to

Let the values

of

b"9 b

c", c'",

Let

d2 y d3y
, -7 *> &c,

dy
*>

values for the circle (pp

+ dy\ + dx =

of the curve pp be

!,!

pp'

Sec.

pass.

and

For

(4)

determine the centre of the sought

-w-

x')d2x

The

(39).

be differentiated,

this purpose, if the equation (3)

yx

the equation of the locus of the centre of a

is

between which and the curve none of the others

(yx)

and

variable,

touching the curve at the point, and shows that the

centres of

this

sub-

a',

f/

the

for

equation

&c, 5 and their

a"',

determined by {9) 3

the values for

circle.

any other

(8),

circle

(4),

be

vp" be

&c.

= Ax

v'p

by Taylor's theorem,

aj/.? v[p

&y\

v'p'

=;

a/;

then

161

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

AX

A<2T

Atf:

1.2

Ay=B

A#

b'

c
~

b",

A B

since a'

1.2

Ay=c A# +
Now,

already laid down,

A^ a

and

a"

A3T

1.2

&c\

1,2,3

&c.

TJs
,

c"

c',

A%

ax

1.2.3

,&c.
5

by the

Ay - Af =

(A"

- d')~ +

Ay - Ay" =

(b"

A%
- c)~

(A<

- c"')^,

(b"'

- c"')^, &c.

value of

ax may be

of each of these

&C.

AX

The

conditions

taken so small, that the

series shall surpass the value

first

of the

term

sum of

the remaining terms, and therefore the sign of the whole

will

series

be that of the

a" = b", v a"

and Az/ Ay

11

cannot

lie

lie

(332.) Def.

Ay

hence the signs of

between the points

at the

but since

term in each;

A?/",

are the same, and therefore the point

part of the circle pp

must

first

c" = b" c",

ff

same

The

p and p\

that

is

circle

osculating circle to the point

curve vp and the

thus determined,

is

tf

to say, the

flowing immediately from the point

side of the

p,

circle pp'.

called the

p.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

16^

PROP, CLXX1V.
(333,)

To

express the co-ordinates of the centre

radius of the osculating

and

the

circle.

Let the values of y x and R be determined by the equa!

tions (&), (3), (4)

whence,

f
~

(dy 2 + dx*)dx

y *'d*ydxd*xdij.

~~ X+
X ,_

= ~
+

(dy*+dx*)dy

d2xdy~d2ydx>
ldy*+dx*) T

d*y dx

x dy

The

value of r being a square root,

signs

which we should employ

cavity of the curve

susceptible of

is

If the con-

conventional.

is

be turned towards the

two

axis of w, the

radius of the circle which passes through the point of contact

will also

be in that direction.

If the radius thus situate

be considered positive, the value of r given above must in

that case be taken with a negative sign, because

that case be negative (3 1 8) ,

shall therefore consider the

?/

d %y

being supposed positive.

value of

will in

We

have the negative

to

sign prefixed.
(334.) In the preceding investigation

we have

considered

both dy and dx as variable, for the sake of generality, and

also because

If

doc,

it

preserves

more symmetry

in the expressions*

however, be considered constant, dPx

expressions therefore

_
y=y
f

and the

become
.

dy*+dx*

&y
z

d y doc

~~

d2y dx
(335.)

The osculating circle

is

known by

the

name of the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

of curvature, and

circle

radius

its

It received this

curvature.

position that

it

is

163

called the radius

name probably from

of

the sup-

has the same curvature with the curve at the

point of contact

but

this is

not

strictly

the case, as there

number of other curves which may pass

and the given curve, and whose curvatures there-

are an infinite

between

it

fore approach nearer to that of the curve than the curvature

of the osculating

as will

circle^,

curvature of this

circle,

however, approaches nearer to

that of the curve than the curvature of

in this sense the

The

be shown hereafter.

name of the

circle

any other

of curvature

circle,

may

and

not be

inapplicable.

PROP. CLXXV.

(836.)

curve

expressed by a polar equation^

being

f(w), to find the radius of the osculating

circle.

In the value of R in the equation

dx z Y
dPydocdPxdy*
(dy 2

let

the values of dy,

result

-f

d2y, d2 x, be

doc,

substituted,

and the

is

(fd^+d&Y

__
(z

(337.)

Def

and magnitude
locus of

its

The

du*+%dz*--zd z)du

osculating circle varying

its

position

for the different points of the curve, the

centre

is

a line whose nature and properties

depend on, and are derivable from, those of the given curve,
This locus
is its

is

called the evolute of the curve,

and the curve

involute.

M&

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

164<

PROP, CLXXVr,

The

(338.)

to find that

By

of its

being given,

evolute.

the equations

If'
*

tdy*+doc*)dx
~
= d dx oJ'X dy*

3/
y

'

(dif

+ dx^dy

d x dy d9y dx
l

united with that of the curve and

ferentials, the quantities

eliminated,

yx
!

the osculating circle,

y
!

and x

and second

d y, and d

x,

dif-

may be

be thence found expressing

the co-ordinates of the centre of

and the constants of the equation

This relation

of the curve.

the values of

will

its first

x, dy, dx,

and an equation

the relation between

v(yx)

equation of a curve ~$(yx)

since they

fore expresses a relation

between

the points of the curve, and

is

independent of

is

were eliminated, and there-

y and x common
1

to all

therefore the equation of the

locus of the centre of curvature.

(339.)
tensive

The

power and

investigationSe

several

principle here used

The

utility

is

one of the most ex-

analytical

in

and geometrical

elimination of several

variables

by

equations always gives an equation or equations

which express the relation between those which remain, and

which, being independent of any particular values of those

which have been eliminated,

them.

We cannot advance

is

common

a step in analytical investiga-

tions without being sensible of the

invests us,

to all values of

power with which

this

ALGEB11AIC GEOMETRY,

165

PROP. CLXXVII.

7 o find
1

(340.)

of a tangent

the equation

drawn from a point (yx) on

By

(318) the equation

/

is

evolute

is

tff
= d^'
(

);

dy
the object

to the

the curve.

^-

therefore to express

as a function of yx*

Let the equation

x*)dx = o
(y * y )^y + (#
be differentiated, j/V being considered variable; the re!

sult is

~y }& y + (x-x*)d2x + dy* + dx z dy dy da? d#' = 0,

}

(?/

which being subtracted from

(^

y^y

(#

^)d

a?

</y*

dr*

= 0,

gives

dy

dx

dx

dy*

Hence the equation of the tangent sought

(341.)

&)dy =

+
(y
Con Hence (325) the tangent
~*

y)d%

(^

is

o.

to the evolute

drawn

from any point in the curve coincides with the normal of

the curve through the same point, and therefore (337), the
centre of the osculating circle

is

the point of contact

and

the length of the tangent, from the point on the curve to

the point of contact;

is

the radius of the osculating

circle.

PROP. CLXXVIII.
(342.)

To find

the length

of an arc of the
curve.

If the equation

evolute to

a given

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

166
be

considering

differentiated,

and

.j/af

it

as variables, the

result is

(y

- y)

(dy

but since

dy )
]

- x)

dx') =

(dx

yjc^/ + (x #')& = v
-~(y y )ty (# #')<^ = RC R

(/

r^r

by

(x

this and the equations

- yJ + (* - O* = rs

(j/
y )<ir ^ )^y ^ 0,
#') being eliminated,
the quantities (y /) and
{y

(.r

(po

we

find

= dy + dw,
cZr = (dy* + <&')*
2

{d*y

the latter ~ member of this equation being the differential of

the arc of the evolute,

it

follows that this arc

and the radius

Let vv' be the

of curvature increase by equal differences.

e volute of the curve mm', and v the centre of the osculating

circle

corresponding to the point

touches the evolute at the point v.

mV be

In

like

mv

arc vv' of the evolute

is

By what

mv and mV. Hence

has been proved, the

it

follows, that if

mv be supposed
!

from

let

equal to the difference between the

a flexible string wrapped upon the curve \y as

itself

therefore

manner,

the radius of the osculating circle at the point

touching the evolute at V.

lines

the line

off vv' its extremity

will trace

it

unwinds

out the curve

mm'.
(343.)

The analogy between

this

manner of conceiving

the involute to be described, and the description of a circle

is

manifest.

and the

The

evolute

may be

conceived to act as centre^

radius, instead of being a constant length, to

be

It follows also, that if the involute be

an

Variable.

(344.) Cor.

algebraic curve, the evolute

is

is rectijiable.

For any

arc of

it

equal to the difference between the radii of the osculating


ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
circles at the points

167

of the involute corresponding to the ex-

tremities of the arc of the evolute.

Of asymptotes.

Two

(345.)

lines are said to

be asymptotes

to each other

when extending indefinitely they continually approach each

other, and approximate closer than any assignable distance,
and yet never
represented

Thus,

intersect or touch.

by the equations

T?{y%)

if

two curves be

and F (y a!)
!

0,

same value of % the value of (y y') di~

minishes without limit as x increases, but that condition

and

for the

y y =
f

can only be

by supposing x

fulfilled

infinite,

the curves are said to be asymptotes to each other.

PROP. CLXXIX.

Tojind a right

(346.)

line

which

whose equation

This problem

may be

moved

to

an

when

a curve,

by considering

the limit of

The

is

re-

equation of a tangent

is

(</-y)
If in this equation

= |(*-*').

0, the corresponding value of

AB

be

will

to

== 0.

the point of contact

infinite distance.

through a point y x'

an asymptote

v(yx)

is

solved

the position of a tangent

is

rfdyy'dx

and

if

a?

=0,

the corresponding value of?/ will be

AC
If

when x

limits, the

by

is

dx x dy
]

ax

increased without limit, these quantities have

curve has asymptotes, and they

these limiting values of

ab and ac.

will

be determined

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

168

If ab have a limit, but ac none, the asymptote

to

ax

and

if

ab have a

limit,

is

parallel

but ac none, the asymptote is

parallel to ay.

If neither have a limit, the curve has no asymptote

may be

or

it

conceived to have asymptotes infinitely removed.

If the limits be impossible, the curve has no asymptotes.

If the limit of ab = 0, the axis of y
if

the limit of AC

both

and

limits

0, the axis

0, the

their direction

of

an asymptote

is

is

and

an asymptote.

If

asymptotes pass through the origin,

may be found by

the limiting value of

dy
;,

as x

is

indefinitely increased.,

doc

SECTION XVI.
Of the general principles of contact and osculation,
(347.)

The

principles which have been already explained

relative to the contact of right lines

and

circles

with curves^

and also those on which the osculation of the circle with a

curve has been founded,

by the powers which the

may be

considei-ably generalised

diiferential

and

integral calculus

gives us.

Let three curves

(Mm, mW, Mm")

having a

common

point

m, be represented by the
equations^

F(yx)

~~

Let vp

mW =

Ay.

0,

= 0,
= mm = &w

^(j/V)
and

and

M m
;

aj/3

Hence by Taylor's theorem,

mW= a^

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Ax

_<ty

Ax*_

dh/

^"dx* T + dx*'

1.

Ax 3

dty

+
2 ^

169

Ax*
1.8.3.4'

d'y

+
1.2.3 cfc*

'

&c. (1),

Ax

dy'

d*y

Ax^

^-taf' T + d^'

&x 3

dfy

+ dtf

'

Ax*
1.2.8.4'

dSj

+ dx*'
#

l..2

&c. (2),
di/

Ax

P~W T

hj

'

+ <W % T72 + 3a?

'

&c.
If in (1) and (2)
will

have a

^=~

common

curve urn! not

1

A^

<%"

ax*

d^y"

"

#g/'

ITliS

4 "^*

^
'

these two curves

Mm

m and

the same condition, must

same side of the two curves

T72.3.4

(3).

rectilinear tangent at

fulfilling

A a?4

Mm, Mm\

any other
lie

at the

so touching at m,

This has been already

cannot pass between them.

mW

and

and

esta-

blished (318).

If in (1), (2), and (3),

dy ___ dy

dy u

dx~~ dx'~~ dx

!t

'

m but if also
d*y_d y'

the three curves touch at

the condition

llx^drf*
the curve mw' must pass between

For by

Mm

Such a value vp may be assigned

first

and irf.

subtracting (3) from (1) and (2),

to

Ax as

terms of these series greater than the

maining terms, and the same condition

all

values of

Ax

between vp and zero

will

will

render the

sum of the

re-

hold good for

therefore the sign of

the entire series will be in each case that of the coefficient of

Ax2

&

7T

zJ.

in the first term,

which

coefficients

being equal by the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

170

condition

~=-j^,

the terms Aj/

tween pm and pm' , must

!

miw',

lie

Mrf, intercepted be-

arc

same

at the

Mm

that of

t!

(348.) From what has been

side of the curves

with either of them.

appears that curves

said, it

with each other different degrees of contact, and

the principles on which the theory of contacts, in

neral form

will

and therefore the contact of these two must be

more intimate than

may have

Ay"

Hence the

have the same sign.

urn and

Ay" and Ay

is

its

most ge-

founded, are embraced in the following theorem*

PROP. CLXXX.

Mm

(Mm, Mm',

(349.) Let three curves

,,

having a common

point (m), be represented by the equations F(yx)

F^y'x')

= 0, F

coefficients

r/

(y x")

of these

equal each to each

coefficients

0,

and let

equations, from the 1st to the ipth, be

and

also

let

the successive differential

of the first two equations from the ipth to

Under these conditions
,

nth, be equal each to each.

part of the curve um! next the point m, must

same side of the two curves mm and u.m\
1

lie

(3), as far as the.pth term, are equal each to each

be subtracted from

(1)

and

p+l
p+1
_ d y d y

(2), the result is

f,

Axp+i

(dp+2y

dp+2y" 1

Axp + 2

Sd? + *y

d p+ *y1

Axp+S

the
the

at the

For, by hypothesis, the terms of the three series (1),

if (3)

0,

the successive differential

(&),

therefore^

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

~ A^ -

4y

ff

sum of the
sum be

n+1
jd y

d n + 2y

+ t ^^

(*^

cf

n+

!l

dn+
f'

yI
w+a

^ n+

-f 3)'

2...(p

p) terms of these

therefore
n
AxyiW-f

A#n+2

3 1.2...(w

a^+

d+y ^

*~dx^

1 dxn+

(s),

dn+ly 1

~ Ja?

a^+3
t

first (71

let this

.i.(?+i)

hypothesis, the

series are equal

yd*+y #>+y |
3
i dx^' ^dxT

+
By

^i-^H

171

+ 2)
3

3 1.2... (^ +

3?

A^n+2

+ 1 gwm + 2 ~ &" w +"2 3 rr^ ..(w+2)

^
The
finite,

i flte'+ 8

<&"+* 31.2...

+8)

succeeding terms of the series being supposed to be

such a value (mm') can be assigned to

der (s) greater than the

of these

series,

sum

At/

and therefore Ay

or both less than

tween mm' and

the curve

cording as

Ay \
]

for this

Hence

zero.

irf lie above

(s) is

both

Ax

as will ren-

of the remaining terms of either

and Ay

,!

both have the sign of (s), and Ay and Ay

Mm"

(rc

will

Ay

will

be both greater

and every value of

all

11

Ax

be-

the corresponding points of

Mm and Mm', or below both, ac-

negative or positive, and therefore the curve

can in no case

lie

between

Mm

and irf.

(350.) Cor. 1. Hence, in general, if any two curves have

common point (m), and the co-ordinates of that point being

substituted for yx in the successive differential coefficients,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

172

beginning from the

first,

render them respectively equal

each to each, no curve in which the same equality takes

number of

place for a less

can pass

differential coefficients

between them at the point (m), and every curve in which

the same equality takes place for a greater

must pass between them

ferential coefficients,

The

(851.) Cor. 2.
efficients

number of

greater the

dif-

at that point.

number of differential

co-

of the equations of two curves are equal the more

intimate the contact,

(352.)

Def The

contact involved in the conditions

y~-y>
is

dx*

That involved

the first order.

of

called contact

dx

in the

conditions
f

y^V*
is

called contact

of

^y^y

d*y __d\i/

t~x~~~dx*

d^~d&

And

the second order.

in general the

contact involved in the conditions

__

dy jdif

is

d ny_dny*

dhj^dhj

V ~~y> dx~dx~p ~dx'~~dx^

called contact

'

'

d^~daft*

of the nth order.

PROP. CLXXXI.
(353.)

To find

that curve

of a given

species F (y'x
f

which has the highest order of contact

p(xy)

0.

in the equation F (j/V)

The equations being

n~\

differentiated

times,

values of the constants of the equation ~$\y x

]

dy

dy

>

dx^d^"

and the

from the equations

__
yy

0,

a given curve

witJi

Let the number of constants

be n.

d2y _jfrij

d n+1y ___d n~ y}

dx*~dof*

dx n+1 ^l^-^

found

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
being substituted in that equation,

173
equation of

will give the

the curve sought.

For the number of constants being by

hypothesis n,

be

will

sufficient

and

therefore the contact

but

it

to

may be

these conditions,

fulfil

of the (n

cannot be of a higher order, as

l)th order

constants could not

more than n equations.

fulfil

Of

(354.) Def.

curves of a given species, touching a

all

given curve at a given point, that whose contact

highest order,

is

and the contact

is

distinguished from the contact of other

curves of the same kind

number of constants
be

n,

the osculation

(355.)

When we

osculation,
is

it

of the

is

called the osculating curve of that species,

by the name

If the

osculation.

in the equation of the osculating

is

said to

be of the (n

curve

l)th order.

speak of different degrees of contact and

should not be understood that the curve, which

said to touch another in a greater or less degree^ is

or less coincident with the curve

fact

is,

there

is

only one point of actual coincidence, namely,

the point fulfilling the conditions

x\ y

portions of the curve flowing from this

be more or

more

The

said to touch.

it is

less distant

from each other.

= y\

But

the

common

point

may

Thus,

as has

been

proved, a curve of a given species, meeting another in a

given point,

may be

species can pass

to

so situate that

between them

no curve of the same

but by

this it is

not at

all

be imagined that any coincidence takes place between any

arc of the one curve,

soever these arcs

and any arc of the

may be

supposed.

such coincidence taking place,

already proved, that

how high

it

other,

Nay, so

follows

far

how

small

from any

from what has been

soever the order of contact of

two curves may be, another curve can be found, whose contact,

being of a higher order, will pass between them.

(356.) It appears also that the higher the degree of the

equation of a curve

is,

the higher the order of

its

oscula-

ALGEBEAIC GEOMETRY.

174

a greater number of constants; and

tion, since it contains

number of

that since the

curve

appear by Sect.

tion, as will

tion

is

points necessary to determine a

always equal to the number of constants in

is

always one

to determine

(357.)

XXL,

points,

united in one.

sometimes explained by

is

to intersect the given

first

and then supposing these points

But

explained without this supposition^ and as

(358.)

and

called contact

From what

first

osculation,

has been said,

is

is

we have

be

only calcu-

ax

rejected

it.

appears that the con-

it

both contact and osculation

For the equation of a

order.

it

to

clearly

and produce wrong ideas of

tact of a right line with a curve

of the

more

as the principles can be

lated to mislead the student,

what are

equa-

oscula-

than the number of points necessary

less

The osculation of curves

n

its

its

it.

supposing the osculating curve

curve in

the order of

right line

0,

involves but two constants, and therefore the highest order

of contact of which

it is

susceptible

tion of the osculating right line

is
is,

the

first,

and the equa-

as has been already

found,

y )dx
]

{y

yfx being the point

1

(359.)

The

(x x )dy = 0,
l

common

to

it

and the curve.

equation of the circle

(y

- y) +
2

(*

= %

involves three constants, the co-ordinates of the centre,

the radius.
susceptible
circle is

The
is

and

highest order of contact of which this

the second,

is

and therefore the osculation of a

of the second order.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

SECTION
Of the
(360.) Def.

175

.XVII.

singular points of curves*

Those points of a curve which

possess any

remarkable properties, which the adjacent points do not

possess, are called singular points.

The differential calculus

enables us to discover these points, and in general to dis-

cover the figure of any curve whose equation

(361.)

The

is

given.

position of the tangent being determined

by

the equation

if

the co-ordinates of P satisfy the equation

-~r

0, the

tangent at the point p must be parallel to the axis of

oc>

for

the equation of the tangent becomes in that case

x x

(362.) In like manner, if

-,

the

equation of the

tangent becomes

and

therefore parallel to the axis of y

is

(363.) If

~=
f

__

0, the series in (318) gives

d3y

Ax

d y
6

d*y

Ax*

Ax 5

A value vp of Ax being taken so small that the

shall

surpass the remainder

of the

series,

first

the

term

sign

of

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

176

pp

pp\

resulting

which results from

values of

Ax

from

Ax

Ax^

and consequently

zero,

called & point

(864.)

for all

follows that the parts

it

at different sides of the

lie

that as the curve passes the point

changes the direction of

p, it

be different from that

and the same being true

between pp and

of the curve on either side of p

tangent,

will

its

Such a point

curvature.

of contrary Jlexure, or a point

ofinflexion.

The principle is however more general.

successive differential coefficients after the

is

first

If several

when

vanish,

the co-ordinates of the point p are substituted for the variables

which

in their expressions, let the first differential coefficient,

u i
does not vanish,7 be

dn

If

n be an even number.
rJI

^_dn+1y

As

-y~-;

ax n

d^

Ax n+l

^
'

Ax n

d ny

W __

i.2.3...{n+i)~dx+*

the sign of

Ax

T7K7^iT%y

does not affect that of

pp may be assigned
dny

to

Ax

Ax n

as will give pp*

+ Ax and Ax,

-i~-, both for

Ax n+2

dn + 2y

such a value

pp

!l

and the same

Hence

every value between pp and zero.

the sign of
true for

is

the concavity

dy
~
n

is

turned towards or from the axis of #,' according;

& as

<

or
8. If

>

<ta

By

+hj
w+1

is

0.

n be an odd number,

PP
n

dx

~~

PP

Ax

n
Axn
y
= _d
+ n "
*

dx

n+1

1 .2...(^

n+2

+ ^ w+2
l)

2..

.n

Axn+2
1.2...(ro +

reasoning similar to that used before,

it

2)'

may be shown

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

177

that the parts of the curve at either side of the point p

different sides of the tangent,

is

lie

at

and that therefore the point

a point of inflexion.

(365.) In these cases the curve touches the tangent with

a contact of the (n
coefficients

l)th order; for the first differential

of the equations of the curve and tangent are

equal; and the succeeding differential coefficients of the

equation of the tangent being respectively equal to zero^

must be equal

to the corresponding differential coefficients of

the equation of the curve for the point

(n

p,

as far as the

l)th differential coefficient, therefore the contact

be of the (n

must

l)th order,

~=
dh/

when

(366,) It should be observed, that

0, the ra-

dius of the osculating circle becomes infinite (333) , which

shows that at such a point no

circle

which and the curve another

may

(367.) If, at the

1& -

'

can be described between

not pass,

same time that the conditions

<fo*

'

dx*

are fulfilled,3 the condition Jf-

ax

is

'

- doc- "

u>

also fulfilled, in addition

through

to the circumstances already proved, the tangent

the point p will be parallel to the axis of a? 5 and

will

if dy

0,

it

be parallel to the axis of y*

(368.)

point

It

may happen

p may be

unequal values.
the point

p,

that

such that

-j-

the

co-ordinates

may have two

of the
or more

This happens whenever the value of #,

for

causes a radical to vanish in the value of y k and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY

178

same radical to vanish

yet does not cause the

ever this takes place, there are always as

in -jo

many

When-

tangents to

the same point of the curve as there are different values of

-T-,,

and therefore as many branches of the curve must

inter-

sect at that point.

(889.) If the values of -7- be equal,

more unequal

and

y^

have two or

values^ the curve will consist of as

ferent branches, which

have a common tangent

many

dif-

at that point,

(370,) Points where several branches of a curve meet are

called multiple points.

called double points

(871.)

branches

If two

branches meet, they are

if three, triple ,

&c.

The direction of the curvature of the

may be found, as was shown before, from

of the second differential

(872.) If

is

the sign

coefficient.

two branches have,

tangent, that point

different

at the

called a cusp.

same
It

is

point, a

common

said to be a cusp

of the first hind if they lie at different sides of the tangent,

and a cusp of the second hind if they lie at the same side,
(873.)

more

The

principle just laid

generally.

If,

down may be expressed

for the values of yx corresponding to

the point p, the wth differential coefficient have two or

more

values, the preceding coefficients having each but one, then

two branches of the curve touch

(n-l)th order of
first,

since

-^ is

contact,

at the point p with the

and the

species of cusp

is

the

the same for both branches,

(874) If the value of any differential coefficient be impossible for the co-ordinates of the point p, that point can

neither be preceded nor followed immediately

by another.

179

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
and

is

an insulated point not continuously connected with

the curve

Such are

itself,

the curve, can only be con-

being thus detached from

sidered algebraically to belong to

dinates

fulfil its

They

called conjugate 'points.

But

equation.

it,

because their co-or-

considered geometrically,

they do not belong to the curve.

SECTION
Of the

rectification,

XVIII.

quadrature^ and curvature of lines

of"

the second degree.

PROP. CLXXXII,
(375.)

Of the

rectification

of the

circle,

First method.

If x be any arc of a circle whose radius

pressing

co

in a series of

powers of

is

unity,

by ex-

x by M'Clauriu's

sin.

theorem,

__x + ___x + ____

_ sin*
^_x + sin,

32

32 5 Z

sin. 5

sin. 7

so

&&\T sin* x
If

= 30 =

sin,

-J-,

b
'

2"

+ A.
128

'

J,

1.2.3

+ 32

315 C
1.2.3.4

'

1.2.3.4,5
7

."".

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

180
This

was used by Newton for the calculation of the

series

circumference of the

but does not converge with

circle,?

sufficient rapidity.

Second method.

By

same theorem,

If

This

x in a
we find

expressing

tan. 3

tan.

-7-5 tan.

owing

tan. 5

tan. 7

r~'

x by

&c

the

19

series will also give the

for calculation,

of the powers of tan.

3- +
x

series

to its

value of if, but

want of

inconvenient

is

sufficiently rapid con-

vergence.

This may be remedied thus

let tan.

tan.

4a

'*

tan.

%a

8a
tan.

J")

and therefore

Hence,

= dr

find

ft

239

8.(289) s

__
~~

but since tan, a

a
therefore.

CL

TT

o
= 4r,

a
-T7T
2
1- tan.
t

tan. (4

Hence we

= =-~-~~ = -y^U
fin

_1

5.(239) 5

7 (239f

=^
5

8.5 s

5.5*

7.5?

+ &c
'

"

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

181

%. - as + &6* ~ 7^ +>

&c -)

\L.S89

This

series

8.(289)

5.(239)

c,;)
>

converges with sufficient rapidity to afford great

facility in calculating

the value of v.

Let r be the radius of a

circle

whose circumference

is

since the circumferences of circles are as their radii,

r
hence c

Qrit;

2tf;

the circumference of a circle

the diameter multiplied

means above

by the value of

tt

is

equal to

found by the

stated.

PROP. CLXXXIII.

Of the

(376.)

By

quadrature of the

circle.

the general formula for the quadrature of curves in

(330), the area

is
%

L doj
>r

/
but r %
limits

is
/

in this case constant

and w

(377.) Cor.

and integrating between the

the whole area of the circle

is

Since the semicircumference of the circle

is

%tf9

nc, the area of the circle

is

equal to the rectangle under the

radius and semicircumference.

PUOP. CLXXXIV.
(378.)

The

To find

the area

of an

equation of the ellipse related to

for y, gives

ellipse.

its

axes being solved

GEOME T li Y.

A L GEE R AI C

182

y>f ^
F

ACA be described

If a circle

-<r^ JJ

/^____

At

on the axis a a' as diameter,

any ordinate y
of this

VA 2

aP,

tjdx

but the value oi\fy d%

!

is

necessary, as

is

ydx and

be the area of the

hence

jAfe.

.y#'d#
the area of the circle ; no constant

begin together.

y'doc

Hence,

if a'

ellipse,
i

A'

A*7t

Hence

expressed by

iA

Jydx

to the diameter

circle is

the area of an ellipse

scribed with a radius, which

is

is

BA#,

equal to that of a circle de-

mean

proportional between

semiaxes.

its

(379.) Cor. 1.

The

circle described

axis as diameter, the ellipse

and the

on the transverse

circle described

on the

conjugate diameter, are in geometrical progression.

The

(880.) Cor. 2.

under

areas of ellipses are as the rectangles

their axes.

If two ellipses have one axis

(381.) Cor. 3.

areas cut off

by a common
-n

axes

dA oc
!

dA

for
b,

fy dx and
]

ordinate mpp' are as the other

QJ

n TC

being the same for both

since the corresponding increments of the areas are

in the ratio of the axes, the

be in the same

area fpa

cumscribed

sum of any number

of these will

ratio.

(382.) Cor. 4.
axis, the

common, the

If any point f be taken on the transverse

is

to the area

circle), as the

fp a,
?

(p'

being on the

cir-

conjugate to the transverse axis*

185

ALGEBRAIC GJEOMETEY.

PROP. 'CLX XXV.

(883,)

Tojind

the area intercepted between two ordinate^ to

of an hyperbola.

the asymptote

The

equation of an hyperbola related to

its

asymptotes

being

ydx
2

A'

yx

yx

sin.

aN-b*
4
A2

+ B2

dx
-77
x

sm.

A a + B*

+
fix
4 sin-y^y = j .sin.y^.(log.d?-log.d7)
B2

when #

If the area be supposed to begin

pression

simplified,

is

The

coefficient (a

2,

1,

the ex-

j/a;

log. x.

If half this line be taken as the linear

still

a'

sm.

the square of the line joining the

-f b' ) is

unit, the expression is

if

and becomes

extremities of the axis.

and

iy#

farther simplified,

sm.yx

and becomes

log.

instead of the neperian logarithm, a logarithm whose

modulus

is

the cosec.

yx be
A

Hence,

if

used, the expression

is

log. x.

a series of values of x be measured from the

centre in geometrical progression, the areas intercepted

by

ordinates through their extremities will be equal, since the

areas measured from

== 1

must be

in arithmetical pro-

gression.

(384.) Cor.

a series

1.

If the values of

x be

of numbers related to i x/ a 2

+b

taken to represent
2

as unity, the cor-

responding areas measured from the ordinate of the vertex

of the curve will represent a system of logarithms of these

numbers whose modulus

is

cosec.

yx.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

184
(385.) Cor,

If the hyperbola be equilateral,

it

yx

==

cosec.

*.

yx

therefore, the logarithms will be in this case neperian loga-

rithms. It

is

for this reason that the neperian are

sometimes

called hyperbolic logarithm s.

PROP. CLXXXVI.

To find the area included hy an arc of a parabola*

a diameter through one extremity, and an ordinate to

(386.)

that diameter through the other.

The

diameter being axis of x^ and a tangent through

vertex axis of y, the equation

Q
~

y
\*y

yx ydx

.sin.

No

Vp/'Vx
constant

da? sin.

is

px

= Vpi\
= */px

Vp

/o;

|-

dx

#*

sin.

yx$

sin. /#

added, because the area and

is

same time equal

\yx sin. 3/^%

are at the

to zero.

Hence, the area sought

fprmed by

=i

its

y and

is

two-thirds of the parallelogram

x,

PROP. CLXXXVII.
(387.)

To find

the radius

yx
f

in

an

of curvature

ellipse

to

any given point

or hyperbola.

The equation related to the axes being twice differentiated,

gives

dy

B'*x

dx

B4

dx

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Making

85

these substitutions in the formula for the radius of

curvature found in (333) 5 we find, after reduction,

(A 4j/

__

+ B% =

but A-y z

fi

bV

f2

-f

a 2 b 2 (a*

% and a^ -

e*a!*

B f2

(167); hence

_B^

AB
(388.) Cor,

Since the curvature

the radius of curvature

curvature of an ellipse
conjugate

is least

and greatest

axis,

is

at the extremities of the

the

at

extremities

That of an hyperbola

transverse axis.

maximum when

a minimum, and vice verm, the

is

is

of the

greatest at the

extremity of the transverse axis, and diminishes without

limit.

These follow obviously from the above expression

for the radius of curvature.

(389.) Cor. %.

The maximum and minimum

A
2

the radius of curvature are

A
B

and

values of

PROP. CLXXXVIIT.
(3.90, )

To find

the radius

of curvature

to

a given point in

a parabola.

The

equation of the parabola being twice differentiated^

gives

^ V

dx

%j

~~
OHM "~

By

!_3B

~dx 2
4j/
substituting these values in (338),

R
where

we

find

'

the parameter of the pointy and

p~

the principal

parameter.
(391.) Cor.

parabola

is

Hence

the vertex.

the point of greatest curvature in a

186

.ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRYo

PROP. CLXXXIX.
(892.)

To find

the chord (c)

of

the osculating circle

coincides with the diameter through the point

in

any

line

of contact

of the second degree.

Let the angle under the diameter and tangent be

= 2r sin.

but in the

which

ellipse

and hyperbola

sin.

(5

AB
f

Q,

(5

/?

^
tJ'

and

in the parabola sin.

=p

Hence

-,

the chord of the osculating circle which coincides

with the diameter of a line of the second degree passing

through the point of contact,

equal to the parameter of

is

that diameter.

pbop. exc.
(#93.)

To find

the equation

of the evolute of an

ellipse or

hyperbola.

The

values

of
ax

and

-y- derived

ax"

from the equation

of
x

the curve being substituted in the general formulas found

in (SB3), give

v - y
X

^^

X(K\/ + B 4X
2 T
A 4B a

C2

)
i

and, since by the equation of the curve,

A^"

-f

B%'~

A y (B'

-|-

///" ) ;

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

also, since a' ^*

A j/

These

a~b 2

b~x~;

^X*

B (A 4

made

substitutions being

0*4?*).

in the above equations, the

reduction solved for

results, after

187

y and

#, give

B Ty' 3
c
r

A-

x'

cu

Substituting these values in the equation of the curve, and

.

A*B*

dividing the result by

find

+ A

B 3 y f3
where

In

4- is

X' Z

ellipse,

=+
and

3
,

for the hyperbola.

this equation for the

ellipse, all

tween

taken for the

values of
c2

and

= +

=
A

lues of y,

x be.

give
real va&

and

values

all

beyond these give impossible values

_-

_|

In

like

of y.

c2
an(j

manner,

all

values of

between

c2

give real values of #, and

all

beyond these impossible

values of x;

hence the evolute

is

confined within

these limits.
it

A-\

Also,

appears from the

form of the equation,

that the parts of the evolute included between the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

188

four angles formed by the co-ordinates are similar and equal.

The

figure of the e volute

an

vious, since the axes of

represented above.

is

the evolute at the points where

points aa , bb\ are cusps of the
f

which are cusps of the

first

kind.

B2

ah

A'

if

%
c

If

v!b~

,
'

aci

ca 9

b'

therefore^

cb,

V A = A'

T,

,
J

made

result multiplied

AB

a'

the substitutions be

and the

transverse

at the points aa\

The arc ab of the evolute of the ellipse is equal

to ribAct (342); but

(395.) Cor.

The

kind.

must be a tangent

1.

to

meets them, that the

it

first

axis of the hyperbola

(394.) Cor.

It is ob-

must be both tangents

ellipse

c
= B

.,
'

in the equation of the evolute,

by

the result

is

cT

A%^ jfioF == A,TB fT

which bears an obvious analogy to the equation of the

curve

itself.

proj.\

^396.)

The
the

To find

the equation

values of -4-,

ex ci.
of the evolute of a parabola.

y^* delved

curve being substituted,

as

fr

before,

formulas (333), give

y-^tf

p~

the equation of
in

the general

189

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

x
Hence we

Making

oc

4r + p

.&

find

these substitutions in the equation

2
/

= y,r

and

transforming the origin of co-ordinates to the point 3/,= 0,

p 9 the equation becomes,

Hence y

is

only real for

of

the values

x which
1

have the same sign as

and therefore the curve

extended

after reduction,

indefinitely

is

in

the same direction as the

parabola

itself,

touching

the axis of the parabola at a point whose distance from the

vertex

is

evolute
evolute

is
is

half the principal parameter.

a cusp of the

first

This point of the

The form

kind.

of the

represented in the figure.

This curve

is

called the semicubical parabola*

SECTION XIX.
Of the properties ofthe Logarithmic, Choncoid, Cissoid, and
other curves, both algebraic

Of the
(397.)

Def

the equation

The

ax

and

transcendental.

logarithmic.

logarithmic

is

a curve expressed by

related to rectangular co-ordinates,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

190

PROP. CXCII*

on the axis

(398.) Perpendiculars intercepting equal parts

qfx
For

in this case

therefore

%
\

or

varies in arithmetical progression,

must vary
Hence,

(899.) Cor,

sented

are in geometrical progression.

if

in geometrical progression,

any

series

of numbers be repre-

by the values of x the values of y

will represent their

The

curve has received

logarithms related to the base a.

name from

its

and

this property.

PROP. CXCIII.

The

(400,)

axis of

sc

an asymptote,

is

;--

When x = 0, y = I
Therefore

Km!

if

be,

assumed

^/'

to represent

the linear unit,

'f"

_1
'XT

the

ay

curve

intersects

at m'.

Let Ap = A.m\

v pm =
1.

#,

>

If a

1,

the

values of # increase without limit for the increasing positive

values of x 9 and decrease without limit for the increasing

Hence on

negative values of x.

curve
out

is

the negative side of

continually approaching ax',

limit,

and on the

positive side of

ceding from ax, and recedes from

2.

If a

<

1,

the value of

it

limit for the increasing

and continually approaches

Hence

in

it is

it,

line

with-

continually re-

x and
9

increases without

Hence

on the negative

and approaches

xx

is

it

con-

side of

it

side of a

both cases the

A the

without limit,

negative values.

tinually recedes from the line xx'

on the positive

it

decreases without limit for

the increasing positive values of

limit

and approaches

an asymptote,

a,,

without

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

191

PBOP, CXCIV.

To find

(401,)

the equation of' the tangent to a given point

in the logarithmic.

By
ly

a*,

we have

If a be the base la

I,

and the

taking the logarithms of the equation

la 3

which being differentiated

dv

m being the modulus.

equation

dx

is

wdy
Hence

is

ydx =

the equation of a tangent through a point

m{y

ij) <

x)

(x ~~

yx m
f

0,

PROP. CXCV.
(402.)

By

(323)

To find

ydoc

points on the same curve

the subtangenL

Hence the subtangent

m*
is

the logarithms, whose base

for all

the same, being the modulus of

is a.

prop, cxcvi.
(403.)

The

To find the centre and radius of the osculating circle

equation

y =

av being

dy

dx

differentiated twice ? gives

dQy

y
"~

dx*

These values being substituted

__
~~

y
m?:

in (383) give

(m s

+ y2

x -

971

)'

~y
in

192

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

PROP. CXCVII.

To find

(404.)

The

the point

of greatest curvature.

point of greatest curvature

of curvature

is

found in the

To find

a minimum.

by ~ni(m2

result, divided

Syd(y

m
2

-j-

this, let

the value of r,

be differentiated, and equated

last proposition,

The

with zero.

that at which the radius

is

%(if

)dy

+ /*)%

is

0,

which gives

m\ v y = m=.

%y*>

Hence

the point sought

that

is

whose ordinate

the side of a square, whose diagonal

is

is

equal to

the subtangent.

PROP, cxcvin.

Of the

(405.)

quadrature of the logarithmic.

A z=zjydx, but ydx

= mdy, v

By

(328),

To

find c, suppose the area to

my

v when y =

y\ a

+
commence from

=- my
= m( y -y%

0,

?/

v*M ?

Hence

that

is,

the area included

between any two ordinates,

3?

equal

^
M^

pm and
to

under

and the
D

the

the

p'm',

is

rectangle

subtangent,

difference

be-

tween the ordinates.

The

area

pmmV =

the rect-

angle CFo
(406.) Cor. 1.

The

area included

by the curve mm', ex-

tending indefinitely, and approaching the asymptote, the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
asymptot and the ordinate pm

is

The

(407.) Cor. %.
is

0,

dm

equal to the rectangle

under the subtangent and the ordinate

y=

193

for in this case

my.

db

area extending from

indefinitely.,

equal to the space bmf.

On

of Nicornedes*

Aright

(408.)'Def.
line

the conchoid

xx being given
f

in

position, another right

through a

line passing

given point p revolves

the plane passing

in

through the given right

line

and the given

point.

Let

and bm' be assumed of a constant magnitude, and the

the points m,

is

called the superior,

The
The
The

The

called a conchoid.

bm

loci

of

is

locus of

and that of m the inferior conchoid.

f

of the conchoid.
modulus of the conchoid.

line xx' is called the rule

bm

is

called the

point p

is

called the pole

line

of the

conchoid.

prop, cxcix.
(409.)

pm

Let

pb

which

is

To find
bm

z9

(z

the equation of the conchoid.

m, pa

w) ?

(%

b,

apm ='.

ni)cos.

to

the polar equation of the curve.

applies to the superior,

and the lower

Hence
b, (1),

The upper

sign

to the inferior con-

choid.

The equation
xx'
%*

is

axis of

{y -f

stitutions

by

we

related to rectangular co-ordinates, of which

x and a the

+ #%

find

and

origin,

may

be found

y+b
cos.

for

and by these sub-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

194
y*xx

(y*

+ b)* =

m*) (y

0.

This equation includes both superior and inferior conchoids*,

m and m are involved in

since both -f

The

conchoid

therefore a curve of the fourth degree.

is

prop.

To find

(410.)

rri '.

<

cc.

of a tangent

the equation

to the conchoid.

Let the point on the curve through which the tangent

passes be

t/a,

and the equation being

dy
dx

Hence
(y

y*(m a

__
""""

the equation of the tangent

y) (y

m~b)

-f-

(x

PROP.

To

(41 1.)

Let

1.

m >

If y

is

x ) (m 2
]

Also,

y)

CCI.

is

m, x

== 0,

b,

for all values

if

ad

= +m

be

d' parallels to xx'

be included between these pa-

will

if y =

and

Therefore,

impossible.

m, and through the points d,

drawn, the entire curve

rallels.

investigate the figure of the conchoid.

b.

of y beyond these x
ad'

8 )^"

y +m
3

differentiated gives

0,

the curve meets the

axis of y at p the pole.

Since, for

m,

-j-

'

0, the parallels

through d,

to the axis of # are tangents to the curve at the points d,

And

since

==

asymptote to both
If y

6, -^-

dx

renders
inferior

=+

infinite,

the axis of

is

d'

d'.

an

and superior conchoids.

(ra 2

-6

therefore the pole

is

2 )~2

double point, and the values of

-~- for

that point evidently

show the geometrical method of determining them.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

On

DD

meter,

as dia-

let

a circle

2><7"

through the pole p

perpendicular
dd',

and

lines

ac and

V^^"^-^.
4^ ^C7^
x

be drawn

ce'

let

i*'

be described, and

to

ac'

~y c

v~y \

XT

the

let

be drawn. Lines drawn from the point p to

7
the points of bisection of the lines ac and ac are tangents at

AP
=
=

For ~~

the point p.

tan.

acp

7
a tangent, and for the same reason pt

therefore pt

is

a tangent.

The

figure of the conchoids

is

tpc

tan.

is

also

therefore in this

case represented as in the preceding figure.

.

fore,

m =

If

as be-

b,

curve

the

is

in-

cluded between the pathe asymptote

rallels to

through d and

= +

m,

~
dx

If

p.

== 0,

v the

If y

the superior conchoid.

through d

parallel

dy
m, y-

fore the tangent through the point p

forms as

it

were the union of the two

case the oval

PD being supposed
r

m ~ b becoming equal to zero.

a cusp of the
case

is

is

first

kind.

The

a tangent to

infinite,

there-

the line pd.

This

is

tangents, in the last

to vanish,

The

is

by

point p

its

is

diameter

in this case

figure of the conchoids in this

represented in the preceding figure.

3. If

<

b.

The

co-ordinates of the pole p satisfy the

equation of the curve, but they render

-j-

impossible

o2

hence

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

196

a conju-

the point p

is

gate point.

The

dd' both give

points

0,v

dx

tangents through

the

these points are parallel

to the asymptote.

The

figure of the conchoids

is

in this

case represented in the preceding figure.

If b =.
If m

conchoid becomes a

0, the

= 0j

it

becomes a right

Of the

cissoid

circle.

line.

of Diodes.

(412.) Def.

A circle

being described

upon a given diameter (ab), and any

chord (am) being drawn from the point

and the ordinate mp being drawn,

(a),

let

AP

bp,

and the perpendicular

p'm'

being drawn to meet the chord, the locus

of the point

is

called the cissoid.

prop. ecu.
(413.)

Let ab

To find

s= 2r,

map

the equation of the cissoid.

== w.

By

the conditions of the de-

finition

= 2r cos. w,
am! ~ bp sec. w = pm tan.
= am sin. w, v am = am tan.
am

But pm
sought

2 cv:

sec.

is

z == 2r tan.

/.

hence the equation

sin. w, (1.)

197

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
If

it

be related to rectangular co-ordinates, we

find,

by

the usual substitutions,

- x) -

y*(2r

x3

'= 0, (2.)

PROP. CCIII.

To find

(414)

the equation

on

By

of

ilie

differentiating the equation (),

dy

(8r

x)x^

therefore the equation of the tangent

(^

y> (%r - y
x)

Con

(415.)

1.

The

and

at the point a,

Cor.

(416.)

diameter ab

is

% As x

approaches to infinity

but at the same time

dicular ab through b

is

To

^^ ^

^) ( 3r

a tangent to the curve

is

a cusp of the

above and below

kind.

first

approaches to equality with 2r,

;

and when x

y-

r,

is infinite;

and therefore a perpen-

is infinite,

an asymptote

prop. cciv
(417.)

is

since the curve extends

the diameter, the point a

-T"

a given point

the tangent to

cissoid.

investigate the figure

Since for each value of

of the

cissoid.

there are two equal values of y 3

with different signs, the branches of the curve on each side

of ab, the diameter of the generating

positive values greater than ab, the value of y

the curve

must be included between the

by

differentiating twice,

we

is

find

b,

all

impossible,

parallels,

perpendicular to ab through the points a and

Since^

equal and

circle, are

Since for every negative value of x, and for

similar.

which are

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

198

&T2 ~ ~

this

3r*y s

3r 2

&*y

==
N

^8

4.

having always the sign of y shows that the curve

is

con-

vex towards the axis ab.

Of the
The

(418.) Def.

lemniscata*

curve, which

is

the locus' of the inter-

an equilateral hyperbola with a per-

section of a tangent to

pendicular from the centre upon

called the lemniscata*

it, is

prop. ccv.

To find

(419.)

The
axes,

the equation

of the lemniscata.

equation of the equilateral hyperbola, referred to

its

is

The

___

=_

xh

az

equations of the tangent, and the perpendicular to

it

from the centre, are

xx = a
l

jfy

By

2
.

these equations jjx being eliminated, the result

]

is

x*f == 0, (1),
( j/
the equation sought, and the locus is
( j/

which

- ^ )a +

is

-4-

therefore a

curve of the fourth order.

The

may be found by making

polar equation

sary substitutions in the above equation,

z

or since cos. m

& (cos.
a

sin.

7,

w
az

sin. 2 o>)

= cos. 2a/,
cos. 2a; = 0,

and

the neces-

is

0,

(2.)

PROP. CCVI.
(420.)

By

To

investigate the figure

the polar equation (2),

when

of the lemniscata.

0,

j-, cr"T> or

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

199

or r. These values of

-T-,9

w show

that the asymptotes

of the equilateral hyperbola

are tangents to the curve at

the centre through

which

the curve must pass.

Also,

since

is

impossible

for
Sir

every value of

except those included between 7- and

to,

+ -7
4

and between
.

and

0, the

curve must be included

between the tangents passing through the centre, as represented in the foregoing figure.

By

differentiating the polar equation,

dz
da

Hence by the formula

tan. tz

Hence when w

= z tan.

find

%a

in (327),

cot. 2co,

0.,

we

fe

hyperbola through the vertex

tz

2cv

therefore the tangent to the

is

also a tangent to the lem-

niscata.

If the tangent be parallel to the axis tz

if

from the centre

c^

it is

be',

v w=

clear that the curve

transverse axis
is

is

it

is

is

parallel to cv,

included within the rectangle

one side of which equals the transverse axis

and the other -7=5 or the

It

W,

ca be drawn, making acv one third of a

right angle, the tangent to the curve at

and

side of a square,

of which the

the diagonal.

obvious also that the centre

is

(2a) 9

a double point.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

200

PROP. CCVII

To find

(421.)

By

But

the area

of the lemniscata*

(330),

z*duj

=
tan.

2w

tan,

Hence we

and

tt-5

(a4

2w

since cos,

2w

23,

therefore

zrf

r *

find

z 3dz
2(a

* 4 )*

This integral being extended to the entire curve, gives

Hence the

&

entire area is equal to the square of the semiaxis*

Of the
(422.) Defi

sinusoid, fyc.

A curve, represented by the equation y = sin. x

related to rectangular co-ordinates,

is

called the curve

of

sines, or the sinusoid,

PROP. CCVIII.
(428.)

By

To find

the equation

dy

cos.

dx

r being the radius of the arc

tangent

is

If

of a tangent to a given point.

we find

differentiating the equation,

Qnrtf

At these points

where n

is

or.

x
Hence

the equation of the

any integer number,

cos.

= 1,

the tangent makes with the axis of x an angle

201

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*'
=? 45,

and

if

= (?i +

1 )rtf 9

the tangent

is

inclined at the

angle 135 to the axis of #, these angles being measured in

the positive direction.

PROP. CCIX3

To

(424.)

By

investigate the figure of the sinusoid.

differentiating the equation a second time,

cPy
j^i

Hence

the curve

find

j/

""

is

always concave towards the axis of #.

I{x=znrit9 y =
therefore ifa a'

sin.- a?

we

""

"71*

= rtf,

AA -2r7T,
AA '=8nr,&c.
f/

ff

*v~

the curve intersects the axis of x at the points A,

A, A
f

aw,

',

&c.

For

all

values of #, from

so

= rtf

from x

for all values

on alternately

5?

+ r and
rtf

r,

g-j

Hence

&c,

00

= Srtf,

a' to a"

rtf,
/ is

and

below

a'
it,

is

positive

negative,

and

the curve

lies

from a" to a "

1

it, Sic.

The maximum

#=

to

to

therefore between a

above the axis of x, from

above

if

positive

a a',

5r<7r

"Tjp x

and negative values of sin. x are

r 9 of which

r corresponds to

Qrtf

a' a", a"a"',

7#
r to = ^^==2'?
Sit

"Tp and

&c.

a?

be respectively bisected at

b,

B, B
f

f/

and perpendiculars bv, bV, bv", &c. erected equal to

and a

parallel v, v" to

aa" drawn,

curve at the points vv", &c.

through
If x

v',

and the curve

= nrit,

d% y
-r~i

0,

is

this parallel touches the

the same

is

true of a parallel

included between these parallels.

hence the points

a, a', a",

&c. are

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.,

202

points of inflection, the tangent through these points intersecting

the axis of x^

has been already shown, at an

angle of 45 degrees.

prop, ccx,

To find

(425.)

By

the area

of the

sinusoid.

the usual formula,

rydy

&=fydx^-f.

A/72

which being integrated gives

= r(ra_y2)

When a =

0, y

0,

= r(r
v A = r%

a
If

= ab, y =

r,

r\ hence
a//*

~ y2

hence the whole area ava'

is

equal to twice the square of the radius of the arc x.

(426.) Other trigonometrical curves

with equations analogous to that which

scribed.
it

The

may be

imagined,

we have

just de-

= cos. x is of the same species,

curve y

expressed

may be

sin.

(^

since

x).

prop. ccxi.
(427.)

To

of a curve whose equation

tan. x

investigate the figure

is

y=

If x =. nrit9

must

curve

the

meet the axis of x at

the points a,

&c,

"

7E

Iff

where

= w,

a',
a?

a",

0,

2r^

&c.

By

differentiating

the equation twice.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

03

dy_
2

dx

cos.

d^y

tan.

x
x

dr 2 ~"cos.a x'
If

a?

j =

2
nrit, cos.

Hence the

0.

a?

r2 ,

~=

points a,

a', a",

and

1,

tan.

= 0, v

&c. are points of in-

(XX

the tangents through them intersecting the axis of

flection,

at

an angle of

If

= (2n +
AA ,
f

intercepts

45.

-^

a'a",

r2

dy

l)rtf

aV,

and y

-,

be bisected at

oo

Hence it

b, B

f/

the

perpen-

diculars through these points are asymptotes.

Since

d%y

-~

has always the same sign as

the curve

is

convex towards the axis of x.

The

figure of this curve

is

therefore as represented in the

preceding figure.

prop. ccxn.
(428.)

By

To find

the area

of the curve of tangents.

the general formula

a =ytan.#. dx.
r sin

By
J

substituting
& for tan.

its

Hence by

No
x

constant

d cos. x

cos.

integrating

a
cos.

cos.^

pr*

value

1,

is

r2

cos. #.

added, because when a

log. cos.

between the curve and

<a?

its

0.

Hence the

asymptote,

0,

0,

area, included

is infinite.

204

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

PROP. CCXIII.

To

(429.)

investigate the figure

is

By

ofthe

curve, whose equation

sec. x.

differentiating the equation twice,

dy

dx~~

^
is

x
#

sin.

cos. 2

c<{

d2 v
Since

curve

~"

cos. 3

r(f

2
-f sin.

has always the same sign with

x) sec. 3 x.

sec.

or j/, the

every where convex towards the axis of x.

x is

Sec.

when x

minimum

= nrrf,

\ if a A

aa'"

= #r

= 3tfr

which

= r
a a" = 2tfr,

corresponds to

?/

and through

the points a,

a',

&c.

the perpendiculars

av

aV =

r3

aV = +
drawn
f

&c.

r5

be

parallels to aa'

through

and v are tangents

r,

the points v

to the curve at those points,

and the

curve extends indefinitely above the one and below the other.

When x =

--

is

infinite,

and

also -.
cix

<v

Hence5
at b,

if the intercepts

B5 B
f

f/

between a a',

a' a",

a"a w , be bisected

&c, perpendiculars through these points are

asymptotes to the curve.

The

figure of this curve

fore as represented in the preceding figure.

is

there-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

205

Of spirals.
Of the
(430.)
is

Def The

logarithmic spiral.

curve, whose polar equation

is

aw9

called the logarithmic spiral.

prop, ccxiv.
(431.) Radii vector es which make, tvith the axis from which
the values ofco are measured, angles in arithmetical pro-

gression, are themselves in geometrical progression.

For
be

ff,

let

the angle under any two contiguous radii vectores

then
z

= a*, z* =

aw +

0f

,f

= a* + M

&c.

or
z

which are

aw, zf

a<*>a,

z"

a^a2 ^ &e.
being the

in geometrical progression, a?

common

multiplier.

(432.) Cor. If a be the base of a system of logarithms,

and z represent any number, w will represent its logarithm,

a property from which the spiral has derived

its

name.

prop. ccxv.

(433.)

The

To find

the tangent to a

equation z

a.

representing the

Hence by

the curve.

a" differentiated gives

mdz

given point on

zdoo,

modulus of the logarithm, whose base

tan. tz

m.

Therefore in the logarithmic spiral the radius vector

clined to the tangent at a constant angle.
is

sometimes called the equiangular

(434.) Cor.

is

the formula (327)

The

Hence

spiral.

polar subtangent

mz.

this

is in-

curve

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

206

(435.) Def. Similar logarithmic spirals are those in which

the radius vector

equally inclined to the tangent.

is

prop, ccxvi.

(436)

To find

the locus

the extremity

of

of the polar

subtangent.

Let the polar subtangent

the locus sought

= ma =
wf

the axis from which

that from which

Hence the
mdz == rfdw,
!

*'.

Hence the equation of

tan.

0$%

is

locus

measured being perpendicular to

<J is

is

measured.

is

a logarithmic spiral, and since

similar to the given spiral.

it is

prop, ccxvii.
(437.)

To find

the length

of an arc of the logarithmic

spiral*

By

eliminating duo from the equations

mdz

the result

zdcv,

da

da

(1

(1 -f

+ ^W)"^

(dz*

is

v
Let the value of

z,

which the value of a

m*) T dz,

)*z

-f c.

corresponding to the extremity from

is

supposed to commence, be z\ and

supplying thus the constant, we find

a
Hence,

if

=. (z

from one extremity

sec. 0.

(a) of the arc

ab a tangent

be drawn, and a radius vector (cb) from the other, and with

%m

ALGEB11AIG GEOMETRY.
the centre c, and
cb, the circle

and from

the.

gent to the

tlie

point

circle

d a

tan-

be drawn to

meet the curve at

ba

radius

bd be described,

e, the arc

equal to the right line

is

AE.

Hence,

if

the pole (c) of a

ab be the

logarithmic spiral

centre of a circle intersecting the spiral at any point, b,

and

a right line be drawn from the centre, intersecting the

spiral

and

circle in

a and

d,

and through these points tan-

gents be drawn meeting at E, the tangent

ab of the

arc

If z

0, the value of

Hence the
tact

is

equal to the
circle.

be the length of the arc of

will

In

the spiral continued to the pole.

ae

between ca and the

spiral intercepted

% sec.

this case,

0.

intercept of the tangent between the point of con-

and the polar subtangent,

equal to the arc of the

is

spiral continued to the pole.

PROP, CCXVIIl.

Tofind the area included between

(438.)

two radii vector e$ of

the spiral*

By

eliminating

dw from the

dA

mdz
we

equations^

%z*dw 9
=s %

d^

find

dA

~mz dz

rnz*

If z be the value of %
f

when a

- m (^ *k) _

tan,

{z

z 12 )

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

208
Let cb
cb,

let

bca

is

da

With

#.

z\

de

tan. 8(z

and d/a

),

0, the corresponding area will

this case

triangle

d and

The area

=z +

For

zK

be

z2

'

coincide with c, and the area is half the

d'

If

1.

fl

v'

4'

-J-,

J=1,va
=
**>

tan.
""

Hence, if a tangent be drawn from a

**

to the circle, the area

equal to the square of half the tangent.

In the same case the

(440.) Cor. 2.
is

d'.

formed by the radius vector and polar subtangent.

(4390 Cor.

is

and the radius

equal to half the area of the triangle d'ea.

tan
_
"~

In

c as centre,

a circle be described meeting ca in p,

s;-

If z

ca

== z ,

area,

when z

equal to the square of half the radius vector, at which the

area begins.

prop, ccxix.
(441.)

To find

the radius

of curvature.

Differentiating the equation of the spiral twice,

mdz
m*<Pz

By means

we

find

zdw 9
zdw\-

of these equations, that of the curve and the ge-

neral equation for the radius of curvature, the quantities

dz9 dw 9 and w,

may be

eliminated,

r
(442.) Cor, l e

For

(443.) Cor.

increasing as

it

2r

cosec.

result is

0.

The chord of the osculating circle, which

passes through the centre,

tor.

and the

sin. 8

is

equal to twice the radius vec-

2z.

% The curvature of the spiral is continually

approaches the pole.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

209

PROP. CCXX.

To find

(444.)

Since the pole

osculating

is

and

the involute

evolute

the centre of curvature

z

spiral*

the point of bisection of the chord of the

which passes through

circle,

of the

is

a line z from
f

it,

z cot.

w being

hence the equation of the evolute (the values of

measured from a

line perpendicular to that

are measured in the original curve).,

Hence the
.one,

cot.

from which they

is

a^.

involute of the logarithmic spiral

whose equation

is

a similar

is

j!

tan,

a> 9

measured being perpendicular to

the axis from which

co is

that from which

measured in the original curve.

it is

Of the
(445.)

Def

to

perpendicular to z9 and
cos.

it

spiral

spiral,

of Archimedes #c.
,

whose equation

is

aw,

is

called

the spiral of Archimedes.

(446.) Cor. a

is

the value of

z,

corresponding to w

1.

prop, ccxxi.

(447.)

If any number of values gfz be drawn, dividing the

space round the pole of the spiral into equal angles, those
values will be in arithmetical progression.

For, since a

is

constant, z

w , and therefore

if

arithmetically, z will also vary arithmetically.

varies

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

210

PROP. CCXXII.
(448.)

By

To

determine the position of the tangent

differentiating the equation,

dz

adw.

Hence, by the general formula (327),

tan. zt

Hence

the angle zt

(449.) Cor.

(450.) Cor. 2.

subtangent

is

continually increasing as

is

If z

1.
!

2;

The

spiral,

to

increases.

the polar subtangent,

tan.

atf

=s 20?

= w

2
.

locus of the extremity of the polar

whose equation
z

to

a% = w*

aw

is

2
,

being measured from an axis, perpendicular to that from

which

it is

measured in the given

spiral.

PROP. CCXXIII.
(451.)

By

To find

the area

/zHz
=

z\

when a

z3

= 0, v

~~
if

spiral.

the general formula

Let z

and

of the

Ga

'

the area begin from the pole z

(452.)

The

spiral of

0,

i!
6a'

Archimedes belongs

spirals included in the general equation z

any positive number.

can be effected

for,

The

quadrature of this

by the general formula,

z^daj

aWdw

to a class of

aw

71

class

n being
of spirals

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

211

Hence, by integration
a*w 2n+1

"2(3w + l)
Substituting in this for w
tion of the curve,

its

and introducing the value of

the value of z 9 where

Z~n~
A =
2(ro

By

(450)

it

c,

by

z being
1

= 0,
2n+l

(453.)

from the equa-

value, derived

2+l

l)a n

appears that the locus of the ex-

tremity of the polar subtangent of the spiral of Archimedes

is

one of

this class,, soil, z

au) n

where n

~:

Again, the

locus of the extremity of the polar subtangent of this last

spiral is z

= aaj

and, in general/ the locus of the ex-

tremity of the polar subtangent of z

aw w

is

n
For by

differentiating

Hence, by the general formula,

tan. zt

If therefore the polar subtangent

*
which

is

be. z\ z

# ? tan* 5

the equation of the locus of

its

extremity, the

values of w being measured from an axis at right angles to

that from which

In

this class

it is

measured

in the equation z

of spirals, the angle zt

is

aw n

continually ap-

proximating to 90 as the curve recedes from

its

pole,

but

never becomes actually equal to 90

Of the
(454.)

Def.

The

hyperbolic spiral,
spiral,

called the hyperbolic spiral

Sfc.

whose equation

is

zw

a> is

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

212

(455.) Cor.
zto is

the arc of a cir-

whose radius

cle,

z,

Since

is

subtending the an-

gle w,

it

follows that

may be

spiral

this

conceived to [be ge-

by, taking

nerated

any portion (am) from

andj with

the pole,
the radius

am

to a, the point

describing a circular arc

will

be always in the

mp

always" equal

spiral.

prop, ccxxiv.

If through

(458.)

perpendicular
b, is

the pole

of the spiral ab

to the fixed

an asymptote

==

axis, a, parallel to

a be

am

?m=s sin. w.
vm

Now*

as

is

is

spiral

on

is

Hence

diminished without

unity, therefore the limit of

curve

through

to the spiral*

Let vm be a perpendicular from a point of the

the fixed axis.

drawn

vm

limit, the limit

is a,

scil.

ab.

of

Hence the

continually approaching the parallel through b^ but

never meets

it.

prop, ccxxv.
(457. )

To find

the tangent to

any point in

spiral.

By

differentiating the equation

the hyperbolic

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.,

13

Hence, by the general formula

a
= -.

tan. zt

Hence

(458.) Cor. 1.

drawing a tangent to

From

follows a geometrical

this curve.

on the asymptote take bn

the point b

method of

ap, and

draw an; then pt, making the angle apt equal to anb, and
pt

be a tangent

will

a, the

Hence, as the

Coi\ 2.

(459.)

spiral

approaches the pole

angle zt approaches 90.

PROP. CCXXVI.

To find

(460.)

the polar sabtangent

of the hyperbolic

spiral.

Let z be the polar subtangent,

f

Hence

z tan. zt

= a.

the subtangent in this spiral

The

(461.) Cor. 1.

subtangent in this spiral

whose centre
(462.)

constant,

is

Cor.
it

constant.

is

locus of the extremity of the polar

is

whose radius

circle,

is

a,

and

the pole.

If the polar subtangent of a spiral be

must be the hyperbolic

spiral

for, let z

be the

polar subtangent,

Hence we

= z tan. zt =

dz

= dfc,

integrating

z'z- 1

which

find

zz~~ Q dz

and by

z^doj
'

is

OU,

0>,

the hyperbolic spiral.

prop, ccxxvxi.
(463.)

By

To find

the area included

(457),

d dw
l

axlz*

by two values ofz.

214

ALGEEEAIC GE0METEY,

Hence by

the general formula (330),-

we

after in-

find 5

tegration,,

Let z

when a

az

= ~

C.

0,

'-~z)a
= (z

If the area be measured from the centre 5 #

A
Hence,

en

if

ap,

and bn

0,

"'

area continued from p to the centre,,

app'

ap',

ann', and the

equal to the triangle

is

ABN,
(464.)

The

hyperbolic spiral

included in the equation z

markable of

the

fiw~"2 3

this

a
or w

class

=a

is

is

ar~

one of a
w
o

One

lituu-Sy

class

of spirals

of the most re-

whose equation

is

2
.

PROP. CCXXVIIJ*
(465.) If, with

any value gfz in

the liiuus as radius >

cir-

cular sector be described, whose angle is w, the area

of

this sector is invariable.

For,

which

zoo

is,

by

being the arc of the sector,

its

area

the equation of the lituus, equal to

~a 2

is

~z*w 9

peop. ccxxix.
(466.)

The axis from which

is

the values

of w are measured

an asymptote*
For, by the last
proposition,

the
a*

arc

PM = ai =
z

which continually
diminishes

as

815'

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
increases

oo 3

and

as

to

and pm

diminishes.,

and the condition w,

gives

0.

prop, ccxxx.

To find

(467.)

By

of a tangent

the position

to the

Utuus,

differentiating the equation,

dz

z
~~~

2w*

doo

Hence by

the general formula,

tan. zt

2w.

Hence

in this spiral zt continually approaches 90 as the

curve approaches

pole,

its

Hence the

(468.) Cor. 1.

polar subtangent z

may be

found,
z

is

The

(469.) Cor. 2.

subtangent

spiral,

is

JS

Saw 2

lz

is

4a w 3

and

called the parabolic spiral,

mentioned

-'.

locus of the extremity of the polar

whose equation
z

which

tan, zt

is

one of the

class

in (450).

(470.) Cor. 3.

tangent and %

is

The

triangle contained

equal to a 2 , and

is

by the polar sub-

therefore constant.

Of Cycloids*
(471.) Def.

plane of a

The

circle,

curve, traced out

which

rolls in

by a point

a given plane

line given in position, is called a cycloid.

(p) in the

upon a

right

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

9A6

If the generating point be within the

is

cycloid

and

cycloid:

prolate

the

called

if

on

A.

A.

it,

the

if

common

circle,,

without

the curve

the curtate

it,

cycloid.

M.M D

D'

M.

PROP, CCXXXI.
(47S.)

To find

Let a b' be the right

?

is

supposed to

roll.

the equation of

line

let

meet

it, is

perpendicular to the right

a parallel ab to a

b'

be drawn.

position of the generating point after the circle

has rolled over any portion

the

circle

Let a be the generating point when the

and through a

Let p be the

cycloid.

on which the generating

radius caa' 9 passing through

line a'b',

circle

at

By

a'd',

the

and

let

cp be produced to

definition

a'd'

Dp,
f

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

ad

bV.

Let the distance of the generating point from

the centre c be

r,

and

let

the circle with this radius be de-

Let the angle dcp, related

scribed.

to the radius unity,

mr

a, and the radius of the generating circle

v tb =
!

17

md

vita == ad,

be

If ab and AC be taken

sin. a.

as axes of co-ordinates, the preceding conclusions are ex-

pressed in the equations

=
y=
x

A from

Eliminating

+ r cos.

y
If

m >

m <

(473.) Cor.

the axis of

%imr^ x

sin. a),

cos, a),

(1),

(2).

we

these equations,

find

i -~ r =

(8).

and of the common

cycloid,, if

m=

To find the point where the cycloid

(ab), let

r(l

the equation of the prolate cycloid; of the

1, this is

curtate,, if

rh?iA

?/

4?rmr 5 &c.

0,

cos.

and

circumference of the generating

since Stfmr

circle, it is

evident that the

is

called the base of the cycloid,

where

points,

and

is

equal to the

curve meets the line ab after every revolution of that

and the intercept ab between two

meets

v x=

1,

is

it

circle,

meets

it ;

equal to the circum-

ference of the generating circle.

The

(474.) Cor. Q,

ordinate to the middle point of the

base may be found by making a

y
as

=
is

%\

This ordinate

is

it

in (&),

which gives

called the axis of the cycloid,

manifest from the same equation,

is

and 5

the greatest or-

dinate.

If the origin be removed to the middle

(475.) Cor. 3.

point of the base by substituting

tion (1),

-f

irmr for x in the equa-

and the angle a measured from the vertex v by

substituting

it

+ a for
=
y =
x

in (1)

r{mA
r(l

and

4- sin.

(2), the results are

a), (4),

cos. a),

(5),

218

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

from which A being eliminated,

y r

substituting

^/%ry

9,

0, (6).

mr

If the origin be

(476.) Cor. 4.

by

x
cos.

removed

to the vertex v 3

+ 2r for y in the last equation,

V 2ry y
r cos.
r=0,

oo

we

find

mr

(7).

PROP. CCXXXII.
(477.) -4

meter,

circ/tf

(vpD) being described on the axis as dia-

and a perpendicidar from any point

axis being drawn

at p, then pp

meet the cycloid at

to

=m

p,

(a)

and

the

of

the circle

_pv.

The

origin being

assumed

at

the centre of the base, the equation (6) gives

yr
cos."

%/

2ry

~y

mr

But by (5)
vp

- r

cos; -JL

And
*/%ry

<if

VjP

sin.

Hence,

vp

-pajpa^vp

pp

m.

yp.

In the common cycloid therefore pp = vp.

Hence, if the ordinate to the diameter of a
(478.) Cor.
circle

be produced, until the produced part bear a given

ratio to the arc intercepted

between the ordinate and the

extremity of the diameter, the locus of the extremity of the

produced part

is

a prolate cycloid,

if

the ratio be of major

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
inequality

cycloid if

it

curtate,, if of minor

be a

S19

inequality

and a common

ratio of equality.

PROP. CCXXXIIL

of a tangent

(4 79.) To find the equation

r

By

a given point on

differentiating the equation (8) of the curve,

the equation of the tangent sought

y) (mr

+y)

For the common cycloid

(y

y )yrr
f

w)

(x

(%ry

this equation

(#

#0

r=

mr

since in this case

we

find

mrr+y

dx

Hence
(7/

to

cycloid.

is

T=

becomes

- V) T =

gr

>

0.

prop, ccxxxiv.
(480.)

By

To

investigate the figure of the cycloid.

differentiating the equation a second time 5

J 2?/

r(??zr

(mr

Jo;

1.

'r

<

r+

??zj/)

z/)

If the curve be the prolate cycloid.

At the
curve

is

The

vertex

<

0,

at this point the

concave towards the base.

value 01 j-^ continues negative, until

for which value

dinate

v,y~2r,

is

through

y~
.

this

value

r3

is

the

point therefore

a point of inflection.

j- becomes

positive,

=
whose

r5

or-

After passing

and then the curve

is

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

g0

When 3/ =0,^- =

convex towards the base.

0,

the base

doc

Hence

touches the curve.

the figure of the prolate cycloid

of page 216.

is as represented in the first figure

2.

If the curve be the curtate cycloid.

In

this case, as before, at the vertex, the

curve

is

concave

d?y

-~

towards the base, and the value of

from

until

this

y = r(l

becomes

it

m), that

is,

infinite,

at the point

negative

continues

which

where y

it

is

does

when

equal to the

distance of the generating point from the circumference of

the generating

j-

infinite,

The same

circle.

and therefore

value of

also renders

at this point the tangent

is

perpen-

(XX

dicular to the base.

If y

Hence

0,

~=

0, therefore the base touches the curve.

the figure of the curtate cycloid

in the second figure of

page

If the curve be the

8.

The

value

of-

which renders

is

as represented

is

21|6,

common

cycloid.

always negative, except for

Hence

it infinite.

the curve

is

cave towards the base and at the points, where

base, has cusps of the

The

first

figure of this curve

0,

always conit

meets the

kind.
is

represented in the third figure

of page 216.

prop, ccxxxv.
(481.)

To draw

a
1.

to

a given point in

dV

the diameter of

geometrically a tangent
cycloid.

If the curve be the prolate cycloid.

Let ab be the base, dv the

the generating circle.

axis,

and

ALGEB11AI0 GEOMETRY.

Let pt be a tangent
tan,

Now jm =

(Srj/

be drawn, tp$

tp#
2
3/ )

%
As
>D

pt

T,

= ^?r/$

(479)?

y^Y
L
^-r^~

(2ry
x

~.

mr
d'

-f J/

= wr

+ y, therefore if jpd'

therefore if B p be produced to
f

pV be

drawn, p \ is
hence the manner of drawing pt is obvious.

meet the generating

parallel to

By

at the point p.

281

circle at

and

!l

If the curve be the curtate cycloid,

before,

tp#,

pa

v jpV

(2rz/
is

j/ )%
2

aD

parallel to pt.

= mr

r.

+ j/, v

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY-.

222
3. If the

In

curve be the

this case

and p

,!

common

cycloid.

coincide,

the tangent

parallel

is

to pv.

(482.) Cor. 1.

drawn from D

In the prolate cycloid,

to the circle, described

if

a tangent be

upon vd, and from

the point of contact e a parallel to the base be drawn,

meeting the cycloid in

i,

the points

are the points of in-

flection .

In the curtate cycloid,

(483.) Cor. 2

base be drawn through the point

the points

l,

vl,

if

a parallel to the

meeting the cycloid at

are those at which the tangent

perpen-

is

dicular to the base.

The normal
part of pD

(484.) Cor. 3a

equal to that

p, is

the base of the cycloid in

cycloid the normal

is

all

of the cycloid for the point

intercepted between

equal to

p and

In the common

the cycloids.
pi>.

If tangents be drawn at any two points

(485.) Cor, 4.

v\ of a cycloid, and the parallels pp, v'p\ to the base be

p,

drawn, the angle ptp' under the tangents

angle in the segment of the generating

between the

common

the

line

n p and d^, (produced

is

equal to the

circle,

intercepted

if necessary.)

cycloid, this angle

is

In

the angle contained in the

segment pvp'.
(486.) Cor. 5.
to the base

If, in

the

common

cycloid, a parallel gg'

be drawn through the vertex, the part of

tercepted between the tangents pt, p t,

?

pyp

is

it

in-

equal to the arc

PROP. CCXXXVI.
(487.)

By
by

To find

the area

differentiating (1) in (472),

of the

cycloid.

and multiplying the

result

{%
ydx

=r

md& (1 + m)d

sin.

A-f cos. d. sin. a

>

which being integrated, and the integral taken between the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*
limits

225

= 2tf, and observing that

f cos. a d sin. a ~
\'fydx = (%m + l)rV.

and a

tt

Hence

the area of the cycloid

the circle described

The area of
generating

the

upon the

common

is

(2m +

1) times the area of

axis.

cycloid

three times that of the

is

circle.

PROP. CCXXXVIIo

To find

(488.)

By

of an arc of the common

the length

cycloid,

the general formula for the rectification of curves^

common

In the

f^dy*

cycloid

dx 2

-f-

dx z

1.

~ijdii

-y'

therefore

Hence^ by integrating,
.j3y
d>

~2V%r(2r~y)

v
V%r ~ y

the arc being measured from the vertex^ no constant need be

when a =0, %ry ==

Since vd = 2r3 and va = 2r ~y
but vd va = pv% % pa = pv.
Hence vb = 2yb
(489.) Co?\

added

for

0.

vd

= 2r(jr

2/) 5

v avb =

the circumference of the

common

cycloid

times the diameter of the generating

is

4vd

that

is 9

equal to four

circle,

PROP, CCXXXV1II.
(490.)

The

Tofind

values of the

the evoluie
first

of the common

and second

cycloid.

differentials,

found in

(479) 9 (480) being substituted in the general formulas for

3

the co-ordinates of the centre of the osculating circle (334) 9

aive

224

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

y-tf = %
2
a? #> = 2 V^%
j/
'

Hence we

find

~ y\oo ~

% J~~ %ry

which being substituted in the equation of the

^'

r cos.

- V

&/V

which

is

s
,

cycloid, give

0,

the equation of a cycloid,

whose generating

circle is

equal to

of the given one, and whose

that

vertex coincides with the extremity

of the base, lying, however, below

the base.

(491 .) Cor

The involute

of a cycloid

is

an equal cycloid,

the extremity of whose base coincides with the vertex of the

given one*
prop, ccxxxix.

(49&) To find the radius of curvature for any point in a

common

The

cycloid.

values of the differentials, already found, being sub-

stituted in the general expression for the radius of curvature,

found in (335), give

r2

Hence

the radius of curvature

4n/.
is

equal to double the chord

pD, or to twice the normal.

(493.) Cor, 1.

Hence, at the extremities of the base the

radius of curvature vanishes, and therefore the curvature at

these points

is

greater than that of any circle.

(494.) Cor. 2.

At

the vertex the radius of curvature

is

equal to twice the axis.

(495.) Cor. 3.

The

base

is

the locus of the point of

bisection of the tangents to the evolute

from points in the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

2S5

PROP, CCXL.

A parallel to

(496.)

the base

drawn, intersecting

it,

and

axis in pp,

to find the locus

of tangents

to the

parallel to

TPp 5

vpa

vp r

Tp

~ pV pv

upon

the

ofT, the point of intersection

is

TP^vpTpTP^

vpa

and

cycloid being

the circle described

curve and circle at these points.

by (481), vp

Since^

of the common

^>

-V

but

Hence the

locus of the

point t

the involute of the generating circle described

is

upon the

axis*

Of the
(497.)

Defi

ordinate

(ap)

diameter

companion of the cycloid

If an
to

of a

the

circle

be produced, until
is

equal

to

(pv) of the

the

circle in-

tercepted between

the locus of

it

arc

its

it

and the extremity v of the diameter*

extremity p

is

called the

companion of the

cycloid.

PROP, CCXLI.
(498.)

To find the equation of the companion of the

Let the radius cv of the generating

Yep

a, Yp

= rA.

If

jd

be taken as

circle

cycloid.

be r9 the angle

origin,

dm

pm =y, v
y
x

= r{\ + cos.
= rA, (&

a),

(1),

^,

and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

836

we

Eliminating a from these equations,

y
which

is

r cos.

"

The

1.

base of the curve

circumference of the generating

(500.) Cor.

same

axis, it will

to

meet

it,

If a

have

ap

is

common

also the

is

equal to the

circle.

cycloid be described on the

same

base,

and av being pro-

= pp'.

If the origin be at the vertex, the equa-

(501.) Cor. 3.
tion

0, (3),

the equation sought.

(499.) Cor.

duced

find

X
+ r cos.

r,

0.

PROP. CCXLIl.

To find

(502.)

By

the equation

of a tangent

differentiating the equation,

find

1
(%ry y' ) *

dy

dx~~~

Hence the equation sought

r(y

we

to the curve.

- y) +
!

(2ry

is

- y^Y

(x

-x =
!

0.

PROP. CCXLIII.

To

(503.)

investigate thefigure

Let the equation be

result

differentiated a second time,

which being negative for

= r,

shows

that, if

and the

If

__

all

~-

values ofy between

= 2r and

through the centre ex be drawn parallel

to the base, the curve

base.

curve*

is

d2y

ofthe

r, -~-^

from v to

0.

i is

Hence

concave towards the

the point

I is

a point of

%%7

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
d2

inflection,

and from

therefore the curve

the value of

to

-^y

is

positive

convex towards the base, and for

is

du

y=0,~- =

which shows that the curve touches the

doc

base at

a and

Hence the

b.

figure of the curve

is

as re-

presented in the preceding figure.

PROP. CCXLIV.

To find

(504,)

The
tiplied

the area

of the curve.

equation (2) being differentiated, and the result mul-

by

(1),

we

find

ydx

r\d.\

cos. a^a),

which by integration, gives

Jydx

r*(A

no constant being added,

when a

0.

sector pev,

pcv

Now

and r

9,

sin.

supposed to begin

equal to twice the area of the

is

therefore the area

sin. a),

as the area is

r A

is

twice the area of the triangle

vpmd

is

sum

Oi

mp produced

in

equal to twice the

the sector and triangle.

If a tangent be drawn through v meeting

m\ the area vm'md

is

equal to 2r

YM'p-f

A-r

sin. a,

the area vm'p equals twice the difference between the

sector

ment

vcp and the

triangle

vc^ ? which

twice the seg-

vp.

The whole
generating

area of the curve

is

equal to twice that of the

circle.

It is plain that the semicircle

and

is

vpn

bisects the area

also that the semicycloidal area dvp'b is trisected

semicircle

dvpb,

by the

and the curve vpb.

If right lines be drawn connecting the vertex with the

extremities of the base, the area of the curve
that of the triangle

avb

is

equal to

and hence the segments of the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

88

curve cut off by these lines are equal.

It is also plain

from

the last proposition, that these lines intersect the curve at

the points of inflection.

From what
ca

has been said,

ca 5 the area P 'vp

f

and the

it

may

be proved that

if

the rectangle under pa

equal to

is

also

axis.

(505.) All the cycloidal curves which have been treated

of are embraced in the general equation

x-\-n

r cos.

^Qry y 2

0.

= m 1, the curve the common cycloid.

= 1 and m > 1, the curve is the prolate cycloid.
If n = 1 and m < 1, the curve is the curtate cycloid.
the companion of the
and m = 1, the curve
If n

In

is

If n

is

cycloid.

As

the other cycloidal curves do not possess any particular

interest, it is sufficient

merely to have stated their equations,,

Of epitrochoids,
The curve

(506.) Def.

circle,

given

which

circle,

traced

supposed to

is

and

in the

epicycloids, c.

roll

by a point in the plane of

upon the periphery of a

same plane with

it,

is

an

called

If the generating point be upon the periphery

epitrochoid.

of the generating

circle,

the curve

is

called

an

epicycloid.

If the generating circle be supposed to roll

concave part of the given

circle, it is called

upon the

an hypotrochoid.

If in this case the generating point be upon the circumference, the curve

is

called

an hypocycloid.

PROP. CCXLV.
(507.)

To find
f

the equation

qf an

epitrochoid.

Let a be the centre and ab the radius of the base, c

the centre
let

and cb the radius of the generating

bdc be the position of the generating

circle

circle,

when

and

the line

ALGEB R AIO GEOME THY

connecting the centres a,

Let

point at v.

any other

in

By
If ab

the

Let cac7

bc

r,

b'e

b'c'e

pendicular to ax,

da

gm

(r

Hence

~|-

and

<p

be produced to

pc'

FC P

ket

pc'g

it

is

'

b'e

/*')

cos.

am'

'

an( *

r-r

(r

==

cos.

7-<p,

r') sin. p.

the equations of the epitrochoid are,

?/

(r -f

a;

r)

cos.

<p

t-

c cos.

(f

>(!)

(r

>') sin.

<p

sin.

7-?

b'e.

PM P es>

<p v
r\-r^

~r-p ? and pg

sin.

but

G ^e P ara " e

r-\-r-

E.

generated bb'

d, bb'

'

let

be assumed as axes of co-

it

r\ c'p

~7

to

which the curve

in

r<p

=r.

circle

and p the generating point;

position,

manner

passes through the generating

c,

be the centre of the generating

a'

ab and ax perpendicular
ordinates.

229

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

g30

If the curve be the hypotrochoid,

and these

negative,

is

equations become

(r

(r

=--

cos.

r')

r') sin.

<p

(p

cos.

y- p

sin.

-y-0

If the curve be the epicycloid, c

and the equations

are

a?

(r -f

(?

COS,

?')

r') sin.

-1

<p

'/''

-f

COS.

"~t~ p

sin,

- p-

If the curve be the hypocycioid, the equations ane

(?-

rr

cos.

7 )

<p

p
r

4- r' COS.

(5

"

(V

r r) sin.

<s

be described, and h,

let

h and H y %
f

+ rY +

the radius

ad a

be the points where the

h'

To

find the angle

the equations (1) be squared and added, and since

for the points

(r

'

a and

epitrochoid meets the circumference.

dah,

.(4).
f

.-

sin.

If with the centre

(508.) Cor. 1.
circle

d*

sin.

<p

sin.

r+r'

-\~

Sd{r
v

p-p)

x*

r)
1

ad 2

(cos.

(r -f r

(r
cos,

d) 2

d)%

^~0

But by trigonometry,

r
cos.

<p

cos.

p-

-f

hence after reduction,

The same

sin.

cos, -y<p

r
T =
<f>

7f,

V<p

j- 9 =

r-fr;

sin.

1,

result applies to the hypotrochoid.

cos.

r~<p

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

(500.) Cor,

we

for r f

___

r
x^~-

cos

y* ~f"

^ + __ cos __/;
.

~ r-\-e

sin.

<p

the same equations

the result

we

ft

substitute

for r

and

is

--

re

sm.

r+e
^cos.^
x

substitute

find

?y==

if in

we

If in the equations (4)

and

2S1

r-\-e
~7r

sin.

<3'

r~<?

sin .

sm.

These equations being the same

?'.

<3

as the preceding,

that the generating circles, whose radii are

^ and

show
r~\-e

give the same hypocycloids.

PROP. CCXLVI.

To find

(510.)

The

of a tangent

the equation

to

an

epitrochoid.

equations (1) being differentiated, the result after

division

is

(r+r
<p
!

The

rsin.

<p-f-

asm.

<p

-f

a cos.

cos.

<p

equation of the tangent to the epitrochoid

fore

iy ~- y

(^ cos

<p

+ d cos

r-j-r
-

"~7~^)
r -f- r*

(#-#')

(r sin.

<p

+ d sin. j-<?) =

0,

is

there-

ALGEBltAIC GEOMETRY,,

S3
which

hypotrochoid

for the

y)
!

(y

4
The

(#

(/'

is

cos.

<p

~~

d cos.

4-

~ 9)

?*

aJ )

(r sin.

<p

sin.

T^

p- 9)

0.

equations of the tangent to the epicycloid and hy-

pocycloid

may be found from

by making

these

r and
!

observing that
sin.

<p

sin.
f

rr

cos. ^ 4- cos.

Hence

the equation of the tangent to the epicycloid

(y

y)

-f-

tan.

and that of the hypocycloid

[y

_ y} _

(511.) Cor.

ptm

if

.,

r 2r

- #) = ^

is

the

for

- *0 =

0.

epicycloid

the angle

the hypocycloid the corre-

In the epitrochoid and hypotrochoid

0, the equation

of the tangent becomes

therefore at the point v,

is

?(#

is

= %prh

(512.) Cor. 2.

tangent

-^rK*

tan.

Hence

1.

-^7-

-~-j ^, and for

spondmg angle

tan.

-~~<p

if

(3/

where the curve meets ay, the

In the epicycloid and

perpendicular to ay.

r2r

hypocycloid, in this case tan. -q-j

= 0.

233

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

PROP. CCXLVII.

To find

(513.)

By

the length

of an arc of an

epicycloid.

differentiating the equations (3),

dy

(r 4-

dx

(r

r-\-r^

(sin.

<p

sin.

r ) (cos.

<p

cos*

^)

<f)d<p 9
r-\-r

~-y~ <p)d$

but by trigonometry
sin.

r+r

<p

-y~ =
+ cos. -7-

t-

cos.

sin.

r+Qr*

- ^

+7-;

r%

2 sm.

~^r? cos.

COS.
cos.

-^

^rp ?f

/? ,

+ 2r'

^
2

<p

^wa.
cos

"

After making these substitutions, squaring and adding the

above equations, we find

V%
Hence by

da:

__

"No constant

is

ft

d<p.

~^

4^(rH-V)
'

sm.

4,

necessary, the arc being supposed to begin

from the point where

<p

0.

the hypocycloid the expression becomes

(514.) Cor.

If

p
VP

tf,

4r (V~~r
f

fVdy* + d&

If S

r
r ) cos.

integration,

fVatf + dafi

For

2(r

^r =
=

"

sm.

fc'p

4r (r + r

^>.

ft

)
-

sm. 6.
a

the generating point coincides with h,

find

V(r4V)
V.PH

and we

ALGEBRAIC GE0MET11Y.

234*

PROP. CCXLVIII.

To find

(515.)

By

of an

the evoluie

epicycloid.

we

twice differentiating the equations

dy

r-\~%7

^=-tan.
d2

-^j-o,
r

?/

~~~

~~'~'

dx

find

<l

4r'(r

+ r )cos.*

+W
r-V%r
-
-

p cos. 7^7?

Substituting these in the general formulae for the co-ordinates

yx

for the centre of the osculating circle,

4r (r

?/

r + Qr

rs

+r

2/

r+2r
2

cos.

sin.

+ 2r'
-^r^ cos -^7? =
^

(r

cos. f

(r -f r )sin.
f

By

<p

r'

,r

+ cos.

<p

<P

<p,

r-f-r>

snL

the equations of the curve

r-fr'

= cos.

cos. 77-70

And by

+ tor

-77-7-

-^-pcos.

But by trigonometry

+ 2/

4r'(r-fr') sin.
f

cos. 77-7-<p

r^%f
...

cos. 77-7

sin.-rj-p.

itself,

cos.

7r

<p ?

sin,

these substitutions, the equations of the evolute are

if
^-

r(r + r

-7-7-

2r'

+^^

r(r-}-r
?'

cos. r
<p

2r

sin#

rr

r + gr'

+
r

77-,

?V

cos.

r+2r

sin,

r
r y?
0,

+r

?'

^
-. p,
r?
f

which are the equations of an epicycloid, the radius of

235

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

whose base

is

anc tne mc^ us f whose generating

*77~F>
2r
'

and

circle is

the evolute

is

since these are in the ratio of r to

It is obvious also^

similar to the epicycloid.

that the centre of the base of the epicycloid

centre of the base of

its

A
v

To

also the

evolute.

"i>\

A
A.

circle

is

v_

J
_^

\^

construct the base of the evolute geometrically , let the

whose radius equals r

and draw av: from v

let

2r meet the epicycloid at v 5

f

a tangent to the base be drawn 5

and from the point of contact let kl be drawn perpendicular

to

av 9 the

circle described

with the radius

a'c is

the base of
C),rrd

Also LB ~
"
""
AB-~~AL
"" ~ r

the evolute for

al

therefore lb

the diameter of the generating circle of the

evolute.,

For

is

which

is

r + %r

+ 8rr

represented in the preceding figure.

the hypocycloid the result

is

by the same
r

cos.

-f

f_

GXrjJ

cos.

process.

r
"ft

(rsin.

*-%r
Hence

<p

sin.

-f

-2r

the evolute of an hypocycloid

is

-ft

an hypocycloid, the

ALGEBKAIC GEOMETRY.

236

radius of whose base

is

.,

and the radius of whose ge-

rr

nerating circle

is

r to r\ the evolute

and

since these are in the ratio of

similar to the hypocycloid.

is

It

is

ob-

vious also that their bases are concentrical.

Let av

2r\-

v the point where a

and

circle

2r'

meets the hypocycloid;

let

the

with

radius

vk be drawn perpendicular
to av 3 and kl touching
the base at k, al is the
radius of the base of the
evolute,

AB

AL

BL

and

r 2r

bl

since

is

the diameter

l9

of the generating circle of the evolute, which

is

represented

in the figure.

Of the
(516.)

The

epicycloid, the radii of

rating circle are equal,

The

(517.) Cor.

dioide

is

cardioide.

the base

is

whose base and gene-

called the cardioide.

hypocycloid corresponding to the car-

itself.

PROP. CCXLIX.
(518.)

For

this

To find

the equation of the cardioide.

curve the equations

and: y into #,

(3), after

become
x

r (2 cos.

<p

=s r (2 sin.

<p

+ cos.
f

&<p)

sin. 2p),

changing x into y

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
from which by eliminating

(f +

2 2
)

we

<p 2

4r

find

(y +

(<r

+ r) =
2

0,

If the origin be removed to the point where the curve meets

the base 5 the equation becomes

(f + x *
The polar

The

equation

point

pole 5 and

which w

is

therefore

2r(l

4r*(/ 2

cos

#*)

0o

a;).

p being the

px the

axis

measured

is

% rx y

curve being placed

from
the

as

in

the annexed figure.

PROP, CCLo
(519.)

If a

line

(pm) be drawn from the pole

the part m'm intercepted between the curve

equal

to

For pm

the diameter .of the

2r

cos,

pm

to the curve*,

and

circle.

but by the polar equation,,

pm'

9*
%r

circle is

^38

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
PROP. CCLI.

To find the

(520.)

The

equation of a tangent tothecardioide*

polar equation being differentiated, gives

= 2r sin.

dz

w dw.
,

Hence by the general formula,

tan. tz

%r

Hence

(521.) Cor. 1.
for

sin.

follows a geometrical construction

drawing a tangent, bm'

%r

sin. w,

therefore

PM

=
-

tan. fe

.-

r.

BM'

Let mc' be assumed on the radius vector equal to bm', and a

pm tm

perpendicular c T drawn equal to

f

will

be the tangent

to the point m.

(52.) Cor.

% The
px

(523.) Cor. 3.
is

tangent at x

therefore a cusp of the

Cor.

(524,)

perpendicular to px.

is

a tangent to the curve at p, and p

is

first

kind.

If a perpendicular

4.

through p meeting the curve

d,

in

to

px be drawn

the tangent at

t>

is

inclined to pd at 45,

PROP. CCLII.

To find

(5%5,)

By

the area

of the

cardioide,

squaring both sides of the polar equation,

z*

and multiplying both

/z =

4ra

(1

by

sides

cos.

dcv,

o;) Q

and integrating

~dou

Taking

we

2r 2 w

this integral

-h

4r 2

a
but the

last

4rV

is

between the

find the entire area a,

term

sin.

-f

-f

^r^cos. wa

limits

eo

sin. w.

and w

^tt 5

v
2rycos. wrf

sin.

w;

manifestly twice the area of the circle,

VA

=7.

6r 2 7T;

239

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
that

is,

the area of the curve

generating

six times the area of the

is

circle,

PROP. CCLIIT.

To find

(526* )

By

the length

of the arc of a

cardioide.

substituting in the general formula for rectification

the particular values of the terms, in this case

%
JXz dw* + dz*Y = 2r/{(l
but by trigonometry

(1

+ cos.

Hence we

cos. w) 2

doo <l

fe

which by integration

J\z

if this

we

it,

sin. 2

2(1

sin.

wfidw;

4- cos. w),

2
cos. i-w.

find,

f{z

And

-f.

w) 2

-f cos.

daj-

2 )*

4r/"cos, iw^w.

is

& )^ = 8r
9

sin.

>o

be assumed between the limits

oo

find the length of half the curve to be

and
8r? and

therefore that of the entire curve 16r.

PROP. CCLIV.
(527.)

By

o
if

(515^

which

ce rr

is

--cb 9

radius ce 5

is

528. Cor.

To find

the evolute

the radius of

the

of the

cardioide.

base

of the evolute

also the radius of its generating circle.

the cardioide, whose base

is

is

Hence

the circle with the

the evolute sought.

The

involute of a cardioide

the radius of whose base

is

is

a cardioide

three times that of the base of

the given curve.

Of the
Def

quadrairioo qfDinostratus.

right line being supposed to revolve with an

uniform angular motion round a fixed point, and an

definite right line at the

same moving uniformly

in-

parallel tc

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

240

meets the former, the locus of their intersection

itself

is

called the Quadratrix of Dinostratus.

PROP. CCLV,

To find

(5&9.)

the equation

termine

Let

the

quadratrix 9 and de-

its figure.

be the fixed centre round which the revolving

radius turns.
parallel

of

Let ca and ay be the positions of it, and the

where they intersect at right angles, and

the axes of co-ordinates.

Let cp and ay be

let

these be

their position

after the revolving line has described the angle pca.

ca

r.

Aa

x av
9

y. By the conditions of the

pca

The

Let

question,

2'

angle pca being expressed in relation to the radius

Ml

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
unity

the equation of the curve

y=
If x == 0, y = 0, v
As x increases from

to r 5

passes from r to $r,

2r

The

its

?/

x) tan.

the curve passes through a.

as

(r

therefore

is

continually increases,

and

when

continually diminishes, and

Go

value of?/ corresponding to

real value will

r 9 assumes the form

be found by differentiating both nu~

merator and denominator

In passing through
negative,

in that case the factors

x
x

and continues

%r,y

is infinite.

at this point is

by

this

we

changes

find
its

it

sign and becomes

as x passes from

so

to be

9/r

to 3r, since

ofy have different signs and when

Hence a perpendicular to the axis of
;

an asymptote.

Similar observations apply to the negative values of

and

intercepted between
dicular to the axis of

-r,

intersecting

on the negative side of the origin

The

values of

x between x

and therefore a perpenit

another asymptote.

is

3r and x
t

at distance

4r give positive

values for y, for this case the factors of y have like signs.
For x
4r, y
0, and at this point the curve intersects

the axis of x

are negative

and from x
and

for

= 4r to x = 5r the values of y
= 5r the value of y infinite,

which points out another asymptote.

reasoning,

it

By

appears that there exists on either side of the

origin an infinite series of asymptotes,

of the curve

is

continuing this

is

and that the figure

as represented in the figure.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

4&

PROP. CCLVI.
(530.)
described,

at p

If with the centre c and the radius ca a circle be

and the line cp produced until it meets this circle

then ap' :Aa::it:l.

ForAp'

TtX

TtX

= r.

""

-g-="o"

AP

Aa

::

i1*

PROP. CCLVII.
(531.)

The

ordinate cb

(532.) Cor. 1.

quadrant

ap'b'

and

-7

v cb

\tf.

itf.

Hence cb is a third proportional to the

ac For cb r r irit cpV.
the diameter of a circle
cb 2ca = AA
:

(533.) Cor* 2.
its

ca

For, by (5), cb

circumference.

(534) Cor. 3.
JLr
Hence,
cb.
:

cally, the

from

this

The
if

area of the circle on

AA':4r 4

::

this curve could be described geometri-

quadrature of the

circle

would be

property the curve has derived

its

effected,

and

name.

PROP. CCLVIII.
(535.)

If with

described, the arc

^
For Dp =
(536.)

c as centre,

Dp

Ttx

CB x --,

Cor.

and cb as radius, a

circle be

Aa.

CB

2r

The quadrant Dps

v Dp =

X.

ac.

prop. CCLIX.
(537.)

To find

the equation

ofa tangent

to

a given point in

the quadratrix.

By differentiating

the equation of the curve, the result

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

dy
-r*

Hence

sec.-

and

It

(1

if

The

equation of the tangent

0.

2r,

(l

--) -

tangents at the points a,

ca ce
:

if

\{x -

xl

and drawing

b'a,

is

of).

is

ce be assumed equal to the quadrant,

by drawing

Also

tan.

y x*

it is

if

a',

ae, and

it.

For

The

2nr,

ab',

which may be effected

b'e perpendicular to

equation of the tangent

it

At

TfX

tan.

^ T

a'e, are

sec*

Hence,

b'c

the equation of a tangent through the point

y-y< = {
If x

IfX

24S

= -^-(1

%7i)

(x

is

2nr).

the point f the tangent of the inclination of the tangent

to the axis or

is

r-

And

in like

The

position of the tangents at these points

by drawing

manner the tangent of the

b'f,

bV, perpendiculars

to

inclination at F

is

is

determined

which are the tan-

gents at these points.

The

successive hyperbolic branches of the curve therefore

intersect the axis

ax

at angles continually

approaching to a

right angle, and the angles at which branches equidistant

from c on each

The

side intersect

it,

are supplemental angles.

subtangents, corresponding to the successive points

r 2

2U

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
intersects ax,

where the curve

obviously the quadrant

and measured upon ay, are

ab multiplied by

1, 3, 5, 7,

&c.

PROP. CCLX.

To

(688.)

an angle in any number of equal parts hy

divide

the quadratrix.

Let PCA be the

f

number of equal

angle, let A*a be divided into the required

parts,

and

lines

drawn from

c to the cor-

responding points of the curve divide the angle into the required parts.

Of the quadratrix
circle at a, to

cides with cb

move parallel

move uniformly
;

to c.

parallel to itself, until

same time, suppose the

at the

it

coin-

line aa( to

to itself, so that its intersection with the circle

moves uniformly from a

from a

of Tschirnliausen.

Suppose^ a right line ay, touching a given

(539.) Def.

The

to b, while the former line

moves

point p of intersection of these two lines

traces a curve, called the quadratrix

of Tschirnliausen,

PROP. CCLXI.

To find the equation of this quadratrix.

Let ay and ax be the axes of co-ordinates. Let ac
By the definition, ad ab am ac, or
(540).

=n

m$

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Tit

ad

Hence

ad

the equation of the curve

ItX
-^

is

TtX

PROP. CCLXII.

To find

(541.)

the equation

of a tangent through a given

point.

By

differentiating the equation

dy

itx

it

dx~~ 2

The

Vr 2

it

equation of the tangent

is

z/

%r

2r~~

therefore

(x

).

PROP. CCLXIII.
(542.)

To

2wr,

If x

investigate the figure

/

0.

The

of this quadratrix*

curve therefore meets the axis

of # at intervals, equal to the diameter of the

continues so to intersect it

The

circle,

equations of the tangents to the points x

4r? x

Hence

8r, &c. &c. are

J/

and those

and

ad infinitum.

~ {*

to the points x

the

subtangent

Sr,

ct

6r,

the

10r3 &c. are

quadrant

ab.

If

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

246

~ = 0, therefore at the points b

(Qn-p l)r,

aa

the tangents are parallel to

By

b', b",

&c.

differentiating a second time,

d\y

dx*

This

is

= 0,

inflection

if

and

7T

~" ~"

ntx

"

4r

2r

2nr, hence a,

since

d2 y

-~

a',

a", &c. are points

has always the sign opposite to

QjX

that of j/, the curve

is

of

j*

always concave towards the axis of x.

PROP. CCLXIV.

To find

(548.)

By

the area

of the quadratrix.

the formula for quadrature

= rfia\.

a =fydx

dx9

which integrated gives

To

determine

c,

hence c

when a

-^

= 0,

-f C.

0,

cos.

-^2r

1;

2r*

area acb

Hence

ntx

COS.

v
5

A
The

r2

is

2r*
(1

wo?
COS. -77-).

found by assuming

the square of the radius

is

tween the area apbc and that of the

r,

mean

and

is

proportional be-

semicircle.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

247

PROP, CCLXV.

To

(544.)

an angle

divide

into

any required number of

equal parts by the quadratrix.

Let the angle be acg, and from the point P the perpenf

drawn to aa', let am' be divided into the

number of equal parts, and the corresponding or-

dicular p'm being

;

required

dinates being drawn, parallels to aa through their extremities,

;

divide the arc of the circle into the required parts, as

is

evident from the genesis of the curve.

Of the catenary.
Def

(545.)

curve such that the arc, intercepted be-

tween two tanone

gents,

which

of

passes

through

the

vertex,

is

/^2> \i>

pro-

tangent of the

-\

angle at which

they are inclined,

is

^\

/>$C
/ \

portional to^the

.^

ILs^

^M.

-~"j}

called the

catenary.

Thus

if

at

== s,

and apt

<p 9

s oc tan. f.

PROP. CCLXVI.
(546).

By

To find

the definition

the equation

of the catenary.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

^48

a constant magnitude, and

J being
Hence

called the parameter.

follows, that

it

dy*

dx l

4-

since

df +

dx Q

__ s

+ s*

,z

~~

dx
But

is

s2

= ds*> v
sds

which by integration gives

which

is

the equation of the curve expressed

by x and

s as

variables.

By

equation (1)

it

df
whence we

manner that

follows in like

dyl +dx 7

J*+s*

_
""

find

ds
==r
s

dy

which by integrating, gives

y==

By

^.__

solving equation (3) for

5,

(3).

we

,9-^K'~~.
which
$

is

find

'i

(4),

the equation of the curve between the variables

and 3/.

By

eliminating s

by

(2)
,

which solved

in

which

which

is

ordinates

for

is

gives

and

(3),

'-x+8'+

6'

I*?

the result

is

Jx*+%ix

+<T y

<?'

(S),

the base of the hyperbolic logarithms, and

the equation of the curve between the variable coocy.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

249

PROP. CCLXVII.
(547.)

To draw a

tangent to the catenary.

Let the point of contact be j/W ; by

tangent

equation of the

is

and by

(1) the

(2),

hence the equation sought

is

(x

w'

cc').

This equation points out the geometrical construction for

ac

as radius, describe a

md

circle,

parallel to

Hence

Let ac

drawing a tangent.

circle,

and with c as centre and

d,

and draw

md

touching this

y/afi~T %jxf; therefore the tangent tp

is

md.

as t recedes

from

a, the tangent continually ap-

proaches to parallelism with the axis.

PROP. CCLXVIII.
(548.)

To find

of an arc of

the length

measuredfrom the

By

the

catenary

vertex*

equation (2),
s

hence the arc at

= y^ +
2

2s x;
j

md.

(549.) Cor. 1. If with c as centre

equilateral hyperbola be described,
to the corresponding arc

(550.) Cor. 2. tt'

at of the
at

tm.

and ca

its

as semiaxis

ordinate

catenary.

MT

is

an

equal

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

850

PROP. CCLXIX.

To find the

(551.)

By
and

radius of curvature

substituting for s

to the catenary.

value as a function of

its

we

differentiating equation (1),

d*y

x and

s\

find

s\s -\-x)
l

d&~ ~

?~~'

'

and by making the proper substitutions in the general

formula for the radius of curvature, we find
{s

___

ft

+xY
e

s'

Hence a parabola and catenary having

(552.) Cor. 1.

common

vertex and

common

vertical tangent, will

that point the same osculating circle

parameters.

have at

when they have equal

Hence the catenary near

its

vertex

is

nearly

coincident with a parabola.

PROP. CCLXX.
(553.)

To find

the evolute

of the catenary.

Let y x be the centre of the osculating circle, and yx the

corresponding point on the curve by (334),
!

dy*+dx*
*/-y=--^-,
dy

9,

-f doc

dy
ax

dy

Now by

what has been already

s (s !
f

dy

&x.

+x)

established,

ALGEBliAIC GEOMETRY,

By

251

these substitutions,

y=

yBy

these

s(s'

+ x)

and the equations

x2

s* =s

9,xs\

eliminating

<s

x?

and y the
9

result solved for y'

is

the equation of the evolute sought

This equation

assume a more simple form by changing

will

the origin to the point

In

c.

and the equation of the evolute

this case s

oi

becomes x\

is

PItOP. CCLXXIa

(554,)

By

To find

the area

of the catenary*

the general formula for quadratures^/^?/

atm.

By

fxcly

= sJ

lie

which by integration

fxdy
which by equation

the area

constant

and

So

is

'dy

s'

*.e

dy

dy S

is

(4)

-T/
s
1 JLs\e

1I
y
s

is

fxdy

No

The

equation (5), prop, cclxvi.

s\s

y\

added 9 because the area vanishes withj/

area atm'

is

therefore equal to the rectangle under

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

252

the parameter, and the difference between the arc and the
ordinate.

The
and

area

ATM

c parallels to

is

y(d

x)

through t

if

cm and ap be drawn, and from M

tangent md' be drawn to the

parallel to

Hence,

s s.

cm be drawn,

the

and through n a
f

circle,

the rectangle bt

is

equal to the

space atm.

Of the

involute of the circle.

PROP. CCLXXII,
(555.)

An

To find

the equation

of the

involute.

arc of the circle ap' being supposed to be always

measured from the fixed point a, and through

p a tangent p p drawn equal to the arc
f

point p

is

its

extremity

the locus of the

ap',

the involute.

Let cp=r, ca = #, pca = w,

v
PP

p'cp

,
f

cos.""

aw

(556.)
f

is

Con

It

,
1

cos.""

the

equation of the

and

obvious that the area of the triangle

equal to that of the sector acp

prop, cclxxiii.
(557.)

>

is

cos.""

CP p

Hence

+ a

Vr 2a 2
is

.
r

therefore

curve

To apply a

tangent

Let pt be the tangent, and cpt

tan.

to the involute.

-7-.

dr

Q ;

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

By

differentiating the equation of the curve,

dr

and

53

we

find

ra

therefore,

= - -

tan

Hence

the angle tpc

the tangent

is

is

supplemental to p'cp, and therefore

parallel to the radius cp

The

(558.) Cor.

radius ca touches the curve at a.

prop. CCLXXXV.
(559.)

By

Of the

quadrature of the involute.

the general formula for the quadrature of curves, if

be the area of the sector pca,

/r^duj
which, if the value for dw already found be substituted

first,

becomes
r

A
which by integration

A
which

is

V^ a

2,

dr

2a

is

__

(r 2

- a*Y

~ ~~~6a~~

the area of the sector.

(560.) Cor. 1.

Hence the area

is

equal to the third power

of the arc ap' divided by the radius, or

pressed, thus

let p'ca

=
A

<p 9

a,

7i

may be otherwise

ex-

54

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

PROP. CCLXXV.
(561.)

Of the

rectification

of the

involute.

Let A be an arc of the curve measured from

;

a'

By

=f(r*doo*

a,

dr*Y.

substituting the value of dw and integrating, we find

yB

a'

&a

the arc of the curve therefore

diameter of the

circle,

is

a third proportional to the

and the radius vector of the curve.

PROP. CCLXXVI.

To faid the polar subtangent.

By

Let p be the polar subtangent.

rVr^ a*

r~duj

~~

(56.) Cor.

~~

dr

The

1.

the general formula,

intercept of the tangent between the

point of contact and the polar subtangent

is

therefore a third

proportional to the radius of the circle and the radius vector

of the curve

for let this intercept

t2

=
~~

(563.) Cor. 2.

P2

r2

be

t,

'

By the last cor. and prop.

pears that the arc of the curve

(564.) Cor. 3.

If r

is

(cclxxv),

sin.

= vV
2

perpendicular therefore equals the arc ap' of the

The

the perpendicular r and the point of contact

of the

a2

This

circle.

intercept of the tangent between

to the radius

ap-

equal to half the tangent.

a perpendicular on the tangent

from the point of contact, r

(565.) Cor. 4.

it

circle.

is

always equal

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

255:

PROP. CCLXXVII.

To find

(566.)

of the extremity of

the locus

the perpen-

dicular from the pole upon the tangent.

By

4 of the

cor.

last proposition, if

VV2 -

Let Acp

PCP

+
2

By means

r\

Since

0,

cos.

it

a2

cp

COS.""

of these

r
equations

and that of the curve, r and

w being eliminated, the

result

is

If cy be drawn at right angles to ca, and

Yep

The

locus

cai

is

it

--

<p 9

the equation of the locus sought

is

therefore the spiral of Archimedes.

Of the tractrix and equitangential curves.

(567.) Def The tractrix is a curve whose characteristic
property

is,

that the locus of a point

on the tangent,

given distance from the point of contact,

this line is called the directrix

PIIOP,

(568.)

To find

is

a right line

at

and

of the curve.

CCLXXVIII.

the equation

of the

tractrix.

Let the intercept of the tangent between the

directrix

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

256

and the point of contact be

By

a.

the general formula for

the subtangent 5

which by integration, gives

y
which

is

therefore the equation of the curve,

and which may

be otherwise expressed thus.

x+ Va y'2
i

^/a z

if = ye

(3).

PROP. CCLXXIX.
(569.)

To find

the equation

of a tangent through a given

point.

Let the given point be

t/efy*

equation of the tangent

y y =

(1),

(4).

dx

The

By

\fx\

is

therefore

{x

-x )
!

(5).

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

257

The geometrical construction for applying a

curve

is

tangent to this

With

obviously pointed out by this equation.

centre a and the radius a

ab

through any point p of the curve

let

the ordinate

drawn, and pp parallel to xx' 5 and meeting the

f

and let

be drawn

p'a

For

the curve at p*

a line pt parallel to p'a

tan. p'am'

the

a circle be described

let

1/
..

is

pm be

circle in

p',

a tangent to

= tan. ptm.

PROP. CCLXXXo

To investigate the figure of the tractrix.

when x = 0, y = + a, therefore if ab == + a

(570.)

By
ab

and

(3),

a the curve meets the axis of y

%

in (5), if

= 0,

=+

a,

and x

0, the equation

becomes

which shows that the axis of y touches the curve

the points b,

By

at the points b, b';

at

b'.

differentiating (4), the result

{a 2

is

2 2
)

Therefore d*y and y have always the same sign, and therefore the curve

By

(2)

it

every where convex towards the directrix.

is

appears that for each value of y there are two

equal and opposite values of

x and
9

for each value of

there

Therefore the four

are two equal and opposite values of y.

branches of the curve, included in the four right angles

round the

and

origin, are perfectly equal

as if placed

upon each other would

pears by this equation that, as

similar,

coincide.

and such

It also ap-

increases without limit,

diminishes without limit, and therefore the directrix

asymptote.

It also appears,

the points b,

b',

from what has been

are cusps of the

kind.

first

PROP. CCLXXXI.
(571.)

By

The quadrature of the

tractrix.

(1)

ydx

A/a

l
.

dy.

is

an

said, that

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

$58

One

side

tegrals

is

the differential of the area

- Vd -~f =
z

abpm, and since

differential

equation

of this

am', the other side

is

the

of the area bp'c, and therefore taking the in-

BPMA '=

Bp'c.

Also, since the triangle p'am'

ptm, the area bpta

is

equal to the sector bap'.

It follows also that the whole area included

branches of the tractrix

by the four

equal to the area of the

is

circle.

PROP. CCLXXXII.
(5TO.)

By

(1)

we

The

rectification

tractrix.

find

ady

Vdf + dx*
where the negative sign

of the

is

used 5 because the arc increases as

diminishes^ and which integrated gives

fVdf + dx* =
To determine c5
so that

when the

let

arc

aly

c.

the arc a be supposed to begin at b ?

0,

hence

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

ala

-f-

0,

=
a

59

hence we find

ala*,

= al
y

Hence
and

appears that

it

as

with the axis of the tractrix,

if

sub tangent, a logarithmic be drawn, the

line

p?ll =s BP.

''"V.

?,/
-""""""'

"

-...&
fft

PROP. CCLX XXIII,

To find

(573.)

By

the radius

of curvature of the

tractrix.

substituting in the general formula for the radius of

curvature the values of the

efficients,

we

first

and second

differential co-

find

as/

y~

y
Hence by

geometrical construction the radius and centre of

the osculating circle

dicular

may be found

to the tangent

at p,

thus

let

pc be perpen-

and produced

to

meet a

perpendicular to the directrix at t 3 the intercept pc

s2

is

the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

9,60

and c the centre of the osculating

radius,

pm pt

mt

PC,

by

circle;

for

the similar triangles.

PROP. CCLXXXIVe
(574.)

To find

the evolute

of the

tractrix*

Let the co-ordinates of the centre of the osculating

By

be y xK
]

circle

substituting in the general formulae for the

values of these the particular values of the differential coefficients,

the results are

y
x

By

eliminating

vy
y
2

y and x by means

that of the curve, the result

of these equations, and

is

a
which

is

fore a catenary,
is

at b,

The

the equation of the evolute.

whose parameter

and whose axis

is

ay.

is

evolute

is

there-

ab, whose vertex

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

261

Hence,

if a string

applied to a catenary have

and be wound

at the vertex,

off, its

its

extremity

extremity p will describe

the tractrix.

The

(575.) Def.

locus of a point

p upon

the tangent of

the tractrix at a given distance b from the extremity t of

the tangent

called the syntractrix.

is

PROP* CCLXXXVe
(5*76.)

To find

the equation

of the syntractrix.

Let the co-ordinates of a point on the tractrix be tfx\ and

The
those of the corresponding point of the syntractrix xy.
conditions of the definition furnish the equations

ay
(x

By means
of

x )a =z(a
!

of these equations,

b)

Vb*~~y\

y
which

is

tractrix,

is

b+ ^/b^^p
al

____

VaT^y^.

and that of the

being eliminated, the result

fy,

the equation of the syntractrix,.

y and
!

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

262

PROP. CCLXXXVI.

To find

(577.)

By

the equation of a tangent to the syntractrix.

differentiating the equation,

dy

we

find

yv&^

__

ah

doc

'

hence the equation of a tangent through the point

yx
]

is

PROP. CCLXXXVII.
(578.)
1.

Let b

To
<

investigate the figure

of the

syntractriw.

a.

By the equation of the curve it appears that when x =

y = b and by that of the tangent that the tangent to this
5

point

is

It also follows, as in the

parallel to the directrix.

tractrix, that the directrix is

an asymptote, and that the

branches or portions of the curve included in each of the

four right angles round the origin are symmetrical.

By

differentiating the equation a second time,

&y_ h
dx*~~

ah*

+ y\h -

'
*

{ab-~y*f

and the corresponding value of x

,

at
Since,

by

is

+/2a h + A/a h

supposition,

va
b < &,

a-b

V 2a-b'
There

these values are real.

therefore a point of contrary flexure at the point

co-ordinates are the values of y

Let ab

find

when

This equals

is

we

2a)

= b a/ -

b,

and x} found

whose

as above.

and am, am' be the values of x} which give

7; for all values of

x between x

and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

am, or am', the second

differential

283

of y

is

negative,

and

therefore the intercept of the curve between the points pp'

concave towards the axis of

and beyond these

#,

limits

is

on

'O

xl

^
- 1

"^"^--P
v

convex towards the axis of

it is

when

the curve

>

<

is

2.

Let

In

this case, as before,

gent

is

of

therefore represented above.

= 0,
of x, and between =
=

when y

parallel to the axis

increasing,

The form

x.

a.

value of x which gives

is

A.

m:

each side

^^^--~

ab=g*

and becomes

the

infinite

which shows that the tangent

and ^

the tan-

and that

first differential coefficient

under

this last condition,

approaching to parallelism

is

with the axis of x 9 and at this point becomes parallel to

Also, between these points the second
gative,

and therefore the curve

differential

ofy

is

it.

ne-

concave towards the axis

is

of x.

Let the points

p',

p,

parallel to the axis of

wards the

axis.

coefficient passes
its sign,

At

be those at which the tangent

The

the points

through

and becomes

positive,

and therefore changes

and remains
is

is

v\ the second differential

infinity,

every other part of the curve

The same

portion pbp'

p,

so,

and therefore

convex towards the axis

reasoning applies to the part of the curve

other side of the axis,

is

concave to-

on the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

64

Equitangential curves

(579.)

in general are those, the

intercept of whose tangent between the point of contact

any given
nitude,

may
is

line

and

of any proposed species

in general that line, of

be, which

is

is

and

of a given mag-

what kind soever

it

the locus of the extremity of the tangent,

called the directrix.

presents two classes,

The

consideration of these curves

problems to the analyst.

1.

Given the

nature of the directrix^ the magnitude of the tangent

and its position at any given point of the directrix, to find

of traction. 2. Given the nature of the curve of

tr action ) and the magnitude of the tangent^ to find the diThose problems which come under the latter class
rectrix.
the curve

are

much more

easily investigated

than the former, the solution

of which, except in

a few instances, involves

difficulties

almost

insur-

mountable. There are one

or two instances, however,
in which

the

solution

obvious enough.
if

is

Thus,

the directrix be a circle,

and the tangent equal

to

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETItY.
half the chord with which

curve of traction

whose radius

coincides in

it

a concentrical

is

265
any

position 5 the

the

circle,

square of

equal to the difference of the squares of the

is

tangent and radius of the directrix.

that the involute of the circle

which the directrix

It appears also (566),

the curve of traction of

is

the spiral of Archimedes*

is

SECTION XX,
The nature and

properties

of the

roots

trated by the geometry

(580.)

that

the
is

of equations

illus-

of curves*

Every algebraical equation of a degree expressed by

where

is,

unknown

is

the index of the highest dimension of

quantity., after the equation is cleared

of surds,

necessarily included in the general formula

Mm

Any

A.X m

BX m~2 + CXm

+V=

...TO?

value whatever being assigned to x,

responding value which the

first

assumes be y, and the result is

B%m~~2
y = xm -f AX m~ l

If

~3

member of

let

0.

the cor-

this equation

cx m-3 ,..*

tx

v.

this equation 5 related to rectangular co-ordinates,

be

supposed to represent a curve, the examination of the course

of the locus

will point

out several important theorems con-

But before we

cerning the roots of the proposed equation.

proceed to

this investigation,

we

shall give

a method for

constructing the values of y 9 corresponding to any assumed

value of

oc,

and thereby constructing the curve which

re-

presents the equation.

Since the equation, in the form in which

duced in

it is

given,

is

not

n be the linear unit, and this being introsuch a manner as to render all the terms linear, the

homogeneous,

let

equation becomes

mQ

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,,
AXm~ l

Xm

___

tx

the coefficients a, b, c

being supposed

t, v,

Let ab
and

AC

ay

let

draw A& meeting ce

and draw ^6
ax.
Let he

h9 and draw

"B

line ce in

and continue

i9

ax

de

draw

the line ce, take a portion on

of this

is

For

and

a,

ce in

lid parallel

and take

and, as before,

a<?

this process to ix,

the point where the last of the lines,

as before,

at g,

parallel to

ac, meeting

to

%,

and through a

n,

draw

bd and ce be

let

linear.

== n,

parallels to

Ba

meeting

the

and finally from

drawn from

A,

meets

equal to v, and the extremity

it

that of y>

ab

since

ab

Also

ac

Ac

bc

ch3

eg,

= x.

c^

ch

bc

A#

#s

= +
= (# + A).
n
n
<#

7i

And

ab

but Be

Ac

Bd

bc

+ dk =

+ +

And

it is

intercepts

by adding

plain that

AjT

#?

AX Z

cz

bc

cz

^,

b,

B#

+1T+-.
by a

between c and the

similar process the successive

lines

drawn from A

are found

to each former intercept the next coefficient,

and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
multiplying the result by

9J61

the successive intercepts will

be

X*

AX
:

vT'

BX

AX*

+ 1 +

x*

X5
n4

AX 3

AX ^
+
n4
1

ex

bx*

+ n
BX'

ex 2

'

xm

~
BX m 2

AX m ~-1

Adding then

TX
n

to the last intercept the line v, the result

any negative

seting

be taken in an opposite direction

it

to

is

for

is

coefficient, the line repre-

the value of y

thus, if a

were negative, be should be taken from b towards a.

Being thus able

to construct the values of

correspond-

ing to every value of #, the curve can be constructed by

points.
!

p p,
9

The

p"9

values of #, corresponding to the points p, F , p",

f

when

the curve meets the axis ax, are the roots of

the proposed equation.

Since in general the curve cannot pass from one side to
the other of the axis of x without intersecting
sarily follows that,

at opposite sides of the axis ax, the curve

tersect that axis once,

times, that

is,

it, it

neces-

between two points of the curve, situated

and may

intersect

it

must

at least in-

an odd number of

between two values of x, which give values of

with opposite signs, there must be an odd number of in-

tersections of the curve with the axis of

at least be

x and
9

there

one point of intersection between them.

must

Hence

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY..

%68

numbers, substituted for x in any equation , produce

if two

results with opposite signs, there

real roots between them,

and

must be an odd number of

must be one.

at least there

Between two points of the curve, situate at the same side

of the axis of x, there must be either an even number of

That

intersections with that axis pr none.

is,

if

two values

of x give corresponding values of y, affected with the same

between those values of x, there must either be no

sign,

intersection of the curve with the axis ax, or an even

num-

Hence, if two numbers substitutedfor x in any equa-

ber.

tion give results affected with the same sign, there must be
either no real root between them or an even number of real
roots.

The

intercepts pp', p'p", &c.

pp p p
,

!l

&c. between two

consecutive points of intersection of the curve with the axis

of x, are the successive differences between the consecutive

roots of the proposed equation*

sumed, whose difference

is less

If

two values of x be as-

than the

least of these dif-

ferences, there cannot be more than one point of intersection

between them;

for if there

were two points of intersection

between them, the intercept between those two points would

be necessarily
of x, which

is

less

than the difference of the assumed values

contrary to hypothesis.

values of x give values of

Hence,

if

two such

with different signs, there will

be one and only one point of intersection between them

and

if

they give values of

with the same sign, there will

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

269

be no point of intersection between them.

two numbers,

whose difference

is

less

Therefore, if

than the

least dif-

ference of two consecutive roots of cm equation, substituted

for x

in the equation, give results affected with different

and only one

signs, one

reed root lies between them

and if

they give results affected with the same sign, no real root

between them.

lies

When

any of the intercepts

the curve touches the line

ax

pp',

pp

&c. equal nothing,

The

at that point.

intercept

which vanishes, being the difference of two values of

which give y

x*>

must be equal, and therefore

these values

a point of contact with the axis of x

is

equal roots of the proposed equation.

If one of the inter-

the indication of

vanishes, the curve at each side of the point of

cepts pp

contact

lies

at

the same side of the line ax,

and there-

fore two values of x, which intercept between them a point

of contact of this kind, give values of

affected with the

Hence, if two numbers, which include between

them two real and equal roots, be substituted for x in any

same

sign.

same sign.

equation, they will give results affected with the

If two consecutive intercepts

curve also touches the axis of

pp',

pV, both

at that point

vanish, the

but the parts

of the curve on each side of the point of contact

ferent sides of the axis of x,

contact

is

lie

at dif-

and therefore the point of

It appears, as before, that

a point of inflection.

in this case three points of intersection unite in one 5

and

that the values on each side of the point of contact give

values of

with opposite signs.

Hence,

if

two numbers

which include between them three equal and real

roots

of an

equation be substituted for x they will give results with

different signs.

In general,
pp',

p'',

if

an odd number of consecutive intercepts

&c. vanish, and therefore an even number of points

of intersection unite

in

one,

the

curve will touch the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

270
axis of X)

and the parts of

point of contact will

from

It follows

the curve

an even number of real

in any equation include between them

and equal

roots, they will

side of the

numbers substitutedJbr x

that if two

this,

on each

the same side of the axis of x,

lie at

give results with the same sign.

If an even number of consecutive intercepts

pf', p'p 7 ,

&c

vanish,

and therefore an odd number of points of

section

unite in one, the curve also touches the axis

inter-

of

but in this case the parts of the curve at each side

of the point of contact

lie

at different

of x, and therefore that point

values of

x on each

axis

The

side of the point in this case give values

Hence

affected with contrary signs.

of

sides of the

a point of inflection

is

it

folio ws,

that

two numbers which include between them an odd number

of real and equal roots of an equation, substituted in

it

for

x, will give results affected with opposite signs.

The
roots

point of contact corresponding to four real and equal

is

If

called a point of simple undulation.

responds to six real and equal roots,

it is

it

cor-

said to be a point

of double undulation.

A point of contact corresponding

roots

is

called a point of simple inflection

and equal

to five real

character of such points

no

to three real

roots,
is

triple

if it

and equal

corresponds
&c.

inflection,

The

merely algebraical, there being

visible geometrical distinction.

As

in algebraical curves, the

number of intersections are in

general the same as the index of the highest dimension of x 9

when
ber

the equation

is

finite.

is

The

cleared of fractional indices, that

num-

entire of the curve, therefore,

which

extends beyond the most distant point of intersection on the

positive side of the origin
axis.

And

must

the same inference

lie
is

at the

same

side of the

applicable for the

reasons to that part of the curve which

lies

same

beyond the

most distant point of intersection on the negative side of

GEOMETRY.

ALG-EBIIAIC
the origin

and therefore

all

values of

S71
greater than that

of the most distant point of intersection give values of

Hence,

continually affected with the same sign.

bers greater than the greatest root
positive or negative?

num-

of an equation, whether

be substituted

tinually give results with the

if

x, they will con-

for

same sign.

In any algebraical equation, a value of a may be assigned

to

so great, that the first

the others, and

term

fore ultimately be the

of

x and
9

same

will continue to

Consequently,

and therefore

its

exceed the sum of

all

excess above the others will continually

its

increase with the increase of x.

limit.

shall

if

The

sign of

will there-

as that of the highest dimension

be so as x

is

increased without

the highest dimension of

x be even 9
x itself be

sign necessarily positive, whether

positive or negative,

it

follows that the sign of y

positive on both sides of the origin,

is

ultimately

and that therefore the

two parts of the curve which extend beyond the last points of
intersection

on each

side of the origin

both

lie

above the axis

of x, and that therefore either no point of intersection or an

even number of such points must be included between them.

Hence

follows that every equation in "which the index

of
qfxis even, has either no real root or an
even number of them; and since the number of roots altoit

the highest poxver

gether

is the

same as the highest index,

itfollows

that there

must be either an even number of impossible roots or none.

If the index of the highest power of x be odd, the first term
will
tive,

be positive or negative according as x

and therefore

is

positive or nega-

if continually increasing positive

values be

assigned to x, the value of y will be ultimately positive, and

continue so as the positive values of x increase without limit

and

if continually increasing

x, the value of

will

negative values be assigned to

be ultimately negative, and

tinue so as the negative values of

will con-

increase without limit*

These conclusions obviously follow from the same

principle

may be

assigned

as the former

scil.,

that such

a value

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

27$
to

as will render its highest

power greater than

The

maining terms of the equation together,

all

the re-

parts of the

curve lying beyond the most distant points of intersection

on each side of the origin therefore

the axis of

that

different sides of

lie at

beyond the most

distant point of inter-

section on the positive side of the origin lying

side,

on the positive

and that beyond the most distant point of

on the negative

intersection

on the negative

side of the origin lying

side

of the axis of x\ therefore the number of intersections of the

curve with the axis of x

is

odd, and

it

follows therefore

that every equation in which the index of the highest

of x

is

power

odd, must have at least one real root, and in general

has an odd number of real roots

and

since the entire

number

of roots, being that of the index of the highest dimension of

x, is

number of impossible

odd, the

roots

is

even,

if

there be

any such.
It follows therefore in general, that the

possible roots, if there be any,

number of im-

must be even, and there can

therefore never be less than two.

The

absolute term v

and

0,

is

is

the value of y corresponding to

therefore the distance between the origin

and

the point where the curve meets the axis of y } and therefore
the curve intersects that line, above or below the origin, ac-

cording as v

is

positive or negative*

If v

0, the

curve

meets the axis of?/ at the origin.

Hence, if any equation wants the

roots

must be equal

to

nothing.

last term,

Also

one of

its

case the

since, in

index of the highest dimension of the unknown quantity

is

even, the curve ultimately extends above the axis^of x on

both sides of the origin

and therefore
it

it

must necessarily

side of the origin.

mension

is

if

the absolute term be negative,

intersect the axis of y

below the axis of

intersect the curve at least once

Hence,

if

in

any equation whose

even the absolute term he negative,

at least two real roots, one positive

and

it

x*>

on each

zdll

di-

have

the other negative,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

By

a change of origin on the axis of y, that

the axis of

parallel to itself,

may be made

&c.

$7$

axis of

is,

by moving

any of the intercepts pp , "pV,

f

and by a further change, the

to vanish.,

will cease to meet the curve at those points

by changing

the axis of

two points of

without altering

its

thus

inclination,

intersection will first approach each other,

then meet, and finally disappear altogether.

Also by the

may meet the

curve in other

same change of the axis of x5

it

where before the change

points,

touching
axis of

it,

is

and then

effected

intersecting

by

that by

a change in

may

and

to

any two

equal,

follows,

real

and un-

any two impossible

vice versa,

to

become first real

and afterwards real and unequal.

therefore that the

it

become real and equals and

may^ by a similar change, be made

roots

and

made

Hence

v.

the absolute term,

be first

afterwards impossible

first

in the

equivalent to a change

is

magnitude of the absolute term

equal roots

it,

This change

it.

increasing or diminishing the values

of / by any given quantity, which

in the

did not meet

it

It appears

minima values of y indicate the impossible

roots o the equation.

To

determine the maxima and minima of y, or the points

of the curve at which the tangent

let

is

parallel to the axis of

the equation be differentiated, and

its differential

with zero, the result of which is

mxm~ l + (m~--I)Axm~-2 + (m--2)Bx m-3 -l~

t=

equated

(a).

If the consecutive roots of this equation substituted in the

proposed equation give results with opposite signs, the points

at

which the tangent

positive

is

and negative

parallel to

sides of

such successive values of

of x, and intersect

more than once,

it

there

ax

ax.

alternately at the

lie

Between every pair of

the .curve must intersect the axis

but once, because

would

if it intersected it

necessarily be another point at

which the tangent would be parallel to the axis of x between

the two assumed values of x, which
pothesis.

Hence

it

appears, that if

all

is

contrary to hy-

the roots of the pro-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

&74
posed equation be

real, all the roots

and correspond

also real,

of the equation (a) are

maxima

to

and

values of y;

between every two consective roots of the equation (a), a

root of the proposed equation

must be contained

the roots

of this equation are called limits of the roots of the proposed

equation, and the equation

is

called the equation

of limits of

the proposed.

If three consecutive points of the curve, at which the

tangent

be situate on the same

to the axis of x,

is parallel

and the value of y for the second is less

the first and third, there must be two im-

side of that line,

than those for

possible roots of the proposed equation intercepted between

those values of

oc,

values of y ; this

And

hence

which correspond

and third

to the first

plain from what has been already

is

said.

follows, that if three successive roots of the

it

equation (a) substituted in the proposed give results with

the same sign, the second being less than the

first

and

third,

there will be two impossible roots of the proposed equation

included between the

first

If an even number

which the tangent

is

parallel to the axis of

the same side of that

at

which y

dicates

is

and third values of oc.

of successive points of the curve at

line,

minimum, and

two impossible

roots,

x be

number

half their

situated at

will

be points

since every such point in-

follows that if an even

it

num-

ber of consecutive roots of the equation of limits substituted

in the proposed equation give results with the

many

the proposed equation will have as

same

sign,

impossible roots at

least.

minimum value of y there are two imthe number of impossible roots must be

Since for every

possible

roots,

To

double the number of such values.

investigate this, let

the equation (a) be differentiated, and the result

m.(m.

~
l). x m 2

m __ g)

(,

_ 3)

(m

1)

B o?-

is

(m 2)M m ~
+ s = 0,
.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Such

roots of the equation (a) as being substituted in

and the proposed equation, give

this

"275

results affected with

the same sign, correspond to minima values of

y and

for

every such value there are two impossible roots of the pro-

posed equation.
(581.) Before the

to the values

methods of approximation

now used were known,

of the roots of equations which are

they were frequently represented by geometrical constructions.

This method of representing them

is

only as an illustration, and as

not inelegant,

is

it

here explain the principles on which

Let the equation whose roots

be f(#)

and

let

== 0,

and

let

the equation

p (x)

form of the second member

E'(jr)

be an equation (yx)

f'(#)

founded.

proposed to represent
first

arbitrary,

member

and let

F (y) and
f,

-$

m {xy)

and

y and

0, between

this process, that if?/

posed equation;

beT? (x),

this value of

it

=t

(y) and F (xy)

!!

It

x.

is

will

obvious

be eliminated from the equations

0, the result will

therefore,

follows

curves be constructed which are the

f\x)

shall

be assumed, in which the

f"(/)
is

we

be substituted in the proposed equation, the result

!!l

from

it is

it is

any part of the

f

now, however, used

= 0,

be the prothat

if

two

of the equations

loci

the values of

x corresponding

to their points of intersection are the roots of the proposed

equation.

The

example of the application of the

tions of the

we have

investigation which

the nature of the roots of equations

two

loci,

whose

may

just given on

be looked on as an

principle, since the equa-

intersection gave the roots of

the equation sought, were

y = x m + AX*
But

y.

BX m~2

o,
.

Ttf

V.

this is evidently useless, as it requires the solution

the equation

itself to

however proceed

construct the second locus.

to apply the principle to

of

We shall

some examples

ALGEBKAIC GEOMETRY*

276
render

which

will

could

make

any abstract explanation

clearer than

it

it.

PKOP. CCLXXXVIII.
(582.)

To

represent by geometrical construction the roots

a quadratic

Let the proposed equation be

x* + %ax + b 3
Let one of the

whose

loci

of

equation.

== 0.

intersection give the roots of

the equation be a right line parallel to the axis of x^ re-

presented by the equation

y
This substitution

when B a >

being made

b.

in the given equation, gives*

0,

y*

x 1 + %kx

for the equation of the other locus ; this

circle

at

whose radius

is

A*

is

and whose centre

a distance from the origin equal

to

the equation of
is

on the axis of

a. Let ac=

and with the

centre c and the

ac

radius

the

let

be

circle

described

let

ab=b, and

let

the parallel

Bp

be drawn

the

values of % sciL
ap,

AP j
f

corre-

sponding to the points p 9 p 9 where this parallel meets the

circle, are the roots of the proposed equation*
f

The
and

centre lies at the positive side of the origin if

at the negative side if

>

<

therefore in the one case

both roots are positive, and in the other negative.

ap

4-

AP

s=

Sac 5 i
-

e.

the

sum

of the roots taken with

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

277
x in the

their proper signs is equal to the co-efficient of

given equation.

ap x

pp 2

ap' ==

b% L

==

e*

the product of the roots

is

equal to the absolute term.

If ab =? ac,

>

>
<

2,

AP 5 L
f

if

e.

>

is

circle, %

if

0, the roots are impossible.

0, the second equation is

y*

which

and ap

coincide,

ac, the parallel does not meet the

A and b

If b

the roots of the equation are equal.

If ab
b

p and p

x~

-f

2ax

0,

the equation of the equilateral hyperbola, the trans-

verse axis of which coincides with the axis of x, and the

origin being at the vertex.

But

the equation can be constructed in

In general

circle alone.

parallel to the axis of

v# + b

being arbitrary,

which reduces
order that?/

cannot be

becomes

4-

%A%

~ m = 0;
%

may be supposed

it

2
0, if b

if

b3

in

this

case

let

m=

parallel will in that case coincide with the axis of

and the equation of the

y* +. x

This

is

a.

Hence

with the radius

at

is

+ %ax b

y'

2,

b.

0,

The
itself,

== 0.
is

*/a?

+b

2
,

a distance from the origin equal to

ac

let

>

0, in

circle is
1

the equation of a circle whose ra,dius

and whose centre

<

real in the equation of the parallel,

than

less

But

this case to the former.

may be

by the

this substitution the equation

2 4/

cases

all

the equation of the right line

x be

y
Making

let

+b

2
,

a,

and the

and the

circle

be described

roots of the equation are

ap, ap;*

The

equation

may be

constructed

by the

intersection of

the right line with any line of the second degree as well as

the circle.

Thus

let

the equation of the

first

locus be

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

WIS

*
which

* +

the equation of a right line intersecting the axis of

is

B2

and

from the origin expressed by -

at a distance

in-

<-vA

The

clined to the axes of co-ordinates at angles of 45.

equation of the other locus will be

x*

which
of

is

the equation of a parabola whose axis

whose vertex

#a.

+ 2 Ay = 0,

The

is

the axis

the origin, and whose parameter

is

is

intersection of this with the right line gives the

roots of the proposed equation.

PROP. CCLXXXIX.
(583.)

To

represent by geometrical construction the roots

of a cubic equation.
Let the proposed equation be

X3

+ AX % +

# +

c3

0.

Let the equation of one of the curves whose

is

to determine the roots of this equation

By

9,

The former
equation

-f

vertex

The

is

of whose axis

b 2x

-|-

o3

= ,

The

value of

is

which

is

y which

-^

and the principal parameter

latter equation represents

is

therefore

gives the

A2

is b.

an hyperbola, the axis of

one asymptote, and the equation of the other

which

is

Oo

of these equations represents a parabola, the

parallel to the axis of y.

is

B2/.

substituting y in the proposed equation the result

B%y

+ AX =

intersection

be

therefore parallel to the axis of

asymptotes are rectangular,, the hyperbola

is

and
is

y b,
since the

equilateral.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
Let a be
ptotes

semi-axis,

its

equation related to the asym-

its

is

a?

yx
az

IP

c3

Hence

Let ab
and

279

let

bv

and through b draw a

A2
-7-.

4b

On

a parameter equal to b,

Let

parallel to ax.

Let

a parabola be described

let

ad
ff'

be drawn bisecting the angle d, and take

and through d draw a

DF

2c 3

describe an hyperbola whose vertices are f ?

asymptotes are yy' and

ay

the axis vc with the vertex v, and

b5

parallel to

The

ee'.

f'5

and whose

roots of the proposed

equation are Ap, Apt, Ap \ the values of x corresponding to

]

the points of intersection p ? v\

p",

of the parabola and

hyperbola.

Va

%'

J*

IT

4P

Y
If the equation of the

first

kscy

locus be
c3

Oj

280

ALGEBEAXC GEOMETRY*

the other will be

by

result

by

+ AX

related

former,

equation of an

whose axis

0
is

the

semiaxis equal to

its

equation represents a parabola, the equation of

is

vertex are x

Through

B2

rectangular co-ordinates,

to

s/latter

M)

equilateral hyperbola, the axes of co-ordinates

being the asymptotes, and

The

and dividing the

a\

X*

The

substituting for o 3 3

&

and the co-ordinates of whose

y
y

B2

A
4

~ 7.

the origin d let ff' be drawn bisecting the angle

-

DF s with the
f

verse axis, and the points f, F

hyperbola be described. Also

with the vertex

V ~~

line

FF

as trans-

as vertices, let an equilateral

let

db'=

A
-~->

and

~ A.
4'
"T
and the parameter

v, the axis vc,

A, let a

parabola be described; the points of intersection of this with

the hyperbola will give the roots required.
It

is

always possible by a transformation to remove the

second term of the equation.

proposed equation, and that

x3 +
Let

it

X*

it is

b s#

be multiplied by x

Suppose

+
0,

bV +

this

done with the

reduced to the form

c3

= 0.

by which
3

c x

it

becomes

0*

If the equation of one of the curves whose intersections

determine the roots be
X*

B^o

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY

That of the other

%
y +

The

former

is

be5 when b 2

will

x*

0.

the equation of a parabola whose vertex

at the origin,

whose axis

The

latter is

>

281

..

circle

centre on the axis of

is

ay, and whose parameter

passing through the origin with

at the distance

is

is b.

its

Therefore

a parabola be described with the vertex a, the axis

let

ay ? and

the principal parameter b; and a circle with the radius

ca

c3

~->

The

point of intersection p gives the root of

the proposed equation.

The

point a gives the root

which was introduced by multiplying by

roots

must

x.

The

in this case be impossible.

The

0,

other two

circle will lie

on

the negative or positive side of the origin, according as c 3

positive or negative;

and therefore the

real root will in the

one case be negative, and in the other positive.

If b 3

<

0, the

is

second equation becomes

82

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

y*
This
vertex

is
is

x =

4.

the equation of an equilateral hyperbola whose

the

and whose transverse

origin-,

axis

is

the axis

of x*

Let AC

jr-;

cA , and with the

f

vertices

a a'

equilateral hyperbola be described, the points p, p

let

an

r 7 , give

the roots of the proposed equation.

The

centre of the hyperbola lies on the positive or ne-

3
gative side of a, as c

>

or

<

0.

If c

lie

on the positive

side of a, there must be one point of intersection on the

negative side; and

if

lie

on the negative

be one point of intersection on the positive

side, there

side.

must

Hence the

equation must have one real root having the sign contrary
3
to that of c .

Supposing both parts of the hyperbola to intersect the

parabola, the roots will be real

and unequal; and two

will

&&&

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
be positive and one negative

and one

positive if c

<

if c

>

and two negative

0,

0.

If the parabola and hyperbola touch, there will be two

equal roots.
If one of the branches of the hyperbola does not meet the
parabola.,

two of the roots of the equation are impossible.

prop. ccxc.

To

(584.)

of an equation of the fourth

construct the roots

degree.

may

Since the second term

always be removed by a

transformation, the equation can always be brought to the

form

#4

+b

#2

c 3x

d4

0*

Let one of the curves be the parabola represented by the

equation

jt

which being substituted for %

other

when

>

b2

y
u

And when

b2

<

Let B a

>

gives for the equation of the

0,

c3
oc

-f

70c
B*

=
D4
B2

0.

0,

x
2
y - *

1.

By,

0.

c3

+ r#* +

The

D4
-55-

0-

parabola being constructed as in

the last proposition 3 let a circle be described with

at c

on the axis of x at the distance Ac

JT*r~
sition,

~*

As this

circle,

its

centre

and with

from

its

po-

cannot intersect the parabola in more than two points,

there can be only two real roots to the equation in this

case a

ALGEBBAIC GEOMETRY,

284

If the

and

if it

circle

does not meet

>

If cb

touches the parabola, the two roots are equal

they are impossible.

it,

ca, the circle

must

intersect the parabola, there-

must be

fore in this case the roots

in this case different signs

real

z
Let b

<

The

0.

they will also have

this necessarily

the last term in the given equation

is

equation of the second curve

the axis of x at the distance

is

4b 4

from
c3

b 2

is

is

on

the origin, and

its

in this case that of an equilateral hyperbola,

semiaxis

happens when

negative.

its

centre

~~

B*

This curve being constructed as in the annexed

-figure,

gives the roots required.

The
equal,

observations

made

and imaginary

roots apply here also.

that since the hyperbola

points, all the roots
this case

may

may be

one of them at

least positive.

in the other cases as to the real 3

real.

least

It

is

evident

intersect the parabola in four

Also

it is

plain that in

must be negative, and two

at

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETEYo

285

may touch
may be one or two pairs of equal roots*,
branch may meet it, all the roots may be

Since one or both branches of the hyperbola

the parabola., there

and

since neither

impossible.

prof, ccxci,
(585.)

To find a

cube which shall bear a given ratio to

given cube.
This problem

is in effect

Let

it

to construct the equation

ma =
3

x3

be multiplied by x^ and we find

x^

ma?x

Let one of the curves whose

intersection is to determine

the roots be the parabola

x2

ay.

This being substituted in the above equation, gives

7,

y
Hence

the root

is

max.

determined by the intersection of two

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

$88

common

parabolas having a
angles,

and

and

vertex,

their axes at right

whose parameters are in the given ratio.

PROP. CCXCII.
two mean proportionals between two given

To find

(586.)

lines.

Let the given

lines

be

b,

Hence a y

x.

a, h,

y%

x
Hence,

if

and the sought means y and

and therefore

= dX,
= by.

two parabolas be described having a common

vertex and their axes at right angles, and whose parameters

are equal to the two given lines, the co-ordinates of their

point of intersection related to their

as axes of co-

axes,,

ordinates, are the sought means.

prop,

To

(587.)

-J

an angle.

trisect

Let A be the given angle.

COS. 3 |-A

ccxcm.

By

COS. |-A

trigonometry,

COS.

i-

which by supplying the radius r9 and representing

by

cos,

~a

becomes

oo,

4fX

Sr x r
2

cos.

which multiplied by #, gives

Let the equation of one of the curves be

2x 2

and the other by

%
The former
which
cipal

is

is

ry?

substitution will be
2

Sry

cos.

ax

0.

the equation of a parabola, the axis of

the axis of y, the origin the vertex, and the prin-

parameter equal to \r.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

The

y =
x

latter

is.

also a parabola,, the equation of its axis is

and the co-ordinates of

|.r,

j and

its

principal parameter

section give the roots of the

The

by

0,-

.!?,.

is cos, a.

their points of inter-

The

equation.

at the origin gives the root

multiplication

vertex are

its

These parabolas being described^

by the

28?

intersection

which was introduced

x.

equation having more than one real root,

it

might

appear that there were more values than one for the third

But upon examining

of the given angle.

will

the process,

it

be seen that the question really solved was not to find

an angle equal to the third of a given angle, but to find

the cosine of an angle which
cosine

is

given.

the third of an angle whose

is

Since then the arcs

A,

And

in general

formula %mtf
solved

And

is

2lf

A,

2ft

4tf

a,

4tt

6tf

A,

Git -f A.

+ A,
+a

arcs which

come under the general

A have the same

cosine, the question really

all

to find the cosine of the third of

any of these

here again another apparent difficulty

number of arcs involved

in the question

there not be an unlimited

number of

of the third parts of these

To

arises.

be unlimited,

shall

values for the cosine

account for this

tyf)7r

be considered that in general the arc

arcs,

If the

-^r-tf

it

should

A
-^ must have

the same cosine as some one of the three arcs,

fit

for the

number

77-

must be

either of these forms.*

w n

4.,

288
or

that

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY;

where n

.,

if

is,

slm

%>
COS.

tf

2m

cos. -^-tf

tf

-J-a

hence

it

|a

rA ) ~

(-^tf

And

-^-tf

a;

therefore

COS. (2W7Z*

Quit

2^tf

COS,

-f-A.

ftf

-Ja

|-a) =

-|#

therefore

cos.

1(2* + a).

2ratf

cos>

iA)

cos. i^nit

TYl

it

+%

-J-a

If it have the form

cos.

-f

have the form n

it

have the form n 9

If

4A =

it

If

an integer.

is

8 measure m, then

4.7?

J.a

therefore

(^ + rP ta) = C0Sa t(^

tf

follows that the cos.

-^

a),

A)

whatever be

the value of m, must be equal to one or other of the quantities

cos.

a 5

cos. j-(%tf

a)

cos. j-(4nr

a) 5

which correspond to the three roots of the cubic equation

already found*

prop, ccxciv.
(588.)

To

resolve the

formula x m

am into

its

simplefac-

tors "by geometrical construction.

Let x

(cos.

<p

+V

sin. <p) 5

and

since

by

tri-

gonometry 9
(cos.
it

<j>

+V

follows that

sin. 4>)

= cos. m<p + y ~~
,

1 sin.

m<f>

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

wm
Hence

am =

^^ _

m<p

cos<

#m

question then
cos,

which

m^

I sj n

subtracting a m from both members,

xm

The

am

-_.

$89

m<p

(cos.

+ a/

~- 1 sin. ?^<p

1.)

to find the factors of

is

+ V

wz<j>

1 sin.

wz<f>

1,

be found by investigating the values of

will

which

<p

satisfy the equation,

cos. m<f) -f

1=

1 sin. m<p

This condition can only be

0.

by the

fulfilled

real

and im-

being separately equal to nothing, which

possible parts

gives

cos. m<p

And

hence

Hence

cos.

x/

sin.

m$

1,

= 0,
= 0.

mq>
m<f>

2nit9

>

ai

cos

t
successively to

2rf

= n

by supposing n

the factors sought are found

formula

2*

w hV-1 sin. w m

assume the values,

2P

0, 1,

5,

in the

7
r
3
.

?ra

which give

#
oc

a?

a*

a,

a<5
a

2tt

cos.

-f y/

\- s/

~\

m +V 1

sin.

6ir

cos.

27?

- 2)7 +

aj

2*
Jf cos, (w 1)

(m

sin.

4tf

cos.

2* 1
1

4?r
) cos.

a)

77*

V 1

6tf

??*

sin.

2tf

sin.

(w

-'

+ v' - 1

sia. (wi

2)
-.2*

- 1)~ 7

1;

, ,

290

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

After
cos.

%*

cos.

.-wit

for if

sin.

the same as the

is

^=

and

1,

a, which

which gives x
in like

recur

this factor the values

m,

sin. %tf

first factor,

0?

and

manner every succeeding factor would be only a

These therefore are the simple
of x m am Their forms may be somewhat modified

repetition of the former one.

factors

by observing

that

=
2*

(m

I)

(m
x

I)

cos.

(m

sin.

(w

~~ 2)

cos.

sin.

m =

'

2)

will

m-,

cos.

2tf

4tf

sm.

factor

*/

j-

//

4#
cos.

\-

sin.

m +

6ir

) cos.
^
I

v'

my
5

4tt

sm.

on

a, the series of re-

be

a < cos.
I

# ^

sin.

=
=

and therefore omitting the

maining factors

2*

cos.

m
6*

sin.

(B)

x a
x

6ir

} cos.

4tt

x a

//

) cos.

2tf
C
\ cos.

ra

a/

1 sin.

v"'

sin.

1 sin.

6#

4#

-Am
2tf

-)

>
-\

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

If

be odd, and therefore (m

291

we

1) even,

find, by-

multiplying the extreme terms of this series and every pair

of terms equidistant from them, this series of real quadratic factors,

x2

2*
9m cos.
m

2a

cos.

2a

cos.

2a

cos.

a"

. x +
m

aQ

fit
x* -~

Therefore in
(x

a)

4-

a9

a?

(C)

the real factors of

case

this

and the above

of quadratic factors

series

simple factors except (x

xm

am are

If rn be even, and therefore

(m

ing the extreme terms of the series

odd, after multiply-

1)

(b),

and

also every pair of

terms equidistant from them, a solitary term will remain

The

middle,

coefficient

the

all

a) being impossible.

of

term

in this

will

be

the

in

-r-,

and

therefore the term will be

# [cos. +
it

Hence

in this case x m

and x

has

x -f- a.
1 sin. #]
m
a has two real simple factors
a/

x a

the other simple factors being impossible.

all

It

also the real quadratic factors expressed in the series (c).

These
1.

results

If

xm
(x*

may

2a cos, 2
[x %

be thus expressed.

m be odd,
am = (x

a) (x 2

2rf

2a cos.

a2 ) (x* 2a
2tf

2a

cos.

~f a*)

2it

cos.

+^

x -f a*)

2
)

u2

2m

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

(a?

- 0)

2#

2a

[or

To

even 9

am =

xm
(x~

m be

If

2.

cos.

2#

cos.

(a?

-}-

a*) (x 2

1-

a2 )

%1t

cos.

# + 2 )

a 2 ).

represent these factors geometrically, let a circle be de-

a a 35
19

PA 2 m-~i

...

A 2m _i, and

= 2w_r

2m

with

77i

pa

let

cp

#0? pa x

<x?

&_

x 2 %a

cos.

#*

xz

cos.

pb

*2m~3>

=
.

the

let

#1,

pa 2

2 ,

Hence,
"~

ti^

x + a%

4#

--

2#

+ a%

be even, one of the points of division

b, so

x and

equal parts at the points

>0

If

let

and

a,

circumference be divided into

^3

cos.

7)1

scribed with the radius ca

a,

2&

%a

-3-

%it

a) (#

x + a = zi m
we find

Since

^=

will coincide

s 2jw _i, *a

^2m~4

=#

^2

2n

2 COS.

^2m~2

2a

cos.

+a

-f-

3.

a*.

%_
?l

2>

&93

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

Hence

in general,,

(y*n\

To

ftm
^^ a

___

<>>

ry

*y

ty

<y

^Oi "29 ^4? ^6

xm

find the factors of

am

-f-

it is

^2m2

necessary to proceed

in a similar manner, which will give

am

+ am =

wm

+ v^1

(cos. rap

m$ +

sin.

1).

Therefore,

i-i
which gives

<p

sin.

m>

(grc

0,

0,

the result or which

m
+ 1),

successively to

+ lW
m M,
"

is

(8ra

sin*

assume the values,

0, 1,

as before, the simple factors will be

If

(cos.

1-

(cos.

x a

(cos.

a/

r1

sin.

1,

&c. the series will be

(cos.
v

v'

Sit

sin.

),

m
5^

),

),

.Sit.
m

V 1

sin.

sin.

5#
a

),

sin.

ra

=m

m#

_.
&\
m

5rt
1-

sin.

V-l

rn

x a
'

V1

r-

-f*

Sjt

(cos.
v

or beginning with

-f s/

a;

.
,

a (cos.

lV

a (cos.

x a

And by

mp +

(2w +

n being supposed

cos.

^/

),

Sit

),

uniting the extreme factors and those equidistant

from them, we find

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

294

m
(x 2

The

2a cos.

(m \)n
cos,

2a

(x 2

+a

cos.

is

odd, and
.

when

+d

x + a when m

being simply

last factor

x 2 2a

x + aA

'

even ; the num-

is

ber of real quadratic factors being in the former case

ra-~ 1

and

As

m the latter

before, let the circumference of the circle with the

radius

2m

be divided into

a,

drawn from a point p

equal parts, and the lines

x from the centre

at the distance

to the successive points of division being

denominated as

before,

x2

2a

cos.

zl3

x2

cos.

2a

cos.

since

x
is

Cor. 1.

(589.)

it

^ = x

And

z*

m __

The

za

(cos. 2tz

x + a2

a?

-f

& 2?

x + a

2
.

2 w-s, &c.

formula,
7J*

1-

If

1 sin.

2w

),

a general formula for the mth roots of a m .

(590.)

Cor. 2.

The wth roots

of unity are expressed by

the formula,
-

if

cos.

(591.)
lution of

Cor. 3.

xm

2n

m
If a =

[-

//

1 sin. 2tz

m
tf

1, this proposition gives the reso-

1 into its simple factors,

ALGEB11ATC GEOMETRY,

295

SECTION XXI.
Of the general properties
(592.)

As

of algebraic curves.

every equation between two variables

may be

conceived to generate a curve, the variety of curves are as

of the equations by which they are

infinite as the variety

The

represented.

classification

of curves therefore should

be conformable to that of equations

principal division of equations

and

as the first

and

and tran-

into algebraical

is

scendental,the curves represented by them have been similarly

divided and similarly denominated.

variables (yx)

is

called

An equation between two

an algebraical equation when

it

is

reducible to a finite series of terms involving only factors of

and

the variables {yx) with integral

An

equation, which

is

positive

exponents.

not reducible to such a

series,

or

which, when reduced to a series of such terms, will consist

of an infinite number of terms, is called a transcendental

Accordingly, the two principal classes of curves

equation.

are algebraic

and transcendental.

whose equation

the lemniscata,

is

y + %y~x
is

Thus

an algebraic curve,

x*

The

a*y 2

a\v~

0,

logarithmic and the cycloid

whose equations are

= a\

x j%ryy %
y

_ r

r cos.

A
= 0,

are transcendental curves, for they would, if resolved to a

series

an

of integral and positive powers of y and

infinite

number

of terms,

From

consist of

the nature of

trail-

ALGEBltAIC GEOMETRY.

296

scendental equations,
classification

it

is

impossible to form any regular

of the curves they represent.

They

possess

no

generic properties, and the peculiar properties of each curve

may be
of their

is

classification are

may be

This9

rules already established.

The means

not the case with algebraic curves.

which

perties

by the

investigated

however,

obvious

they possess general pro-

discovered from the nature and pro-

perties of general algebraic equations, as well as those di-

and peculiar properties which characterise each

stinctive

subordinate species, and are derivable from

its

particular

equation.

In a

classification

responding

of equations, with a view to a cor-

classification

we should use such

coming under

of the curves represented by them,

a means of distinction, as that equations

different classes

may

not represent the same

curve.

Thus,
to the

for example, if the equations

number of their

<y%

_j_

y
would come under
equal

x%
x
1

z=z

ri 9

%rx

different classes,

Such a

circles.

were classed according

terms, the equations,

distinction

0,

and yet they represent

between the

classes

of

equations must therefore be adopted as will prevent the

possibility of the
classes.

We

same curve coming under two

shall find this distinction

different

by investigating how

the transformation of co-ordinates affects an equation

this never affects the

quality in the equation which

is

changed by

cannot be used as a distinction of classes

this operation

and, on the other

hand, any quality which the transformation does not

is

fit

for as

curve represented by the equation, any

one for the purpose.

The

affect,

formulas expressing the

co-ordinates of a point relatively to one

system of axes,

as a function of those relatively to another being of the first

degree, cannot

make any change

in the degree of the

equa-

297

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
lion in

They may change the

number of terms, but can

which they are introduced.

values of

its

never change

co-efficients or its

Hence

degree.

its

it is

that algebraical equa-

two variables are classed according to their

tions between

dimensions, and the lines represented are accordingly de-

nominated

lines

of the

or second or

first

degree of an equation

The

mth degree.

marked by the sum of the ex-

is

ponents of the variables in that term in which

highest.

it is

Thus,

x*y
is

bx Q~

-f-

cy

dy

-f

-f

ex

+J =
?

0,

an equation of the third degree, and represents a curve of

the third degree.

(593.)

Newton,

in

his

classification

distinction which, however,

is

now

sidering that equations of the

of

made a

lines,

Con-

nearly abandoned.

first

degree represent only

right lines, and those of the superior degrees curves, he

designates the order of a line

According

to

lines of the

the

by the degree of

its

equation.

him, equations of the second degree represent

second order, those of the third degree, lines of

third order,

&c.

He

divides curves

into

hinds or

genera, and denominates lines of the second order, curves of

the first hind, lines of the third order, curves of the second

hind, &c.

and we say

This distinction

is,

however,

now out of

use,

lines or curves of the second degree or order

indifferently.

(594) The manner

in

which the equation of a curve

in-

dicates the different peculiarities of its course has been al-

ready fully explained.

By

the principles which have been

established, the different sinuosities

line will appear as plainly

analyst, as if they

by

exhibited to the senses.

its

and

inflexions of

any

equation to the eye of the

were traced on a diagram, and actually

And,

several peculiarities of a curve

cussion of

its

indeed,

may be

more

plainly, as

developed in the

equation, which would escape

the

dis-

utmost

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY

298
sagacity of the

These

geometer.

descriptive

principles

enable us to follow the course of any particular curve by

equation

its

but there are some general properties of algebraic

curves, arising

from

which have not yet

different principles,

been noticed.

A general

(595.)

algebraic equation of the nth order

is

one which includes terms in which the variables are in-

volved in every variety of dimensions not exceeding n.

method of determining the terms of a general equation of

any proposed order has been given by Newton.

He supposes the space included within a right angle, whose

are horizontal

sides

and

row of squares the

2

scil. 1,

of x and
zontal

vertical

j/

first vertical

scil.

horizontal

1,

a?,

1
^

x3

column the powers

Let such dimensions

&c. are inserted.

first

be inserted in the other squares, that each hori-

row

/,

In the

successive powers of

&c. are inserted, and in the

of y}

be subdivided into

vertical, to

squares by parallels to the sides.

shall contain the

same dimensions of x^ and each

column the same dimensions of

?/,

so that the whole

will stand thus

yx

X2
yx

yt

y*x

yW

yx

t
s

.V

d
y x

y*
-

y x
y*x y 4 x 2
2
5
yx yx

f~

x*

"

X3
yx 3

X
yx 5

X*

yx

?/x 3

y
y

xd

41

x^

y*x s

2 6
yx
3

x^

yx

y*x 3

y*x*

y^x

5 3
yx

b
y x*

x*

6
y x*

y^x 3

y x

6
yx

6 5
y x

y^xn

-'1

b n~
yx

Q nx

J/V
y*x-

y*x'
5
yx

x'

powers of

IJX

Thus each

fx

yx

xu

i/x Q

5 5
y x

x n~

yxn~
%
n~
y x
n-

6
n-' 5 n
n"~
~ z nx
y -^x y x y x^\y x* y x y ^X
n Q
n 4
n
n s
n 3
y x 13/V y x y x y x y x ;T

yx 6

vertical

column

multiplied

by

yn-\ x n-\ yU-l

n n
y x

~~ i

consists of regularly increasing

the same power of #, and each

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
horizontal

row

successively,

By

terms of a general equation ordered

zontal rows, the terms

co-efficients,

according

to

the
the

and by reading the hori-

of an equation arranged by the

By

be found.

will

reading the vertical

and supplying the

dimensions of x will be found

dimensions of

powers of

consists of regularly increasing

multiplied by the same power of y.

columns

299

reading

it

diagonally,

by the dimensions of
This method is called the

the terms of an equation arranged

both variables are obtained.

As an improvement on

analytical 'parallelogram.

De Gua

proposed converting the parallelogram into a

this,
tri-

angle, thus:

which

is

called the analytical triangle.

This,

when read

horizontally, the co-efficients being supplied, will give a

general algebraic equation arranged by the dimensions of

both Tariables

and when read

give one arranged

The
the

first

first

and the

by

parallel to either side, will

the dimensions of either variable*

two horizontal rows give the general equation of

degree, the
first

(n

-f

first

three that of the second degree?

1) horizontal rows give

equation of the nth degree.

the

general

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETUY.

00
(596.)

degree

An

is

the

and common
of terms
.

sum of an

arithmetical series,

Hence

-f 1.

whose

first

term

and whose number

number of terms

the

is,

nth

in the

(w+l)(*H-2)
-

is

entire

number of constant

the same as

is

in a general equation of the

difference are each unity,

is
.

equation

The

obvious conclusion from this arrangement

number of terms

that the

its

quantities in

any equation

But

number may

number of terms.

this

always be diminished by one by dividing the whole equation

by any one

co-efficient,

and from

this it appears, that if

two

equations of the same degree have their corresponding coefficients

proportional they will be in

effect identical

for

by dividing each by the co-efficient of the same term, the

new co-efficients will become equal. The number of determinate and distinct co-efficients in a general algebraic

equation of any degree

is

terms, and therefore the

therefore one less than the

number

it

by

n(n + 3)

in a general equation or the nth degree

(597) In the classification

number of

of determinate co-efficients
is

the degrees of the equations

should be observed, that although the angle of ordination

does not affect the class of a curve nor

its

yet that different curves of the same class

by

generic properties,

may be

generated

the same equation related to systems of axes of different

inclinations.

Thus,

for example, the equation

if + x - r* =
always represents an ellipse, whatever be the angle of or%

dination
it

will

but the eccentricity of the

ellipse represented

be a function of the angle of ordination.

ordinates be rectangular, the locus

is

circle

by

If the co-

if otherwise,

the axes of co-ordinates coincide with the equal conjugate

diameters of the ellipse represented

it

appears,

by the equation^ Thus

that the peculiar properties of the individual

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

SOI

curve represented by any equation are affected by the axes

of co-ordinates by which the equation
the class to which the curve belongs

constructed

is

(598.) It should also be observed, that

but

the same.

is still

does not follow

it

that every equation represents a curve of the order designated

by

its

If an equation of the nth degree can be

degree.

more

resolved into two or

it

rational factors of inferior degrees,

no longer represents a curve of the order expressed by

In

dimensions.

this case the

equation

is

its

equivalent to two

or more equations of inferior degrees, and instead of representing one curve of the degree expressed

number of curves of

represents a

by the

equations are expressed

given equation can be resolved.

by

dimensions,

its

inferior degrees,

whose

which the

rational factors into

Examples of this occurred

in

the discussion of the general equation of the second degree.

It

was there shown that

some

in

cases the equation repre-

sented two right lines, and in that case the equation

product of two equations of the

degree.

first

is

the

Thus, under

the conditions
Ba

AE

CD

4ac

>

0,

BDE 4aCF = 0,

B 2F

the equation was found to represent two right lines ex-

pressed

by the

equations,

bx + d + {x x Vb
= _ ___
^
f

(BX

y=

-f

D)

-
A
B 2 - 4ac

(2a#

(2at/

+
+

In which x

(X

B2

y/

4ac

4 AC

If these equations
be arranged
x
&

thus,

bx
b%

d)

d)

+ {x

(x

a?)*/**

4ac

4ac

x) ^/b

and multiplied together, and the

=
=

result divided

arranged by the dimensions of x and

it

will

by 4a, and

become

802

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Air

-f

bxv + c# 2

-f

my

e# +

BDE AE-2 CD 2
;

b 2 4ac
A

but by the given condition,

BDE AS 2 CD 3
B2

~ 4 AC

which reduces the equation

F,

to the form. of the general equa-

tion of the second degree,

(599.) In order therefore that an equation of

any pro-

posed degree should represent a curve of the same degree,

it

should not be capable of being resolved into rational factors

of inferior degrees.

two or more such

If the equation can be resolved into

factors,

will really involve

it

two or more

equations, each of which will represent a peculiar curve.

Such equations then do not represent one curve but

several*,

which have no other connexion than that their equations are

multiplied together.

sented

system of different lines thus repre-

by one equation

called a

is

may

equation of the second degree

composed of two right

may
lines,

gree.

may

represent

One

lines.

in general, an

represent a system of

second degree, and

a line of the

It

may

also

second de-

equation of the nth degree

right lines, or a line of the
lines, or any number of
sum of whose exponents does

It should be observed also, that in

may

cases the factors of the equation

factors represent

of the third degree

2 right

lines of inferior degrees, the

not exceed n.

An

a complex line composed of three right

or of one right line and

And

complex curve.

represent a complex line

no

be impossible

some
such

loci.

factors

may be

identical.

In the

happen that two or more

identical, or that all the factors

may be

former case, the sum of the exponents of the different lines

which the equation represents

will

be

of the degree of the equation itself

less

than the exponent

In the

latter case, the

803

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

equation being a complete power, will only represent one

line,

whose equation

The

student will

be the root of that power.

will

probably form clearer ideas of these

general principles from an example.

fifth

An

equation of the

degree, not resolvable into rational factors of inferior

degrees, will represent one continued line of the fifth order.

If

it

be resolvable into two equations of the

degree,
order.

it will

If

and fourth

first

represent a right line and a line of the fourth.

be resolvable into factors of the second and

it

third degree,

it

represents two lines, one of the second, the

other of the third degree.

If it be resolvable into three factors, two of the

and one of the

third,

it

of the third degree.

one of the

first, it

and a right

it

third degree.
it

and a

represents two right lines

line

represents two lines of the second degree

line.

degree,

degree,

degree

If two be of the second degree and

If of the three factors two be identical,

first

first

will represent a right line

sell,

those of the

and a

line of the

If the two identical factors be of the second

will represent

a line of the second degree, and a

right line.

From

these observations

it

appears that every general

equation of any order embraces under

it all

curves whatever,

whether simple or complex, of inferior orders.

Thus, a

general equation of the nth order embraces under

it

combination

of right lines from one to n;

every

every com-

bination of right lines with a line of the pth order from one
to p, with a curve of the (n

every combination of
does not exceed

n.

lines,

jp)th

the

order,

and

in general

sum of whose exponents

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

304

PROP. CCXCV.

To

(600.)

determine the number of points through which

an algebraic curve of the nth degree maybe draxon*

several points be supposed to

Let the co-ordinates of the

be substituted successively

for the variables in the general

There

equation of the proposed curve.

be as

many

termine the equation of the curve,

termine

its

will require as

To

to de-

determine these
If there are

equations.

means

by

necessary to de-

it is

many independent

n(n + 3)

therefore

^"

these

In order

number of which has

several co-efficients, the

been already proved to be

will

equations as there are points.

-n

given, these are sufficient -to determine

all

the constants, and therefore to determine the curve.

may

curve therefore of the nth order

i

,,

through

n(n + 8)

given points.

number of given

If there should be a less

will

be

insufficient to

therefore an infinite

may

always be drawn

determine

all

points, they

the co-efficients, and

number of curves of

the proposed order

be made to pass through them.

It should be observed that the equation of the proposed

order, determined

by the given points through which the

may not represent one continued

The values of its co-efficients, determined
points, may be such as to render the equation re-

line is required to pass,

line of that order.

by

those

solvable into rational factors

it is

in

which

case, as

not a line of the required order which

is

we have

the given points, but several lines of inferior orders.

siderations purely geometrical plainly indicate this

be the number of points, they

may

all

seen,

drawn through

Confor if

be on the same right

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
and

line,

305

in that case the sought equation will

be a complete

nth power 9 whose root being extracted, gives the equation of

the right

The

line.

solution of the

to determine the equation of

problem

a line of the nth order passing through

-^

given points

can never be impossible, as the several co-efficients are de-

termined by simple equationso

The practical solution of the question in particular cases

may be simplified by assuming axes of co-ordinates passing
through four or more of the given points; but in

what

is

gained in simplicity

lost in

is

symmetry ?

this case

for the re-

symme-

sulting values of the sought quantities are never

trical

when one

or

more points are assumed

to

have any

peculiar position with regard to the axes of co-ordinates,,

PROP, CCXCVXo

To find

(601.)

number of points in which a

can meet an algebraic curve.

the greatest

right line

As

the lines assumed as axes of co-ordinates are entirely

arbitrary 9

is

it

always possible to assume them so that the

equation of the curve

the nth degree with

Each

71

-BX

is

w meets

CX n

~"2
.

the curve.

cannot exceed n> and

it

M# + N

As some

of the roots

number of

The number

where

of real roots

number

meets the curve cannot exceed

may be

impossible^ there

points of intersection than

may be

n 9 or there may

even be no point where the axis of x meets the curve

be even

0.

therefore follows that the

of points where the axis of x

a less

this case,, if y

of the form

real root of this equation determines a point

the axis of

n*

In

all its terms,,

the resulting equation

AX

be a complete equation of

shall

as in that case all the roots

may be

impossible,

if

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

806

Hence we

find that every algebraic curve <tnay be inter-

sected by a right

line in as

many

points as there are units

in the exponent of its order > but not in more.

Since a transformation of the origin to any other point on

the axis of y cannot affect those terms which are independent

of y>

by

number of points

follows that the greatest

it

a parallel to the axis of

x can meet

the curve

is

in which

expressed

the exponent of the highest power of x^ which

multiplied

is

not

by a power of y*

may

Similar conclusions

be made with respect to the axis

PROP. CCXCVII.

To

(60S.)

determine the greatest number of points in

which two algebraic curves, the exponents of whose orders

are m and n, can intersect.

Let

it

be supposed that such

co-ordinates, that neither of

assumed as axes of

lines are

them

shall

be parallel to a

line

joining any two points of intersection, and that therefore

there shall be distinct values of y

Suppose

point of intersection.

and x

for each particular

eliminated

by means of

the equations of the two curves, the resulting equation will

give the values of

for the several points of intersection,

and from the manner

in

which the position of the axes of

co-ordinates has been assumed, there will be one point of

intersection for every real value of x.

Since the equations

from which y has been eliminated are of the mth and wth
degree, the resulting equation in terms of

the

mn\h

roots

it

x only will be of
number of real

degree, and therefore the greatest

can have

is

equal to the product of the exponents of

the orders of the two equations.

algebraic curves

may

Hence we

find, that

intersect each other in a

two

number of

points equal to the product of the exponents of their orders^

but not in more.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

307

In the actual investigation of the points of intersection of

two curves,

it

should be observed, that

that there are only as

many

by

are real roots in the equation found

may happen

it

cannot be inferred

is

two or more

and

parallel to the axis of y,

case for such points there

the same value of x.

is

For

eliminating y.

that a right line passing through

points of intersection

all

it

points of intersection as there

in this

To

find

the points of intersection, therefore, each real value of

given by the elimination of

should be substituted in the

equations of each of the lines, and the corresponding values

of y found

such of these as are real and unequal, give points

of intersection.
If y occurs only in the
equations,

by the

first

degree in one of the proposed

evident that for each real value of

it is

x found

elimination of y, there can be but one value of y in

that equation in which

must be

real,

and only

as

it

occurs in the

and therefore

many,

first degree,,

in this case there are as

which

many,

intersections as there are real values of x.

A similar conclusion obviously applies when x occurs only

in the first degree.

If

(603.) Cor. 1.

m>

n,

and

line of the rath order shall pass

_

points expressed

be required that the

it

through a number of given

m(7n JcS)
n ,
whenever a number or these
5

'

by -

points greater than

mn

are

upon the

the line of the mth. order passing

line of the nth. order,,

through the required points

must be a complex line composed of the line of the nth order

and other

lines.

For

if

not 5 the two lines would intersect in

a greater number of points than win.

(604.) Cor.
tersect in a

Two

lines

of the

mth order can only

number of points expressed by

If wi 8 be not less than

(605.) Cor. 8.

in-

2
.

-^Z,

or in

A/

other words, if

be greater than

it

follows that two

308

AMEBKAIC GEOMETRY.

curves of the
,

points than

mth order can

m(m + 3)

than are in general

is,

In

arising from the given

co-efficients

points assume the form

determine the curve.

sufficient to

some of the

this case,

number of

m a greater number orn points

that

intersect in a greater

and are therefore indeterminate.

(J

Hence a number of points not exceeding m2 may be so

placed, that an infinite number of' curves of the mth order

may

pass through them.

m <

it is

This

true, because then

above

if

m <
2

number of points expressed by

mine the curve ; and

generally true; for if

is

>

Q
2

and therefore

is insufficient

to deter-

2, it is true for the

reason

stated.

PROP. CCXCVIII.

Two

(606.)

right lines intersect each other

of the nth order,

to investigate the relation

tinued products of the intercepts

mon

point of intersection

and

and a curve

between the con-

of each between

their com-

where they re-

the points

spectively meet the curve.

These right
ordinates,

lines themselves

being assumed as axes of co-

and y and x being successively supposed

in

the equation of the curve, the resulting equations will have

the forms,

+ BOF- + CXn~2
Ay + By- + cy~2
KX n

The

0,

m^ + n =

o.

MX

continued products of the roots of these equations are

respectively

N and N

the ratio of these products

efficients

which are as
is

a'

that

is

to say,,

the reciprocal of that of the co-

of the highest powers of x and y respectively 5 which

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

309

Now,

enter the equations whose roots are their factors.

no change of origin can

remains the same for

of a or

affect the values

a',

systems of secants parallel to those

all

assumed; and hence follows the general theorem^

two right lines parallel
intersect

to

If

that,

two right lines given in position

a curve of the nth order, the continued products of

segments intercepted between their point of intersection

their

and

as

this ratio

a constant

the curve will be in

The

ratio.

particular application of this theorem^

and

its

con-

sequences to lines of the second degree, has been shown

in (188),

As
this

a further example,

theorem to

lines

shall consider the application of

general equa-

is

+ Bxy 2 -f cx 2y -f nx 3 -f e?/ 2

If

The

of the third order.

tion of the third degree

Aj/ 3

we

-J-

yyx + gx* -j- h# + \y -f k = 0.

y and x be supposed successively

0,

the resulting

equations are

d#3
Ay

G# a

+ y

+ ux +

-f

iy

= 0,
= 0.

ic

The

products of the roots of these equations are

and therefore they are

origin

makes no change

in

as

a or

and

as a

change of

same

d, they remain in the

ratio for all axes of co-ordinates parallel to those

Hence if two right

and

assumed.

lines in given directions intersect a line

the third degree in three points, the solids contained

of

by the

three segments of each line shall be in a constant ratio.

If by a change of origin two of the roots of either equation

become

equal, the line, instead of intersecting the curve

other.

In

and

it

in the

this case, instead of the solid contained

by the

in three points, touches

three segments,

the tangent,

we

it

in one,

intersects

consider that whose base

and whose

altitude

is

is

the secant.

the square of

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

310

we

If two roots of each equation become equal,

consider

the two solids, whose bases are the squares of the tangents^,

and whose

altitudes are the secants.

If the three roots of either equation become equal, they

indicate a point of contact formed

of the curve, and which

In

is

by the union of three points

therefore a point of inflection

this case, the solid considered is the

If

one of the roots of each equation

0,

shows that the origin

If k

and h

0,

two roots are

0,

0,

which shows

that the axis of x touches the curve at the origin

0,

0,

and G

shows that the origin

If d
axis of

in

is

0, the three roots are

its parallels

more than two

solid contained

0,

and

if

which

has but two roots, and the

cannot therefore meet the curve

Hence the conclusion

points.

by the

a point of inflection.

0, the first equation

x and

which

on the curve.

is

>

cube of the tangent.

is,

that the

three segments of the one line shall

vary as the rectangle under the two segments of the other

or that the solid contained
shall

by

the three segments of the one

bear a given ratio to a solid whose base

is

the rectangle

under the segments of the other, and whose altitude

is

given..

If d
root,

and a

0, the first equation will

and therefore the

axis of

In

curve in but one point.

x and

have but one

meet the

its parallels

this case the solid contained

by

the three segments of the one line shall vary as the segment

of the other, or shall bear a given ratio to a solid whose

base

is

given,

and w hose
T

altitude

is

the other line.

Similar conclusions^ mutatis mutandis^ can be applied to

the second equation*

further.

The

plications

by proceeding

We

shall not

pursue

this

student can with facility examine

as above,

and

as

example

all its

ap-

we have proceeded

with the equation of the second degree in (138).

(607.) If the general equation of the wth degree be ar-

ALGEBEAIC GEOMETltY.
ranged by the dimensions of y,

Ay

11

For

(bx

c)yn

the same value of

(px 2

it

will

eo?

be of the form

+ f)^~ +
2

sum of all

the

311

the values of y

0.
is

therefore

bx\v
and as the number of values of y for any value of x
neral n,

by

it

in ge-

be drawn represented

follows^ that if a right line

the equation

n&y
it

is

B.r

will possess this property,, that if it

sum of all

the

sum of all

0.9

be made the axis of x 9

the values of y on one side of

the values of y on the other side.

will equal the

it

This property

points out an extension of the signification of a diameter

which may

in general

be understood to be a Vine intersecting

a system ofparallel chords in such a manner3 that the sums

of the intercepts between it and the several points of the
curve on each side are equal.

As

may be assumed as
every curve may have an

the variety of lines which

co-ordinates

is infinite^

so

number of diameters
For the same value of x

axes of
infinite

two values of y

the

sum of the products of every

is

and the number of such products

is

^^~ Hence a line

.

of the second degree represented by the equation

(
v

f2i

>

2
\ Q -Ay +

will

(w

1)

(bx

have the same diameter

angle

+ c)y

+D^-fEi + F = 0,

as the curve.,

and

also the rect-

will

be equal to

under the coincident values of

the ?zth part of the

sum of the

of corresponding values of

rectangles under every pair

in the

proposed

line.

And

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

318

follows, that the

it

sum of

the positive rectangles under

the intercepts between this line of the second degree and

the proposed line

is

equal to the

sum of

the negative rect-

angles.

In
tion

manner a curve of the

like

third order whose equa-

is

-('->

(-\+ fcS|i5(^.y

-f-

^-

(d^ 2

-1-

-RX -T F)l/ 3

G# 3

+ HX 2 +

IX

+N

0,

will

have similar properties, that

is,

will

have the same dia-

meter, and the product of every three coincident values of y

ni

will

be equal

to

an

w.w-l.w-2.
~ ~ th

part ox the

products of every three coincident values of

line,

sum

or the

in the given

and therefore the sum of the products of every three

and the proposed

intercepts between this

positively, is equal to the

sum

line

measured

of every three measured

negatively.

Curves thus related

to

And

curvilinear diameters.

abpve,

it

any algebraic curve are called

from what has been shown

appears that a curve can have a curvilinear dia-

meter of any order inferior to

its

A rectilinear diameter, which

an absolute diameter.

Thus

own.

bisects its ordinates, is called

all

diameters of lines of the

second degree are absolute diameters.

In order that a curve should admit of an absolute diameter,

it

is

necessary that a transformation of co-ordinates

which would make

all

the terms involving odd powers of one

of the variables disappear should be possible, and as this

is

not always the case, curves of orders exceeding the second

may

not have any absolute diameter.

counter -diameter

axis of

0C}

will, for

is

a line which, being assumed as

equal and opposite values of

oc,

give equal

818

ALGEBB.AIC GE0METKY*

Thus an

and opposite values of y.

axis

is

both a diameter

and a counter-diameter.

The
of

axis of

x being a

counter-diameter, and the axis

properly placed, the equation ought to be fulfilled

x,

changing x into

after

and

into

y.

This always

happens when the even rows in a descending order in the

analytical triangle, beginning

wanted

be even,
altered,

As

For

in the equation.
this

and

from the highest row, are

if

the degree of the equation

change leaves the signs of

if it

be odd,

it

changes

all

all

the terms un-

the signs.

a transformation of the direction of the axes of co-

ordinates without changing the origin does not introduce

any new dimensions of the

co-ordinates be placed as

counter-diameter,

all

variables,

follows that if the

right lines through the origin are also

It appears therefore, that if a curve

counter-diameters.

admits of any counter-diameter,

number, and that they

From

it

above, and that the axis of x be a

it

admits of an infinite

all intersect in

the same point.

the property of counter-diameters,

it

appears that

right lines through their point of intersection,

all

and

minated in the curve, are bisected at that point, and

terit is

hence called the centre of the curve.

In order that a curve should admit of counter-diameters

and

a centre,

it

is

necessary that the dimensions of the

variables which enter the even rows of the analytic triangle

in a descending order should be capable of being

by

the transformation of co-ordinates.

As

removed

the existence of

a centre and counter-diameters has been proved to be inde-

pendent of the direction of the co-ordinates,

this

trans-

formation can only be effected by a change of origin.

If

then a transformation of origin, which will make the necessary terms disappear, gives finite and determinate values for

the co-ordinates of the

centre

new

origin, that point will

otherwise the curve admits of no centre.

be the

314

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

(608.)

The

by which algebraic

distinction

proposed order are subdivided into classes

We

their infinite branches.

is

of any

lines

the

number of

shall not enter here into the

of this subject, as the specific properties of the

detail

ferent orders of lines

beyond the second

The

interest to the student.

preceding part are

determine the figure and

sufficient to

may

It

no particular

general methods given in the

properties of any particular curve which

to our inquiries.

offer

dif-

may

present itself

not be uninteresting, however,

simply to detail the subdivision of lines of the third order.

Newton has divided

the lines of the third order into four

principal classes, included under equations of the forms

+
+
AX 3 +
AX 3 +

AX 3
AX 3

Bxy 2

+
+

i&ocy

Bj/

+ ex* + DJ/ +

ex

ex 2

+ ny

ex*

under the

first

more have

since

-f

EX + F

(1),

EX + F =
EX + F =
EX -f F ==
65

are included

(2),

(3),

(4);

different species, to

which 8

been added.

These 65 are again subdivided

into the eleven following

classes
!

) Redundant

2, f
8. i

hyperbolas. Six hyperbolic branches and

three asymptotes, characterised

by a

>

0.

4.)

Parabolic hyperbolas

^
>

hyperbolic
racterised

'.

Two

branches,

by a

<

0.

parabolic branches, two

and one asymptote, cha-

0.

Hyperbolisms of an

9.

hyperbolic branches and

one asymptote, characterised by a

6. )
yy

Two

Defective hyperbolas.

5. 1

hyperbola.

Six

hyperbolic

branches and three asymptotes, characterised by a

c

0,

10.

e >

0,

0.

Hyperbolisms of an

ellipse.

Two hyperbolic branches

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
and

e <

one

asymptote,

Hyperbolisms

0,

The

0,

0,

hyperbolic

by a

characterised

0,

0.

equation

second

It consists of

Trident,

Four

of a parabola.

branches and two asymptotes,

by a

characterised

0.

11.

315

bolic branches,

represents

curve

called

the

two parabolic branches, two hyper-

and one asymptote.

The third represents curves having two parabolic branches.

The fourth represents the cubical parabola.
This
contain

classification,
all

numerous

as are its parts, does not

the species.

SECTION XXII.
Geometrical problems 9 illustrative of the application of the

preceding parts of Algebraic Geometry,

prop, ccxcix.

of a triangle and

(609.) Given the base

the ratio

of the

rectangle under the sides to the difference of their squares 9

to find the locus

The

of the

vertex*

base and a perpendicular through

its

middle point

being taken as axes of co-ordinates, and the given ratio

being

1,

and half the

condition in the proposition

Vy*

which reduced
2

(j/

which

is

(#

+ ctY

base* being expressed

may be

Vy + (# af =

to a rational form,
a?

expressed thus

+ a*y -

*a*x %

resolved into the factors

by

becomes
(1

+ 4m s )

4<ma%,

=s 0,

a, the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

316

+ x* y + #2 +
if

+ 4m a? +
a vTh-W".
+
2

%a */\

ff

which are the equations of two

the axis of x, and determined

x
and whose
If

m=

-f

radii are equal,

1. the

two

and produced base

in

a3

=
=

0,

whose centres are on

circles,

by

a*/l

a
-f 4wz ,

each being Qma.

circles

thus determined cut the base

extreme and mean

ratio.

prop. ccc.

(610.)

Two

right lines, each of which passes through a

given point, intersect in such a manner as

to intercept be-

tween them a given magnitude of a right line given in position to find the curve traced

by their intersection,

Let ap and bp be
the right lines passing

through

always

the

given points a and b 5

and intercepting cd 9
of the right

a part
line xx'
sition,

772.

Assuming the

YY

intersecting

line x'x as axis of x,

any point

at

it

a and b be y x\ and y"x

and bp be
]

points

(j,

supposing y

,!

and a perpendicular

as axis

and

let

in each of these,

of y>

let

the

the equations of ap

~y - '(# - x = o
- y a\x a? = 0o
]

{y

By

equal

the given magni-

to

tude

given in po-

always

we

find

317

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

oc

od

a/

- ~r

and therefore by subtraction,

a"

By means of this equation and

and d being eliminated, and
]

a!

11

if

the

first

two, the quantities

the result arranged by the

dimensions of the variables, we find

(x n

m)y z +(/

+ (mif -\-my u +/V y x

y")yx

mg/y =

f!

)y

which being an equation of the second degree, in which

c

and e

that the right line

The
facility

shows that the locus

0,

xx

is

an hyperbola, and

an asymptote.

and axes may be found with

position of the centre

by

is

the general formulae already given,

prop. ccci.

and

(611.) Given the base

the locus

triangle, to investigate the locus

of

of the points

the vertex

inscribed on the given base meets the sides,

locus

of its

The

of a

where a square

and

also the

centre.

base and a perpendicular through one of

its

ex-

tremities being taken as axes of co-ordinates, let the co-

ordinates of the vertex be

y x\ and
]

those of the point where

the angle of the square meets the side passing through the
origin be yx.

By

(66),

we have

atf

yx
where a

is

the conditions

the base of the triangle.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

818

The

values of y

resulting from these equations are

ay

y
yi

a-y
ax

=-

a-y
If yx be the co-ordinates of the centre of the inscribed
square, these formulas become

a %'

=
The

a{x~y)

equations of the loci of these points respectively will

therefore be found

by

substituting the values

ofy x
!

in the

equation of the locus of the vertex.

From

the form of the values of y ad i

]

it

follows, that if the

locus of the vertex be an algebraic curve of any proposed

order, the loci of these points will be a curve of the

But

order.

it

is

not necessarily a curve of the

same
same

species.

Thus

for example, if the locus of the vertex

represented

be the

circle

by the equation

the equation of the locus of the point where the angle of

the square meets the side of the triangle,

x
which

is

%ay

a*

is

= 0,

the equation of a parabola, whose axis

is

the axis

ofj/.

The

student will easily observe various other particular

applications of the general formulas determined above,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

J19

PROP. CCCII.

A given

(612.)

right-angled triangle (bac) is so moved,

of the right angle, and one extremity (b)

of the hypotenuse, describe right lines perpendicular to each
other, and given in position, to find the nature of the curve

that the vertex (a)

of the hypotenuse.

described by the other extremity (c)

Let the right

lines

xx and YY described
f

by the points A and

s be assumed as axes
of co-ordinates,
let

b,

heyx, and

=a

ac

by the

A,

the co-ordinates of

the point c

ab

TP

and

then

conditions of

the question

AO

hi
a

'

y*

by
(x

= a\

which being arranged by the dimensions of the

variables,,

becomes
(a

Since B
ellipse5

y - %abxy +
4ac = 4a 4 < 0,

b*)

whose centre

a*x z

is

at the origin of co-ordinates.

a4

0.

the curve must

be an

PROP. CCCIIIo
(613.)

To

determine the curve in which the sine of the

angle at which the radius vector

varies inversely as the square

Let

%t

is

inclined to the tangent,

of the radius

vector*

be the angle under the radius vector and tangent^

320

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

and

ra 2

position

being assumed as constant, the condition of the prois

expressed thus

m
= z

sm. zt

%z

but by the general formula,

sm. zt

zdvo

(sW+cfe 2)*
By

eliminating

sin. zt,

the result will be

mWdw ni'dz* =

z 6 dco 2

dfo

=
2(2

To

ra4)*

integrate this, let z 2

dz

By

0,

and
and

therefore

dy

which substitutions we have

dw

-~

2(l-wy) T
The

integral of which

is

i-

m j/
2

cos." 1

and therefore,

m
=
z

cos*

2w

w)

; z

2 (cos. 2

sin.

=m

which, related to rectangular co-ordinates,

y
The

locus sought

is

# w
2

2
,

is

2
.

therefore the equilateral hyperbola.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

821

PROP. CCC1V*

(614) To find the locus of a point from which several

drawn to several given points, the sum of
t

right lines being

their

2mth

pozvcrs will he given, in being supposed a po-

sitive integer o

Let the co-ordinates of the several given points be y x\

{n)
(n)
and those of the point whose locus is
j/ x' 3
y x
]

sought j/^.

{{yyY +

By

the conditions of the question,

8
(ff#7 2 B2
(xri)*} m

+ {(yJ/") +

&c.-v = 0,

This equation,

v being the given magnitude.

after the

terms are severally expanded and arranged according to their

dimensions, must be of the form
m-l X
m ~'l X z
m +
+

Mf

Cf

Bf

V =

0,

which being an equation of the Swath degree, shows that the

locus

a line of that order.

is

The

case in which

m=

1 was given in (26)

PROP. CCCV.
(615.)

To find

the locus

2mih powers of whose

of a

distances

point, the difference

from

of the

two given points

is

given, m. being supposed a positive integer.

The

co-ordinates of the given points being as before, the

condition,, expressed algebraically, is

(yj/y + (x - x y
!

where v

is

m-

(y ~y ')?

(x

~~

x ') % } m - v = 0,
1

the given difference after expanding the terms

and expunging those which destroy one another^ the

sulting equation between

yx

is

degree, therefore the sought line

one of the %(m

is

one of the %(rn

re-

l)th
l)th

degree.

m = 1 the equation that of a right line, and becomes

%"y )# + 2(#" - x )x +y rf* - (y + % - v = o,

If

is

/2

]]z

ft9@

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

which. is the equation of a right line perpendicular to that

which joins the two points, and which divides

ments, the difference of the squares of which

given difference

This

posing

the

points,

and one of them

y\ _.

y\\ -_.

xu

axis

-_.

o^

of

more

will

by sup-

through the two given

be the origin, which renders

to

by which

the equation becomes

2xx

x]%

into seg-

equal to the

readily appear

pass

to

is

it

jj9

which involves the condition.

{x

xf X =
2

which shows that the right

v^

line divides the line joining the

two points into segments, the difference of whose squares

is

equal to v,

PliOP,

(616.)

of the

To find

CCCVL

of a pointfrom which the sum

lines drawn at given angles to

the locus

mth powers of right

several given right lines shall be given 3

being supposed

a positive integer,

Let the equations of the given right

Ay

-f

~boc

tiy

n\v

c'

Auy

-f B

and the given angles be

?/

a-

+ d

fl

<p ,

(p ?

=
=
=

<p

lines
5

0,

0,

&c. the lengths of the

several lines will be

aj/
sin,

+ bx 4- c
Va 2 + b^

(p

A y + B x 4- c
f

sine

<p

y/A'

be

+B

f2

3^3

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

sin.pV A//2 + BH
'

The sum

of the wzth powers being taken and equated

with a constant quantity, will give an equation of the

degree between y and

The case in which

The case in which

x which

is

m=
m=

mth

that of the locus sought.

1 was investigated in (63).

2 was given

in art, (269),

puop. cccvu.

Tofind

(817.)

the equation

of a curve of a given

species

passing through any proposed number ofgiven points.

The

following demonstrations are taken with some in-

considerable change from Lagrange.,

Cahiers de VEcole

Nor male.
Let the co-ordinates of the given points be tfx\ y x 9
yV, &c. These being successively substituted for y and
!l

in the

tions as there

many

many

equation of the curve, will give as

are given points, which will

equa-

eliminate as

constants as there are points, which will determine the

equation of the required curve.

Although the
easily described,

the right line, the line most

circle is, after

it is

not so by

its

equation related to rect-

angular co-ordinateso In this respect the class of curves which

maybe

considered as the simplest, are those of which the

values of

and

are integral

which are therefore included

y
This

C# 3

+ D^

is

oc 9

and

3
.

class of curves are called parabolic,

tion of the parabola

sell,

BX

rational functions of

in the general equation

.

because the equa-

a particular case of this equation,

the case in which the

first

three terms only occur.

have already pointed out a striking application of

We

this class

y 2

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

324

of curves in illustrating the theory of equations in Sec.

be made to

for a curve of this kind can always

number of

pass through any

since

points of the proposed curve,

many

only necessary to take as

it is

also useful in the investigation of curves in

and they are

general

XX.

efficients, A; b, c 5 d, as

indeterminate' co-

there are points through which

it is

required to pass, and to determine these co-efficients by the

Hence

values of the co-ordinates of the given points.

it is

whatever be the nature of the proposed curve,

clear that

the parabolic curve thus determined will differ from

less the greater

number of points they have

in

it

the

common.

Let the co-ordinates of the points through which the

curve

is

required to pass be

have the following equations

y =a
y=A
y=A
y"= A

+
+

BX
BX

+ BX

11

cx z

CX

112

-f

CX m +

CX

do/ 3,

BX \
VX %
+ DX %
fl

-f

,,i3

,,I!

from which equations the values of a,

mined.

we

By

andwe

1 '1

Brf"

^V,

y x\ yV,

are deter-

b, c ? d,

subtracting each equation from the preceding,,

find

y - y> =
y -/' =

B{X"

f'-f!^

B (rfit

By

B (x

x")

+ c<y 2 ~ x m ) +
+ c{x 2 - X m \+

- X
_ x mi)+
!lf

dividing these equations

^J-^IT

C (^

+ X

C (x

m-

by x
!l

x m% )

v{x ,s
v(x" 3
v(a?"-

x\ x

I)(X ,Z

fl

x'

l!

- d%
- xm \
x>
13

).

&c.

+ X X + d'%
!

!!

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

325

Subtracting each of these equations from the preceding, and

by x

dividing the results respectively

a--d

a>--x m

d(x

x'

!!l

;//

'......

+ ri%

d<--a"

x--x m

In which

y-y
*'-*"'

y -y

'

By

*"-^"

continuing the process, the quantities a, b,

successively eliminated,

and the value of the

last

As an example

thence the values of the others.

c,

may be

found, and
of

this, let

the curve represented by the equation

bx

-f

cx Q

be required to pass through three points

y-y
x'-x"

y -y m

x"-x'"

a a'
X xm

C(x'

yV

+ x'),
+ X ").
1

C(x"

r<

Substituting the last of these in the

first,

B.

x XH

x'x'"

And

y x\ ?/ V,

substituting the values of b and c in the equation,

y =s
the value of a

is

found,

B^

lf2

c2

ALGEBRAIC. GEOMETRY.

326

if

ax

a~

,.

odx\

Hence the equation of the curve sought

a(#

?/ -f

A general formula

x)
l

+ -^X

is

(x x

^(^ cr )
f

"-"

)*'

for the equation sought in these cases

be found with somewhat greater simplicity.

may

11

Since

become y\ ij\ y ...when x is x\ x odu,.*

the value of y found by eliminating the indeterminate conthe expression for y must be of the form
stants

must

f!

/;

successively

= Ay + sy + cy + Dy.

y
Where A
A

become

0.

obvious that the values of

(a?

'

==

^)

a',

(x*x^)

so on.

Whence

{xx m )

7TT
1!!!

of factors in the numerators and denominators

is

one

less

than the number of given points

last expression for y,

form from that found by the

the same, as

jy3^^^

of each of these

This

when # = x
when x = x \
when # = x m^

c 5 &c. are

(xa!) (xx") (x>x

The number

and

..

it is

are such functions of x, as

s = 0, c =
a' 1
=
= 0, b' 1, c' = D = 0.
0, b = 0, c = 1, D = 0,

will
f

although under a different

first

method, yet ultimately

may be proved by arranging

is

by

the result given

the former process according to the quantities y\ y 3 y w,

and substituting for a 5 a\ &c. their values. But the latter
lf

method

is

preferable, as well on account of the simplicity of

the analysis

by which we

are conducted to

it

as

on account

S7

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
of the elegance and symmetry of

its

form, and

com-

its

modiousness for calculation.

It follows also from
several terms, as

as

may be

many

is

in systems of observations

the method

may

be supplied

useful in supplying the links

experiments,

or

by formulas or by

calculated

composed of

series

intermediate terms

This

required*

any

that in

this,,

or

In

constructions.

in

tables

this consists

of interpolation.

PROP, CCCVIIT.

To

(618.)

and arm of a curve repre y Qx 2 16V* = 0.

investigate the figure

2
sented by the equation a y 2

By

differentiating the equation 5 the result

Hence the
If

axis of

== a,

infinite.

dy
-j-

Hence

are asymptotes,

To

cluded.

and the

x touches

is infinite,

the

the curve at the origin.

and

lines,,

for this value of

x y
3

whose equations are x

and between them the curve

is

is

also

= +

result multiplied
7

by dx,

entirely in-

find the area, let the equation be solved for

ydx

gives

r=r-o
4x*dx
a x
a/

To

is

4*x(M> a? 8 )

dy

2,

7.

integrate this, let a circle be described with the origin as

centre,

sign

is

and a radius equal

x, be

<p ;

and

let

to a.

Let the arc a b\ whose

the area sought be a?

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

328

a Jydx

sm.^ pa

4/\ -

sin.

This Integral taken between the

4/

sin.

limits

pa

cos.

a and

proves the area included between the curve and

its

<p

asym-

ptotes to be equal to the area of the circle.

If

y=

the curve

mb', \'

y = Va
1

a?

4r 2

2
;

hence by the equation of

we have

yy
This curve therefore

is

the locus of a point b assumed on

the ordinate to the diameter of a circle such, that

mb

shall

be a third proportional to b'm, and twice am,

PROP. CCCIXo
(619.)

To

investigate the Jigure

and quadrature of

curve represented by the equation x^ a^x

By

y we
2
2
oo Va do

solving the equation for

find

9,

-f cfy* =

the
S

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Hence the curve

is

3&9

x = + &, and
by differentiating, we find

included within the limits

passes through the origin

dy

d%

___

2a? 8

ft

a*/a* x*'

which shows that parallels to the axis of y

a are tangents

that the origin

is

at the distances

a multiple point at

which the two tangents are inclined to the axis of x at angles

1

of 45.

The

figure of this curve

is

therefore similar to that of the

lemniscata.

To

find the area

A=f dx=J
j/

which taken between the limits x

=+

37- +c;
a and x

a, gives

the whole area

Hence

the area of this curve

4^.
to that of the lemniscata with

is

the same axis, in the ratio of 4

prop. cccx,
(620.)

The

duced until

it

cepted between

ordinate to the axis of a cycloid, being pro-

becomes equal
it

and

to

the cycloidal

the vertex; to

arc inter-

find the locus of

its

extremity,

If A

the axis of the cycloid,

rectification

sought

is

is

evident^

from the

is

y*
It

it

of this curve, that the equation of the locus

therefore a parabola

4a#.

whose axis and vertex coincide

with those of the cycloid , and whose focus

point of the base.

is

at the

middle

880

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

PROP. CCCXI.

(621.)

semicircle being described

ab as diameter,

line

drawn parallel

to that

to find the locus

an

let

upon a given right

indefinite right line

diameter,

and

of a point P in a right

line

the centre qf the circle intersecting the circle ,

at

B and
1

ratio

Let cp

ef

be

intersecting the circle;

and

v, so that p will divide the intercept

drawn from
the 'parallel

bd in a given
1

n.

z9

and the angle pcb

w,

ca

b,

cb

hence
sm. w

This equation

Is

+ Ji
"

b
r
sin.
sm.

{^

1 m
wjm+w
wjm-fw

obviously deduced from the conditions of

the question, and, after reduction, becomes

=
sin.

This

is

m+n

+
'

m
r

'

'

m+n

the equation of a conchoid, whose modulus

is

rm
3

m-kn'

and the equation of whose rule

is

hn
**

The

-j-

centre of the given circle being the pole of the con-

choid.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

831

PROP. CCCXIX,

To

(6SS.)

investigate the figure

and quadrature of
x 2y a 3 =

curve represented by the equation a*y

By

solving the equation for

the
o

y^ a? ar
Ilence

appears, that if x

it

= +

fore the parallels to the axis of

= +

a,

is infinite,

and there-

y represented by the equaAlso

a are asymptotes.

y is positive for all

a.
The minimum positive
values of x between + a and
value of y is = a and corresponds to x = 0, therefore a
parallel to the axis of x intersecting the axis of y at a

tion

distance from the origin equal to a touches the curve at that

point,

and the part of the curve included between the

asymptotes

parallel

For

tangent.
ptotes

is

all

extended

is

values of

This curve

is

x beyond

Hence

above

this

the parallel asym-

and diminishes without

negative,

increases without limit.

ptote*

indefinitely

the axis of

limit as
is

an asym

represented thus

It is included in the ninth class of

lines of the third order 3

Newton's enumeration of

and comes under the generic name of

redundant hyperbola^ as having a greater number of hyperbolic

branches than the hyperbola of the second degree.

32%

The

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*
particular species of redundant hyperbola, investigated

in this proposition,

is

called an hyperbolism

of

the hyper-

bola.

To

effect the

quadrature of this curve,

let

the area be a 5

dx

= ay ^i>

a =fydx

which, by integration, gives

The

a-\-x

\a*

ax

area being supposed to

no constant

is

commence from

the axis of y,

introduced.

PROP. CCCXIII.

(623.)

To find

the

equation

the curve,

of

whose sub-

tangent varies as the rectangle under the co-ordinates

This condition, expressed

xdy
-

analytically,

.a=yX

dJ

is

which gives

ady
which integrated,

ydx =

is

b%

h being the base, whose modulus

is a.

The

curve sought

is

therefore the logarithmic.

PROP. CCCXIVo

(624.)

To find

the equation

of a curve whose area always

equals twice the rectangle under

its co-ordinates.

Let the co-ordinates of any point be yx.

stated in the proposition

is

The

condition

388

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

fydx

2yx

which, by differentiation, gives

2xdij -f ^<r

0,

This equation, multiplied by y and integrated, gives

9

%xy

a being an arbitrary constant, which

is

therefore the equa-

tion of a curve possessing the proposed property.

prop, cccxv.

(625.)

To find

the equation

proportional

to the

of a spiral in which

logarithm

This condition, expressed

analytically,

J&dw ~ ah
by

the area is

of' the radius vector.

is

differentiation,
_

z^dco

dz

z
which, integrated,

which

is

the equation sought.

is

prop, cccxvi.

(626.)

other right

right angle cab

angle

intersection, p,

p',

c'a'b'

of

shall he always at
vertices

of

to find the

the intercept

a'p'

is

is

given in

position,

mid an*

so moved*, that the points

the sides

of

of

the angles respectively ,

a given distance ap

A!x

jrom

their

curve described by the middle point

between the side of the angle given

in position and the vertex of the other angleo

Through

the middle point & of pa let gf be

drawn per-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

A,

JL

Vm
JDLl.

JB.

pendicular to

a,

we

and pa be assumed as axes of

the angle a'bp' = w 3 and AG or

let this

Hence

co-ordinates.

mp'

and

it,

if

find

ad

2a

w9

cot,

9.a

sin.

ME
Hence we

sin.

cos,

co

find

x
2

^/

By

oj

=
=

eliminating

&

cot.

a(l

c
la

sin.

cos. w)

w by these equations, the

result, after re-

duction,

is

which

the equation of the cissoid o? Diodes,

x\%a
If

is

ag

y)- f =

ag, and G E be drawn parallel to

;

w5

sin.

diameter of the generating

circle,

and the

ab

line

gg'

GE
f

is

the

is

the

asymptote*

PROP. CCCXVIIo
(627.)
to

To find

a given

circle^

the locus

and a

of

the intersection

of a tangent
passing

line perpendicular to it

through a given point in the

circle.

Let the diameter passing through the given point be

assumed as the axis from which the values of the angle w are

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
measured, the perpendicular being represented by

z>

the

conditions of the question give the equation

which
It

%r

that the cardioide

is

Bp

the locus

which

cos. w),

for let p

be the given point

diameter

let

be described intersecting vp

b? and draw ba.

vp and ca 5 and on

the radius pa as

dently

r(l

the intersection of the perpendicular and

p
Draw

circle,

tangent.

in

otherwise evident from geometrical construction,

is

circle

|w

the equation of the cardioide.

is

on the

cos. 2

a rectangle,

is evi-

and therefore

Hence up

AC.
is

b^ca

is

constant,

a property of the cardioide.

PROP. CCCXVIII.
(68.)

Two

equal parabolas being placed in the same

plane^ and so as
supposed

and

to roll

vertex*

to

touch at their vertices,

upon the other ;

let

one of them be

to find the loci

of itsfocus

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

386

By

the conditions of the question 5

appears that

it

if

from

the vertex v of the fixed parabola a perpendicular vb be

drawn

until v'b

vb, the point v

parabola; and
focus
it

if tv'

and FF being perpendicular

by

and produced

vV =

to the fixed parabola, the locus of F

is

vf,

f' is its

and bisected by

to pt,

(253), the locus of c

art.

p,

the vertex of the moveable

is

be produced until

since

through any point

to a tangent

the vertical tangent

is its

The

directrix.

equation of the tangent pt being

%y f{x + x-) =
The

value of vb

point

is

o.

Let the co-ordinates of the

bvt.

coSo

be yx,

y
x
y*
y*

4.

"

= px\

&=

4r' a

fr"r

Eliminating y x by these equations, the result

f

x3

The

z
y x py
2

is

0.

equation of the locus of the vertex, which

therefore

is

a cissoid, the diameter of whose generating circle

is

\p.

PROP. CCCXIX.
(629.)

The

ordinate p'm to the diameter

produced until the rectangle under

equal

to the

pm and

of a

rectangle under the ordinate p

meter^ to find the equation, figure,

and

curve? which is the locus of the extremity

circle

the absciss
!

m and
the

am

is

the dia-

properties

of

being

of

the

produced

ordinate.

The
p'm

origin

= y\

pm

of co-ordinates

and ab

being at a,

a.

By

question 5

ay

= yx

let

am =

x,

the conditions of the

ALGEB11AIC GEOMETRY.
but by the equation of the

>,!

Hence

circle.

v ax x 2
=z

the equation of the locus, after clearing

radical,

it

of the

is

cfx

y\x -f

which solved for y,

a%

is

a \/a x
\/X

Hence, when

x=a, y~Q,

therefore the curve intersects

the axis of
sitive

values

than a 3 and
lues of

of

all

greater

negative va-

whatever., give im-

y but all
x between a and

possible values of

values of

All po-

at b.

give real values of y

the curve

is

hence

entirely included

through

between the

parallels

a and

Since, for every

b.

value of

there

are two

equal and opposite values of

3/,

the parts of the curve on

each side of the axis of x are

symmetrical.

By differentiating the equation of the curve,

we

find.

a3

dy

dx

Hence

the subtangent

Hence

2yx

a*
2

%x

J ax x*

s is

follows a geometrical construction for drawing a

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

838

to

Then tp

it.

Also -~-

ax

oo

Let mf

tangent.

is

\a and draw fp and

the tangent.

when x '=

so

the axis of 3/

p't perpendicular

0,

and

since at the

same time

an asymptote.

is

Let the equation be differentiated a second time, and the

result

is
2
d____
y

4<x)
a\Sa
_

__
_.

the points whose co-ordinates are

Hence

are points of inflection

la,

3/

&

therefore if the radius cb be bisected,

the ordinate passing through the point of bisection meets

the curve at the points of inflection.

Let a be the area of the segment pmb ? supposed

from b s

__

p'cb be

Let the angle

sin,

\/

= jydx =

\a

to begin

<p

a(l

sin. 2

ax X 2
ax.

<p ;

*/ax

qf

iaP/O-

+ cos.

cos. p

<)=.

x\ hence

(p

cos. p)<^,

which, by integration, gives

No

constant

= \a\$

sin. <p),

added, since A and

is

<p

are simultaneously

evanescent.

The
and \a

quantity ^a^p
2

sin.
is

the area

pmb

circle.

is

entire

asymptote

equal to four times the sector

is

p'cb,,

four times the difference between these.

the area

The

is

<p

is

four times the triangle p CB, and therefore

equal to four times the segment

area included between

therefore

the

equal to twice

Hence

p'b*

curve and

the

its

area of the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

839

If a perpendicular cd to ab meet the curve at d, the line

d and

joining

b will be a tangent.

prop, cccxx.

To

(6o0.)

investigate

equation is x*

The

of the
a2 b2

the figure

a*x 2

proposed equation

y
Hence

bx
%

may be

(x 2 -a z ) (x

curve, whose

cy =

-f-

0.

expressed thus
z

2
)

(T

the curve meets the axis of

at the points

= -f

<7

jr=+&,a? = and if a > b, for all values

of x > a, y is positive, and continually increases for all
greater values.
For the values of x between a and 5, y is
^

negative,
is easily

and

positive for those

/W

where ab

The
to

between b and

seen that the figure of the curve

=+

6, ab'

#,

ac

Hence

0.

it

is

"IKT

=+

a, Ac'

a.

equation of the tangent by differentiating

is

found

be

y-y =
r

2^{^' a -(a 4 +6

ft

)}L(*-<);

c*

therefore the points at which the tangents are parallel to the

axis of

are

a;

=+

^
z

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

340

If a and b both

0, the four points a, a', b, b' ? unite in

and become a point of undulation

one,

curve becomes in this case

the equation of the

which

is

one of the nu-

merous family of parabolic curves represented by the ge-

neral equation

ax

11

prop, cccxxi.
(631.)
to

an

To find

the locus

of the

of the tangent

intersection

with a 'perpendicular

ellipse ,

to it

passing through

the centre.

The

equation of the ellipse being

+ 6V 2 =

a*y' 2

a*b\

and that of the tangent

a%jfy

= a^>

***'*

the equation of the perpendicular to the tangent from the

centre

is

tyrfy

If
will

and

0.

be eliminated by these equations, the result

be
2
(j/

which

To

is

4- *?)*

(fix*

h Qy*

therefore the equation of the locus sought.

x
x
a?

In

investigate the figure of this curve, let

corresponding values of

a 2y x

like

manner

if

3/

0,

and the

= 0,
= -f ,
= a.

the corresponding values of

are

are

= 0,
= +

y=

b>

-b.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Hence

341

appears that the four vertices and the centre are

it

points of the proposed locus.

If the equation be solved for

2
>

we

find

where c 1

Hence

appears that for each value of x there are four

it

a"

6*.

For

values of y 9 but of these four two are impossible.

since

therefore

Hence

when x

are both impossible values of y, except

gives y

= \/i& -

meet the curve

&T

in

but two points, and are

_ ar(c
*~
a

"~

Hence
Also

^.

y/|:6

+c

%y V|F+. C

if

if

through the four

07

and #

all

bisected

by the

therefore an axis of the locus.

is

differentiating the real values of

dy

x + v7 -^ 4

parallels to the conjugate axis of the ellipse therefore

transverse axis, which

By

which

Therefore the two real values are

0.

y
The

a
a: )
"

_
~

A,

-~-

= +

a,

we
a*

<*

3/

'

find

- g(y + ^ 2

2(^+^ V
a

0,

- = . Hence the tangents

vertices of the ellipse are also tangents to

the locus at these points.

dy
Since the numerator of the value of -j- consists of two
factors,

vanish.

If

is

not the only condition on which

it

may

M2

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

2vy>*

avc
z

x =

or

we

have

shal. also

if c

<

h,

but real

This value of x

0.

Hence

otherwise

if

2c

- =

^o,

c s ^2

if c

six points at which the tangent to the locus

>

is

transverse axis; which points are determined

is

b>

impossible
there are

parallel to the

by

0,

-f

2c
a,\/c 2

2c
If c

and the corresponding values of y.

points unite in one,

<

If c

$5

parallel to the transverse axis,

0,

=+

find

which are determined by

whether the tangent through the vertex of the

in the value of x,

and we
~x

Hence

three of these

bo

conjugate axis intersects the locus 5

&,

there are only two points where the tangent

is

To

and form a point of undulation.

if c

>

let

b be substituted for

find

= Vc^^T

2
.

# 5 the tangent intersects the curve at two

points determined

If c be not less

by these values of
than

x.

&, the tangent does not intersect the

curve*

Of

du

the two factors in the denominator of -~- 9 one cannot

0, therefore the

and x

= +

when y

hence the only points at which the tangent

through the vertex

are the vertices,

value can be infinite only

is

perpendicular to the transverse axis

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

>

In the case where c

the figure of the locus

343

b,

there-

is

fore represented thus.

If c be not greater than b y

the figure of the locus

repre-

is

sented thus.

It

appears also that the centre

When c > b
To determine

a conjugate point.

is

the curve has four points of inflection.

the polar equation, let z

y and "#, and

be substituted for
2

CQSa

sin. w,

the result
j_

fta gi n< 2

equation of the ellipse

may be

Wt

to the polar

related to the centre as pole^

itself,

sm. 2

cos. 2

= yk dw +
%

a'

to

b2

a*

find the area (a') of the locus

Hence

a?

expressed

2
To

z cos.

is

This equation bears an obvious analogy

which

and

by the general formula

d.

in this case

\a %foo$?

oj

doj -f

-b-fmx^

w&

o!

but since

sin.

to

cos.

a;

= cos. w dw
= sin. w tfw,
9

we have

A
Let

Jia?f cos* cod sin.

circles

diameters:

if

^Wf sin.

wd

cos,

to

be described on the axes of the

cp

and pcd = w 5

let

+c

ellipse as

p\ be the points

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

-844.

where the radius vector meets

the two

and

circles,

let

be parallel to cb, and

Then a?

cd.

GEp, and

AFj?

determine

that

is,

when cp

= {("GBP +

d ~gcd
V d = |GCDe

wd

cos.

AFp')

that

f
.

when cpd

will coincide

0,

AFp ).

find

cpd

The

sin.

Hence

Hence we

coincides with cd, the point

with d, and p with a.

Hence we

Hence,

we should observe

c',

to

the differential of the area

is

To

pE

cos. vod sin.

the differential of the area

is

CPD

i(CEpD

find the entire area (a) of the curve

area of the entire curve

mean between

is

therefore an arithmetical

the areas of the two circles, and

is

equal to

half the area of the circle described with the line joining the
extremities of the axes as radius.
It appears

from

this that the

abgd included between

The

curve bpd bisects the space

the circles.

transverse axis of the ellipse being supposed fixed, if

the conjugate axis be continually diminished, the ellipse will

ultimately coincide with the transverse axis.

sponding limit of the locus

b

in

its

will

equation, which gives

2

(j/

This equation

is

+x

a*aP

0.

resolvable into two factors,

y +x

~~

ax

== 0,

ax

7,

if -f

The

corre-

be found by supposing

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
which are the equations of two
en' as diameters^

845

circles described

which are therefore the

on cb and

limit of the curve

in this case.

If the

ellipse

of the locus

which

The

is

becomes a

circle, scil. if

a, the equation

is

-f

xy

a*x*

ay =

o,

resolved into the factors

if

-f

#2

a?

y*

0.

0,

gives the circle on the transverse axis> and the

first

other the centre.

prop, cccxxn.

(832.)

tangent

To
to

determine the locus of the intersection of the

an hyperbola, and a perpendicular to it through

the centre.

The

equation of the locus found in the last proposition

becomes

in this case

(y*

If in this equation

x*)*

a %x l

== 0, it is

+ by

== 0.

necessary that

y =

also,,

therefore the conjugate axis can meet the locus only at the
centre.

But y

gives, as before,

x
x
x

= 0,
= +
=

a,

a%

hence the locus meets the tranverse axis at the

It appears, as before, that

impossible,

vertices..

two of the four values of y are

and that therefore the perpendiculars

to the

transverse axis can each meet the curve in but one point 5

and that the transverse

axis

is

an axis of the curve.

It appears, as before, that the tangents to the hyperbola,

passing through the vertices of the curve, are also tangents

846

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

to the locus at those points

for the differential co-efficient

becomes, in this case,

dy

which becomes

For
locus

all

x >
2

and x 2

is

impossible

a2

therefore the

included between the vertical tangents.

is

To

^y^+x

when y

infinite

values of

cf

find the value of

-j-

when y
~ax

to consider that the value of

and

,,

;~-

When

^.

former assumes the form

find the true value of the

done, of

its square, let

.r

0,

two

consists of

y =

and

we

latter

becomes

or what

first factor,

is

are

factors,

0,

$2

and the

and x

tt.

the

To

more readily

the numerator and denominator be

both differentiated, and we find

$(i5 4

d(oc*)

d{if)

which,

and

and

j/

when x

0,

c2

+ ex^

-S(|6 4

becomes

+c

^2p

therefore,

when x

0,

~ y

a*

in this case 3 therefore,

dy
doc

Hence the

centre

is

a multiple point.

The

tangents to the

curve at this point are perpendicular to the asymptotes of

the hyperbola.

point are

The

equations of the

tangents

to

this

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

To

by

ax

by

-f

ax

=
=

347

0,
0.

determine whether these tangents meet the curve again,

let b 2

y be

and

it

substituted for

aV in the equation of the curve

becomes
yl

which gives j/

and x

-_

XQ

_|_

The

0.

tangents therefore do

not meet the curve again.

from

It appears

curve

of

is

this investigation, that the figure

of the

like that of the lemniscata, which are a species

it.

Its polar equation

which,

when a

is

&% becomes

a 2 cos/

u)

=^

3?

b2

COS.

sin. 2

w3

2fc>,

the equation of the lemniscata.

PROP,

cccxxm.

Given the base and rectangle under the sides of a

(683.)

triangle 3 to determine the locus

of the

If the base and a perpendicular through

vertex.

middle point

its

be assumed as axes of co-ordinates, the condition expressed

in the proposition

is

^^TJ^^^af = a + b%
where a is half the base, and a
b = the rectangle.
z

Vy +

+ af

{x

equation,

when reduced

(f + a

)*

to a rational form,

&% 2 (y

This equation, solved

for j/ 2

y=

Hence,

-, (a 2

a*

2,

-[-

-^

2
)

==

6 2 (6 a

2a").

and #% gives

+ x vWT~b WT^cFx
;

This

becomes

vH^+1*

2 2
)

~- 4a*y

2
,

.'

x 9 two of the four values of y an

impossible, and the other two are real and equal with opfor each value of

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

848

The

posite signs.

axis of

When x =

curve.

0,

therefore an

is

=+

the axis of

curve, therefore, at two points determined by

J/

= -

of the

meets the

3/

= +

& and

*.

When
The

axis

^/

= + -/S*?!

0,

a?

or

a?

the two points where the curve meets the axis of

All values of x
fore the curve

> %a

5^/

1.

and the former determine

latter values are impossible,

render

x.'

impossible

there-

included between the parallels to the axis

is

of y through the points determined by x

= \/9>a +
l

b*.

If the equation of the curve be differentiated, the result is

If

0,

dy

dx~~

'

and \'y

a* (y 2 -\-x z )
a% +(y* + x*y
b9

-7--

therefore the parallels

to the axis of #, through the points determined

by these

values of y and x9 are tangents.

= 0,

If

are infinite

and

= + y^a +
2,

a?

& 2 , the values of

therefore the parallels to the axis of y, through

the points determined

by these values of y and x are

9

tan-

gents.

To

determine whether the tangents through the points

determined by x

b be substituted for

0,
?/

y= +
x

The
as a

From
is

b*,

& 2 5 or a a

# 2 and we
,

let

find

0, or imaginary, according

< &

these circumstances,

represented thus

meet the curve again,

0,

latter values are real,

>

Z>,

in the value of

it

appears that when a 2

>

b2

849

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
If c be the origin, and

and b the points where

meets the axis of
B, e, those where

of

the axis

points of inflection

The

this case

and

meets

there are

side of the points

In

#,
it

a
it

on each

d and

=
dx

points (besides

e.

0,

on the condition.

d and

e), therefore,

where the tangent

parallel to ab, are

determined by the intersection of a

whose centre

and radius a with the curve.

will not

a2

is c,

meet the curve

if

a2

<

circle,

This

6% and will touch

it

is

circle

at d if

b\

If a* be not greater than h 2 ^ the figure of the curve

is

similar to that of the ellipse.

prop, cccxxiv.

and area of a triangle, to find the

of the centre of the inscribed circle.

(684.) Given the base

Let the base

be'

locus

and a perpendicular yy' through

its

middle point be the axes of co-ordinates*

Since the area of the triangle

vertex

is

is

given^ the locus of the

a right line parallel to the

from the base

such.,

shall be equal to twice the given area*

of the triangle in any position.

angles vba and ^b a, p
;

touches the three sides

and those of p ?

base., at

a distance av

that the rectangle under

is

av and ab

Let v be the vertex

If bp and b'p bisect the

the centre. of the circle which

Let the co-ordinates of vhey'x^

yoc^ therefore

350

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

x'

y
+

oc

tan. t'BA

tan. vb!a

tan.

:s

pba

tan. pb'a

,y

But the angles vba and vb'a are respectively equal to

the angles pba and pb'a; therefore, by trigonometry,

twice

351

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

tan.

uba

=
1

%
tan. vb'a

By

substituting in these

tan.

pea

tan. 2

pba

tan. pb'a

tan 2

pb'a

tlie

values of the tangents already

___

%y{a-x)

found, we find

y
a a!
y
a

x by

Eliminating

xYy^

(a

%( x)
+ xY~~y 2

+ rf

'

(a

these equations, the result, arranged

the dimensions of the variables,

by

is

y#* y^ ^ j/ + ay == 0,
2

2x 2y

which being an equation of the third degree, shows that the

locus

is

To

a line of that order.

examine the figure of the locus,

lei its

equation be

solved for each of the variables, and the results are

- (a q

y-

- x*
)

</(a?-x 2 )(b*--a; )

y
\/

yy + 2a?y - ah/

-f

In which

BV

To
of y 9

62

a2

2
,

which

the square of the line bv

is

h.

determine the points where the curve meets the axis

let

0,

which gives

yy +

2aaj/

- ay =
9

a(a+6)

Let ad

points

r ad

D are those
f

a(6 a)

at

may be

a(a Jr h)

and the points d and

which the locus meets the axis of y 9

obviously found geometrically

by

These
bisecting

m2
c

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

the angle vba and

will

meet yy' at d, d

If ad

external supplement; the bisectors

its
;

r 9 and ad'

r\ the value of x

may be

ex-

pressed thus.

'y(y-r) (y+r)

v-

%/-y

Q-

II

3?

tV7
/, CAv
V

It

s*

jy/

s^

A.

1C

^-^JN"
.

yf

as

/
\a,

\_

.k

I
3

By

the value of?/,

tween b z and a 9 ? that

it

appears that for

is^

<

all

values of x* be-

and > a 2 , the values of y are

imaginary*

Hence

if

ve

ve'

vb ? and

through the four points e ?

b,

f/ 9

parallels to yy'

and

b',

be drawn

the curve

is

ex-

_r_

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

853

eluded from between the parallels through e and

also
all

from between those through

other values of

curve

included between the parallels

is

Since

beyond the

and

points e

Since

gives

and

since for

eh and

and

b'h';

infinitely in opposite di-

through e and E

oo

b,

the curve passes through the

#,

the curve passes through the

b'.

Since for

value of

extend

it

parallels

gives

and

e'.

points b

But

b,

the values of y are real, a part of the

the remaining parts of

rections

and b

e'

negative values of

all

greater than ad/, the

and therefore that of x

negative,

is

x~

is

ima-

ginary, the curve cannot pass below a parallel to the axis of

x through B
From the
all

value of x,

values of

that the curve

axis of

appears that

the points c and d,

and da being equal

to

it

in the rectangle kl',

follows,

and

ga being half of va,

whose

bh and

b'h' is inclosed

sides are parallel to the axes of

and that the curve meets

d,

it

appears that the part of the

curve included between the parallels

points b, B

impossible for

r.

these circumstances,

co-ordinates,

it is

excluded from between the parallels to the

is

x through

From

it

between r and \ij ; and hence

this rectangle at the

d'.

Since for each value of y there are two equal and opposite

values of x, the axis of y

is

an axis of the curve.

If the equation be differentiated,

dy

dx
This vanishes on

~ #(%-y)
'

yy'iyy'Y

-jy-

condition indicates

first

through d, D ,
f

find

either of the conditions,

y=
The

we

that the parallels to

are tangents to the curve.

The

xx

second would

A A

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

354
show the

also

parallel

through c to be a tangent ; but the

corresponding value of

x being

proves

infinite,

it

be an

to

asymptote.
CUl!

The

value of ~~- becomes infinite on any one of three

(IX

conditions,

Q,

#=00.
The

curve at b ?

The

shows that the

first

bh and

parallels

touch the

b'h'

b'.

second shows that the parallels to Yirf through e ?

e',

touch the curve at these points.

The

shows that the tangent to a point in the

third

branch eg or
with

approaches without limit to parallelism

e'g'

yy'.

From

By

these circumstances,

all

the curve

is

as

it

the value of y,

sented

by

appears that the figure of

appears that the parabola repre-

it

the equation

z2
is

it

has been represented.

yy a*~0
]

a diameter of the curve bisecting a system of chords

parallel to the axis of y.

If the equation of this diameter

be put under the form

a?
//

plain that the axis of the parabola

it is

is

the line

YY , and
f

that if

ao

is

the

Also, since

vertex.

by

its

t/

equation

0, gives

= +

=y
= b,

a 3 and

ja* + y

it

must pass through the points

is

lo:

b,

b',

and

evidently the point of bisection of

It

is

not

difficult to explain

dd

gives

e, fA

The

point

the genesis of the different

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

by

parts of the curve

6bO

the motion of the centres of the circles

touching the three sides of the triangle.

While the vertex

v moves in the direction vm, the centre of the circle touching

the three sides, %m, vb

and

bx, the productions of the sides B v and bb

r

side

centre of the circle touching vb, b

the infinite branch E G

f

touching b$,

In

and

vV and

like

b'#

and

and

b'b, is

x',

and

describing

b'v, is

of the circle

finally, the centre

bW.

describing the part

manner, while the vertex of the triangle

in the direction

vm

is

moving

the centres of these four circles describe

DB ,
f

the several parts,

also the

Also the

describes the asymptotic branch en.

bv,

At

moves through dpb.

be',

the same time the centre of the circle which touches

e'n',

eg, and

b'd'.

prop, cccxxv.
(635.)

Two given curves appV and Apfp

one related

to

rectangular, and the other to polar co-ordinates, and re-

presented by equations of the forms v(y%)

appV

are so related, that if the curve

Appp
f

the ordinates pm,

f!

p'm',

pW,

p\

appV

is

and coincident

p, p

wrapped upon App'p";

conditions by vcliich the equation

be foundfrom that

of the

of

either

to

f;

of

the

other.

tangents at

the points p and

same being true

for

responding

points,

when

these curves

By the conditions expressed,

to

determine the

the lines pm and op are equally

inclined

f(w),

....... the points p, p\

being the positions of the points

the curve

may

11

preserving their

inclinations to the curve, shall be equal to

with the radii vector es op, op\ op

0,

wrapped upon

be

and the
all cor-

we have

the condition

aaS

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

S5(>

doc

zdvj

dy

dz

the angle w being measured from the axis of

-"

^Jw

Hence by
changing
shall find

and

but since

equation

doc into zdfw,

by integrating the

dx.

the

differentiating

into z,

z and dy

f(j/jt)

and eliminating

result, the equation z

and

0,

we

x,

f(w).

Also,' if this latter equation

be given, a similar process will

discover the equation $(yoc)

It

is

duce the other

the points m,
ordinates

appV by

radii

become

vectors,

By

these

be supposed to pro-

and

parallel,

will

Hence

follows,

it

dx, and z

produce

and vv.

we have z^dw

= ydx.

is

two

double the area included be-

which are equal to

Also, since

dy 1

The

?/,

radii vectores of the other,

those ordinates.

or

app'p".

that the area included between

ordinates of the one curve

tween the two

related to rectangular co-

ordinates produces a corresponding spiral

11

their extremities lie in a straight

means every curve

Since zdw

and the

produce App'p

will

into such a form, that the radii vectors

omm'm" passing through o

line,

may

being bent into such a form that

m", shall all unite in the origin o,

become

App p" by being bent

will

0.

evident that either curve

+ dx

dz*

+ zHw\

arc of the one intercepted between two ordinates

is.

equal to the arc of the other intercepted between the cor-

We

responding radii vectores.

principles to
1.

apply these general

Let the curve app'p 7 be represented by the equation

By

shall

some examples*

differentiating,

we

ax.

find

my m~~

dy

and by making the necessary

adx

substitutions,,

&57

AL&EBItAIC GEOMETRY.

mzm~

dz

adcvp

which being integrated, gives

>mz m

When m =

~x

carve

2, the

corresponding spiral

(m

the

common

=
is

l)&w.
parabola, and the

that of Archimedes, represented

is

by

the equation
.%

Hence
of

arc

the

and pm

Ap

will

i-awc

ap be any

if

parabola,

Ap, the arc

be equal to ap,

and the area apm

will

be double that of the

segment Ap, and therethe

fore
will

Ap

segment

be one-third of the

rectangle

Mm, and

equal to the area Amp.

It appears therefore that the rectification of the spiral of

Archimedes depends on that of the parabola.

2.

Let the curve app' be a

related to

its

axis

and

of the second degree

line

vertical tangent as axes of co-ordinates,

and represented by the equation

if

by

V
pec =
+ ~-x
2a

differentiating

%ydy

+ xdx

~~ pdcc

which, after the necessary substitutions, becomes

dw

dz

P (P _

,*

%a\2

When

is infinite,

the integration of this gives

z

ipcv,

a result which coincides with that already found.

Other-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

358

wise the integration, after substituting

If b

Hence

sin.

a).

curve app' be a

if the

the curve App

is

w.

becomes

a, this equation

sin.

for p> gives

circle

whose diameter

a circle whose diameter

1

sented

2b 9

is b.

Let the curve App be the logarithmic

8.

is

spiral repre-

by the equation

a\

By

differentiating,

By

the proper substitutions, this becomes

we

find

tan.

dz

tan. Qdy

zdJ/.

<fo;

which being integrated and a constant introduced ,

(y

which

0,

the equation of a right line.

is

Hence
line

y') cot.

if

App' be a logarithmic spiral, app' will be a right

touching

and equal

it

at a,

and if pm, pV, be inflected

to op, op\ the arc

pp

will

oa ?

be equal to pp , and the

f

area pop will be half the area pmm'p'.

1

parallel to

Also at

is

equal to

the arc of the spiral continued from A to the pole, and the
triangle

aot

sults agree

4.

is

double the corresponding area.

with those found in

Let the curve

ppV

lated to its asymptotes,

art.

These

re-

(437), (488),

be the equilateral hyperbola re

and represented by the equation

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

yx

By

differentiating,

359

m*.

we find
ydx 4- xdy

0,

which, after the necessary substitutions, becomes

s 3 d&

ara

tfe

which being integrated, gives

which

is

Hence

the equation of the lituus.

if

pm

the area pmm'p

=
1

Ap, and p'm'

Ap', the arc

equal to twice the area

is

pp

pAp

= pp\

and

also

the

area of the entire lituus continued to the pole

half the space included between the hyperbola and

ptotes,

and the

entire length of the lituus

is

equal to

is

its

asym-

equal to that of

the hyperbola.

5.

The

preceding

only a particular case of a more

is

general class of curves included under the equation

yx

a'

n+1
,

which, differentiated, gives

m dx -f mym~ l xdy

.ydx

mxdy

0,

0;

which ? after the necessary substitutions, becomes

(m

l)z m +

= ma m+1

ALGEBRAIC GKOMETKlT.

S6t)

SECTION XXIII.
Propositions illustrative of the application of the preceding

part of Algebraic Geometry

various parts of Physical

to

Science,

piiop.

(636.)

pendicular

eccxxvi*

of a given length being drawn per-

right line

an horizontal plane j

to

to

find the nature of the

curve traced out by the extremity of its shadow*

The

meridian line being assumed as the fixed

the angle which the shadow r makes with

&

By

polar distance,

its

and

since the angle

rical

trigonometry,

a; is

COS.

the equation

cos.

-sr

cos.

cos.

&

sin.

z cos. A

is

Vr* + l 2

cos.

If the meridian line be taken as the axis of

intersection of the planes of the horizon

as the axis of y,

and

this equation

rectangular co-ordinates
cos. 2 iff

+
The

locus

is

yx 9 the

2
-f (cos. vs

(cos.

7a

cos.

vertical

one between

is

A)<r 2

A)l 2

to

-&.

x and the

and prime

be reduced

result

sin. 2

sphe-

cos. z sin.

these equations, eliminating z9 the result

and

latitude.

we have by

the sun's azircmth,

;,

l tan. z;

sin.

By

and A the

we have

the conditions of the question,

being

it

and

Let z be the zenith

L the length of the perpendicular.

distance of the sun,

axis.,

sin.

2A

0.

therefore a line of the second degree,

L#

381

.ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
an

It is

cos.

hyperbola, or parabola, according as

ellipse,

m >

cos. A, cos.

<

-ar

cos. A, or cos.

ta-

In other words, when the sun's polar distance

the latitude,

and when

At

it is

it is

an

ellipse

when

it is

equal to the latitude,

the pole cos. A

greater,

is less

than

an hyperbola

a parabola.

it is

the locus

cos. A.

is

therefore a circle

represented by the equation

At

l 2 tan. 2

places within the polar circle the locus has at different

times of the year

polar distance

and

to,

+ x* =

2-

At

less

is,

all

its

as the sun's

than the latitude.

the polar circle the locus

and an hyperbola

At all latitudes

is

a parabola at the

solstice,

at all other times.

less

than 66^ the locus

bola, since the sun's polar distance

At

inasmuch

varieties,

at different times of the year, greater, equal

the equator the locus

is

is

is

never

always an hyperless

than 66^.

the intersection of the planes

of the prime vertical and horizon at the equinoxes

that case

sr

90,

for in

and the equation of the locus becomes

r= 0.

PROP. CCCXXVI1.

(637.)

To find

the curve described by the vertex

of the

earthbs conical shadow*

Let the semidiameters of the sun and earth be r9

let z,

the

r\

and

z\ be the distances of the vertex of the shadow

and

centre

of

the earth

from the

.equations

2(l

P
+ ecos.w)'

sun,

we have the

868

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*..

the latter being the polar equation of the earth's orbit,

f

eliminating z , the result

is

pr
~~

2(r

(l-\-e cos. w)'

Hence the vertex of the shadow

describes an ellipse similar

and whose parameter

to that of the earth,

is

pr

PROP, cccxxvin.
(638.)
the curve

If a body

revolves in

any proposed curve,

to

find

of a fixed stars aberration as seen from

this

body.

As

the aberration

is

in direction always parallel to the

tangent to the orbit in which the body

is

supposed to move,

and in quantity reciprocally proportional to the perpendicular

from the centre of force upon the tangent, the nature of the

may be

curve of aberration

investigated

it,

finding the

and such that the rectangle

force parallel to the tangent,

under

by

drawn from the centre of

locus of the extremity of a line

and the perpendicular on the tangent,

shall

be

constant.

These conditions may with great facility be reduced to

be the equation of the curve,
Let T(y x ) =
equations.
f

the origin of rectangular co-ordinates being at the centre of

force,

and yx being the co-ordinates of any point of the

sought locus, the

of the radius vector being

condition

always parallel to the tangent, gives the equation

dy

dx

xdy

__
~~

y
x'

ydx

0.

Let x be the distance from the origin

11

gent meets the axis of x.

By

at

which the tan-

the equation of the tangent

'

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

x dy ijdx*
]

__

Let ^?

06S

the perpendicular on the tangent

=5

=-,

and therefore we find

~y dat
f

#'<$/

P
and

since

by the

first

""

wy^T^

condition,

cLv

therefore

And by the
dicular

condition, that the rectangle

and radius vector

ps/y

The
jjui

is
9,

under the perpen-

constant,

#2

rn?'

locus sought will therefore be found

by eliminating

from the equations

yKx =z m*

otfy

ydaf

xdij

(1),
(2),

v{i/af)0

(3).

PROP. CCCXXIX.
(639.)

The

orbit being

line

of the second degree with

the centre offorce at the focus, to find the curve

of aber-

ration.

The

polar equation of a line of the second degree, the

focus being the pole,

is

=
2(1

e cos.

ta)

which reduced to rectangular co-ordinates^ and arranged by

the dimensions of the variables,

is

#64

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

y + (i
a

By

.<s>v

of

ip*

this,

(i

o.

becomes

(2) of the last proposition

_p^o?

By means

p**'

pe 9.(1 e z )xi

dy
Hence equation

we have

differentiating this,

)^ %y = o.

the equation of the orbit, and the equa-

tion (1) of the last proposition, eliminating

y and
f

x\ the

arranged according to the dimensions of the va-

result,

riables, is

y*
em*

which

(1

e*)x*

47M 4 (1 .^ a )

4m 4 (l~

is

obviously resolvable into the factors

+ (1 4m*

The former

gives

ordinates.

The

y =

0,

^2 _
4

a?

latter is the

which

p~
scil.,

the origin of the co-

equation of the locus sought,

therefore a circle, the co-ordinates of whose centre

is

=
it

y
0,* J

slem'2

and whose radius

is

From

also appears that the origin of co-ordinates is within

it,

or outside

it,

according as e

it

when

follows that the curve of aberration

the orbit

is

1,

is

always a

a line of the second degree, with the

centre of force in the focus

but that the true place of the

star is within the circle if

it

parabola, and outside

be an hyperbola.

it if it

be an

ellipse,

on

it if it

It

is

centre of the circle.

be a

obvious,

that if the orbit be a circle, the true place of the star

the.

<

>1.

Hence
circle

/lni

the circumference, on

= 1, or

'

are

2 2

o^

4ttc (1

**

pZ

pQ,

errfi

e*)tf*x*

j,*

which

(2

is

in

GEOMETRY.

\LGEE11AIC

36*5

niop. cccxxx.
(640.)

centre

The

an

orbit being

of force at

ellipse or hyperbola,

with the

find the curve

of aber-

centre, to

its

ration.

The

equations in

tliree

proposition (638),

become

in

this case

E ^' 2

= A B\
A \yy + ^ xx = ^\
x y y x = mz
A

By

eliminating j/ and x from these,

A~j/

The

Q
13

X"

we

find

7)1*.

equation of the curve of aberration, which

is

therefore

a curve similar to the orbit, its semiaxes being

and
A
on

prop, cccxxxi.

(641.)

The

orbit

being a parabola, the force acting along

the diameters, to find the curve

The

three

equations in prop. (688),

case
,z

px-

%y px
eliminating

become

in

this

0,

xy
y x = m\
y\ x\ by these equations, we
!

By

of aberration.

find

4m 2

p J
The

locus

is

therefore a parabola,

to that of the orbit.

whose axis

is

perpendicular

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

^GG

PROP. CCCXXX1I.
(642.)

The

of the planet being supposed a

orbit

with the sun in the circumference,

to

circle,

find the curve of

aberration.

The

equations in prop. (838) become in this case

xy
f

y'x

=
=

<m 2 ,

+ xx
y + ri* -

yy

rx,

2rx

Finding values for ?/V from the

in the last, the result, divided byj/ 2 -f

2

r'

+ 2rm y m

7,

0.

and substituting them

first,

x2

is

0,

the equation of the curve of aberration, which

a parabola, whose axis

of whose vertex

is

is

the axis of y,

is

therefore

and the co-ordinate

-^7-.

PROP. CCCXXXITI.
(848.)

The

of a comet being supposed parabolic,

orbit

to

find the place of perihelion from two distances from the sun

and

the included angle.

Let the equation of the orbit related

focus be
z

Let

w',

2(1 cos.

and the corresponding

we

!/

a;")'

find
z*

2(1 -cos.
dividing;

!f

2(1 -cos. w

by

and

w)'

^\ hence
f

axis

Z_

the two distances given be z\ z

anomalies

to the

cos. w n

cos.

'

a/

'

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

The

given angle under

and z being
!I

sf

<p,

867

we have

/ -f a/' =: ^.

By

by

eliminating one of the anomalies

these equations,

we

This elimination may be

shall find a value for the other.

effected thus,

cos.

1--

cos.

=
=

f;

sin s

sin. "i-"''.

>',

Hence
A /5

sin. JLw"
2

sin.
A /T'

~~

>/%'

4"

sin. iw'

+ sin.

i**.

sin. .la/

sin.

I**'

^ -K/?

cot.

Hence by
anomaly

finding the value of oJ

is

i?

^-a/')'

tan.

^/z'-Vz"

r/

the value of each

known.

prop, cccxxxiv.

(644.)

The parabolic

a common tangent,

several comets having

of

orbits

to find the locus

of the perihelia.

Let p be the perpendicular distance of the common

tangent from the sun,

the perihelion distance, and z the

!

distance of the point of contact, and

and z be

w*

By

let

the angle under p

the polar equation of the parabola

2z.

1 cos.
and

since

by the properties of

portional between z

and

this

curve P

is

a mean pro-

z\
p*

2a/

= zz

being eliminated by these equations, the result

,

=P

>__

cos.

&o>

is

MJ5

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

but by trigonometry,
Zoj
= 1 cos.
c

sin.

Hence

-.

the equation related to rectangular co-ordinates

y +x
r

The

locus

is

vx

is

0.

therefore a circle described on the perpendicular

v as diameter.

prop, cccxxxv.

The

(CAB.)

the

parabolic or Mis of several comets intersecting at

same

point, to find the locus

of the

perihelia.

Let be the distance of the intersection of their orbits

f

from the sun, and

under them.

By

z the perihelion distance,

and w the angle

the polar equation of the parabola,

%z
,

1 COS.
Hence

which

cu'

the equation of the locus sought

is

sin.

is

\w t

the equation of a cardioide, the diameter of whose

generating circle

is

the distance z\

prop, cccxxxvi.
(&4<6.)

the

same

Projectiles being

velocity in different directions, to find the loci

the vertices

space

s9

to the velocity

be h, and the angle of

the equation of the path of the projectile in free

is

The

of

andfoci of the parabolce described by them.

Let the height due

elevation

thrown from a given point with

axis of

being

tan.

vertical,

ordinates of the vertex be

x~

4h cos. 2
and x horizontal,

yx\ and

let

the co-

those of the focus

j/V.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

To

y=

find at 9 let

0,

and x

369

be half the resulting value

will

of x: hence

xl

To

find

and we

y,

&1-1

=h

sin. s cos.

sin. 2s.

x be substituted in the equation of the curve,

]

let

find

y=
The values
the line

of

sin.

s.

yV are found by observing that x =

]]

drawn from the

origin to the focus

and the angle under it, and the

axis of y

is

# , and
f

equal to

by the properties

is,

of the parabola, bisected by the direction of projection.

Hence we

find

xn

To

sin.

y = h cos. 2s

2s

find the locus of the vertices , let

means of the values of

4y
which

is

vertical,

ifx\
4-

x*
]

be eliminated by

and the resulting equation

~ 4m/ =

is

0,

the equation of an ellipse, whose conjugate axis

having

its

0,

ing value of x

\*y

is

is

extremity at the point of projection, and

transverse axis horizontal.

axes, let

h.

To

find the

h; and

Hence

if

y=

magnitude of these

the correspond-

the conjugate axis

is

equal to

h, and the transverse axis to 2h.

To

find the locus of the foci, let

be eliminated by means

of the values of t/V 9 which gives

y* +
The

locus sought

is

point of projection,

the velocity.

#*'*

Ha

therefore a circle whose centre

and whose radius

is

is

at the

the height due to

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

370

PROP. CCCXXXVII.
(647.) Several projectiles being thrown in the
rection with different velocities, to find the loci

find the locus of their vertices, let

means of the values of y x

l

The

resulting equation

The

locus

To

of

di-

their

andfoci.

vertices

To

same

is

eliminated

by

found in the last proposition.

is

= Atan. s

ccK

therefore a right line through the origin.

h be eliminated by means

find the locus of the foci, let

of the values of y n x n

Hence the

h be

the result of which

is

cot. 2s

locus sought

is

a straight line through the point

!!

of projection, and inclined to the vertical line at an angle

which

is

bisected

by the

direction of projection,

PROP. CCCXXXVIII.
(648.) Given the velocity

jind the point where

it

and

will meet

direction

of a

projectile, to

a given plane, and also the

time offlight.

The

projectile

must meet the given plane

in

some point

of the intersection of the given plane with the vertical plane

in

which the

line

Let the equation of

projectile moves.

be

y
where

m is

tan.

m x
.

-\-

b;

the angle at which the plane

is

inclined to the

horizon, and b the distance of the point where

axis

of

y from

the origin.

By

^y

tan.

- x
4h

cos.

it

meets the

equation, and the

this

equation

we

this

find the co-ordinates of the point sought are

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY-

oc

ml

2h

) sin.

cos.

^ = Sh
To

7
\ sin. (h-

w)

sin '( 5

cos. 9 **

sm.orcos.sC

find

(s
st)
x

371

sin.

~^)J

-w)--cos.^

>

m = 16^

Let

(t) the time of flight.

cos.V \

\
$

+ b.

inches.

Since the vertical through the projectile moves uniformly

with a velocity expressed

by 2

cos. s

Jmk, we

find

x
%

cos.

s v

Hm

Hence

a
I

cos. 2 m.

J s i n# ( e __
I

w\ +

J g i n> 2/g

__

~ cos> '% (

__

I
J

being the time of flight expressed in seconds.

prop, cccxxxix.
(649.) Given the velocity

of

of projection, tojind

projection, at which the distance

projectile meets

of

a given plane shall he a maximum.

This problem

is

in effect to investigate the value of s 3

which renders the value of x in the

maximum.

For

its differential

cos.

this purpose, let

equated with cypher

cos. (s - or)

+
where

m)

i sin.

3 (s

cos. (e

the result of which

sin. s sin. (s

cos. e sin. (s

11

be differentiated, and

it
;

m)

w)

multiplying by

R,

and substituting

equation becomes

m)
for

cos.

sin. s sin. (s

rar)

w)

requires some trigonometrical artifice.

cos. s cos. (s

proposition a

last

This equation gives the sought value of

it,

the angle

where the

the point

is

sin. s

0;

but to extricate

Observing that

cos. (2s

R v its

w),

value, the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

372

cos. (2s

w)

vr=
By

w)

sin. (g

sm.(g
v

ot)

yr-

'

0,

sin.scos. 2<sr

w=

sin. s cos. 2

cos, (2s

-.

ot)

equating this with the other value of r, and squaring

and expunging the terms which mutually destroy each other,

we have
cos.

2,

(2s

sr)

-f

sm,~

sin. (s

sr) cos. (2s

w =

cos.

#r) sin, s

0.

But by trigonometry,
2

By

sin. (s

or) sin. s

cos.

cos. (2s

^).

the expression being cleared of the

this substitution,

terms which destroy each other, and divided by

cos.

becomes

cos. (2

By

trigonometry,
cos. (2s
cos. 2s
sin.

Making

2s

ct)

cos 2

= cos. 2s cos.
sin.
2

sin. s cos.

these substitutions,

and arranging
tan.

for solution,

0.

sr

sin.

2s

sin. or,

s,

s.

and dividing by

we

H
2

j3

=
=

sin. 2 s cos.

m) A

tan.

cos. ts cos. 2

find

tan.

J h

which solved, gives

tan.

-j

tan.

w +

which gives the required value of

sec. 2 -ar

se

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETIiYa

The

cause of the two values of

s is

373

obvious

of elevation being the same, the projectile

up

either

down

or

down

for the angle

may be thrown

the plane, and one of the values of the

maximum

elevation gives the

other

range up the plane, and the

it.

If the projectile be thrown from one point to another on

the same plane s h

and the formula

0,

for the range

becomes

cos.

4h

in

this case also the

maximum

(s-~m)

sin.

cos.

ra-

range

given by the eleva-

is

from

tion resulting

tan,

tan.

m +

sec

but by trigonometry,
tan, vr

sin.

m=

sec.

<us

cos.

Hence

+
~

1
-

tan.

Uxs
n

-f 90),

"

the direction which produces the greatest range

that which bisects the angle under the plane,

and the

is

vertical

through the point of projection.

It is observable, that if

and

be two angles of elevation

so related that
g

we

shall

g'

90

+ w

always have
cos,

s sin. (s

Hence two such

ot)

cos. s sin. (J

&).

elevations always give equal ranges with

the same velocity of projection; and

way

it

appears from the

these angles are related to the value of

maximum

s,

giving the

range, that any two directions of projection,

equally inclined to that which gives the

maximum

range*

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

374
with

will,

the

same velocity of

projection,

give

equal

ranges.
It also appears

from what has been

said, that the elevation

which produces the greatest range on the horizon

is

45,

and

that complemental elevations give equal ranges.

PROP. CCCXL.

To find

the locus

of the empty foci of the

of
having a common point of intersection, and
at that point having the same velocity.
(650.)

orbits

several planets

Let the distance of the point of intersection from the sun

be

d,

and the distance of the same point from the empty

focus d

;
.

By

the properties of the ellipse,

d'

2a,

where A represents the semitransverse

axis.

Since the velocity at the point of intersection

in

all

have a
c.

is

the same

the orbits, the osculating circles at those points

By

common chord

passing through the sun.

Let

must

this

be

the properties of the ellipse,

2dd'

A
Eliminating

a,

we

find

CD
4.D

C*

Hence the value of n is constant, and therefore the locus of

the empty focus is a circle with the common point as centre,
1

and d

as radius,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY..

375

PROP. CCCXLI.

(651.)

To

investigate the figure

horizontal parallax

same time in

of

moon

the

of

the earth from the

accurately observed at the

different latitudes.

Let 9 be the

and r the corresponding semi-

latitude,

diameter of the earth, and

let

the equation

a2 b 2
a2

sin.

<p-f

b 2 cos. 2

<p

be assumed as that of a meridian , a representing the equatorial,

and

Also

h the polar semidiameters.

semidiameter corresponding to another latitude

a
a2

sin. 2

<p

let

r be the

<p',

b*

+b 2

cos. 2

r
<p

Dividing one of these equations by the other, and supposing

= mb^

we have
r2
rH

sin.

" mQ

2,

sin.

<p'

+ cos. 2

<p

"

<p-f cos.

Hence, observations of two horizontal parallaxes at given

r

latitudes will give the value of

-y ; from whence that of m 9

or the relation of the equatorial and polar diameters,

is

easily

found.

Therefore, assuming the earth to be an oblate spheroid,

we can

find

its

axes.

And

the truth of the assumption

may

be proved by every pair of observed parallaxes giving the

same value of m.

ALGEEHAIC GEOMETRY".

376

PROP. CCCXLII.

(652.)

density

A perfectly flexible and

and

to find the

of its

inelastic chain

of uniform

thickness being suspendedfrom two fixed points,

curve into which

it

will form itself hy the effect

oivn zveight,

Let the fixed points a and b be the points of suspension,

and the horizontal and

vertical lines

axes of co-ordinates,

yx be

p,

and

let

the arc

let

ap be

s.

through a being taken

the co-ordinates of any point

The

part ap of the chain

be considered as a rigid body retained in a

librium by three forces,

scil.

may

state of equi-

the weight of the chain s acting

in the vertical direction, the tension

at the point

in the direction of a tangent at that point,

acting

and the tension

at the point p acting in the direction of the tangent at the

point

f.

Let the angles under the tangents

and a horizontal

By

line,

at the points

the principles of Statics, since the forces

same plane, their component parts

axis of co-ordinates

the equations

a and

p,

be respectively a and w.

must be

in

all

act in the

the direction of each

in equilibrio.

Hence we have

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

a cos. a

a
Eliminating

a -

sin.

by these

if

&

solved for tan.

t
#

0.

equations., the resulting equation

but in general tan.

sin.

,v

cos.

w = _-Jy
^t

is

sin. sr

gives

tan. or

which

= 0,
s=

cos.

3T7

sin. <%-

a cos.

OC

equivalent to the differential equation of the cate-

nary found in

By

(54<6).

that the curve sought

is

a comparison with

this,, it

a catenary, whose axis

appears

is vertical.

PROP. CCCXLI1L

(658.)

A flexible

and

elastic

chain

is

attached to two

fixed points, to find the carve into which it willform itself'

bj/ its

own gravity.

The

chain being supposed of uniform density and thick-

ness, let the ratio of

of the

any assumed length of

same, when extended by

Let the tension

the tension

at the lowest point

it
t,

to the length

be

1:1+

be equal to the weight of

a length c of the unextended chain.

Let

be any length

of the unextended, and s of the extended chain.

of co-ordinates being

vertical

et.

The

axes

and horizontal, we have by the

conditions of the question

ds

The

forces

which keep

ds'(l

s at rest

+
are

et).

1,

the tension

t9

2,

the

'

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

378
tension

c, 3,

the weight

These

of the chain.

forces are

therefore as the sides of a triangle, which are parallel to

their directions, that

By

is,

as dx, dy, ds

ds

dx

s
9

d 2y

==

p v

~~

dp

__
~~

dx

v
and

cdx-\- c 2 eds*

= Vl+p

ds

find

ds

dx 2
if -~

dx

and eliminating ds\ we

differentiating the latter,

Now

dy

__
~~

hence

dx,

Vl+p

c+c^eVl+p 2

dx

aj/

= -

'

4- c 2 rfp,

c 2 epdp.

-f

Vl+p*
By

integration

The
x =

we

find

~cl \p +

a/1

c A/l

p*

j/

when p

we have

c*

In these equations the variable p

is

which the curve at the point

angle,

c*ep 9

c 2 e<p*.

integral being assumed, so that

0,

the tangent of the

yx makes

with the

horizon.

By

the elimination of p,

we should

find the equation of

the curve expressed between the variables yx.

To

express the equation between s and p,

we should

observe that
ds

a/1

+ ft

dx.

In which the value of dx already found being substituted,

and the
s

result integrated, gives

cp

+ i^e[p s /TTf +

l(p '+

s/TTf)

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

379

PROP. CCCXLIV.

(654*,)

A given

a body round a given

orbit is described by

andfrom any 'point in

point as centre qfforce^

it

the body is

projected with the velocity in the orbit in a direction

diately opposed to the action

of the point
Let

r>

at which

of

theforce

be the distance of any point in the orbit from the

centre of force, and

i>

jected,

body

the
it

imme-

to find the locus

shall cease to recede from the orbit.

it

the distance at which the body shall

Since in moving through

cease to recede from the curve.

with which

loses the velocity

would acquire the same

velocity in

it

is

pro-

moving through

the same space in the opposite direction. Hence,

if

v be the

velocity in the curve,

v^

where

2m

is

kmfsdj)y

the velocity communicated

by the

Let the law of the force be such that

in the unit of time.

D n~\

the force being unity at the distance unity.

tegrating,

we

unit of force

Hence, by

in-

find

V2

Dn

(H
v

).

If c be the chord of the osculating circle passing through

the centre of force, since v

curve,

is

equal to the velocity in the

we have
V2

= mFC =

#&D n

"~* 1

C,

which combined with the former, gives

Kn

The

values of c and d 3

D"

'/ID*-

known by

1
.

|C.

the equation of the given

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

380
orbit, give the

We

equation sought.

shall give a

few ex-

amples of the application of this formula.

Let the

1.

orbit

be an

ellipse,

the centre of force being

In

the focus.

this case

1,

where a expresses the semitransverse

The

locus

is

2d(2a

'

and c

=.

axis.

Hence

d)
,

2a.

therefore in this case a circle, whose radius

is

equal to the transverse axis of the orbit.

If the curve be an ellipse, the cewtre being the centre

2.

In

of force.

=%

this case

D*

B i2

A*

a and b being the semiaxes. The locus

whose radius

is

where

b' is

the se-

Hence

midiameter conjugate to d.

Hs

c ==

B s?
is

therefore a circle,

equal to the line joining the extremities of

the axes.
3.

If the curve be a

force, the

circle,

the centre being the centre of

formula becomes

H"

(1

+ |>.

PROP. CCCXLV.

(655.)

centre

A given

orbit is described

round a given point as

and a body being placed

moved by the action, and in

offorce,

orbit, is

force, until

it

acquires the velocity

to find the locus

it

at

any point in

the direction

the

of the

zvould have in the orbit

of the point at zohich

this velocity shall be

acquired.

Let h be the distance

quired,

at

which the velocity

and d the distance of the point

the centre of force.

As

before.

shall

in the orbit

be ac-

from

381

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

v*

(n n

= mn n
V nn = d m -

'~ l

v2

The

values of d

~~

h"),

c,

wd""

1
.

^c.

and c resulting from the equation of the

given orbit being substituted, give the locus sought.

To
1.

apply this formula to some examples

If the curve be a circle, with the force at the centre,

H"

If the curve be a

ference, let

its

(1

T)D\
with the force on the circum-

circle,

equation be
%

Since in this case z

cos. w.

and n

d,

%r

which shows that the locus

is

one internally at the centre of

cos.

4,

and

<p

#,

w5

a circle touching the given

force,

and whose radius

is

3.

If the curve be an ellipse or hyperbola, the force being

at the focus.

Let the equation be

2(l+ cos.
In

this case z

r>,

semitransverse axis,

1.

9.az

4<a--z*

Substituting for

z, this

becomes

ft;)'

a being the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

382

=
2(1 +e!

cos. ttf

where
pf

4<ab 2

~"

__

"

'

4*f-6 2

4<aVa2 -b 2
4a2 -6 2

"

'

A being the semiconjugate axis of the given

locus

and

is

therefore an ellipse or hyperbola,

and

eccentricity are p'

orbit.

The

whose parameter

and whose transverse axis

e\

coincides with that of the given ellipse.

If the given orbit be a parabola, the force being at the

4.

In

focus.

this case c

= 4d^ v
= Id,
P

cos.

4(1

The

locus

is

therefore a parabola, whose axis

is

coincident

and which has the same

that of the given orbit,

with

cv)

focus.
5. If the orbit

In

this case

h2

And

since

be an

= %
a'

with the force at the centre.

ellipse,

U*

2'a

_ (^ +

/,*),

by (173),

cos.

the equation of the locus sought

%b
l
is

a\

a)

1 e

which

7-, d

'

is

COSo 2

''

the equation of a curve of the fourth degree, similar

in figure to the lemniscata.

For the hyperbola the equation becomes

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY

which, when a 2 =: b

z
,

6.

6*),

26 2

cos. 2

w-r

the equation of an equilateral hyperbola.

is

If the given orbit be the logarithmic

sented

spiral

repre-

by

In

e* cos.'

becomes

H*

which

(a

2 cv

383

this case

#, c

Hence the

locus sought

= %

1 ~a w

-Z ~:
a/2

aw

and w

2z,

.'

-v/2

also a logarithmic spiral.

is

PROP. CCCXLVI.

(656.)

material point

curve, the plane

of which

is

moved by

is vertical

its

to

own weight on a

determine the per-

pendicular pressure on the curve.

Let ay the axis of y be

vertical^

and ax that of x horizontal

and

let the co-ordinates

of any point

Let the

velocity v at

p be yx.

p be that which would be

ac-

quired in falling freely from the

horizontal line cd

and

it

follows

from the principles of Mechanics,,

that the velocity at every point will be that which would be

acquired in falling from the same

m being
The

4ra(y

line,

Hence,

if

ac

= y\

y) 9

the space described freely in the unit of time.

pressure exerted by the moving point at p in the

direction of the

normal

is

the effect of two causes'; 1, the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

o84

weight

of the moving point resolved in the direction of

the normal, and , the force arising from the angular

swing of the point round the centre of the osculating

The former
g

is

=g

sin.

Ax

(dy 2 +

where

-,

dx*y

the angle at which the tangent at the point p

9 is

The

inclined to the horizon.

^
where r

circle.

is

2mr

the radius

~~

'

'

of the osculating

v2

(dy z +dx z

forces being united, give the

p=g.

the value

circle,

gives

it,

9
2(y y)d y.dx

__

imr

These two

latter is

of which being substituted for

\dif

aa?

whole pressure,

2(y

y)d*y I
3

idy^+dx*)**It is evident that

when

the curve

is

convex towards the

when con-

horizon, these two forces act in conjunction, and

cave, in opposition.

accommodates

ever,

is

The formula
itself to

thus determined, how-

these cases

by the

sign of

A%
To

determine the point at which the pressure

is

equal to

the weight, let p == g> which gives

(dy

-f

dx*y

dy %

+ dx^dx -

2{y

y)d y
2

dx

0,

**- + * + -*+&-*
If part of the pressure arising from the weight resolved in
the direction of the normal act in opposition to the part
arising from the centrifugal force, which will be always the
case

when

these

the curve

is

concave towards the horizon

become equal, the pressure on the curve

when

will vanish,

385

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
and the body
determine

this point, let

0,

d2y

(y - y)

dif

dx*'

These general formulae serve

pressure

To

will fly off in the path of a projectile.

dx*

may be found by

for the determination of the

when the equation of the curve

the law of the pressure

given^ or^

is

when

given, the species of the curve

is

We

shall

circle,

the

integration.

proceed to give

some examples.
lv

Let

the

point commencing

tremity (b)

The

be

curve

motion from the ex-

its

6f the horizontal diameter.

equation of the circle being

y*

Jf

ry

X*

dx

dhj __

dx

By

these substitutions,

r~_

~~

y3

and observing that

p =
In

tf

we

0,

find

(y.

this case, the part of the

weight of the moving point re-

solved in the direction of the normal

is

-1

and

fore the part arising from the centrifugal force

there-

is

twice

It follows also that the pressure at the lowest point

.equal Co three times

tile

is

This result evidently gives

weight.

the tension of the string in a

this.

common pendulum;

for the

perpendicular pressure being exerted in the direction of the

radius,

is

the force wbteh would

draw the radius were

it

the

string of a pendulum.

The
is

point

f at which

found by taking cm

the pressure

%: Let the curve be a

J-r,

is

equal to the weight,

and drawing mp.

circle,

the point

commencing
e c

its

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

S86

motion with a given velocity from the extremity n of the

vertical diameter.

Let the

velocity at

be acquired in
ac

= y.

In

stitutions,

To

find the point at

Hence

if

cm

If y =

8.

~ac,

r, that is,

i?

through cd, and

this case,

we

making

let

similar sub-

find

which

will

d be that which would

falling

it

we have

will fly off,

be the point.

if c coincide with v,

we have

Let the curve be the cycloid, having

and the point commence to

move from

its

axis vertical,

the vertex with a

given velocity,

c^

Let the

velocity at

in falling

ac

the equation of the cycloid twice,

dzy

__
~"

dx*

t>

be

would be acquired

that which

through cd, and

By

y.

let

differentiating

we have

r
~~

If'

which being substituted in the general formula, gives

To

determine the point where

y
Hence

if

ca be bisected

it

will fly off,

we have

= y*

at m, the parallel

mp determines

the

point.

If

y=

2r,

and therefore the

initial

velocity be nothings

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY/
the point where

it will fly

off is

887

determined by a parallel to

the base through the middle point of the axis.

If the convexity of the cycloid

is

turned towards the horizon,

y becomes negative, and the formula for

6

When y =

The

the pressure becomes

V2ry

becomes

0, this

negative sign points out that the pressure

and not the convexity.

against the concavity ,

shows that the pressure

if the

is

point the pressure therefore

These

results

exerted

twice that which would be exerted

body were quiescent on the curve.

cycloidal

is

This result

is

At

the lowest

equal to double the weight.

apply to the tension of the string in the

pendulum

and

it

may in general be observed,

that

the formula for the pressure always applies to the tension

of a string to which the moving point

be attached, and which

is

wound

off

may be supposed

to

from the evolute of the

proposed curve (342).

A change of sign in the formula for the pressure indicates

a change in the direction of the pressure, the positive sign
indicating a pressure

The

the concavity.

two

forces already

that point the

on the convexity, and a negative on

sign changes at the point where the

mentioned are equal and opposite, and at

moving point

posed to change

its

will fly off, unless

it

be sup-

position to the concave side of the curve

in which the formula continues to represent the pressure.

Thus,
would

in the second example, if the point at p,

fly off,

where

it

be supposed to be changed to the concave side

of the curve, the formula continues to represent the pressure-,

and we thus

find the pressure at b

2u

c c

58$

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

In

this case, if 3/

r,

the pressure at b

is

equal to twice the

weight.

In

like

manner, in the third example we find the pressure

at b infinite.

This*

through which

moving

it

is

accounted for by the cusp at b

would require an

the

infinite force to carry

point.

PROP. CCCXLVII.
(657.)

To

determine a curve such, that a material point

constrained to

move in it by

theforce

ofgravity

will descend;

with an uniform vertical velocity.

Let the uniform

being supposed to begin

the velocity at

be a,* and the point

vertical velocity

motion from the axis of

its

any point yx of the curve

which being resolved in the

%
%j/ dy

will

xr

be ^>\/g^

vertical direction, gives

a dy

<2

a*dx 29
'

a
which being integrated, gives

6ga

'

which by a transformation of origin may be reduced to the

form
3

y*
the curve sought

is

=jptf:

therefore the semicubical parabola*

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY

PROP. CCCXLVIIIo

A right line

(658.)

ab, fixed at a

to <tn

horizontal line

ax,

is

moveable round a in a vertical plane passing through

ax,

to

determine the locus of the point p, so assumed, that

the time

of descent of a body through pa shall be

the

same

at all elevations s thefriction being supposed proportional to

the pressure.

Let the space which a

body will descend through

a vertical di-

in

freely

time of

the

in

rection
falling

through pa be

and

ae, perpendicular

let

to ax, be equal to

By

s9

$.

the principles of Mechanics, if t be the time of falling

through

s,

m
where

m=

16-^

feet,

and t being expressed

in seconds.

If unity express the weight of the body, and w zz

the pressure on ap

is

the weight acting in the direction pa by the

be a

friction

whole force

cos.

w 9 a being constant
r

an angle

will

sin.

cu

or f

sin.

if

pa

Let the
f be the

a 9 which substituted in the

tan.

sin, (co~~0)

cos. y

Now

if

cos. w

above equation, gives

sin. w.

Hence

be somewhat simpler by assuming

such, that tan.

we have

in the direction pa,

This expression

pax

expressed by cos. w, and the part of

we have

cos. w,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

390

= mFT\
we have

Substituting for r and t their values found above,

cos.

which

is

sin.

(w

S),

the equation of the locus of p.

4- e~-<
= -+
7J

/
If w

">,

cos.

o>

(w

sin.

0),

by which

the equation becomes

cos.

w9

cos.

which

is

the equation of a circle whose centre

is

placed on the

line from which the values of oJ are measured, and whose

diameter

is

to
equal
u

cos,

Hence the locus may be thus constructed. Let ad be

drawn, making the angle ead = 0, and through E draw ae
Hence ad

perpendicular to ed.

The

.,

on the diameter

circle described

da

and dap

therefore the

is

locus.

The segment ape

fulfil

is

the only part of the circle which will

the conditions of the proposition.

ment the tangent of

For

in the other seg-

would be negative, which would be

equivalent to supposing the friction to act 5 not in opposition

but in conjunction with the force

down

speaking, therefore, the locus sought

circle described

is

the

line.

to,

Strictly

the segment of a

upon ae containing an obtuse

angle,

whose

tangent expresses the ratio of the friction to the pressure,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

391

PKOP. CCCXLIX.

(659.) Ttoo weights (a

and b) are connected by a string

which passes over a fixed pulley

cally

which

is vertical

which the weights

one (a) hangs verti-

to

a curve, the plane of

determine the point on the curve at

will be in equilibria.

Let pm and ub be x and

vb

(p)

the other (b) is supported Upon

r.

and

If x be the result of the

forces acting
vertical,

on &? resolved

and y

in the

their result, resolved

by

in the horizontal directions,

the

principles of Statics, the condition of

equilibrium

is

xdx

-h

Ydy

but these forces are a acting in the

di-

rection #p, and b acting vertically ; hence

we

find

Hence

the equation of equilibrium becomes

but since
r3

rdr

= j/

-f x~j

= ydy

4-

xdx,

therefore the equation becomes

hdx

adr

ALGEBRAIC GE0METM,

392

or if the curve be represented by a polar equation.*

dx

cos.

(S cos.

sin.

w dcv,

a)^r #r

sin.

w&r

Jo;

0.

Either of these equations combined with that of the curve

are sufficient to determine the point.

Ex.
is

If the curve be a circle whose centre

1.

in the vertical line passing

and which

represented by the

therefore

is

through the pulley,

equation

- xj + y* = e%
or r* 2x x = xt2
v rtfr #W# =

(x

.-r-

a?

f2

which, combined with the general formula, gives

ax

Hence

cp

if

c being the centre, cp

at,

determines the position of

If a

when vb
If a

and p
jE#.

is

^/d

2,

<a?

vb

a,

which

b.

the equilibrium will take place

a tangent.
"

5,

^/

r,

circle described

with PC as radius,

as centre, gives the point.

Let the curve be an hyperbola, whose tranverse

axis coincides with the vertical passing through the pulley^

and

so placed that the pulley

at the centre.

is

Let the equation of the curve be

Azy*

v
where e

-|-B
V A
/

B # =
2

e*x

- A2 B 2

2
,

2*

By
rdr

differentiating,

e 2 xdxo

we

find

393

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

By

and

this equation

bdx . adr
the differentials being eliminated,

&x
Jf x

cos.

c^,

we

= 0,
we

r.

find

A*

b
cos.

OJ

"a

Let pd be the asymptote

and vp#

+b

a*

to the curve,

and

let

vpd

therefore

a>,

cos.

find

cos. 2

which determines the sought point.

If

an

ca

= 0,

the sought point

infinite distance, or

is

at

what amounts

to the same thing, the weight rests

in equilibrio

As w

on the asymptote.

cannot be greater than

0.

Hence,
is

if

impo

>

cos.

0,

the equilibrium

ible.

prop. cccx.

(660.)

Tojindthe centre ofgravity of the arc or area of

any plane

curve,

its

equation, related to rectangular co-

ordinates, being given.

By the
of matter

principles of Mechanics, if
fi,

jl

w
,

any number of particles

be placed in the same plane, the per-

pendicular distance of their centre of gravity from any line

in that plane

is

equal to the

sum of

the products of the

particles into their respective distances

from that

line di-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

894*

vided by the

sum of the

Hence,

particles.

if

the

sum of the

products be represented by s(py) 9 with respect to the axis

of x, and

sum of

by

s(px), with respect to the axis of

the particles

by

s(p), the co-ordinates

y and
yx of
$

the
the

centre of gravity are

$(py)

The

numerators of these expressions are called the statical

moments of the

particles with

respect

the respective

to

axes.

If therefore

an arc

(a),

it

be required

we have p
Y

da,

to find the centre of gravity of

and $(p)

a,

= fydaT
(a).

Jxdai
If
f

(a ),

it

be required to find the centre of gravity of an area

we have dydx

= p,
=
__

and Jflydx

ffJ dxdy

a!

hence we find

'

Jfdydx
JJxdydx

(3).

Jfda:dy
If the area be intercepted be-

tween two values of

pm

= y,

and p M
f

formulae, integrated for

come

2fydx

~~

Jxydx
fydx

the integrals being taken between the limits

y and y

f
.

scil.

these
}

be-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
If the area be intercepted between

the formulae integrated for

395

pm =

x, and

ph

x become

xd
= fy y

fxdy

(5).

In both the systems of values (4) and

(5),

one of the

must be eliminated by means of the equation of

variables

the curve and

its

and the

differential,

between the required

results integrated

limits give the co-ordinates of the

centre of gravity.

If the axis of

x be an

the curve, and the

axis of

centre of

gravity of the area intercepted

between two ordinates pp, and

must be

p|p'

ax, and in
(4)

upon the

axis

this case the formulae

become

0,

fxydx
x ~
/yd*

And

if

the axis of y be an axis,

a similar area be sought,

(6)

'

and the centre of gravity of

we have
0,

Y ^ foyty
fxdy

1
>(?)

It is plain that these systems of formulas are

independent of

the angle of ordination.

We

shall

proceed to apply these formulae to some ex

amples.
1.

To find the centre ofgravity of a given straight

The
become

given line

itself

being axis of

line.

the formulae (2)

396

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

0,

fxdx
X =
x
the centre of gravity

To find

2.

Let the

is

'

therefore at the point of bisection*

ofgravity of a circular

the centre

axis of

x be the radius bisecting the

origin being at the centre, the equation

v ydy =

but (dy*

-f rf#

a
)

da?,

xdx

and the formulae

(2)

become

0,

'

~~~"

Let 2w be the angle subtended by the arc

Vy

r sin. w, a

= 2rw
x

Hence
arc

is

in general,

at the centre,

hence

sin.

" The centre of gravity of a

circular

that point of the bisecting radius, whose distance from,

the centre

is

to the radius as the sine of half the arc is to

half the arc, or as the chord of the arc

And

and the

arc^

is

= r%

x*

j/2 -f

arc.

it

follows

semicircle

is

from

at

this,

is

to the arc itself."

that " The centre of gravity of a

that point of the bisecting radius whose

distance from the centre

is

a third proportional to the cir-

cumference and the diameter."

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

To find

3.

the centre of gravity of the arc

which

The

897

is

of a

cycloid,

bisected at the vertex.

origin of co-or-

dinates being at the ver-

tex v, let aa' be the arc,

v being

its

middle point.

The

centre of gravity

must

lie

upon the

vc

be

at the vertex,

2r, and,

axis

by the properties of

this curve, if the origin

= 2 y^ry,
aa' = 4 V%ry,
VA

dy_

da

zz

% ^/2r

Vy
By

become

this substitution, the formulae ($)

Y
x

Hence,

The

if

vm

zz

=
=

iy>
0.

^vm, the point

m is the

centre of gravity.

centre of gravity of the entire cycloid

is

at the point

of trisection of the axis next the vertex.

To find

4.

txvo

the centre of gravity of the area intercepted by

parallels intersecting the sides

Let ax be assumed

of a given angle.

bi-

secting the parallels, and

ay

parallel to them.

The

equations of the

sides of the angle are

y
which substituted

a
afx'dx
Jxdx

for

y
o

ax,

in (6), gives

/x s x 3 \
fa?a!*\

x*-\a?

xtf

+ rf*

x + x'

ALCfEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

398

+ x+x

)
x

the integration being effected between the limits

and x

zz

am

zz am'.

If x'
triangle

= 0, the

formula gives the centre of gravity of the

ap^,

which

for

It follows also that

" The centre of gravity of a

triangle

the point where the bisectors of the sides drawn from

is

the opposite angles intersect."

5.

To find

the centre of gravity

of the area intercepted

between two parallel chords of a circle.
.

Axes of co-ordinates being assumed^ with

the origin at the

centre parallel and perpendicular to the given chords, the

equation of the circle

is

x 2 zz ?-%
v xdx zz ydy.
being made in the formulae
y~

This substitution

-f

(6), gives

x z=

fydx
but fy~dx =:

the integral being assumed between

= pm, andj/ z= p'm

= \?p\ therefore if pp' = a,
the limits

j/

and Jydx

Or

if

(&/

sin..(w'

3a

'

the angle pcx

p'cx ==

w)
a
r2 {(w'
which substitutions give

zz pm'

cJ 9

we

w) cos, (&/

w) sin. (&/ a) cos.

w,

find

(w'

+ w)j,

+ w)"

and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
If

899

the formula gives the centre of gravity of the

segment p xp'3 which

f

determined by

is

sin.

3'

a/ sin. a/ cos.

'

a>'

It

this case. if':

the result becomes

r
*3"

"IT*

which determines the centre of gravity of a semicircko

Hence

the centre of gravity of the area of a semicircle

<c

that point in the bisecting radius,

centre

is

whose distance from the

a third proportional to three times the circum-

is

ference and the diagonal of the circumscribed square."

6.

To

determine the centre ofgravity of the area inter-

cepted between ttvo parallel chords

Let the diameter

to

which those chords are ordinates be

the axis of #, and the tangent through

j/ ?

of a parabola.

its

vertex the axis of

the equation will be

y*

jpx,

dx.

This substitution

in the formulae (6) gives

pfy*dy'

which being integrated between the

y=

gives

If y

'p(3/

-y

3 )'

0, the result is

-_3
p

fX.

limits

pm, and

4@0

ALGEBRAIC GECJTMETRtV

Hence the

centre of gravity of the parabolic segment vkp

fa'

determined by assuming ac equal to three-fifths of am,

7.

cepted

To

determine the centre ofgravity of the area inter-

between two parallel chords of an ellipse or hy-

perbola.

Let the diameter

bisecting those chords

and

its

con-

jugate be assumed as axes of co-ordinates, and the equation

df the curve

is

&V

which being substituted in

2a*

bW =

a 2 b zf

(6), gives

fy~du

where a expresses the area intercepted between the

chords, and

yx

the angle of ordination.

parallel

This being

in-

tegrated between- the usual limits, gives

^To

sin,

yx/

If y == 0, this becomes

= 2aV

"IwT

sm

which determines the centre of gravity of an

Hyperbolic segment.

elliptic

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
If the curve be an

ellipse,

and

3/

b,

401
the formula be-

comes
%a*b

but

being that of the semiellipse, be-

in this case, the area

= -iy^tf, ci and V being the semiaxes

ab sin. yx = a!U, the formula becomes

comes a

and

since

4#

Hence the

centre of gravity

meter 2b, and therefore

is

independent of the dia-

all semiellipses,

bisected

by the same

semidiameter, have the same centre of gravity, and which

is

determined in the same manner as that of a semicircle.

86

To find

of gravity of the area intercepted

one asymptote of an hyperbola ter-

the centre

between two parallels

to

minated in the other asymptote.

The

equation of the hyper-

bola, related to its asymptotes,

is

=m
v ydx = xdy>
yx

v xydx = x xdy =
Also, y*dx

= yccdy = m dy.
2

Making the

substitutions

in the formulae (4),

= m

fydx
1)

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

402

hxxtfydx

= -fx&y = -

m*f-^

= - mHy +

formulae being integrated between the limits

y=

The

pm, and

pm, give

To

~-y

3/

~9

determine the centre of gravity of the area inter-

qfj of a parabolic curve

am~~ l x*

cepted between parallels to the axis

m
represented by the equation y

By

differentiation,

my"

By

c.

this substitution, the formulae (4)

m+l

become
-~y m + 2

2(j+2) y^+i-^+i'
e

2wi

If ^

fm+2

+l

an *- (ym +
1

the values become

The examples 4 and

6 are cases of this,

-y m + /
1

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

403

PROP. CCCLI,
(661.)

To

of gyration and per-

investigate the centres

of an arc or area of a plane

cussion or oscillation

curve.

Let abcd be a body move-

and g

able on an axis bd,

centre of gravity,

and

its

of

let

be drawn through the centre

of gravity perpendicular to
the axis bd.

In revolving on

the axis, let the

body be sup-

posed to strike a fixed ob-

any

stacle at

any

forcejf; there

d from

the axis of rotation, with

a certain point in the line fe, at which,

is

whole mass of the body were concentrated, the

if the

would
point

fe

distance,

strike the obstacle at

If the angular velocity at the

the force (f) with which the
at e, will

moving

fe

this

ofgyration.

called the centre

is

line

E with the same force;

moment of impact be

body

be a function of the distance

force of the entire

mass

given,

will strike the obstacle

(d).

But

since the

independent of the point

is

of impact, and. the same at whatever distance the obstacle

may be

applied, the whole of

pended on the

obstacle.

must, from the nature of

axis,

entire

cannot be in

it

What

is

all cases

not expended upon

it

be exerted upon the fixed

inertia,

which therefore sustains an equivalent shock.

moving force of the mass

ex-

is

then equal to the

The
sum of

the forces of the impact on the obstacle at e, and the shock

upon

the axis of rotation.

line ef, at which,

if

There

is

a certain point in the

the obstacle were placed,

receive an impact equal to the whole

moving

it

would

force of the

revolving mass, and at which therefore the axis would suifer

no

force.

This point

The determination

is

called the centre

ofpercussion.

of the centre of percussion involves that

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

404

As

of spontaneous rotation.

of percussion would destroy

without producing any

a fixed obstacle at the centre

all

the

moving

force of the body,

on the axis of rotation,

effect

lows, that a force applied at the same point

it fol-

upon the body

supposed quiescent, would produce a rotatory motion round

Relatively therefore to any point not coinciding with

bd.

a corresponding centre of

the centre of gravity, there

is

spontaneous rotation, which

may be

determined by con-

and thence

sidering the former as the centre of percussion,

determining the axis of rotation.

The

centre of percussion possesses also a

more re-

still

markable property.

If the axis of motion be horizontal,

and the body vibrate

as a

tion will be the

same

pendulum, the time of

as that of a single particle

From

at the centre of percussion.

of percussion

We

tion.

is

shall

Let p be any

The

this property, the centre

called the centre

now proceed

determine these points.

to

particle of the body,

axis of motion at the

vibra-

more generally

the axis of motion, and

particle

its

suspended

let

co

moment

will therefore

be

and

z its

of oscilla-

distance

from

be the angular velocity on the

of impact

go;,

and

the velocity of the

its

moving

quantity of this which acts at the point e

the whole impact upon the obstacle at e

is

force pzw.

is^~-.

As

composed of the

forces of all the particles in the body, the value

off may be

thus expressed

J~
where

${pz~) signifies the

multiplying every particle

d
sum of the products found by
of the body by the square of its
'

distance from the axis of rotation.

The quantity

$(pz*),

which

is

called the

moment of inertia

of the body with respect to the axis on which

to revolve,

is

lating to the

of considerable importance in

it is

all

motion of a body upon a fixed

supposed

theorems reaxis.

The

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
determination of

405

value depends upon the figure and mass

its

of the body, and the line on which

supposed to revolve.

it is

We shall presently give the methods of determining

it

where

the particles of the body form any line or plane surface*

Let g be the distance of the centre of gyration from the

By

axis of rotation.

where

the conditions of

expresses the mass of the body.

G
that

we

find

Hence,

- ~^r~'

" the square of the distance of the centre of gyration

is,-

from the axis of motion

inertia

its definition,

is

found by dividing the moment of

by the mass of the body."

It appears, therefore, that the

same body may have

dif-

ferent centres of gyration corresponding to different axes of

motion.

Of these,

that which corresponds to an axis passing

through the centre of gravity

of gyration.

is

called the principal centre

remarkable relation subsists between the

and any other centre of gyration.

position of this

express the distance of any particle

1

Let z

the axis of

p from

motion passing through the centre of gravity, and d the

and any other axis

distance between this

is

parallel to

It

it.

obvious that
z*

v pz
v

s(pz*)

= z -f b -f %nz\
= pz -f pv + %vpz\
= $(pz' ) + s{pD + 2v${pz
z

!z

).

If G be the distance of the principal centre of gyration

f

from the centre of gravity,

_ s(^)

(jr

Hence, since g 2 m
is

the statical

s(ps 2 ), and g ,2 m

moment

s(ps ra ), and as s(pz^

of the body with respect to a line

through the centre of gravity, and therefore s(ps')

we

find

0,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

406

=
=

G2 M

V
Hence

D 3 M,

+B Z

G fa

the centre of gyration, with respect to a

be found

if

parallel to

To

G3

G/2 M

axis,

can

the centre of gyration, with respect to an axis

through the centre of gravity, be given.

it

determine the centre of percussion,

by the

to estimate the shock sustained

it

if the

entire

moving

will

be necessary

by

axis of rotation

the impact of the body on the point e.

Now,

force of the

Let

this

mass be

bey7
f,

the

condition

=S+f

'

must be
is

As

fulfilled.

the moving force of the whole mass

composed of the moving

may

forces of

its

parts, the value of

be found by considering that the moving force of any

particle j? is pzw,

and therefore
F

= &s(pz),
cvs(pz
= ~~- +f,
z

us(pz)

This equation expresses the shock sustained by the axis of

To

rotation.

determine the centre of percussion, d must be

assumed of such a value

as to fulfil the condition

f'
Let

this

value be l

0.

s(p)

L =

s(ps 2 )

0,

s(pz)
that

is,

the distance of the centre of percussion from the

axis of rotation

by

is

found by dividing the moment of inertia

the statical moment.'"

It is not difficult to

also the centre

prove that the centre of percussion

is

of oscillation.

Let the axis of motion be conceived

to

be placed in an

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

407

horizontal position, and the force of gravity acting on the

body

will cause

The body

to have a motion of vibration.

it

being supposed to have descended from any position,

be supposed

to

let it

have acquired an angular velocity w, when

the angular distance of

centre of gravity from a vertical

its

passing through the axis of motion

and

is p,

let

the angular

p from the vertical be ^. The part

of the force of gravity (g) which acts in accelerating the
any

distance of

particle

is

sin.

the particle

is

gp

particle

\J/ 3

and therefore the force impressed on

In the equation

sin. <K

fd =
\{gs(pz

sin.

ws(pz % )
duo
-=7 for

^) be substituted forJd, and

u 9 the

re-

sult is

gs(pz

sin.

gMD

sin.

^md

sin.

Also, since

to

d<p

#) = Mi)
<p

~jr

&=
= -

sin.

<,

s{p%

d*<p

Hence,

-j-s(pz Q ).

Multiplying both sides of this equation by

grating, the result

9guj>
or,

To
co

%d<p>

and

inte-

is

cos.

2g-MD cos.

-f

<p

<p

-J-

z=

determine the constant a,

d^

j-s(pz 2 )

w2

s(p* 2 ).

let

<p

be the value of

= 0.

<p

when

= 0; v
S^MD

COS.

<p

Subtracting this equation from the former, and solving for

%

__ Qg-MD (COS.
~~

<p

s(pz

COS,

cu*

(p

2
)

Th's equation determines the angular velocity acquired by

the

body

in falling

from a quiescent

state

through the angle

ALGEBKAIC GEOMETRY,

408
l

<p

To

tp.

from the

determine the distance of a single particle

would acquire the same

To

which, in moving through the same angle

axis,

velocity, let

d be

distance.

its

apply the general formula just found to

this case,

we

must suppose

m=

p,

d
2

and s(p 2 )

cZ,

""

= pd

^gP&

Dividing the former equation by

MD

this,

!
*

"

"

we

find

${pz)'

l.

at the distance l

Hence, a point placed

Hence,

cos 9 ~~ cos
(

from the centre of

motion would vibrate in the same time as the body

The

calculation of the time of vibration of

body

is

= mg
G

and

",

also

g' 4

From

D%
r D.

this formula, the centre

diately found

of oscillation

may be imme-

from the principal centre of gyration.

the formula

~
it

any pendulous

thus reduced to the case of a simple pendulum.

Since s(mz'

By

itself.

follows, that

gyration,

and

s[mzz )
s(mz)

g2

" the distances of the centres of

oscillation,

gravity,

from the centre of motion, are in

continued proportion."
Also, since

L
it

follows, that

and

"the

oscillation is

g' 2

distance between the centres of gravity

a third proportional to the distances be-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

409

tween the centres of gravity and motion, and between the

principal centre of gyration

and the centre of gravity."

If the axis of suspension be changed to the centre of

be the distance of the

oscillation, let 1/

new

new

centre of oscil-

and D the distance of the centre of gravity from the

f

lation,

Hence,

axis of motion.

ir

but

d'

Therefore.

-p

l/=D +
or, 1/

that

the former point of suspension becomes the

is,

The

centre of oscillation.

centres of oscillation

new

and rotation

are therefore convertible.

In applying these principles to the arcs and areas of

plane curves, we shall confine ourselves to the case where
the axis of rotation
I.

To

is

in the plane of the curve.

determine the moment of inertia of the arc of a

plane curve revolving round an axis in

Let the

axis of motion

pendicular to
this case,

be taken as axis

as axis of x,

it

and z

ds,

its

and

let s

own plane.
of?/,

and a per-

equal the arc.

In

therefore,

s(pz*) ^.fx*ds.

Ex.

1.

If the revolving line be a right line represented by

the equation

y
By

differentiating,

dy

tan.
we

<p

<p

dx

b == 0,

-f-

find
tan.

v ds = \/dy -f dx
v s(pzz = sec. <pja;*dx.
2

=
%

0,

.= sec.

<p

Integrating this between the limits x and x\

dx9

410

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
3

s(pz)

x and x

Z?

sec.

being the values of

x' 3

for the extremities of the

line.

If the length of the line be m,

we

find

m = sec, <p(x x )
&(pz*) = ^m(x* -f x x + x
!

V
Hence we

).

find the centre of gyration

Gs

And

,z

Kx*

XX
f

-f

X*).

middle point of the

since the centre of gravity is the

line

= i{x + af)
_ 2(a? + + ^
VL~
3(x+x'j
d

)
'

which determines the centre of oscillation.

If the line be parallel to the axis of y,

The

= #,

x\

x*

and gravity, therefore,

centres of oscillation, gyration,

coincide in this case.

If the axis of y pass through the middle point of the line

x\ hence,
g'

Ex.
sented

Let the revolving

\x*.

be the arc of a circle repre-

line

by the equation
2
Q
y +x

rdy

v ds
V

s(jp a )

Hence,

if

rfxdy.

aa be
(

the arc, and

the axis of rotation, Jxdj/

area ph&!p

acx

<p,

and a'cx

= V, v
= CAp +

pAA p'
f

To

CAA'

express

CA'//;

is

YY

the

this, let

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
\*Jxdy

s(/?

= 4-r
= -Jr

+ sin.
+ i sin.
}

|<f>

cos.

<p

<p

{<p

%5

<p

411

<p

i-

sin.

p cos.

<p'}

sin. 2p'}.

Let the length of the arc a a' be m, and

m
To

r((<p ~- p').

we

find the centre of gyration,

= -^{:
The

have, therefore,

%$

sin.

distance of the centre of gravity

circle

being
sin. i(<p

r
Its distance

r-

==

id?- )

<p

sm.

<p

from the centre of the

is

cos. i(<p-+fl)

0'

we have

for the centre of oscillation,

d)

sin.

sin.

Hence,

2p'

from the axis of rotation

sin.

-.

sin.

sin. 2<p

<p'

^ Csin. p-sin.

9,$ 1

$sin. <p~2sin. <p'3

<p'

we have

If the point x bisects the arc aa',

<p

<p ,

and

the several formulae become

s(ps 2 )

lr

sin.

For the

semicircle yxy',

<p

{2<p
^

a
p

sin.

2p},

sin.

2p 7

formulae become

g2

sin.

-Jr

2
,

3
2sin. f
f>

and p

= -^-, and the

ALGEBRAIC GE0METHY.

41

~~

For the whole

become

circle these

rV,

to

=0,

s(p#

To

22#. 3.

2
)

determine the

-a'

00

moment of inertia of
and revolving on

arc terminated at the vertex,

The

"

base being assumed as axis of

oc,

a cycloidal

its

and the

base.

axis being

expressed by a,
s

To

integrate this, let

-v/t

Vay

and

d?/

dy,

->

Say* + fy* if

/y

supplied, as the arc

at the vertex;

dfe/

y = y,

*-

v s(p2 s =
No constant is

y)

2^/a(a

= Va

as

.'

is

-jy

$.

supposed to terminate

the vertex be taken as the middle

point of the arc, the expression becomes

$(pz~)

In

this

upon the
Since

formula
axis

4 Vay' I a 2
it

\ij

\atf \

should be observed, that

from the vertex.

5=4 *Jay\
g*

we

find

a*

\if-

\a\f

y is

measured

41$

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
and

since

\y\

For the whole

a%

cycloid

iz

+ ry -r a}/

l
it

cycloid

and the formulae become

= ^Ta\
= ^-a.

g*

Hence

a,

appears that the time of vibration of the entire

equal to the time of vibration of a simple pen-

is

dulum, the length of which

is

equal to four-fifths of the

axis,

To

II.

determine the moment of inertia of the area of a

plane curve revolving on an axis in

As

before, let the axis of motion be

and a perpendicular
Since

its

dk

to

as axis of

it

own plane.

assumed

x and
3

let

as axis of y v

a be

the area

dydx, we find
s(p 2 ) Jfx^dydx,

which being integrated for y, gives

z
s(jp2t) Jx ydx,

either of the co-ordinates

or

being eliminated by means

of the equation of the curve, and the result integrated for

the other, the integral so determined, taken between proper
limits, will

Ex.
right

To

1.

ment of

be the moment of inertia sought.

determine the mo-

inertia of the area of a

angled triangle

round one of the

revolving

sides of the right

angle.

Let ba

3/',

and ac
afy

x\ the equation of bc

+ y x y'% =
l

y(# x)
r

0,

is

ALGEBRAIC GE0MET11Y.

414

y
= ~fx

s(pz*)

(x

#>Jr,

which, by integration, gives

ifx^f x

No
x

constant

added, the area being supposed

is

The

0.

inertia of the

integral, as

it

sQ>*)

let

#'

To

de-

'

is

iy x\ we
]

find

^'.

If the triangle be supposed to

passing through

moment

x.

hence

Ex.

Am =
v

== x\

= when
moment of

12

since the area of the triangle

but d

In

stands, expresses the

trapezium BpmA, in which

termine that of the triangle,

And

x\

c,

move on an

axis

perpendicular to ca, to determine the

of inertia.

of the point b be y x 9 the

this case, if the co-ordinates

equation of cb

is

x ly

y x = 0,
]

<K) =

^A dx,
z

which, extended to the entire area, gives

!

s(pz*)

x'

4
Since the area

\y x > and d
]

G*

jE#. 3. If the

by the equation

\x\ we find

^,

curve be a parabola of any order represented

415

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

By

substituting this value in the general formula,

and in-

tegrating

#m+8

SO*2)

Jy

m +1
m 1
= +X*%
m +t

-^Ta

Since

G*

but

J>

-x hence
:

m+3
m = 4, v

In the common parabola

G2

3 /v2

Let the curve be a

JRr. 4.

circle represented

by the

equation

y*

v
If a?

cos.

s(ps

and

<p 9

s(pz*)

x*

=j&

r*

A/r a

= r sin.

ry*sin.

=
<p,

2
<p

0,

this

cos.

Jr.

a?*

becomes

2,

<prf<p,

which being integrated, gives

= |r

s(pz*)

| sin.

3
<p

cos.

no constant being added 3

To

<P

cos ?

by

4?

moment of

the sine, versed sine5 and

express that of the segment contained by the arc,

the chord of which

s(pz^)

If

4 s* n

expresses the

this

inertia of the area included

arc.

p ~-

a be

\r*{

sin.

2y,
3
<p

it

becomes

cos.

<p

4 sin,

<p

the area of the segment

Hence we

is

find

r\<p ~* sin,

<p

cos,

<p).

cos.

<p

+ 4P }

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

416

Extending

<p

sin.

cos.

(p

this to the semicircle, let

it

'

g2

but in

= T v
= i-r
2

this case.

4r

""

3r7r

16

PROP. CCCLII.

(66.)

vessel sails between

two light-houses ;

track she must describe so as to receive

tofind the

an equal quantity of

light from each.

The

intensity of the lights being expressed

by m, m\ and

the distances #, & , the quantities of light will be

f

77i!

-,

-;

hence we have

mz*

m'z'K

This equation being expressed with relation to rectangular

one of which

axes,

is

the line joining the

light-houses,

becomes

m \y +
z

(#

%'Y = m {y* +
!

(x

7 2
)

\,

x\ x \ being the distances of the light-houses from the

This equation, when disposed acorigin of co-ordinates.
]

cording to the dimensions of the variables,

f~

2(m^ mV
m mj~x
)

is

mw m!x
+
m m'
2

"

]l

0*

A L G E B It A I C G E O M E T It Y

When m

and

are not equal, this

the centre of which

circle,

, from the

m m'

417
the equation of a

is

on the axis of x

is

Eut

origin.

if

at the distance
!

it

is

a right
&

perpendicular to and bisecting the right line joining the

light-houses.

PROP. CCCLIII,

(fi6 S.)

To find

the

image of a straight

Vine in

a spherical

reflector.

Let o be the centre of the

and cv that radius which

reflector,

is

perpen-

dicular to the straight line ab, and f the

acb

any

point, let cb'

By

Let ca

principal focus.

#,

= b,

cf

w and B being the image of

f

z.

the principles of optics,

bf

b'f

OF 9 ,

which gives the equation

(-iL
v
cos.

which solved

for

h) lb
v

cos.

-\

a
the image

species depends

z)

6*

z, is

Hence

to

a line of the second degree, whose

is

on the distance of the straight

centre of the reflector

radius, the image

is

if this

an

ellipse

line

from the

distance be less than half the

;

if equal,

a parabola

greater, an hyperbola.

F,

and

if

418

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
PROP. CCCLIV.

(664.)

To find, the image of a

straight line

Let

made by a

lens.

c be the centre of

the lens, and, as in the last

proposition,

cf

By

5,

acb

let

ca

w, cb'

= a,
= z>

the principles of optics,

as before,

we

find

b
h
1

Hence

the

cos.

-J

same conclusions follow

as in the last proposition

PROP. CCLV.
(665.) To find a refracting curve such, that parallel
homogeneous rays incident on it shall be all refracted to the

same

point.

X
Let the incident rays pr be
the normal to the point

parallel to ax,

By

p.

and

let

pn be

the principles of optics, the

sine of the angle of incidence bears

an invariable

ratio to the

medium being supposed

angle pnx is the angle of

sine of the angle of refraction, the

of uniform density.
incidence,

Now,

the

and the angle apn

is

the angle of refraction,

therefore
sin.
sin.

m being constant. By

APN
pnx

(327)

we

find

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

where z

sin,

By

and

== ap,

pnx

oj

zdw

Hence

pax.

sin.

dz

apn

tan.

419

cos.

apn +

cos.

apn.

sin.

these substitutions in the first equation, the result

dz

dz

saw

#aa>

- =s ^ (-

or

dfe

COS.

cu

m(cos. wdfe

is

w),

sill,

srf cos. w),

which, by integration, gives

mx

cos.

vo

mc,

mc

or z

This

is

= 1 m cos.
r

cj

the equation of a line of the second degree, whose

m, and whose axis coincides with ax, and

eccentricity is

whose focus

is a.

according as

m<

The
1,

curve will be an

m>

or

1,

that

is,

ellipse or

hyperbola,

according as the rays

are supposed to pass into a denser or rarer

medium.

The value of c remains indeterminate, which shows that

eccentricity equal to

any curve having the

axes

may

be, will

m, whatever

its

the proposed conditions.

fulfil

PK0P. CCCLVI.
(666.)

To

determine the caustic hy reflection of a given

curve.

Let apc be the curve, f

~~~

the focus of incident rays,

fp being a ray incident

if

at

po be normal to the curve,

its reflection

pb' will

the angle opb'

by the
circle,

ops.

make
Now,

principles of optics, if o be the centre of the osculating

and the

lines ob, ob',

the intercepts pb,

point/of the

pb',

caustic

be perpendicular to pb,

be bisected at
is

6, V,

found by taking

pb',

and

the corresponding

Vfa

third propor-

e e 2

mo

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
f& and

tional to
circle,

Since op

b?.

chord be

this

let

By

vf=zv.

c,

and

c,

fp

let

and

the conditions already expressed,

of

the radius of the osculating

pb must be half the chord which coincides with the

incident ray

From

is

this equation, that

4^

c"

of the curve and the

known value

the locus of/* may, without difficulty, be determined.

If the incident rays be parallel, z

this case, the

is infinite,

therefore, in

formula becomes
i-C

PROP. CCCLVII.
(667.)

To find

when

the caustic

the reflecting curve is a

ofincident rays being on

c = % = pf, therefore

circle^ the focus

In. this case

its

circumference.

Sinceyp

through

-Iff, a parallel to

will

intercept

cp

cd

equal to a third of the radius,

therefore

d is a fixed point. Let

/a be perpendicular
join da.

It

is

to cp,

a right angle, and since

is

and pa bear the same

bf and
a/,

and cp

w,

da

and

daf

af, the angle

andybE

since <J

>

=
=
=

and

r,

da

sin.

sin.

*r

sin.

Bfz,

w\

w\
2

cJ

the equation of the caustic

z
or z

^sin. 2 4^,
r(l

de

ratio to

Let the angle pfe be

right.

is

and

obvious that d/a

cos. w).

is

421

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
which

the equation of a cardioide, whose base

is

a circle

and the radius of which

concentrical with the given circle,

is

is

one-third of the radius of the given circle.

If therefore cd

~cf, and a circle be described with c as

and cd as radius, the cardioide, whose base

centre,

is this

the caustic.

circle, is

PROP. CCCLVIII.

Tofind the caustic by reflection, when the reflecting

(668.)

a circle^ and parallel rays are incident in

curve

is

of the

circle.

the plane

Let ck be a radius
of the

drawn

circle

perpendicular to the
incident rays

fa be
at

and

let

a ray incident

a and let caf = cab,

ab will be the reflected

ray; and

ca be

if

bisected at d,

and db be drawn per-

pendicular to ba, the point b will be the focus of an indefinitely small pencil

The

object

Let

is

of rays incident at a, and parallel to fa.

therefore to determine the locus of the point b.

bg be drawn

be and

And

respectively.

let

bg

x>

parallel

cg

to

y,

ck and af

ac

=
By what has been stated, we find
AB = ir sin.
AE = AB .COS. (tf~-.2p)= AB COS. $p \r Sin.

ack

r,

and

<p.

<p,

v ae= \r
be ab

v BE=^r
But
cf

since

sin.
sin.

sin.

r cos.

<p

<p

(tt-^) = ab

COS.2<? 2

sin. %<p 9

sin. %<p*

af ae,
<p 9

<?

cos. 2<p,

and y

= cf gf, and af =s

r sin.

<p^

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

422

=z

sin.

cos.

<p

.|r sin.

<p

cos. 2<p,

<p

ir

<p

sin. $<p

sin.

but by trigonometry,

Making

By

sin.

<p

cos. 2<p

sin*

<p

sin.

2$

= -J(sin.
= i(cos.

these substitutions,

we

== (ir 4*

%r)

I r ) cos

(4 r

-i-

3<p

sin. <p\

3<p

cos. p).

find, after reduction,

sin.
-

<p

-f-

<?

ir

sin. 3<p

i r cos &(?
-

comparing these equations with those of epicycloids in

(507),

it is

of which

obvious that the caustic

is

is

an epicycloid, the base

concentrical with the given circle,

being half that of the given

circle,

its

radius

and the radius of the

generating circle being one-fourth of the radius of the given

circle.

prop, cccxxx.

(669.)

To find the caustic by reflection^ the reflecting

common cycloid, and the incident rays being

curve being the

parallel to its axis.

Let c be the centre of the base of the

be a ray incident at a $ and
point a,

let

dae

to db, the point

=
b

dab, and

will

da being
let

cycloid,

and

let

fa

the normal to the

db be drawn perpendicular

be the focus of reflection of a small

pencil of parallel rays incident at A in the direction fa. For,

since

by the

properties of the cycloid already proved,

da

is

half the radius of the osculating circle (492), the pencil of

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

4<8

rays parallel to af must be brought to a focus at

object

is

Let bg and be be

af and ck

parallel to
9

y y = y cos. 2<p
x x =
sin. 2<p
]

cos. 2<p

Making these

and

respectively,

af = y\ cf = x\ bg = y and cg = x 9 and daf

Since ba = af, and baf = 2daf, we have

let

but

The

b.

therefore to find the locus of the point b.

<p.

j/'

-, and

sin. 2<?

~~
= - ^ y

and finding the values of y and

substitutions,

x\ we have

Making these

is

2rj/

= -

ry,

substitutions in

yr
which

cos.

J^rJ^J

2-

_ ry

A/ r 2

T
Now,

it

0,

the equation of the cycloid when the origin

the middle point of the base, the result

r=

*+ Vry-y =

#+
cos.

cos. %uj

and hence we

w3

cos. 2

cos.

a;

=
=

is

at

is

^ rv y*
=
7

a
0.

*/r*ry

-I",

find

y_

cos.

l+^Z^ - |r = 0,
2,'

which

is

evidently the equation of a cycloid described

half the base of the given one, and which

caustic sought.

is

upon

therefore the

424

AL&EBEA1C GEOMETIIY,

PKOP. CCCLX.
(670.)

To jind

the caustic by reflection,

the reflecting

curve being the logarithmic spiral, and thefocus of incident

rays being at its pole.

Let p be the pole of the

spiral,

and px the

in position,

angle apx

line

is

measured,

pa being a ray incident

let

given

from which the

at

ac be the radius of the

osculating circle.

By

the pro-

perties of this spiral, p

is

the

middle point of the chord of

the osculating

circle,

and

cpa

is

a right angle; and if P

be the focus of incident rays by the principles of optics, the

focus b of reflected rays

cab equal
at
let

to cap,

is

found by drawing

and cb perpendicular

which the radius vector

is

to ab.

B,

a,

making

The

angle

inclined to the tangent being

0*

the equation of the spiral be

V=
And let

pb

z,

and bpx

==

v
which

is

a wK

o>,

andBPA

= sec.
= 2 cos. aPr
-

0,

we

find

0,

~t,

the equation of a logarithmic spiral similar to the

given one, and which

is

therefore the caustic sought,

ALGEBIIA1C GEOMETRY.

4/25

SECTION XXIV.
Praxis.

Given the base and the sum of the

(1 .)

to determine the loci of the points

inscribed square meet the sides,

sides of a triangle

where the angles of the

and

also that of the centre

of the inscribed square.

(2.)

In a right angled triangle given

position,

in

magnitude and

one of the sides containing the right angle, to find

the locus of the centre of the inscribed circle,

Given the base and

(3.)

determine when the

To

(4.)

vertical angle of a triangle, to

sum of the

sides is a

determine the greatest

maximum.

ellipse inscribable in

given triangle, and touching one of the sides at a given

point.

To find the greatest triangle inscribable in a circle,,

To find the least triangle which can be circumscribed

(5.)
(6.)

about a
(7.)
(8.)

circle.

To
To

find the greatest rectangle inscribable in a circle.

find the least quadrilateral

scribed round a
(9)

Given

which can be circum-

circle.

in position

two

sides of a triangle,

and a point

through which the third side passes, to determine the

angle so that the

sum

tri-

of the sides given in position shall be

a minimum.
(10.)

On

the

same conditions,

that the area shall

(11.)

to construct the triangle so

be a minimum.

Given the base of a

triangle, the ratio of the

sum of

the squares of the sides to the rectangle under them, to find

the locus of the vertex.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

426

Given the base of a

(12.)

sum of

triangle.,

and the

ratio of the

the squares of the sides to the difference of their

squares, to find the locus of the vertex.

A triangle of a given area has an angle given in po-

(18.)

sition, to find

a curve to which the opposite side

is

always a

tangent.
(14.)

The sum

of the circumferences of an epicycloid and

hypocycloid, described with the same base,

is

independent

of the magnitude of the base when their generating

circles

are equal.
(15.)

To

determine when an epicycloid

is

an algebraic,

and when a transcendental curve.

(16.)

To

determine the nodes of an epitrochoid, the de-

scribing point being outside the circumference of the gene-

rating circle.
(17.)

To

determine the inflections of an epitrochoid, the

describing point being within the generating circle.

(18.)

A circle being described concentrical with the

base

of an epitrochoid, and with a radius equal to the difference

between the sum of the

circle,

radii of the base

and generating

and the distance of the describing point from the

centre to the generating circle, to determine the points

when

the epitrochoid meets this circle, and the position of the

tangent to the epitrochoid at these points.

(19.)

To

determine the position of the tangent to an epi-

cycloid at the points where

(20.)

To

it

meets the base.

apply investigations similar to the preceding to

Irypotrochoids and hypocycloids.

(21.)

To deduce the equations

of cycloids in general from

those of epitrochoids.
(22.)

To

exhibit the different analogies between epitro-

choids and cycloids.

(28.)

Two lines of the

line touches

second degree being given, a right

one of them and cuts the other, and through

427

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
the points of section two tangents are

drawn

to

determine

the locus of their point of intersection.

(24.)

To

determine the curve in which the perpendicular

from the origin on the tangent

is

always equal to half the

normal through the point of contact.

(25.)

To

find the curve in which the normal bears a given

ratio to the part of the axis of

intercepted between

a?,

it

and

a given point.
(26.)

To

find the equation of the curve in which the

radius of curvature varies as the inclination of the tangent

to a line given in position.
(27.)

To

determine the locus of the vertex of a triangle

constructed on a given base, one of the angles at the base

differing

from twice the other by a given angle.

The

(28.)

vertices of

two angles given in magnitude are

given in position, and the point of intersection of one pair of

sides describes a right line, to find the curve described

by

the point of intersection of the other sides.

To

(29.)

determine the curve whose tangent

equal to the part of the axis intercepted between

is
it

always

and the

origin.

(80.) If the ordinate to the axis of a line of the second

degree be produced until the produced part equals the

normal, to find the locus of

To

(31.)

that

its

inscribe

an

area shall be a

(82.) If

two

extremity.

maximum,

sides of a triangle

arc be divided

number

its

ellipse in a

into

the same

of equal parts, and the

points of division of one

beginning

from

the

side,

base,

be

joined with those of the other

side,

beginning from the vertex,

to find the

curve on which the

given parallelogram, so

428

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

intersections of every pair of consecutive lines taken in this

order are placed.

(33.) If

on two

sides of a triangle abc, equal parts

sumed, to find the curves on which the points p of

be

as-

inter-

section of every pair of lines joining the successive points of

division are placed.

(34.)

explain and prove the principle of the

To

Pen-

tagraph.

For a

description of this instrument, see Hutton's

Mathe-

matical Dictionary.
(35.)

To

determine the area and inflection of a curve, in

which y varies as the square of the

(36.)

A circle

a point on

revolves in

its

sine of

oc.

own plane uniformly round

circumference, and at the same time a point

its

on the circumference revolves round the centre with the

same angular motion,

(37.)

The

to find the curve traced

length of a circular arc

a radius that the area of the segment

(38.)

To

find the point in

an

by

this point.

given, to find such

is

may be

ellipse,

maximum.

where the part of

the tangent between the point and a perpendicular from the

centre

is

(39.)

maximum.

To

find

where the intercept of the tangent between

a perpendicular from the focus of the ellipse and the point

of contact
(40.)

is

From

maximum.
a given point

ellipse, so that the

maximum.

to

draw a

line intersecting

part intercepted within the curve

an

may be

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
(41.)

To

429

find the greatest ellipse inscribable in a semi-

circle.

(42.)

and

An

angle of a triangle being given in magnitude

and the sum of the containing

position,

sides being

constant, to find the curve to which the side opposite to

it is

always a tangent.
(43.)

and

An

angle of a triangle being given in magnitude

position,

and the

difference of the containing sides being

given, to find the curve to which the opposite side

is

always

a tangent,
(44.)

To

find the least triangle

which can be included by

a tangent to a given curve and the axes of co-ordinates.

(45.)

To

find the greatest parallelogram which can be

included under the co-ordinates of a point in a curve.

(46.)

bola,

Given the length of the arc of a semicubical para-

to find

ordinate of
(47.)

when

its

extremity, shall

it,

and the co-

be a maximum.

To determine the curve

and concentric
(48.)

the area included by

which

shall intersect similar

ellipses at right angles.

To determine

the curve which shall cut any

number

of ellipses or hyperbolas, having the same centre and vertex

at right angless.

(49.)

To

determine the locus of the points of contact of

concentric circles, touching similar and similarly posited

concentric ellipses
(50.)

To

describe a circle with a given centre,

and touch-

ing a given parabola.

(51.)

cept of

(5%)

To draw
it

a tangent to an ellipse, so that the inter-

between the axes

To

shall

be a minimum.

express the area of the sector of an ellipse con-

tained by the axis and the radius vector in terms of the eccentric anomaly.
(53.) If a portion

be assumed on the ordinate

to the axes

of an ellipse equal to the semiconjugate diameter, to find

the locus of

its

extremity.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

430

To

(54.)

circumscribe a given ellipse by a triangle whose

area shall be a minimum,,

Two

(55.)

points b and c and a circle being given, to de~

point p on the circle from

C termine a

which right
centre,

and

the sines

lines

being drawn to the

to the

two given

points,

of the angles apc and ape,

which the radius forms with the

lines

to the given points shall be in a given ratio.

A point and two right lines are given in position,

(56.)

determine the equation of a

circle,

to

which, passing through

the given point and touching one of the given lines, will intersect the other 3 so that the part of
circle shall

it

intercepted within the

have a given magnitude,

(57.)

Two

diameters of

a circle being drawn, intersecting perpendicularly,

from the extremity b of

one of them a right
is

drawn,

meeting

line

the

other at any point a, the

given

circle

at

p,
f

and

through the points a and p parallels to the diameters are

f

drawn

intersecting at p

to find the locus of the point P of

intersection of these parallels.

js

Two

(58.)

angles are inscribed in the

same segment of a

line

of the second

degree, whose sides intersect at the points

p and p

and

always passes through a fixed

point

p'
;

(59.)

and the

ratio

a right line passing through p

to determine this point.

Given the base of a

triangle,

of the sum of the squares of the sides to the

sum of the squares of the segments of

the base, intercepted

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*
between the perpendicular and

its

431

extremities, to find the

locus of the vertex.

Given the base of a

(60.)

triangle,

and the

ratio of the

rectangle under the sides to the rectangle under the seg-

ments of the base intercepted between the perpendicular and

its

extremities, to find the locus of the vertex.

To

(61.)

line of the

sum

determine the axes of co-ordinates, to which a

second degree must be related, in order that the

of squares of the values of y^ which correspond to the

same value of <r5 may be

invariable.

To determine the conditions under

(6%)

which the sum of

themth powers of the values of y, corresponding to the same

value of X) shall be the same for

To determine

(63.)

all

points of the curve.

for all algebraic curves, the condition

under which the product of all the values of j/ 5 for the same
value of x,

To

(64.)

is

invariable.

determine for

all

algebraic curves, the condition

under which the sum of the products of every n values of y $

for the

same value of x

shall

teger less than that which

The

(65.)

meter of a

be invariable,

n being an

ordinate (pm) to the dia-

circle

in-

marks the degree of the equation*

.

being produced until

the produced part (pp

equals the chord

(pb) of the arc intercepted between the

ordinate and the extremity of the dia-

meter, to investigate the figure and properties of the locus of the extremity (p

ng

of the produced

part.

The

(66.)

duced

ordinate to the diameter of a circle being pro-

until the

whole produced ordinate (mp') equals the

tangent of the arc (pb), to find the locus of the extremity p

of the produced ordinate,

(67.)

The

ordinate to the diameter of a circle being pro-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

438
duced

until

it

The

(68.)

to the secant of the arc (pb), to

becomes equal

find the locus of

its

extremity.

ordinate to the conjugate axis of an ellipse or

hyperbola being produced until the produced part

is

equal

to the line connecting the extremity of the ordinate with the

produced

focus, to find the locus of the extremity of the

ordinate.
investigate the line or lines represented

by the

3
2
3
y ay x -\- x y ax + bx* + by* cy + cax -f
(70.) To determine the locus of the equation
x
3
2
3
y xif -f yx x - %rxy -f %rx = 0.
(71.) To determine the locus of the equation

6c = 0.

To

(69.)

equation
2

To

(7^.)

asy 3
(73.)

yx z

-f

j/

+ pr x
2

0.

To

ab x*y + b x + a by tfb x =
2

0.

determine the figure and inflections of the curve

by the equation
x*

(74.)

determine the locus of the equation

a z by zx

represented

py x px r

To

ay

-f

a xx z

0.

determine the figure and inflections of the locus

of the equation

x3

To

(75.)

ay*

azx

-\-

0.

determine the figure and inflections of the locus

of the equation

Sx 5
(76.)

Sax 4

110 a*x 3

- 180 a x %
3

To determine the figure and

+ ay =
4

0.

quadrature of the locus

of the equation

x%y
(77.)

To

a^y +

To

0.

determine the inflection of a curve in which

y
(78,)

a3

oe

sc,

determine the locus of the ^vertex of a triangle

on a given base, the square of the altitude of which varies

as the quote of the segments.

of this locus.

And

to

show the

inflections

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

To

(79.)

find the curve in

488

which the rectangle under

perpendiculars from two given points on the tangent

is

of a

constant magnitude.

To

(80.)

find the

curve in which the

subnormal

is

constant.
(81.)

To

(82.)

To

which the perpendicular from

find the curve in

the origin on the tangent

is

constant.

from

find the curve in which the perpendicular

the origin on the tangent varies in the subdu plicate ratio of

the radius vector.

(83.)

To

tangent
(84.)

is

a right

To

(85.)

is

To

which the locus of the

find the curve in

an

To

ellipse or

(87.)

inter-

through a given point with the

circle.

find the curve in

tremity of the polar subtangent

(86.)

inter-

through a given point and the

line.

section of a perpendicular

tangent

which the locus of the

find the curve in

section of the perpendicular

which the locus of the exis

a straight line.

find the locus of the intersection of tangents to

hyperbola which intersect at a given angle.

Two

tangents to an ellipse or hyperbola intersect

the transverse axis at angles, the difference of which

is

given,

to determine the locus of their point of intersection.

(88.) Investigate the figure

and properties of the

curves included under the polar equation z

(89.) If three right lines in the

larly

round three fixed

points,

cos.

class

of

nw.

same plane move angu-

and two of the three points of

intersection describe right lines, the third will describe a line

of the second degree

to determine

its species,

centre, axes,

&c.
(90.) If three lines revolve round three fixed points in the
same manner, and one of the points of intersection describes

line

of the mth order, and another one of the nth order,

the third will describe a line of the

mnth

neither of the lines

F F

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

484

of the mth or nth order being supposed to pass through the

centres of rotation.

To

(91.)

determine the locus of the intersection of the

rectangular tangents to the cardioide.

The

(9&.)

line joining the points of contact of rect-

angular tangents to the cardioide passes through a fixed

point.

To

(93.)

determine the equation of the class of curves

distinguished

by the property,

that tangents through the

extremities of a chord passing through a given point shall

intersect at a given angle.

To

(94.)

which

all

determine the equation of a class of curves in

chords drawn through a given point are of a given

length.
(95.)

To

determine the inflections of the curve repre-

by the equation

sented

A 3y %
(96.)

sented

To

4-

b 3#3

A3B 3

find the multiple point of the curve repre-

by

af
(97.)

To

cc\b + w) =

0.

determine the singular point of the curves

represented by the equations

y*

+ X
x\a z -x

ax

= P*>
=O ~
y = px,

2
)
?

tf

dhf

b*) (x* ~~ c*\

6
y =zpX,
5
y ~px\

x*

ayx 1

^ 4 + Jt

+ by* =

*~ %<*y*

0,

%hx*y

0,

485

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

x4 - 2ay 3

=
y=
y =
^

y
o?y

(98.)

cjt 2

+ (#

af (x (# af (x

(x

sin.

-f

0,

&)%

5)

2a

6),

+ &# 6 ^ =
Qribx^y # ~

.a;

8a*y 2

0,
0,

2w.

Given the angle of elevation at which a cannon

fixed, to find the strength of the charge necessary to

is

make

the ball strike a given plane perpendicularly.

(99.)

To

find the elevation

which

will require the least

quantity of powder to cause a ball of a given weight to

strike a given object.

(100.)

Two circles, described upon the same

vertical plane,

with their centres in the same horizontal, are given in magnitude and position, to determine a point from which tangents to the two circles will be described by falling bodies
in the

same time, and

(101.)

where

its

To

find

velocity

is

to find the locus of all such points.

the point in a planet's elliptical orbit,

an harmonic mean between

its velocities

at the apsides.

(102.)

To determine the points in

the moon's elliptic orbit,

where her angular velocity round the remote focus

is

ac-

curately equal to her angular velocity on her axis.

(103.)

To

find the latitude at which the vertical line

most inclined to the

(104.)

line

drawn

In all curves described by a body moving round a

centre of force, the velocity of the

body

is

to the centre.

body

is

equal to that of a

in the equidistant circle at that point at which the

angle under the radius vector and tangent, or the angle of

projection,

(105.)

is

a minimum.

body being supposed

to fall

from any distance

towards a centre of force, the law of which

is

the inverse

f f 2

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

436

square of the distance

if

a cycloid be described on the line

of descent as axis, the ordinate to the axis which passes

through the body

fall,

is

always proportional to the time of

and the tangent of the angle

at

which

its

this ordinate is

inclined to the curve represents the acquired velocity.

(106.) In the hyperbolic spiral the centripetal and centri-

fugal forces are equal.

To

(107.)

express the times of the successive revolutions

of the radius vector passing through a body moving in a

logarithmic spiral, and also the time of arriving at

the

centre.

To

(108.)

apply the same investigations to a body moving

in an hyperbolic spiral.

(109.)

body revolves

an

in

ellipse or

hyperbola, the

body

centre of force being at the focus, the place of the

being given, to determine the ratio of its velocity to that of a

body moving

in a circle at the

(110.) In the same

same

distance.

case, the place of the

body being given,

to determine the ratio of the centripetal to the centrifugal

force.

(111.) In the
centric velocity

same

is

determine the

maximum

para-

by means of the polar subtangent.

(112.) In the

the velocity

case, to

same

case, to determine the point at

a geometrical

mean between

which

the velocities at

the apsides.

(US.) In the same

case, to

the angular velocity equals the

(114.)

To

force

is

mean angular

velocity.

determine the curve affected by a repulsive

force, parallel

(115.)

determine the point at which

To

and proportional

to the ordinate.

determine the curve in which the attractive

proportional to the ordinate.

(116.)

body

is

moved

in a cycloid

by the

attraction

of the points of the base, to determine the law of the attraction.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
(117.)

To

437

determine the period in this case, and show

analogy to the periods of bodies moving in a

line

its

of the

second degree with the force at the focus.

(118.) Jets of water spout

from apertures at the same

depth below the surface of the reservoir at different elevations; to determine the locus of their points of greatest

ascent without regard to the resistance of the

(119.) Jets of water spout

air.

from apertures

at different

depths, but with the same elevation, to determine the locus

of their highest points.

(ISO.) Given the place of the aperture, to determine the
direction of the jet, so that the area included

and

its

by the curve

chord shall be a maximum.

(121.) Jets of water at the same depth below the surface

in the reservoirs spout with different elevations, to determine

the locus of their foch

(122.) Jets of water at different depths spout with the

same

elevation a to determine the locus of their foci.

(123.)

What would happen to

the earth if the sun's mass

were diminished one half?

(124.) If

all

the bodies of a system but one be quiescent,

and that one describe any given curve,

to find the curve

which the centre of gravity of the system

will describe.

(125.)

fracted

Rays diverging from a luminous point

by a

are

spherical surface, to find the point at

re-

which

each refracted ray intersects the diameter of the sphere

passing through the luminous point.
(126.)

An

object

is

placed between two mirrors,

the

planes of which are not parallel, to find the line on which

all

the images are placed.

NOTES ON PART

I-

N OTES.

Art. 13.

The

method of determining the number and order of the

terms of a general equation

explained in Sect.

is

Art.

XXI.

14

In the general equation of the right

line,

and, indeed, in

every general equation, the constant co-efficients a, b, &c.

must be supposed

to represent such quantities as render the

entire equation

homogeneous

which compose

it

linear factors.

that

is,

so that all the terms

shall

be composed of the same number of

Thus,

in the general equation of the first

degree, if c be supposed to represent a line,

a and b must

In the general equation of the second

represent numbers.
degree,
az/ 2 -f

if

Bay

+ c#a +

vy

E#

0,

f be supposed a quantity of two linear dimensions, and

therefore to represent a surface, all the other terms

also represent surfaces
lines,

and

a, b,

and

c,

therefore

numbers.

must

d and e must represent

If -f be a quantity com-

posed of three linear factors, D and e must be quantities

composed of two, and

It

may be

a, b,

and

c,

of one.

observed, that in the equation of a right line,

the inclination to the axes of co-ordinates depends on the

442

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

value of

and the points where

meets the axes on

it

c
c

and
R
A
.

Art. 15.

If the axes of co-ordinates be rectangular sin./y

cos.te,

= tan. Ix.

and therefore ,A

Art. 28, et seq.

It

may be

accustomed

interesting to students

to

geome-

in this section analytically

how some of the formulae found

may be obtained by geometrical

The application

of geometrical principles to esta-

trical investigations, to see

principles.

which the young

blish formulae is not, however, a habit in

analyst should indulge

facility

more

sometimes appears to give greater

it

and clearness than the analytic process, but

cases

it

in

many

embarrasses and perplexes the student, and

always contracts and particularises his conclusions.

The

result of art. (23)

may be found

the lines be as in the

triangles

/^

J ^/}

/ /%*

cab

yytfJATw

and cmi,
ca

And by

We have by the

similar

//

/Y

Let the equations of

text.

geometrically thus.

ab

c'a

ab'

Hence, by compounding the

ca x AB

cm

the similar triangles c

:

mi.

AB and c Mi,
f

c'm

mi.

ratios,

x ab

c'a

xT"

cm

c'm

but by (17),

CA

CA

: ,

B'

BA-~--,
A

d
=

B'A

d
r,

443

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Hence we

find

cc

cc

a'b

ab'

And by

_ _. x

division^
cc'

cc

Ib7

^7

cc'

From this proportion., x -

is

determined geometrically 5 and

thence the value of x.

In a

similar

The result
Let

v'

way

of

is

found.

which

required to

and whose

co-or-

dinates are y'x*.

Let

pass,

may be

26 may be thus found geometrically:

be the given

point through
the line

the value of y

art.

p be any point on the

right

the co-ordinates of which

line,

angles pp'm and p

the triangle
p,

ij

mp

pm

is

and therefore the

this constant ratio

"~

ratio

be a

v
and

if

y
(j/

-,

a (j/
If the

right

through two
f

iW

we have
:

same

y')

is

independent of

v
:

'

- y) +

line

points

?m

1,

1,

a(x

rf)

=0;

we have

the ratio

pW

1,

p"rf always the

as

vm
vhn

be required to pass

p p",

Since the

independent of the position of the point

vm
or

are yx.

are always the same, the species of

p"m',

""

(#

a?')

0.

it.

Let

4M

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

because the

pWV

triangle

always

is

similar

to pWp'':

hence

pm"
or
or

(jr

^/

j/"

pW

x") (y

pW

#"

p W,
f

y
y

- /) - (y ~

a?'

(,r
)

#",
- #") =

0.

The formula in art. 50, for the length of the perpendicular,

may be found thus
:

Let p be the point from

which the perpendicular

is

supposed to be drawn to the

The

line cd.

triangles pdttj

and bac are manifestly

si-

milar; therefore

pd

=*-

vm

"

and ba

,
'

also, since the

x\ and y

ca

==

bc.

and hence

a'

VA
AB

-j-B*;

bx

is

-f c =^ 0.

mm, we have
M7il

BX

=
AT/

PM

And by

bc,

equation of the line cd

Ay

bc

If

ca

but

mw

pm

or pd':

But ca

-\-

+ BX

-f

these substitutions, the proportion becomes

pd

a^
u + bx' + c
:

AB
c

c
:

y^A 2

+ B2

+ B#' -f c
2
2
v/ A + B

Ay
PD

The

preceding examples show the student

how some

of

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

445

may be obtained geometrically. They also

how inferior both in brevity and facility

the results

striking proofs

method

give
that

to the analytic process.

is

Art. 57.

A formula

is

said to

be symmetrical with respect to any

their

denominations being interchanged

when

quantities,

the formula remains unchanged. Thus, in the value of r, if

the denominations of the three sides be changed, the formula

remains the same

be changed into d,

for example, let c

vice versa,

R
which

and

vice versa, the

dec"

"i

4a'
before.
Or

the same as

is

formula

still

if c

be changed into d 9
!

remains the same.

Art. 69.

This proposition, with the various modifications of which

susceptible,

it is

in his treatise

is

given by Apollonius (see note on

De Locis

curious properties of the circle and right

was

first

restored

art.

89)

Planis, a remarkable collection of

by Fermat, though

lished until after his death.

his

line.

This

treatise

work was not pub-

Schooten afterwards published

a work on the same subject; but his demonstrations are algebraical in

The

best

JpoIIonii
style

many

cases,

and not

in the spirit of the original.

work extant on the subject

Loca Plana

restituta,

is

Robert Simpson's

an excellent specimen of the

of the ancient geometry.

Art. 80, et seq.

A more general definition of diameters of a curve will be

found in Section

We shall
in this

XXI.

here explain the algebraical principles assumed

and the following

articles*

In an equation of the form

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

446

ax 9
-

and

the values of #, 6,

bx

-f-

+c=

ra,

being supposed given, the sign of

c,

depend on that of a 9 and the nature of the values of

will

x which

m=

render

0.

m=

Let the values of x 9 which render

1.

unequal, and be represented by x and

!

known

equation may, by a well

0,

be real and

The above

rV
.

property of equations, be

expressed thus

(x

(x

) v

11

=
'a
)

See Wood's Algebra, Part II.

If <r be considered the greater, and x the lesser root,
f/

> x and < x n must

values of x

and x

'

and therefore render

different signs,

duct negative

and

same

these factors the

must

or

,!

<

all

values of

x'f,

be negative, and therefore

have different signs

and

for all values of

all

their pro-

their pro-

x between

7)1

x and

x\ must give

and therefore render

sign,

Hence, for

duct positive.

x > x

values. of

all

give the factors

the roots

and a must

x beyond

the

positive,

and

7YI

limits

x and
!

therefore
2.

let

*r

the quantity

',

must be

and a must have the same

If the values of x which render

sign.

m=

be impossible,

the equation

ax 2

bx

-f

=m

be solved for x, and we find

Since the value of

<m

0,

we have

Vb* 4<ac + 4<am

is

by supposition

-.
impossible,

when

the condition
5

and therefore

am >

0,

4ac

<

0,

and hence a and

m must always have

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

the same sign, and therefore the quantity

If the values of

8.

m=

x which render
9

a{oc

m=

must be po-

be

0,

real

and

equation can, in this case, be reduced to

The

Hence, for

of x, whether positive or negative.

sitive for all real values

equal.

447

all

oc

m.

values whatever of x, except that which gives

must be
Til

0, the value of

and a must have the same

positive,

and therefore

sign.

In an equation of the form

bx
the sign of

m=

Let

0.

Hence

Hence

the equation

it

all

values

this

may be

appears that

negative; and

m,

depend on that of

will

which renders

all

>

expressed

of

values

x'

render

m and a have

fore in the one case

and the value of x

5,

be x 5 and we find

x < x

render

positive, and there-

different signs,

and

in the

other the same sign.

These principles may be applied

by supposing a

(be
It

b2

cd), and

may be

renders the

to the cases in the text,

4ac, and
m ~ R or =
2

2(bd

observed, that the condition b 2

first

8ae), or

k/*.

4ac =

three terms of the general equation a com-

plete square.

Art. 89.
It should be remembered, that these conditions involve

the supposition that a and c are

finite.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

448

The

by the general equation of the

curves represented

second degree are the same as those which are produced by

by a

the section of a conical surface

plane, as will be

called Conic Sections.

shown

They have hence been

in the second part of this work.

These curves originated

in the Pla-

Some suppose Plato himself to have first conthem others Menechme, a distinguished geometer of

tonic school.

ceived

that time,

The

and a pupil of Plato.

first

properties which

were discovered, were those of diameters and their ordinates,

the centre and

foci,

the parallelism of the diameters of a

parabola, the value of the subtangent, the properties of the

lines

from the

foci in (S1Y),

and the

similar property of the

parabola in (%55), the property proved in (209), and the

properties of the asymptotes of the hyperbola.

Even

at so early a period as the time of Plato,

displayed a considerable knowledge

Menechme

of the properties of

the conic sections in his solutions of the famous problem

of the duplication of the cube by the intersection of two

parabola?,

and by the intersection of a parabola and hy-

perbola.

Aristaeus, the teacher of Euclid,

and pupil of

Plato, also at that time wrote two works, one consisting of

five

books on the Conic Sections, the other consisting also of

five

books on Solid Loci.

Pappus

a study for his son in geometry.

prescribes these books as

These works were un-

fortunately lost in the general wreck of letters.

The principal treatise which the ancients have handed

down on the properties of lines of the second degree is that
of Apollonius Perg.eus, who flourished about the middle
of the third century before the Christian
distinguished

among

the

ancients

Great Geometer, and was

of antiquity.

According

to

by the

era.

He

title

of

was

The

decidedly the second geometer

Pappus,

it

would appear that

he was not so liberally endowed with the qualities of the

heart as those of the head.

He

represents his character as

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

marked by arrogance, envy, and

449

as seizing with

avidity

every opportunity of trampling upon the claims and lower-

ing the merits of others.

He

on Conies.

The

section of the cone.

the

treatise consists

Greek

is

the treatise

the

down

the

in

and seventh, we have

sixth,

fifth,

by the

of eight books,

four of which have been handed

first

original

His principal work

defines the lines of the second degree

through an Arabic version, and the eighth has been

Halley has attempted to restore the eighth book

The

of Apollonius.

edition

Among

previously known.

been

coveries are, the first notion of osculating circles

lutes, the results

of prop,

lii.,

his

books contain the

last four

principal discoveries of Apollonius, the subject of the

four having

lost.

in

his

first

dis-

and evo-

prop, lxxiil, and several

maxima and minima.

propositions relating to

Art. 132.

The method
used here
fined in

is

its

of determining the equation of a tangent

the invention of

Descartes.

It

is

not con-

application to curves of the second degree, but

generally applicable to

all

is

curves.

Let the equation of any curve be

y(i/x)

when

~${i/x)

let the

means any function of the

variables ?/#.

And

equation of a right line intersecting this curve be

a(y
Eliminating

y by

ij)

b(x

- x =
l

0.

these equations, the result will be an

equation involving only x, the roots of which will be the

values of x for the points where the line intersects the
curve.
will

If two of these points unite,

be equal, and the

line will

two of the roots

become a tangent.

The

method by which Descartes determined the condition

under which two of the roots would be equal, was by assuming an equation of the same degree, having two equal
G G

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

450

and comparing with

roots,

In

the proposed equation.

it

the case of lines of the second degree this ingenious artifice

is

rendered unnecessary, the solution of the equation being

sufficient.

This method of determining the equation of a tangent is

That which
that which appears in the letters of Descartes.

he gives

in his

Geometry

is

somewhat

and nearly

different,

Let

as follows.

y + (x w Y f

be the equation of a

r2

the centre of which

circle,

Let y be eliminated by means of

axis of x.

this

is

on the

equation

and that of the curve, and the roots of the resulting equation will

be the values of x for the points where the

meets the curve.

fixed,

The

and the radius r

circle

centre of the circle being supposed

arbitrary, let

it

be supposed to have

such a value as will render two of the roots of the equation

equal
fore

the circle will then touch the curve, and will there-

have the same

w hich renders
r

The value of r3
may be found by the artifice

rectilinear tangent.

the roots equal,

mentioned above.

These methods are both founded on the same

and though we
display, yet they

and

direct

principle

cannot but admire the ingenuity they

must

in general yield to the

more simple

method furnished by the Calculus.

used one of them here, as

it is

We

have

thought desirable that the

study of a part of algebraic geometry should precede that of

the Calculus,

Art 154.

The
pends

principle

is,

on which the solution of

two points upon a right

tion

of

lation

this

problem de-

that if the relation between the co-ordinates of

line

any

be expressed by the same equa-

the first degree, that equation will express the re-

between the co-ordinates of any point on the right

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
line,

and

principle

is

is

451

therefore the equation of that right line.

This

evident from the consideration that two points

are sufficient to determine a right line.

Art.

The names

16%

hyperbola, and parabola, originated

ellipse,

from a property expressed by the equation

p
~~
and

is

positive for the ellipse, negative for the hyperbola,

Hence the proper equations of

for the parabola.

these three curves are

By

these equations

it

appears that the square of the semior-

dinate to the diameter

falls

short of the rectangle under the

parameter, and absciss in the

ellipse,

hyperbola by the quantity -~x %

square of the ordinate

parameter and

absciss.

is

and exceeds

and

it

in the

in the parabola the

equal to the rectangle under the

Hence the names

ellipse (defect),

hyperbola (excess), and parabola (equality).

The parameter was

The ancients called the

formerly called the lotus rectum.

focus

punctum comparationis.

Art. 168.

This beautiful property was discovered by Apollonius,

and

is

ConicSo

one of the propositions of the seventh book of his

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.-

452

Art. 189.

This corollary points out

a method -of drawing geomea tangent to an eh

trically
lipse,

or hyperbola, from a

point outside

Draw hc

the point.

proportional to

to the centre,

it.

and take

Let h be
ci,

a third

hc and CAf and draw pi an ordinate

diameter ca, the line

dh

will

to the

be the tangent.

Art. 196.

This proposition proves the

disc of a planet, except

in opposition or superior conjunction, to be a figure

by a

semicircle

and

semiellipse, the ratio of the axes

that of the cosine of the angle subtended

when

bounded
being

by the earth and

sun at the planet to radius*

Art. 205.

In the

a represent the semiaxis,

equilateral hyperbola, if

and A any semidiameter,

f

"

sm.

A
=

Art. 207.

The
lonius,

result of this proposition

and

is

was discovered by Apol-

contained in the seventh book of his conies.

Art. 209.

By
class

an extension of

this property,

of curves, of which the

and which have been

Descartes invented a

ellipse is a particular instance,

called the ovals

of Descartes.

As

in

the ellipse, the radii vectores vary so that the increment of

one shall always be equal to the simultaneous decrement of

the other,

and

in the hyperbola, the simultaneous increments

453

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

of both are always equal, so in the Cartesian ovals these

increments are in an invariable

lines

drawn from the two

If z and z be two
1

ratio.

in the curve, the

any point

foci to

condition

dz
will

always be

fulfilled

4- ?ndz'

which being integrated, gives

+ mz =

2a,

These curves may therethe locus of the vertex of a triangle on a

2a being any arbitrary constant.

fore be defined,

given base, one of whose sides bears a given ratio to the

or difference of a given line and the other side.

may

equation of this class of curves

Let 2c be the distance between the

under z and 2c

4icz cos.

eliminating z

we

find

(m?

l)z

co

by means of
4(a

- m

is

which

case, after reduction,

co

the angle

2
.

4(raa c

it

a =
z

m =

when

a curve of the fourth order, except

The

and

and the former equation,

w )z

0,
1, in

becomes

g( l-g

is

4c 2

this

c cos.

which

which

easily be determined.
foci,

hence

By

sum
The

g
)

cos w

the polar equation of an ellipse or hyperbola.

circumstance which occasioned the invention of these

curves was the investigation of the figure of the surface,

which must divide two mediums of given

rays of light

densities, so that

emerging from a given point

shall

be

all re-

fracted accurately to another given point. Descartes proved

that the surface must be one generated by the revolution of

these ovals upon the line joining their foci.

And

he showed

that if the focus of incident rays be at an infinite distance,

or if the pencil of rays be parallel, the oval becomes an ellipse.

See

art.

665,

For

more

detailed account of these

454

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Huygens de Lumine,
Geometry of Descartes.

curves and their optical properties, see

and Kabuel's Commentary on the

Art. 212.

The

polar equations found in this proposition are of con-

siderable use in physical astronomy.

The

variable z ex-

presses the distance*of the planet from the sun, (w

anomaly, and

<p

<p)

the

the direction of the apsides.

Art. 215.

From

this proposition it

obviously follows, that the per-

pendicular from the focus of an hyperbola on the asymptote

is

equal to the semiconjugate axis;

the asymptote being

considered as the tangent to a point at an infinite distance.

Art. 227.

This property

is

used by some geometrical authors to

distinguish the species of lines of the second degree.

See

Leslie's Geometry of Curve Lines.

Art. 257.

The

focal tangents are those

which touch the curve at the

extremity of the focal ordinate.

The property

expressed in this proposition

to the parabola,

degree.

See

art.

but common

is

not peculiar

to all lines of the second

SI 5.
Art. 281.

This proposition might also be investigated in a manner

similar to art. 282.

Art. 298.

This principle has furnished means of describing an

mechanically.

Let ab and Ac be two fixed

rulers,

ellipse

and bc

another ruler with rings at b and c capable of running upon

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

455

the fixed rulers, and a pencil at any point p, which,

moving the

upon

ruler bc, will describe an ellipse.

Art. 80S.

This property extends to

radii vectores of
all

all

similar curves; for if the

any curve expressed by a polar equation be

increased or diminished in a given ratio, they will pro-

duce a similar curve, and vice versa.

It should

common

that the curves are supposed to have a

one

common

be observed
vertex and

axis.

Art. 318.

The

equation of a tangent drawn from a given point out-

side a curve
?/

may be found

the point of contact.

thus: Let y od be the point, and

]

The

equation of the tangent

dip
(y-y ) ~~cw^ x ~ x^ =
!

By means

is

of this equation, the equation of the curve, and

first differential,

the quantities

its

and by the condition

j/V and

their differentials

may be

eliminated,

and the resulting equation will be that of the tangent

sought.

The method

of drawing tangents to curves explained here,

and founded on the

principles of the differential calculus, has

superseded the other solutions for the same problem given

by Descartes, Fermat, Roberval, and

others.

The methods

given by these geometers were either limited to particular

classes of curves, or in

amount nearly

some

cases so

to impracticability.

incommodious

The

the equation of a tangent by the calculus

and

general.

It

depends merely on

as to

determination of
is

at once simple

differentiating

the

equation of the curve, and therefore extends to every curve

capable of being expressed by an

equation,

and whose

ALGEBRAIC GE0MET11Y-.

456
equation

The methods

capable of differentiation,

is

of

Descartes, which have been explained in the note on art.

1

8$, require that the conditions on which two roots of the

equation resulting from the elimination of one of the variables shall

be equal should be determined. These methods

extend at most only to algebraic curves.

The method

of Roberval deserves notice, as well on ac-

count of the elegance of the conception on which

it

is

founded, as of its close analogy to the fundamental principle

He

of the Newtonian fluxions.

scribed

by a point

in the quantity

affected with

and

direction of

by the nature of the curve.

considered a curve de-

two motions, the variation

which are to be determined

At any

point of the curve he

supposed a parallelogram constructed, the sides of which are

proportional to and in the direction of the generating velo-

and

cities,

down

laid it

as a principle, that the diagonal

which represents the direction of the resultant

rection of the element of the curve at that point,
fore the direction of the tangent.

in which this

and

facility;

totally

owing

application
1.

To

is

clearness
is

either

very perplexing

to the intricacy of the investigations ne-

cessary to determine the

rating point.

attended with

or

the di-

There are many instances

method may be applied with great

but in most cases its application

impracticable,

difficulties,

is

and there-

We

component

shall give

velocities

some examples

effected with great clearness

of the genein

which

its

and beauty.

determine the tangent to a point in an ellipse or

hyperbola.

In the

ellipse the

sum

of the distances f'p and

fp of the describing point

from the
ble;

foci is invaria-

therefore

creases with the

one

in-

same ve-

'457

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Hence the

locity that the other diminishes.

velocity of the

describing point in the directions va and va! are equal;

therefore if va

va

the diagonal

is

the tangent which

bisects the exterior angle.

In the hyperbola the difference of the distances from the

and therefore the two distances increase

foci is constant,

Hence,

with the same velocity.

taken as well as
stance,

and therefore the tangent

To draw

fp

directrix,

the axis, and f

By

the focus.
perties

under the

bisects the angle

a tangent at a given point in a parabola.

Let Au be the

and ax

be

focal di-

from the focus.

radii vectores
2.

va! should, in this case,

pa on the produced part of the

of

be,

the pro-

this

curve,

the velocities

in the directions

va and

va! are equal; therefore, as

before, the tangent bisects

the angle ava

3.

To draw

a -tangent at a given point in a cycloid.

Let p be the given

point.

By

the definition of the

cycloid, the generating point at p has

two motions, one in

the direction of the tangent va! to the generating

the other in the direction va parallel to the base

circle,
;

and

and these

two motions are equal, because the generating point moves

uniformly round the circumference of the gererating circle
in the

same time that the

circle itself is carried

base through an equal space.

Hence,

if

va and

along the

repre-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

458
sent the

two motions, pa

bisects the angle aval,

and

pa',
is

and therefore the tangent

parallel

ing chord p'v of the generating

to

correspond-

the

circle described

upon the

axis.

The method of Roberval is peculiarly

applicable to curves

which can be described mechanically by motion.

Barrow subsequently invented a method of tangents which

approached as near the principle of the

differential calculus

He

inves-

composed of the

incre-

as Hoberval's did to the fluxional principle.

an

tigates

infinitely small triangle

ments of the

absciss

the curve.

The

effect the spirit

and ordinate, and the elementary arc of

student will readily perceive this to be in

of the method used in the text

but both

this

and the method of Roberval want what constitutes the principal excellence of the methods in the fluxional and difuniform algorithm by which a general

ferential calculus, that

formula expresses the equation of a tangent to any curve,

and the general rules by which the particular values of the

quantities

composing

formula can be found in

this general

particular cases.

method of Barrow

It should be observed, that the

is

very

nearly the same as that of Fermat.

Art. S28.

The

polar subtangent

is

a line drawn from the pole

perpendicular to the radius vector, and terminated in the

tangent.

Art. 321.

The
the

in

value of the second differential co-efficient given by

equation (1)

is

here

understood to be

substituted

(4).

Art.. 837.

Although the
found

first

idea of the evolute of a curve

in Apollonius, yet

is

Huygens must be admitted

to be
to

be

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

459
It forms

the inventor of the theory of evolutes in general.

De Horologium

the third part of his

defines the evolute
this definition

by

deduces

to which he applied

consideration led
.cycloid,

on which

The

other properties.

and from

first

curve

This

theory was the parabola.

this

him
its

the property in art. 342,

its

He

Oscillator mm.

to the discovery of the property of the

tautochronism depends.
Art. 338.

The

involute of a curve, whose equation

y x and

found by eliminating

is

given,

may be

their differential co- efficients

by means of the equations of the curve and its differentials

combined with the values y x , and the condition
!

dy

dx

dx

dy r

Art. 364
It

may be

observed, that the condition

d u
2i

also indicates

a point of inflection, since the sign of -^

changes in passing through this value.

Art. 368*

multiple point in general

is

characterised thus

the

equation of the curve

Hyv) = ^
being differentiated 5

let

the result be

vdy
if the

-f Q.dx

same values of y and x give more than one value of

dit

~,

there will necessarily be at the point, whose co-ordinates

are these values, an intersection of as

many

different branches

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

460

for the same

p

of the curve as there are different values of

value

ofy and x.

more

radicals in -~, which

In

this case there

dv

do not appear in the equation of

The

the curve solved for y.

when we

be conceived,

plier of a radical

must be always one or

possibility of this

consider

may

may be removed by

easily

multi-

that a variable

differentiation, and,

consequently, any value of r, which would render that multiplier

0, will

make

the radica 1 disappear from the equa-

tion of the curve, but not

A difficulty, however,
here.

from -.

of a different kind presents

itself

If the equation of the curve be cleared of irrational

functions of the variables, and then differentiated,

ferential co-efficient

du
-y

dif-

be necessarily also a rational

will

How

function of the variables.

its

then can

this, for

one and

the same value of #, and one and the same value of j/, have
different values

case the value of

be proved thus
ceptible,

be p,

This

must assume the form

Let two of the

p'.

subtraction,

we

-^-,

values, of which

which

may

-7- is

sus-

Hence we have the equations

By

explained by showing that in this

is

pp

0,

find

?(p ~ p') =
but since by supposition p and^> are unequal, we infer
;

p
which, substituted in the

first

Q
dy

dx

equation, gives

=
^
~~

0,

0,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

The

true values of ~~~

may be found

stituting the value of

resulting

461

in this case

by sub-

from the solution of the

:

which then

equation of the curve in the value of

-^

comes a function of x

continues of the form

~,

its

values

If

alone.

it

may be determined by

the general

be-

method

furnished by the calculus for determining the true values of

we may frequently obtain the

functions of this form, or

without substituting the value of y with greater

result

facility

by

finding the successive differentials of the equation of the curve

until

we

from which

find one

except the

the differential co-efficients,

all

disappear by the particular values of?/

first, will

~- =

and x which render

ax

The foots

dy

will give the true values

An

of ~~.

ax

these observations easily apprehended.

of this equation
L

example

will

render

Let the equation of

the curve be
if

By

differentiating,

+ 9mfx - ax
we

_ fl(3a? - ay

dx
substituting for

curve,

it

dy
ax

4z/(?/

-f-^r)

in this, its value in the equation of the

Sax+Qcf + Qa \/tr + ax

~~~

^sJos-\~ax

and the other

\/

If y and x be supposed

may be

(1).

becomes

~~r~

infinite

==

find

ty_

By

ax

^/a

(Z

0, the values

The

w).

x 2 -j~ax 3

of--become, one

true values of the latter

determined by differentiating the numerator and

denominator of

(3),

which gives, when x

0,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

462

dx
or more readily
to the

by

V&

differentiating the equation (2)

reduced

form
z

4ii/\/a

+ ax dy

(Sax

2& 3

2a ^/a 2

ax)dx

0,

which gives

+ ax)*dy (4a +
which, when y and x both = 0, becomes
8a dy 4a dx = 0,
8j/O

+ ax)*d y +
z

H(a~

dx

3a*x)dx*=0,

&/

~~

^oj

Art. 374.

Conjugate points derive their existence from some particular value being given

to

one of the constants in the

equation of a curve, one part of which

is

value, rendering the diameter of the oval

vanish into a point.

equation
ay*

a? +

Thus
(b

0, causes it to

the curve represented

c)jt 2

has this figure in general.

an oval^ which

But

hex

if c

by the

be supposed

0, the

oval ab vanishes into a point, and the other branches of the

curve continue unchanged.

"Y

There

is

undulation
it,

another species of singular point called a point of

;

its

nature, and the circumstances which produce

are explained in the

XXth

section.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

463

Art. 375, 378.

from the

It appears,

results of these articles, that the

qua-

rectification of the circle are two problems de-

drature and

pending on each other, so that the solution of either neces,

sarily involves that of the other.

The quadrature
and

exercised

of the circle

is

baffled the ingenuity

a problem which has

of geometers from the

The

remotest ages of mathematical record.

tempts at

its

earliest

Amongst

solution were merely tentative.

at-

these

are mentioned those of Anaxagoras, Hippocrates, Bryson,

and Antiphon.

The

first

attempt to ascertain demonstra-

tively the limit of the ratio of the diameter to the circum-

ference was that of Archimedes,

cumference

is less

who proved

greater than the diameter multiplied

might

easily

that the cir-

than the diameter multiplied by

by 3~.

3-fJ,

and

Archimedes

have carried his approximation farther, but his

object was only to obtain the ratio with sufficient accuracy

for practical purposes.

sequently

made by

A nearer

approximation was sub-

Apottonius*

After the invention of the differential calculus, various

mathematicians gave series for calculating the ratio within

any proposed

limits of accuracy.

Art. 378.

The

result of this proposition

may be

extended.

Let a

and b be any system of semiconj ugate diameters, and 6 the

angle under them, and let two ellipses be constructed, the
!

equal conjugate diameters of each being inclined at the

angle

0,

other to
trical

and those of one being equal

QV

to 2a', those of the

the area of the given ellipse will be a geome-

mean between

position will have the

the areas of these.

same

result if

Thus

the pro-

the lines in the cut re-

presenting the axes be supposed to represent any conjugate

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

464?

diameters,

and the two

be

circles to

ellipses,

of which these

are the equiconjugate diameters respectively.

Art.. 886.

Amongst the discoveries of Archimedes, none

is

this in

two ways

matical principles.

more con-

He

spicuous than the quadrature of the parabola.

effected

one by mechanical, the other by mathe-

He

showed by the

principles of Statics,

independently of any experiment, the relation between the

weights of a lamina of matter bounded by right

and a

parabolic arc,

rectilinear space.

It has

lines,

and a

been erro-

neously stated by some that his proof depended on actually

weighing the one against the other

demonstration

founded on

but, on the contrary, the

the

abstract

principles

of

He

independent of any tentative means.

totally

Statics,

also

is

gave a geometrical solution to the same problem.

This solution

is

memorable

for being the first complete one

which was given for the quadrature of a curve.

Art. 896.

The

semicubical parabola, which

is

here proved to be the

common parabola, is remarkable for having been

curve which was rectified.
The discovery of this

evolute of the
the
is

first

contended for by William Neil, an English geometer,

and Van Huraet, a Dutch mathematician, who was very

They

active in the cultivation of the Cartesian geometry.

each seem to have a right to the invention, as there

is

every

reason to suppose that neither was aware of the other's discovery.

It

seems, however,

that the

Huraet merits
tification is

notice, as

it is

English geometer

The method

has the priority in publication.

a general one

used by Van

by which

rec-

reduced to quadrature.

Let app' be the curve whose

rectification

is

sought, and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

pm be an

let

465

ordinate

to any point of the

ax, and pn the

axis

normal, and let

any given right

Assume pu

pm
and

all

PN

be

line.

m -n

so that

MT

pm,

the ordinates being thus produced, let the curve

A pp
f

be the locus of the extremities of the produced ordinates.

The

rectangle under the line

to the area

of quadrature, app' can be

Let pm

and the arc ap

ABpm, and therefore if the curve ^pp

3/,

and

One

equal

*/dy*+dx*

dx

dx

v y dx = m ^dy +

is

susceptible

Vdif+dx*

\*Jy'dx

is

rectified.

pu ~y\ v pn = y

mf^/dy*

dx*,

side of this equation is the area

dx*.

apm, and the other

is

the rectangle under the arc ap and the given line m. Hence,

If the curve be the semicubical parabola represented by

the equation

py*

by

differentiating,

we

find

%pydy
t/dyz+dx*

this substitution,

we

''

Sx^dx,

vj^+if
""

dx

By

3
.r ,

%</p
find

H H

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY*

466

which

is

common parabola,

the equation of a

the co-ordinates

of whose vertex are

V=
Hence

0,

= -

4
-g-jo.

the rectification of the sernicubical parabola depends

on the quadrature of the common parabola, which can be

effected geometrically.

If the curve be the

parabola represented by the

common

equation
a?

by

py,

differentiating

2x

dy

dx~~ p
\/dy z + dx %
da?

Hence, by substituting

'*

which

is

__
"~

p"

4- 4j?

p2

this in the general formula,

z
2
p y 4w^ =
12

9/z

we

find

p%

the equation of the hyperbola.

The

rectification

of the parabola therefore depends on the quadrature of the

hyperbola.

To

find the axes

successively

a and Sb of the

in the

hyperbola,

let a?

above equation, and we find

a2

=m

and y

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
Hence,
sl

if

467

ap be

Ap

parabola, and

an hyperbola, whose
conjugate or second
axis

equal to the

is

parameter

of

the

parabola^and whose
centre

at a, the

is

rectangle under aa',

and the arc ap

equal

to

is

the area

AA^M.

Art. 397.

The

logarithmic curve was

first

proposed by James Gre-

gory, the celebrated inventor of the reflecting telescope

his

work entitled Geometrice Pars Universalis.

Leslie

states that

ventor.

He

Gregory, of

St.

to

is

be found.

work of that geo-

Its leading properties

were very fully investigated by Huygens.

siderable importance in

its

particularly to the relations

density

Professor

Vincent, was the in-

statement, nor does he mention in what

geometrically

see

does not, however, give his authority for this

meter the invention

For example,

may be

its

and properties of

height

represented

of con-

applications to physical science,

since the density of the

as

It is

elastic fluids.

atmosphere decreases

increases

arithmetically,

by the ordinate

its

to a logarithmic,

the altitudes being measured upon the asymptote.

Art. 408.

Nicomedes, a Greek geometer, who lived about two centuries before the Christian era, and shortly after the time of

h h g

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

468

Archimedes, invented

this

curve for the solution of the

famous problems of the duplication of the cube and the

He

section of an angle.

tri-

invented also an instrument which

has been called the trammel for describing

it

by continuous

motion.

Let ab be a

flat

ruler in which there

tached to the middle

of this

is

is

a groove en.

another

flat

ruler

At-

ef per-

a fixed pin, which

is

inserted in the groove of a third ruler gh, in which there

is

pendicular to

it,

in

which at

also a fixed pin at k, which

The

is

there

is

inserted in the groove cd.

system being thus adjusted,

let

a stem of any proposed

hp be attached to h, carrying a pencil at p, and the

rectangular rulers ab and ef being fixed, let hg be moved,

length

so that the pin at

will

move

in the groove cd, the pin at

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

469

continuing in the groove of the moveable ruler, the pencil at

And

p will trace the superior conchoid.

were fixed

to the

if

another pencil

moveable ruler at the same distance on the

other side of the pin K,

would describe the inferior

it

conchoid.

To

apply the conchoid to the bisection of an angle.

Let abc be the angle

to

be

With

trisected.

the vertex b

of the given angle as pole, and any perpendicular ca to one

of

its sides

ba

as rule,

and a modulus av

choid be described, and

The

bc, let a conparallel to

av

Let bf be drawn

draw be.

meeting the curve in e, and

bisecting the angle cbe.

ce be drawn

let

angle abc will be trisected

by bf and be.

For

let

ge be bisected

right angle, cd

cbd
is

is

de

gd,

equal to cdb, which

is

en

cbd

is

bisected

by

bf,

Hence

cb.

equal to twice ced.

equal to dbv, therefore cbd

since

Since gcd

and draw DC.

at d,

it

equal to twice

is

plain that

is

abc

is

the angle

But ced
dbv ; and
is

trisected

by be and be.

To

find

two geometrical means

(b

and

c)

between two

given lines {a and d) by means of the conchoid.

Let a rectangle be constructed, the sides of which are

equal to the extremes ab ==

a,

ac

isosceles triangle bda, the side of

ac.

Produce ba

so that

ae

d.

On

which bd

is

ab construct an
equal to half of

ba, and connect d and e, and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

4T0

2>-

through b draw bi

and with d

Through

parallel to de.

b produce ab,

and bd as modulus, describe

as pole, bi as rule,

a conchoid meeting ab produced in F, and draw fg intersecting

For
di

ac produced
since bi

\d

triangles,
celes,

and de

%d
hc
d
:

are parallel, pi

But

bf.

::

the square of

Then bf

in h.

bf,

df

is

also

and ch

h,

if

eb

is

of AC, or to the rectangle under

di.

Since bda

angles

this last

By

this

AH
.'

AC

or a

af

AC

af

bf

hc,

He

AB,

AF

BF
b

::

BF,

hc

AB,

d.

from both,

is

and the

we have the proportions

the
half

hc, together with

under ah and hc

af and fb.

AH
Ah

is isos-

But also
sum of hc, and

ah and

Taking away

follows that the rectangle

rectangle under

bf, or

equal to the rectangle under af

equal the square of the

the square of half of ac.

on account of the similar

v.hc

and fb, together with the square of bd.

square of df

= c.

it

equal to the
similar tri-

Montucla

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

471

in his history has fallen into

an error in giving

He

the construction for the solution of this problem.

con-

an altitude equal to half the

structs the isosceles triangle in

line Ac.

The

conchoid

the only

is

monument of

Nicomedes which has descended to

us.

Newton

his Universal Arithmetic,

the labours of

In the appendix to

approves of

highly

it

for the construction of the roots of equations of the third

For these purposes he

and fourth order.

means which the

lines

The intercept of

prefers

it

to the

of the second order present.

the superior conchoid between the vertex

and the point of inflection

is

sometimes used in architecture

as the figure of the shaft of the Corinthian column.

The etymology
word kw%0S) a

of the

name conchoid

from the Greek

is

shell.

Art. 412.

Diocles, a Greek geometer, who lived in the

fifth

century

The occasion

after Christ, was the inventor of this curve.

of its invention was the solution of the problem of the insertion of

two mean proportionals.

shown that

this

construction.

Let the extremes

AC and cb be placed

as centre

and the greater ca

as radius,

describe a circle

&

at right

and with c

angles,

Pappus had previously

problem might be solved by the following

and join db,

and produce it to meet the

circle at E, and produce cb to
meet the

hg

shall

circle at f.

Let a chord AG be

be bisected by cf, and ci

will

inflected so that

be the

first

of the

two means.

Thus

the solution of the problem

the possibility of inflecting

ag

is

made

so as to

to

depend upon

be bisected by cf,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

47

This led Diodes to investigate the locus of the point h, ac

being considered constant and cb variable, and which

ak always equal

evidently equivalent to supposing

To
was

attain the object for which the cissoid

still,

is

to ld.

was invented,

it

however, necessary to be able to describe this

curve mechanically, and here the inventor

Newton,

failed.

however, gives a very simple and elegant method of effecting

this.

Produce the axis da of the curve

through the centre draw
indefinite fixed ruler

until

ae

ci perpendicular to ab.

be placed upon

ci,

and

let

ac,

and

Let an
a square,

having one leg gf equal to ad, and the other gh indefinite,

be so moved, that the indefinite leg gh

through

e,

move along

always pass

and that the extremity f of the other leg

the indefinite ruler ci

to the middle point p of ge,

For the proof of this

The

shall

it

if

shall

a pencil be attached

will trace

out the cissoid.

see (6%6).

quadrature of the cissoid has been inadvertently

omitted in the text.

It is easily effected.

of the curve solved for y>

By

the equation

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

473

Xz
(2r

x) z

3_

x z dx

v j/J#

If the angle p'ca

and v&ro?

a? = r

p,

orjydx

sjy&x

j- (1

= r (l

cos.

r (|p

-f

where r

cos. p)r?

&c 9

Hence

sin. p.

a? cfar

fy&x ~j-

{QrxY
# = (1

i-

sin.

which, taken between the limits

fydoc

-.

2
<p)

p cos.

<p

p)*dcos.

cos.

r%

d<p,

2 sin.

<p

<p

and

<p

p) 5

S^y gives

3r2 tf,

which shows that the area included between the cissoid

its

asymptote

whose radius

The name
xi<r(ro$,

is

equal to three times the area of the

is

cb.

of this curve

is

and

circle,

derived from the Greek word

ivy.

Eutocius attributes to Diodes the solution of the problem

"

to divide a sphere

ratio ;" a
difficulty.

by a plane

problem which

The

into

two segments

in a given

at that time presented considerable

solution given proves

most able and profound geometer.

It

him
is

to

have been a

however subject to

the same objection as most of the ancient solutions, as he

employs two conic sections instead of using one and the

circle.

was

The work from which Eutocius quotes

entitled

De

Pyriis,

the solutions

from which Montucla thinks that

Diodes was probably an engineer.

Art. 418.

The
James

properties of this curve were first considered

Bernouilli, of

whom

see note

on

art.

430.

by

It be-

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

474

longs to a general class of curves which are investigated in

(631) and (682).

Among

the physical properties of this curve,

body moving

serve that a

directed to

its

centre,

in

it,

by the

we may

influence of a force

would be attracted by a

force varying

as the inverse seventh power of the distance, and that

velocity

would bear

the invariable ratio

The
pole

is

its

same distance

to that in a circle at the

1

ob-

^/S.

chord of the osculating

circle

passing through the

two-thirds of the distance of the point of osculation

from the centre, and hence the locus of the point where the
osculating circle intersects the radius vector

represented

is

the lemniscata

by the equation
z*

a*

cos. 2cv.

Art. 42$, et seq.

The

trigonometrical curves took their origin probably

from " the extension of the meridian

Wright, who computed that

sums of the

secants,

which

the figure of secants."

Under

line

is

by

line

the same thing as the area of

Hutton, Math. Diet.

this point of view, the area of the

sum

determines the

of

all

by Edward

collecting the successive

art.

Figure.

curve of sines

the sines in the semicircle to be

equal to twice the square of the radius.

This curve

differs

only apparently from the companion of

See note on

the cycloid.

art. (497).

If the ordinates of the curve of sines be increased or

diminished in the same

produced.

The

their ordinates

ratio, the

harmonic curve

will

be

areas of these curves will be evidently as

and tangents from the extremities of

cident ordinates have the

same subtangent.

coin-

Taylor de

Incrementis.

If the points of the axis be endued with an attractive

power which would cause a material point to move

in the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

475

The curve

would vary as the ordinates.

sinusoid, the force

common

enjoys this property in

with the logarithmic, in

which, however, the force must be repulsive.

If a sinusoid be described on paper, and the paper wrap-

ped on a

cylinder, the radius of

which

is

equal to the axis of

the curve, or to the radius with respect to which the curve

is

constructed,

and

so that the base of the curve shall co-

made by

incide with the circumference of a circle

of the cylinder by a plane perpendicular to

points of the curve will

in the

lie

its

the section

axis

all

the

same plane intersecting

the axis of the cylinder at an angle of 45, and therefore the

made by

curve will be coincident with the ellipse

of that plane with the cylinder.

The

sinusoid depends therefore on that of the

being equal to the circumference of an

semiconjugate axis

the section

rectification
ellipse, its

ellipse,

of the
length

of which the

equal to the axis of the sinusoid, and

is

the semitransverse axis to the semiconjugate in the ratio of

V&

1.

This beautiful property

nearly evident from

is

the consideration that the axis, which in the original curve

is

considered as the circumference of a circle extended into a

straight line,

when wrapped round

is,

and the

to its proper form,

the cylinder, restored

sines of the corresponding arcs

are equal to the ordinates, being the sides of a right angled

triangle having an acute angle of 45.
I

am

not aware whether

perty extends to
is

all

has been noticed that this pro-

it

harmonic

curves.

This

class of curves

represented by the equation

= m sin. x.

If a curve of this kind be rolled round a cylinder in the

manner before described,

it

will coincide

with an elliptical sec-

tion of the cylinder

by a plane inclined to the

whose tangent
ts

m
1

is

monic curves and

Thus

ellipses

axis at an angle

the rectification of the har-

depend on the same

principles.

476

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
Art. 430.

The

earliest notice

we

find of this curve

Descartes, who must be considered

credit of its invention.

is

in the

works of

as possessing all the

In the investigation of the motion

of bodies on inclined planes, he observed, that the part of

down an

the force of gravity which accelerates a body

in-

clined plane cannot be rigorously considered constant, inas-

much

as the direction of the force of gravity

changing, and the direction

This suggested the investigation of the figure of

changed.
a line

continually

is

of the plane continues un-

on which a body would be uniformly accelerated by

the influence of an uniform force directed to a fixed point.

He

therefore inferred the true line of descent to be a spiral

Being afterwards

described round the centre of the earth.

solicited

by Father Mersenne

to give a

more explicit account

of what he meant, he answered that the characteristic property of the curve was that which has been proved in (433).

Upon this being made known to the mathematicians, the properties

proved in arts (431) and (437), and their consequences,

were immediately discovered. But a complete discussion of the

properties of this curve was reserved for

This great geometer was born

and died

new

7th Dec. 1654,

was the

first

calculus to geometrical investigations,

into general use.

in this
it

at Basils

He

at the age of 50.

James Bernouilli.

to

One of the

first

caustic,

to bring it

curves which he examined

manner was the logarithmic

be

to apply the

and

spiral.

He

discovered

own evolute and involute, its own caustic and periboth by reflection and refraction, the focus of in-

its

cident rays being at the pole.

of this curve

may be

from a paper of his published

by Mr. Peacock

His enthusiastic admiration

conceived from the following passage

in the Leipsic acts,

in his excellent collection of

and quoted

examples on

the calculus.

"

Cum

autem ob proprietatem

tarn

singularem tamque

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

477

admirabilem mire mihi placeat spira hasc mirabilis,

ejus contemplatione satiari vix

queam

Quoniam enim semper

gignit,

ut

cogitavi, illam

ad

non ineoncinne adhiberi

varias res symbolice repraesentandas

posse.

sic

similem et eandem spiram

sibi

utcunque volvatur, evolvatur radiet; hinc poterit

esse vel sobolis

parentibus per omnia similis emblema;

Vel

simillima jilia matri,

(si

accommodare non

mysteriis

rem

est

seternae Veritatis Fidei

prohibitum) ipsius seternss

generationis Filii, qui Patris veluti imago, et ab

lumen a lumine emanans, eidem

que adumbratio.
bilis

Aut,

si

numero eadem,

stantiae in adversitatibus

alterationes

numero

et

ut

sibi

manet

constantissime

poterit esse, vel fortitudinis et con=

;

vel etiam carnis nostra? post varias

ipsam quoque mortem, ejusdem

tandem

resurrecturae

illo

qualiscun-

mavis, quia curva nostra mira^

semper

in ipsa mutatione

similis et

o^oovciog existit

symbol um

adeo quidem, ut

si

Ar-

chimedem imitandi hodiernum consuetudo obtineret, libenter

spiram hanc tumulo meo juberem incidi cum Epigraphe

Eadem numero mutata resurgo?

It

might be further observed, that

if

a planet

moved

in a

logarithmic spiral, the sun being in the pole, the curve of a

star's

aberration in a plane parallel to the plane of the orbit

Also, if a

body moving

in a logarithmic spiral, the force being at

the pole, be

would be

also a logarithmic spiral.

stopped at any point, and allowed to descend towards the

pole, the locus of the point at
velocity in the curve

is

which

it

will acquire the

a logarithmic spiral.

See

arts.

(688) (655).

If the pole of a logarithmic spiral be a centre of force, the

law of the force necessary to retain a body in the

spiral is

the inverse cube of the distance.

Professor Leslie has described an instrument for

Geometry of Curve

tracing this curve mechanically. See his

Lines, p. 436.

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

478

If a logarithmic spiral be described upon the plane of a

great circle of a sphere with the centre as pole, and per-

pendiculars be

drawn from every point

in

it

meet the

to

surface of the sphere, the extremities of those perpendiculars

out a loxo&romic curve, or, in other words, the

will trace

projection

of the loocodromic curve on the plane of the

equator

a logarithmic spiral.

is

is

track of a

the

ship which

is

that

of the cardinal points.

it

cuts

all

loxodromic curve

continues sailing towards

the same point of the compass,

not one

The

provided that point be

the meridians at the same angle.

properties of this cuirve were fully investigated

Bernouilli, being one of those

calculus were

The

The

by James

on which the powers of the

first tried.

loxodromic curve

may

logarithmic spiral described

of which the pole

radius vector

property

Its distinctive

is

is

be looked upon as a kind of

upon the surface of the sphere,

the pole of the sphere, and of which the

the arc of a meridian intercepted between

the point and the pole.

The

genesis of the logarithmic spiral

from the logarithmic.

may be

derived

Let a logarithmic be represented by

the equation

y
With

a*.

the origin of co-ordinates as centre, and a radius equal

to the linear unit, let a circle

to this circle

be described, and a tangent

be drawn parallel to the asymptote.

this tangent a flexible string to

which the ordinates y are

attached, so as to continue perpendicular to

wrapped round the periphery of the

still

Suppose

circle.

retaining the same length, and

perpendicular to the string, will

all

still

it,

and

The

let it

be

ordinates

continuing to be

meet

in the centre,

and the portions of them which before were intercepted between the asymptote and parallel tangent become radii
of the

circle

emanating from the centre, the parts which lay

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

479

above the tangents being the productions of the

The

values of

x become

radii.

arcs of the circle with the radius

w and y

unity, so that, if x be changed into

into r9 the

equation of the curve found by the extremities of the ordinates which have

now become

which

radii vectores is
a<* 9

that of the logarithmic spiral.

is

reasoning

It is plain that this

is

not confined to the

All curves represented by equations

logarithmic

spiral*

related

to

rectangular

spirals^

whose

co-ordinates

may be

equations

have
derived

corresponding
in

the same

manner.

Thus

the equations

= poc
= p,

yec

give two

spirals.,

rz
rev

called^ for the

same reason

puj*,

=p
,

the parabolic and hyperbolic

spirals.

Or, as the class of parabolse and hyperbolae in general are

represented

by the equations
n
y = px

where

and n are

positive integers, so the general classes

of parabolic and hyperbolic spirals are included under the

general equations

r
r

n co m

= poA
=p

Art
This
medes.

spiral

was

first

445.

imagined by Conon, a friend of Archi-

point being supposed to

move uniformly towards

the centre of a circle, and at the same time the radius passing

ALGEBBAIC GEOMETRY.

480
through

to revolve

it

angular velocity

round the centre with an uniform

by the combination of these two motions,

But Conon advanced no

the point will describe the spiral.

further than merely to imagine

its

were discovered by Archimedes, and

perties

All

description.

it

its

pro-

has been

hence called the spiral of Archimedes, because, as Montucla

says,

" Celui qui penetre

meYite a plus juste

qui ne

que

fait

le

titre

fort avant

de

lui

dans un pays inconnu,

donner son nom, que celui

reconnoitre."

Archimedes was a native of

Sicily,

born about three cen-

He

was the most

illustrious

ancients in both geometry

and mechanics.

Of the

turies before Christ.

a science 5 he

may be

of the

latter, as

justly styled the father; for until his

time almost no general principles of mechanics were known.

Amongst

his

most remarkable geometrical discoveries

may

be enumerated the relation between spheres, cylinders, and

cones

the approximation to the quadrature of the circle (see

note on

art.

876) ; his discoveries of the properties of conoids

and spheroids, and

chanics he

first

his quadrature of the parabola.

In me-

established the condition of equilibrium, that

the weights must be inversely as their distances from the

centre of motion, and the properties of the centre of gravity,

and the methods of finding

it.

His discoveries

in Hydrostatics

were occasioned by the well known circumstance of the

golden crown of Hiero, in which an alloy of

posed to be mixed by the

discovered

by weighing

artist,
it

and which

in water,

silver

fact

was sup-

Archimedes

and ascertaining the

When Syracuse
by the loss of weight.
citizens in dethe
the
assisted
Homans,
he
by
besieged
was
fending it by the invention of offensive machines, which
specific gravity

struck such horror into the besiegers, that they were obliged
to discontinue their attack,

ade.

The

and turn the

siege into a block-

Syracusans slumbering in too great security,

part of the walls

left

unguarded on some occasion, whereby the

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

Romans were

481

enabled to scale them and possess themselves

of the town, and Archimedes

by the hand of a Roman

fell

soldier in the seventy-fifth year of his age.

Art. 454.

The

hyperbolic spiral

is

one of a general

force directed to the pole, the law of

its

the inverse third power of the distance.

that the centripetal

and centrifugal

therefore the paracentric velocity

is

by a

attracted

variation

One

would be

of the most

remarkable circumstances attending the motion in

is,

of spirals,

class

move

in which, if a material point were to

this

curve

forces are equal,

and

uniform.

If the earth's orbit were an hyperbolic spiral, the sun

being at the pole, the curve of aberration of a star in a plane

would be the involute of

parallel to that of the earth's orbit

the

circle.

Art. 47.1.

The

cycloid has been so remarkable for the dissensions

has created amongst those mathematicians

its

properties, that it has been called the

It

was

first

discovered

Helen of geometry.

imagined by Galileo, who long sought

Upon

drature without success.

to discover

who

its

this failure

its

qua-

he attempted

relation to the area of the generating circle

describing a cycloid and

its

it

by

generating circle on a lamina of

matter of uniform thickness, and ascertaining their weights.

The

result of this experiment

showed the cycloid

to

be

nearly but not exactly three times the area of the generating
circle,

and finding several repetitions of the experiment agree,

he abandoned the inquiry, concluding that the

not be expressed by rational numbers.

ratio could

This circumstance,
i i

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

482
which

certainly

memory of

does not

the great

reflect

much honour on

philosopher,

Italian

the

has been de-

fended by the example of Archimedes in his quadrature

of the parabola; but this was effected in a very different

Archimedes founded his solution on the abstract

manner.

principles of equilibrium,

axioms nearly as general and

certain as those of mathematical science

About

itself.

the year 1630 the same problem was proposed

Mersenne

to Roberval,

who,

by

after a period of six years

spent in the cultivation of the geometry of the Greeks, and

particularly the
it,

works of Archimedes, gave the solution of

and proved the area three times that of the generating

Descartes being apprised by Mersenne of the dis-

circle.

covery of Koberval, declared that any one tolerably skilled

in

geometry would have solved the problem, and, on the

instant, himself

tion

gave a solution for

it.

This was the founda-

of a quarrel between Descartes and Koberval.

Descartes next discovered the method of drawing tangents

to the cycloid,

and challenged the mathematicians of the day

to solve the problem,

meter who

may be

which was effected by Fermat, a geo-

considered to rank almost with Descartes

himself.

Subsequently Pascal discovered the quadrature of any

segment of a cycloid, and the contents of the segments of

solids

of revolution formed by a cycloid revolving round

its

base or axis, and their centres of gravity.

The

rectification

Christopher

of the cycloid was discovered by Sir

Wren, who also discovered

surfaces of solids of revolution

the dimensions of the

of the cycloid,

and the

centre of gravity of a cycloidal arc.

The

rectification of the curtate

proved by Pascal to
ellipse.

and prolate cycloids was

depend on the

rectification

of an

48S

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

The evolute of the cycloid was discovered by Huygens,

who also discovered the remarkable physical property that a
pendulum

cycloidal

tautochronous.

is

line of swiftest descent

cycloid

is

the

between two points so placed, that

the line which joins them shall be neither vertical nor

horizontal.

It

is

by the

remarkable, that

point describe a cycloid

if a material

attraction of a force parallel to the axis, the law of

the force

is

a law

the inverse square of the ordinate;

And

analogous to that of universal gravitation.

further,

the times of describing different cycloids, whose bases coincide, observe the

harmonic law, their squares being propor-

tional to the cubes of the axes.

Art. 477.

The
which

notation cos."" 1 A signifies the angle, the cosine of

is

a.

This very convenient notation

of Mr. J. F. Herschel, of Cambridge.

It

is
is

the invention

used in the

valuable collection of examples on the Calculus of Finite

Differences, lately published

by

him-.

Art. 497.

The
Its

discovery of this curve followed that of the cycloid.

properties

Lahuere, and

were

investigated

others.

It

is

under another point of view

by Roberval,

Wattis9

the curve of sines presented

for the equation

r=

cos.

being put under the form,

y r
-

and the origin transformed

x
r cos.

to the middle point of the axis,

gives
i i

484

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

fiC'

cos.

which may be expressed,

y
which
It

is

is

sin,

\2

the equation of the curve of sines.

therefore a species of the

harmonic curves.

See note on

more general

class called

422.

art.

Art. 506.

The invention of epicycloids is due to Roemer,

the Danish

astronomer, illustrious for the discovery of the progressive

motion of light by observations on the

He

satellites

of Jupiter.

invented this class of curves in Paris, about the year

1674, and showed that an epicycloid

is

the proper figure for

much as possible
The first who gave a

the teeth of wheel work, so as to prevent as

the friction arising from their action.
solution for their rectification

of his Principia.

by John

vestigated

markable
art.

for

being

was Newton, in the

first

book

Their properties were subsequently

The

Bernouilli.

among

epicycloids

the caustics of the

are

circle.

in-

re-

See

668*
Art. 516.

This curve has a remarkable physical property.

material point be supposed to
directed to

its

move

in

the invariable ratio a/2

If a chord be

4-

their

at the

it

bears

same distance^

-v/3.

drawn through the cusp of the

always be equal to the axis; for in

(jo

by

Also> the velocity in

to the velocity in a circular orbit,

will

attracted

cusp, the law of the force will be the inverse

fourth power of the distance.

if

it

If a

a force

its

cardioide,

it

equation, if

be substituted for w, and the two values of z added^

sum

will

be equal to the axis, since

ALGEBltAIG GEOMETRY.
cos.

cos. (#

485

w).

Also, if tangents be drawn through the extremities of any

of these chords, they

and

3'

will intersect at right angles

for if

be the angles under the radius vector and tangent,

we have

the condition,
TT-f-a;

2
0'

and

is

CO

obviously equal

to

the

under the

angle

tangents.

This curve derives

figure to

its

name from the

similitude of

its

a heart.
Art. 529.

Dinostratus^ a pupil of Plato, applied this curve to the

circle and the multisection of an angle.
Although the curve has been distinguished by the name of

quadrature of the

this geometer, there is

was antecedent to

his

some reason

dratrix as the invention of Hippias.

geometer of

this

name was

to

suppose

its

invention

Proclus mentions the qua-

time.

Now

the only ancient

a contemporary of Socrates, and

therefore prior to the time of Dinostratus,

The mere

cumstance of the curve being named from Dinostratus

more a proof of its being

spiral of

his invention than the

Archimedes proves

it

cir-

is

no

name of the

the invention of that geo-

meter.

Art. 5B9.

This curve

is

named from

German mathematician

its

inventor TsMrnkausen, a

of the seventeenth century.

celebrated for having been one of the

first to

He

is

adopt and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

486

apply the modern inventions of the differential calculus and

He

the geometry of Descartes.

also the inventor of

was

caustics.

Art. 545.

For the
art.

origin of the

name of

on

this curve, see note

65%
5m.

Art.

The
the

tractrix has been very erroneously identified with

The

position that

it is

Mathematical Dictionary,

Hutton's

See

catenary.

Tractrix.

name from

tractrix received its

a sup-

the curve which would be described by a

weight drawn on a plane by a string of a given length, the

extremity of which

is

carried along the directrix.

has shown that this conclusion

mentum of

the weight which

every instant destroyed.

is

generated by

is

The

Nova Comm.

its

motion be

real track of the weight

has shown to be a semicycloid with

See Euler,

Euler

wrong, unless the mo-

its

Petrop., 1784.

he

vertex downwards.

The

tractrix

was

invented by Huygens.

An

instrument

is

described

by Professor

scribing mechanically the tractrix or

its

Leslie for de-

involute the cate-

nary.

Art. 580,

The method

et seq.

of determining the roots of equations was

probably suggested to Descartes,

the

first

who used

it,

solving determinate problems

metric

loci,

who

appears to have been

by the method of the

by the

ancients for

intersection of geo-

which originated in the Platonic

school.

In his

Geornetrie, Descartes constructs equations of the third de-

gree

by multiplying them by x

== 0, as in art. 585,

and

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

487

thereby reduces them to the fourth degree, and constructs

them by the
gives

also

He

and parabola.

intersection of the circle

methods of constructing equations of

similar

superior orders by a curve of the third degree, called the

parabolic conchoid and the

the most simple

Descartes supposed that

circle.

mean of constructing

section of curves

was

to

equations

from the

select

by the

inter-

different curves

capable of fulfilling the required conditions, those whose

Newton, however,

equations were of the simplest form.

was directed

in his choice

by a

sidered that the principle

different principle.

of Descartes would

parabpla more proper than the

y* =f px
circle

is

conthe

since the equation

circle,

simpler than any form which the equation of the

He

can assume.

fittest for

He
make

therefore selected those curves as

the purpose which were most easily described

by

continued motion. In this respect he conceived the conchoid

of Nicomedes to be the most proper for the purpose next to
the

circle, as

note on

art.

by which

the instrument

408)

is

it is

described (see

next in simplicity to the compass.

Newton, however, seems

to have overlooked the instrument

described in the note on art. #98 for tracing the ellipse

continued motion, and which

is

by

certainly simpler than the

trammel of Nicomedes.
Art. 588.

The resolution of (jvm + am)

by Cotes, and published

into its factors

in his

was

first effected

Harmonia Mensurarum,

the year 1722, being six years after his death.

in

In the same

year the more general theorem by which

x 2m
is

resolved into

its

9,x

factors

was published by Moivre in the

Philosophical Transactions.

by the equation

m cos.
9

The elegant theorem expressed

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

488

(cos.

-f \/

1 sin.

x) m

also the discovery of Moivre,

is

depends.

may be

It

Jj/

J*/

;=

If the

^flb,

be multiplied by

first

second, the result

1 sin.

Let

= cos.

#,

d^x?

= sin.
= ydx.

*/

dv

ardlr,

and added

1,

to the

is

V 1^= { + ^a/~1}
V
+ V 1 4y = (y a/ 1 +

Ji> -f

V cfo

-f

and that on which the former

established thus

= sin. x^
= cos. #&,

y
.

mx

cos.

tf)cfa?

...

^43*=*

v
+V

1?

-i,

which, by integration, becomes

log. [v

v
No
v

constant

1.

values of v and

<p

= mx

(cos.

1,

0,

j/

0,

and

being substituted, we find

x =:^" 1 ,

sin.

+ V

<p

1 sin.

<p

= ^v=r.

find

mac

sin.

w#

raising the former e quation to the ?wth power,

(COS.

j/

+V 1

and we
cos.

and by

^V-

in general,
cos.

let

ly - eW-l

</

cos.

and therefore

1y)

added, because when

is

The

57

>v/

-\-

a/

'

1 sin, a?)

sin. x)

= mxV

= cos. mr

-f-

In the whole range of analysis there

\/-~ I
is

sin. m,r.

probably no

formula which exhibits more simplicity and elegance in

its

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,
form, and extensive
this. It

may be

489
than

utility in its various applications,

considered as implicitly involving the whole

Although

science of trigonometry.

may be somewhat

it

we

foreign to the subject of the text,

trust the student will

excuse us for giving him here a few examples of

its fer-

tility.

By

multiplying the equations

cos.

cos.

we

-f

-V sj

1 sin.
1

sin.

"~

ey

l
1>

find
cos.

cos.

sm. x sm.

(sin.

cos.

y +

sin.

V1
= ^* +

y +

cos. x)

2/)

but we have also

cos. (a?
*.

+ y) +
#

cos.

V~l

cos.

sin.

?/

sin.

(*+#) =

e^^"

sin.

-f

(sin.

# cos. 3/ -}~ sin. 3/ cos. a?) = cos. (#+/) +

The

real

1
sin. (#4-j/).

must be

this equation

and impossible parts of

re-

and therefore

spectively equal,

cos.

sin.

cos.

y
y +

cos.

From

V 1

sin.

sin.

sin.

cos.

may

these equations

=
=

cos.

(#

4-

y),

sin.

(x

y).

be deduced

all

the

other

formulae of trigonometry.

We can find expressions for the sine and cosine

in terms of the arc itself

from the same formulae by adding

and subtracting the equations

cos.

cos.

a/

sin.

a/

sin.

the results of which are

of an arc

= eW-i
e~~ x "

l
,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

490

-xV i

COS.

sin.

Prom

e xV-.ie-

2
exV -]\e--V

these beautiful formula

x and

series for the sin.

cos.

may
in

be deduced the

easily

powers of x.

Euler de-

rived the above expressions from comparing these series

with the developement of

He

also

e*.

deduced them from the

shall

pursue the results of

said

enough

this

See Vol. VII. Misc. BeroL

series for multiple arcs.

formula no farther, having

young student

to excite the

We

to further in-

quiry.

Art. 592.

Curves represented by equations, in which the exponents

of the variables, or any of them, are rational numbers, are
called

by Leibnitz

diate place

interscendental, as holding an interme-

between algebraic and transcendental curves.

Art. 593.

In the geometrical

treatises

on curve

number of

points in which a right line can intersect

This, however,
for there are

is

curves of the fourth degree, which no

ample, the curve which

is

it.

not any criterion for the degree of a curve

many

right line can intersect in

It

by Professor
by the greatest

lines

Leslie, the degree of a line is determined

is

more than two

discussed in

art.

points.

For ex-

631, when

c<

b.

true, that in this case the curve has a conjugate point

through which a
intersection

line passing is equivalent to

two points of

but the existence of conjugate points cannot

be recognised geometrically.
Art. 602.

The

principle

assumed here, that the equation found by

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,,

491

eliminating one of the variables from two equations 5 one of

the mth, and the other of the nth degree., cannot exceed the
ninth, degree^

may be

thus established

Let the two pro-

posed equations be

xn
in

+ a'*"

which the

-" 1

x n "2
a5

co-efficients

b,

V=

v and

(2),
a',

are functions of y of the following forms

a=
=

Now

it

will not

is

=
=

ay

+b,

C/ s

Jj/

aJy

6'

dy-

<py

^,

evident that the degree of the final equation

be diminished^

if

these co-efficients be supposed

only to consist of that term in each 5 which involves the

By

highest dimension of y.
efficients are

=
=

= pym

ay 3
cy\

=.

dy

3'

e y%

v'

= py \

And

this condition the several co-

reduced to

the equations are reduced to the forms,

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.

492

x m + axm~ 1y+bx m 2y 2 -\-cx m 3y 3

x n ^ax n ~ y-^b x n~2y-^c x n~Hf
l

- 1 + vym =0
~
txy n 1 + v y n =
ixy m

These equations are

general than (1) and (2)

less

{S) 9

(4).

but as

far as respects the final equation resulting

from the elimina-

tion of either of the variables, its degree

not diminished

is

by

the deficiency of the terms, including the inferior dimensions

of the variables.

Let

be divided by y"\ and (4) by

(8)

and the

results

are

GM7r
Considering
the
Pi

as the

equation

first

P^

->

(f

unknown

they

')

of the second

f,

G -)

quantity, let the roots of

... and those

may be expressed

r\ r

r,

a]Q d

*er-'G) + *

(f

-) -*

(H.(MG -');-*

which being multiplied by

(x
(x

ry)
py)

n
m
y and y

(oc

(x

p'y)

If the values which

r'y)

(x

respectively,

r y)
u

(% p"y)

fulfil the latter

>

...

=0,

0.

be successively

sub-.

stituted in the former, the results are

(p
y(pf

And

-r

(p

- V)

(p

r'O
r")

(tfr')

(p'~

^(p"r)

(p"r )

(fr

since the

n, the

r)

number

number of

... =0,
.

')

=
=

0,
0.

of roots of the latter cannot exceed

these equations cannot exceed n.

product of these equations

is

The

necessarily the equation which

498

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETKY.
would

result

from the elimination of x

which make

for those roots

its

for

it

becomes '=

several factors vanish,

and

only for those.

It

is

duced

obvious that the condition which has been intro-

affects the

of y and x which

numerical values of each 'system of values

the equation, but

fulfil

object of the present inquiry.

case of a

much more

does not increase

values, which

number of such

or diminish the

it

This

is

by means of n equations of any proposed

tion of the principle

is

1) variables

degrees.

What

sufficient for the particular applica-

made

in the text.

inquiring further will find

subject in

the only

general algebraical theorem respecting

the final equation found by eliminating (n

has been proved here

is

only a particular

Students desirous of

extensive information on this

Gamier s Elemens (FA/gehre, Chap.

XXV.

His

Also an Essay by

Analyse Algebrique, Chap. VIII.

M.

Bret, published in the Journal of the Polytechnic School?

Cah. 15, Tom. VIII.

The

equation involving any even

effected

by

M.

extension of the principle to an

number of

variables has been

Poisson : see Journal de VEcole Polytech-

niqae> Cah. 11.

Art. 608.

Those who are desirous of further information concerning"

the general properties of algebraic curves are referred to

Cramer, Int. a V Analyse de Lignes Courbes.

lysis Infinitorum.
lines

Stirling

of the third order.

We conceived

Euler's

Ana-

on Newton's enumeration of

De Gua,

V Usage de V Analyse, &c.

that entering further

on the subject in the

present treatise would be swelling the volume without offer-

ing any adequate advantage.

Art. 629.

This curve

is

called the witch.

It is the invention

of an

494

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY,

M. Maria Gaetana

Italian lady,

She

matician.

is

Agriesi, a celebrated mathe-

the author of a work on the algebraic and

transcendental analysis, entitled Analytical Institutions. She

subsequently, according to Montucla, retired to a convent.

Art. 631.

These

articles contain

a full investigation of the properties

of the general class of curves, of which the lemniscata of

Bernouilli

is

a very particular case. I

am not aware whether

the properties of these curves have been ever investigated.

Art. 633.

This curve was invented by the celebrated

sometimes called Cassini's

Cassini,

and

is

ellipse.

Art. 635.

This proposition and

me by

an

plies it to

spiral of

article in the

show the

its

relation

Archimedes.

He

ap-

between the parabola and the

John

from a paper published by

acts, in

applications were suggested to

works of John Bernouilli.

Bernouilli derived

his brother

James

the idea

in the Leipsic

which he supposes the axis of a parabola wrapped

upon the circumference of a

circle

and

fore to converge towards the centre,

its

ordinates, there-

and proposes

to in-

vestigate the spiral so produced.

Art. 636.

by Delambre, by considering that

the course of each day describes a parallel of

This question
as the suri in

is

solved

declination, a ray passing through the top of the perpen-

dicular style will describe a conical surface, the intersection

of which with the horizon will be the path of the shadow.

The method given

analytical.

in

the

text,

however,

seems more

495

ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY.
Art. 638.
Ill this

and the following propositions the

effect

of the

projection of the aberration on the surface of the sphere

The

not taken into account.

curve whose plane

to the ecliptic being determined,

its

projection

may

is

parallel

is

easily

be

found.

m&.

Art.

The

equation of the path of a projectile in "vacuo

tical

and

horizontal,

by %m 9 the

sented

may be

Let the axes of co-ordinates be ver-

determined thus:

and the

velocity

it

of gravity be repre-

force

produces in the unit of time.

This force acting parallel to the axis of y, and there being

no force acting parallel to the axis of x, we have

&

By

dT--

integrating these

JL=:
c

**>

-Zmt

dx

(1),

ddt (2),

and d being the arbitrary constants introduced

in the in-

tegration.

By

integrating a second time,

By

eliminating

ct

cH.

by

these equations,

we

y
which

is

mt z

05

m
-j^X

find

the equation of the path of the projectile.

the integrations has

its

peculiar signification.

determined by the

first

The

Each of
value of

integration, expresses the ver-

dso

tical velocity,

jectile.

The

and -=- the horizontal velocity of the proequation (9) shows that the horizontal velocity

496
is

ALGEBllAIC GEOMETRY.

uniform, and expressed by the constant

(1)

c'.

The

equation

shows that the constant c expresses the velocity of pro-

jection resolved in the vertical direction.

If

h be

velocity

is

the height due to the velocity of projection, that

2 Vmn.

Hence we have
c
c

By

=
=

</Hm
J2 s

/mn

sin. s,

cos.

e.

these substitutions, the equation of the path of the

projectile

No

assumes the form given in the

text.

constant has been introduced in the second integration,

because y 9 #, and t, are supposed to vanish together.

The subjects of this and the next two propositions are

taken from an introductory essay on Central Forces, published

by the author of the present work,

for the use of the

students in the university of Dublin.

Art.

65%

653.

These demonstrations are taken from WheweH's Mechanics,

where a very detailed account of the various species

of catenaries

The

is

given.

catenary, which has received

its

perty proved in this proposition, was

Bernoulli.

Long

name from

first

before this, Galileo

solved

the pro-

by James

had directed

his at-

tention to the curve into which a perfectly flexible string

forms

itself,

reasons.*

and very inconsiderately, and without any good

concluded

it

to be a parabola.

meter, Joachim Jungius, showed

Galileo,

and proved that

it

German

by experiment the

geo-

error of

was neither a parabola nor

He, however, did not make any attempt at the

Four great geometers share
true solution of the question.
the two Bernouillis, James and
the honour of its solution
hyperbola.

John, Leibnitz, and Huygens.

properties of this curve are,

The remarkable

physical

ALGEBliAIC GEOMETRY.
1.

Of

all

497

curves of the same length joining two given

points, the centre of gravity of the catenary lies the lowest.

This property
ciple,

is

very apparent from the mechanical prin-

that every system of particles of matter will

amongst themselves,

move

until they settle themselves into that

position in which their centre of gravity will be at the lowest

point which the law of their connexion admits.

This phy-

sical

property points out a very remarkable mathematical

one,

scil.,

that of all solids of revolution derived from a

curve of a given length joining two given points, that derived

from the catenary has the greatest

.

The

catenary

is

surface.

the figure in which an infinite

number

of voussoirs should be placed, in order to form an arch^

which would sustain

itself

If the wind acted upon a

the curvature of the

James

Bernouilli

sail

by

its

sail

own

weight.

by impact instead of pressure^

would be that of the catenary.

prosecuted the inquiry further, and

assigned the form of catenaries on the supposition that the

thickness
parts of

and

and weight of the

its

also,

different,

string

extension, and that

that the force acting

and varied according

it

were different in different

was differently extensible,

on
to

different parts of it

was

any proposed lawc

Art. 654, 655.

The

subjects of these articles are taken from

Lardner on

Central Forces.

Art. 657.

This elegant property of the semicubical parabola was

proposed for solution to the mathematicians of Europe by
Leibnitz.

The

solution

was effected by James BernouillL

K K

CONTENTS,

PART THE
SECTION

(15.) Criterion for equations of pa-

I.

Of

the connection between indeterminate geometrical questions and al-

gebraical

equations

between

two

variables.

Art. (1.) Geometrical magnitudes

expressed by algebraical symbols, p. 1.
(2. ) Geometrical problems expressed

and vice versa, 2.

seq. Nature of a locus,

SECTION
the

II.

manner of representing equa-

tions between

two variables by relation to axes of co-ordinates.

point determined by its co(10.)

ordinates with their proper signs, 8.
point determined by polar
(11.)
co-ordinates, 9.

(12.)
10.

Method of expressing

Note, 442.
(16), et seq. How the position of a
right line is affected by the values of the
constants of its equation, 12.

SECTION

IV.

by certain conditions.

3.

(5) to (9), et seq. Algebraic equations

between two unknown quantities represent the figure of a line, 4.

Of

rallels, 12.

Of the equations of right lines restricted

algebraically,
(3), et

FIRST.

angles,

To find the co-ordinates of the

point of intersection of two right lines,
the equations of which are given, 14.
Note. Examples of some of the
analytical formulas of this chapter determined geometrically, 442.
(24.) The condition under which
this point is infinitely distant, 14.
(25.) The conditions under which
three right lines will have a common
point of intersection, 15.
(26.) To determine the equation of
a right line passing through a given
(23.)

point, ibid.

(13.) Equations classed

grees, ibid.

by

their de-

points, 16.

Note, 441.

SECTION

(27.) To determine the equation of

a right line passing through two given

III.

Discussion of the general equation of

the first degree.

(14.) Equations of the first degree

represent right lines, 11. ,
Note. On the signification of the coefficients of the general equation, 441.

(28.) To determine the equation of

a right line making given angles with
the axes of co-ordinates, ibid.
(29.) To determine the equation of
a right line passing through a given
point and making given angles with

the axes of co-ordinates, 16.

(30.) To express the angle under

two right

lines as a function of their

500

CONTENTS.

equations, and the angle of ordina-

The

(59.)

intersection of the bisec-

determined, and this

point shewn to be the centre of the
inscribed circle, the radius of which is
shewn to be equal to twice the area
divided by the perimeter, 27.
(60.) The locus of a point from
which two right lines drawn at given
angles to two lines given in position
shall have a given ratio determined
to be a right line, 28.
parallel to the base of a
(61.)
triangle being drawn, and its points of
intersection with the sides being connected with the alternate extremities of
the base, the locus of the intersection
of the connecting lines is the right
line passing through the vertex and
middle point of the base, ibid.
tors of the angles

tion, 17.

The changes the

(31) to (36.)
formula thus determined undergoes in
particular cases, ibid.

(37.) To determine the equation

of a right line inclined to a given right
line at a given angle, 18.

(39.) To determine the equation of

a right line perpendicular to a given
right line, 19.
(41.) To determine the equation of
a right line inclined to a given right
line in an angle equal to the angle of
ordination, ibid.
(44.) To express the length of a
line joining two points, 20.
(45.) To express the intercept of a
given right line between two points
situated on it, ibid.
(46.) To express the distance between any point on a given right line
and the point where it intersects another given right line, ibid.(47.) To express the length of a line
drawn from a given point to a given
right line, and inclined to it at a given
angle, 21.
of

(48) to (51.) The several varieties

which the formula thus determined

is

susceptible, ibid.

SECTION

V.

Propositions calculated for exercise hi

the application of equations of the

first degree.

(52.) The point of intersection of

perpendiculars from the angles to the
sides of a triangle determined, ibid.
(54.) The point of intersection of
the bisectors of the sides of a triangle

determined, 23.
,(56.) The point of intersections of
perpendiculars through the middle
points of the sides determined, 24.
(57.) The radius of the inscribed
circle proved equal to the product of
the sides divided by four times the

parallel being drawn as

(62.)
before, the locus of the intersection of

perpendiculars to the sides through

extremities shewn to be a right

its

line, 29.

(63.) The locus of a point from

which the sum of the perpendiculars

drawn

to several given right lines

have a given magnitude, is proved to
be a right line, and the equation of
this right line determined, 30.
(64.) The area of a^ polygon expressed as a remarkable function of

the equations of

its sides, 31.

(6Q.) The solution of the problem

to inscribe a parallelogram of a given
species in a given triangle, 32.
(68.) This principle applied to the
inscription of a square in a triangle, 33.

right line so determined

(69.)
that the sum of the perpendiculars
from several given points on it shall
have a given magnitude. This right

shewn to be a tangent to a cirthe centre of which is the centre

of gravity of the figure formed by
connecting the given points, and the
radius of which multiplied by the
number of points is the given magniline is
cle,

tude, 34.

Note, 445.

area, 25.

Note, 445.

Of

the perpendiculars through the points

of bisection of the sides 5 lie in direc-

tum, 26.

SECTION

The

three points of intersecthe perpendiculars from

the angles on the opposite sides ; 2.
Of the bisectors of the sides ; 3. Of
(58.)

tion. 1.

Of the

VI.

transformation of co-ordinates.

(71.) The use of the transformation

of co-ordinates, 35.
(72.) The general formulcefor transformation of direction and origin, 36.

CONTENTS.
The changes

these undergo

501

SECTION

by par-

VIII.

ticular conditions, 36.

Of

and asyni*
ptotes of lines of the second degree.

SECTION
The

VII.

(78.) The effect of constants of an

equation on the position and figure of a

37.

(80.) The solutions of the general

equation for each variable, on the supposition that the co-efficients of the
squares of the variables are finite, and
the effect and signification of the irrational parts of these solutions with respect to the locus of the equation, 39.

The algebraical

Note.

in this section explained

principles used
and proved,445.

(81.) The determination of the values

of #, which give real values of y, and
the values of y, which give real values
4ac
of x, when e2
0, 41.

(82.)

b2

<2

is

>

similar determination

= 0, 42.
(83.) A similar
4ao < 0, 43.

when

4ac

determination when

(84.) The conditions under which it

possible for the irrational parts of the

two solutions

in (80)

to

become

0,

~4ac>0,
(85.) The curve, when
investigated and shown to be an hyperb2

bola, except in the case

where the roots

of the quantity under the radical are

real and equal, in which case the locus is

two intersecting right lines, 44.

(86.) This is also the case even if the
squares of the variables be wanting, 45.

The locus investigated when

4ac = 0, and shown to be a para-

(87.)

determined to be a right line, and hence

the relation between the position of a
diameter and its ordinates established,
49.
(91.) The diameters of a parabola
proved to be parallel, 50.
(92.) The equation of a diameter
through a given point determined, 51.
(94.) All diameters of an ellipse or
hyperbola intersect in one point (called
the centre), the co-ordinates of which
are determined, ibid.
(96.) If any diameter be parallel to
the ordinates of another,

when either bd 2ae, or be 2cd,

arenot = 0; but if both of these = 0, the
locus is shown to be two parallel right
lines, one right line, or impossible, according as D 2 4AF, or E 2 4of, is
o,

0, or

<

ptotes, 56,

(109.) All diameters of an

it in two points, 57.

lipse

under the radical are real and unequal, a

point when they are real and equal, and
impossible when they are impossible,

47.^
Note.

On

ellipse

meet

SECTION

IX.

different forms of the equations

of lines of the second degree related
to different axes of co-ordinates.

Of the

0, 46.

The locus investigated when

4AC < 0, and shown to be an elwhen the roots of the quantity

(88.)

b2

the latter will

be parallel to the ordinates of the former,

52,
(97.) The investigation of the axes
and their equations determined. An
ellipse or hyperbola proved to have two
axes intersecting at right angles, and a
parabola but one, ibid.
(100.) The investigation of the intersection of the curve with its diameter.
parabola proved to meet its diameter
but once, 53.
(101.) The vertices of a diameter, 54.
vertex of the curve, ibid.
(102.)
(104.) Those diameters of an hyperbola which meet the curve separated
from those which do not meet it by the
The former called transasymptotes.
verse, the latter second diameters, 54.
(105.) The equations of the asym-

bola

>

axes,

ibid.

B2

diameters,

(90.) The locus of the points of bisection of a system of parallel chords

discussion of the general equation

of the second degree.

line,

tlie

the invention and origin

of lines of the second decree, 447.

(1 12.) The form of the equation when

the curve passes through the origin of
co-ordinates, 58.
(113.) The form of the equation
when a diameter and its ordinates are
parallel to the axes of co-ordinates, ib.

(114.) The form when the axes of

co-ordinates are a diameter, and a line
parallel to its ordinates, 59,

CONTENTS,

502
(119.)

The form when

the origin

is

(120.)

The form when

either axis is

an asymptote, 60.
(128.) The form when the axes of
co-ordinates are a system of conjugate

parallel to

circle,

The general

equation of the

62,

SECTION

X.

equations of tangents; normals,

subtangenis, and subnormals.

Of the

(132.) The general equation of a

tangent to a line of the second degree
passing through a given point in any
position, 63.

Note. The Cartesian methods of

drawing tangents, 449,
(133.) The form which this assumes

when the point

(134.)
(135.)

is

on the curve, 64.

The normal, ibid.

The equation of the

normal,

65.

(136.)
(137.)

The
The

by the curve and the

(159.) The locus of the intersection

of tangents through the extremities of a
chord passing through a given point is a
right line parallel to the ordinates of a

through

diameter passing

diameters, 61,

(130.)

cut harmonically

line joining the points of contact, ibid.

at the centre, 59.

subtangent, ibid.
subnormal, ibid.

the

given

point, 70.

(161.) The lines joining the points

of contact of tangents drawn from the
points of a right line given in position
intersect each other at a fixed point, 71.
(162.) The parameter of a diameter,
ibid.

The parameter a third proportional to

the diameter and its conjugate, ibid.
Note* On the names ellipse, hyperbola, and parabola, 451.
(163.) The principal parameter, ib.
(164,) The focus, ib.
The distance of the focus from the
vertex, 72.

The square of the distance of the

focus from the centre is equal to the
difference of the squares of the semi-,
axes in an ellipse, and the sum of the
squares of the semiaxes in an hyperbola.
distance of the focus of a parabola
from the vertex is a fourth of the prin-

The

SECTION
Of

XI.

cipal parameter, ib.

the general properties

of lines of the

second degree.
(138.) If several pairs of intersecting
right lines parallel to two right lines

given in position meet a line of the second degree, the rectangles under their
segments intercepted between the several points of intersection, and the corresponding points of occurse with the
curve, will be in a constant ratio, 66.
(139), et seq. Consequences of this
theorem, 67.
(154.) The equation of a right line
joining the points of contact of two tangents drawn from a given point, 69.
Note, 450.
(155.) The line joining the points of
contact is an ordinate to the diameter
passing through the point of intersection
of the tangents, 69.
(156.) The locus of the intersection
of tangents through the extremities of a
chord parallel to a line given in position, is the diameter to whieh that
chord is an ordinate, ibid.
(157.) Every secant drawn from the
point of intersection of two tangents,
and meeting the curve in two points, is

(165.)
(1 66.)

An

The directrix, 73.

The equations of the

directrix.

and hyperbola have two directrices equally distant from the centre,
and a parabola but one, ib.
ellipse

SECTION

XII.

The properties of the ellipse and hyperbola.

(167.) An ellipse or hyperbola being

expressed by an equation related to its
axes as axes of co-ordinates, to express
the lengths of any semidiameter and its
semiconjugate in terms of the co-ordinates of its vertex, 74*
( 1 68.) In an ellipse, the sum of the
squares of any system of conjugate diameters is equal to the sum of the squares
of the axes; and in an hyperbola the
difference of the squares is equal to the
difference of the squares of the axes,
75.

Note, 451.
(169.) An equilateral hyperbola, 75.
(170.) Inclinations of conjugate diameters to the axes, ib.
(173.) The polar equation of an eU

CONTENTS.
lipse of hyperbola, the pole being the

centre* 76.

(174.) Diameters equally inclined to

the axis are equal^

ib*

(175.) The greatest and least diameters, 77.

(177.) The asymptotes are the diagonals of the rectangle formed by perpendiculars to the axes passing through their
vertices, ib.

(179.) Equal conjugate diameters

analogous to asymptotes, 78.
(185.) To determine the conjugate
diameters which contain the greatest arid
>

least rectangle, 79.

(186.)
or

To

find the limits of the

difference

of conjugate

sum

Note. Geometrical method

of drawing a tangent to a line of the
second degree, 452.
(192.) Any semidiameter is a mean
proportional between the parts of the
tangent which is parallel to it, intercepted between the points of contact,
and any system of conjugate diameters,
82.
(193.) The triangles formed by ordinates to any diameter from the extre-

mities of a system of conjugate diameters, and the intercepts between them

and the centre are equal, ib.
(1 94.) If on the axes of an ellipse as

diameters circles be described, that on

the transverse axis will be entirely outside the ellipse, touching.it at the extremities of this axis ; that on the con^
jugate axis will be entirely within the
ellipse, touching it at the extremities
of the conjugate axis, 89*
( 96.) The projection of a circle is
,.

84.
On the application of this
prop, to the phases of a planet, 452.
(197.) Angles in a semiellipse on
ellipse,

Note.

of an

angle in-

gate diameters, 85,

parallel to conju-

is

equal to the transverse

axis, 89.

Note.
On the ovals of Descartes.
Their optical property, 452.
(211.) Mechanical description of an
ellipse and hyperbola, 89.
(212.) The polar equation, the pole
being the focus, 90.
Note, 454.
(213.) The rectangle under the distances of any point from the foci is
equal to the square of the semiconjugate
diameter, 90.

(214.) Expressions for the perpenfrom the foci on a tangent,

91.
(215.) The rectangle under these
perpendiculars equal to the square of
the semiconjugate axis, ib.
Note.
On the value of the perpen
dicular from the focus and the asymptote, 454.
(216.) The perpendiculars are proportional to the distances of the point of
contact from the foci, &f.
diculars

(222.)

parallel to the focal vector

93.

scribed in a semiellipse (called supple-

mental chords), are

these distances

drawn from the centre to meet the tangent is equal to the semitransverse axis,

scribed in a semiellipse, ibid.

sides

ib.

(217.)' The focal radii vectores

equally inclined to the tangent, 92.
(218), et seq. Remarkable consequences of this, 91.

the transverse axis are obtuse, and on

the conjugate axis acute, 84.
(198.) The limits of an angle in-

The

(205.) Note, 452.

(206.) The rectangle under the normal and transverse axes is equal to the
rectangle under the conjugate axis and
semiconjugate diameter, 87.
(207.) Parallelograms formed by
tangents through the vertices of conjugate diameters are all equal to each

from the focus, 88.

(209.) In an ellipse the sum of the
distances of any point from the foci,
and in an hyperbola the difference of

80.
(189.)

(199.)

(204.) The most oblique conjugate

diameters of an ellipse are the equal conjugate diameters.
The general value of
the angle under a system of conjugate
diameters, 86.

Note, 452.
(208.) Expression for the distance of
any point in an ellipse or hyperbola

(187), et-seq. Equations of the tansubtangent, normal, and subnormal, relatively to a system of conjugate diameters as axes of co-ordinates,

an

(200), et seq. Remarkable consequences of this theorem, 85.

other,

diameters,

ibid.

gent,

503

(223.) The locus of the intersection

of a tangent with a perpendicular to it

CONTENTS.

504

from the focus, is the circle described

upon the transverse axis, 93.
(224.) The rectangle under the distances of the focus and directrix from

(246.) In general the rectangle under

the segments of a secant through the
focus is equal to the rectangle under the
whole secant and a fourth of the prin-

the centre is equal to the square of the

semitransverse axis, 94.
(227.) The distances of a point on
the curve from the focus and directrix
are in a constant ratio, ib.

cipal parameter, 102,

Note, 454.
(228.) The directrix

(249.) The distances of a point on a

parabola from the focus and directrix are
equal, 103.
(250.) Mechanical description of a
parabola, ib.

the locus of

(251.) Expression for perpendicular

the extremity of the polar subtangent,

from the focus on the tangent, 104.

(252.) This perpendicular is a mean

is

95.

The

the tangent to an hyperbola, the point of

proportional between the distances at

the point of contact and vertex from the

contact being indefinitely removed,

focus,

(229.)

the asymptote,

limit

of the position of
is

ib.

(230), et seq.

Consequences of

this,

96.

(233.) The part of a tangent intercepted between the asymptotes is equal

to the diameter to which it is parallel,
ibid.

(234.) The parts of a secant intercepted between an hyperbola and its

asymptotes are equal, 97.
(235.) A right line being intercepted
between the asymptotes, the rectangle
under the segments of it made by the
curve is equal to the square of the pasemi diameter, ib.
(236.) The intercept of a parallel to
the asymptote between any point on the
curve and the directrix is equal to the
distance of that point from the focus, 98.
(237.) The asymptotes of an equilateral hyperbola are rectangular, ib.
(238.) Parallels to each asymptote
being drawn to meet the other, the parallelogram so formed is of a constant
magnitude, ib.
(239.) The subtangent relatively to
the asymptotes, 99>
rallel

SECTION
Of
(240.)

ib.

(253.) The vertical tangent vis the

locus of the intersection of this perpendicular with the tangent, ib.
(254.) The intercept of the axis between the tangent and focus is equal to
x

is

(256.)

Remarkable consequence of

this, ib.

The

distance of a point from

equal to a perpendicular to
the axis intercepted between the axis
and focal tangent, ib.

(257.)
the focus

is

Note, 454.

The relation between the prinparameter and the parameter of

any given diameter, 107.
(258.)

cipal

SECTION XIV.
Problems

relative to lines of the second

degree illustrative of the preceding

principles.

the limit of an

parameter and

vertex,

XIII.

ellipse or hyperbola, the

(255.) The diameter and focal vector

are equally inclined to the tangent, 106.

(260.) Given the base and vertical

angle of a triangle, to find the locus of
the vertex, 108.
(261.) Given the base and ratio of
sides, to find the locus of the vertex, 109.
(262.) Given the base and sum of
squares of sides, to find the locus of the

the parabola.

A parabola

the distance of the point of contact from

the focus, 1 05.

focus of which being given, the transverse axis is increased without limit, 99.
(241), et seq. Equations of tangent,
normal, subtangent, and subnormal,
100.

(243.) Expression for the distance of

of a point from the focus, 101.
(244.) The polar equation, the focus
being the pole, ib.

ib.

(263.) Given the base and vertical

angle, to find the locus of the intersection
of the perpendiculars, 1 1 0.
(264.) Given the base and vertical
angle, to find the locus of the intersection
of the bisectors of the sides, ib.
(265.) Given the base and vertical
angle, to find the locus of the centre of
inscribed circle, 111.

CONTENTS,
(266.)
circle,

The

polar

equation

of the

ratio, ib.

(268.) The locus of a point from

which lines being drawn to several given
points, the sum of the squares being
is

a circle, 113.

The locus of a point, from

which lines being drawn inclined at
given angles to the sides of a given
rectilinear figure, the sum of their squares
being given, is a line of the second de(269.)

gree,

ib.

(270.)

Two

from a point

similar in vestigatiorf applied

1 24.
(290), et seq. The locus of the centre
of the circle inscribed under the focal
radii vectores of an ellipse and hyperbola?
125.
(292.) Given the focus and a tangent
of a parabola, the locus of the vertex is
a circle, 129.
(293.) Given the vertex and tangent,
the locus of the focus is a parabola, 130.
(294.) Given a diameter of a parabola and the distance and its parameter,
the locus of the focus is a circle, 13 1.
Given the point where a para( 295.)
bola intersects a given diameter, and also
the parameter of that diameter, the locus
of the vertex of the curve is an ellipse,

to the parabola,

12.

secant of a circle passes

(267.)
through a fixed point, to find the locus
of the point which divides it in a given

given,

(289.)

50^

right lines being

at

drawn

given angles to two

given right lines, so that the rectangle

under them shall be given, the locus of
that point is a line of the second degree,
114.

(271.) Given the base and difference

of base angles of a triangle, the locus of
the vertex is an hyperbola, 115.
(274.) Given the base and product of
tangents of base angles, the locus of
vertex is an ellipse or hyperbola, 116.
(275.) Given the base and sum of the
tangents, the locus is a parabola, ib.
(276.) Given the base and difference

of tangents, the locus

is

an hyperbola,

117.
(277.) The locus of a point from
which perpendiculars to the sides of a
given angle shall contain a given area,
is an hyperbola, 1 1 8.
(278.) The locus of the centre of a
circle touching a given line and passing
through a given point, is a parabola, ib.
(279.) The locus of the centre of a
circle touching a given right line and a
given circle, is a parabola, 1 1 9.
(280.) The locus of the centre of a
which touches two given circles,
an hyperbola, ib.
(281.) The locus of the intersection
of tangents to a parabola which intersect at a given angle, is an hyperbola,

ibid.

(296), et seq. Given the diameter of

a parabola and a tangent through its
vertex, the loci of the vertex and focus
are right lines, 132.
right line of a given length
(298.)

terminated in the sides of a given

angle, the locus of a given point upon
x
it i s an ellipse, ib.
Note. On the elliptic compasses, 454.
right line passes through a
(299.)
given point, and is terminated in the
sides of a given angle, the locus of a
point which divides it in a given ratio is
an hyperbola, 133.
(300.) To find a curve of such a nature, that the intercept of a parallel to
the axis of x between the radius vector
and a parallel to the axis of y shall have
a constant magnitude, 134.
right line being drawn
(301.)
through a given point intersecting the
sides of a given angle, a part is assumed
from the given point equal to the part
intercepted between the sides of the
angle, to determine the locus of its exis

circle

tremity, 135.

is

(302.) Similar lines of the second

degree having a common axis and vertex, divide secants through the vertex

ibid.

Note, 454.
(282.) The locus of the intersection
of tangents to an ellipse or hyperbola
inclined to the axes at angles, the pro-

duct of whose tangents

is

given in an

ellipse or hyperbola, 121.

(283), etseq. Particular applications

of the preceding, 1 22,

proportionally, 136.

Note, 455.
(303.) Two similar ellipses or hyperbolae have a common centre and coincident axes, and through the vertex of
the smaller a tangent is drawn intersecting the other ; any two chords of the
greater passing through the point where
this axis meets it, and equally inclined
to this tangent are together equal to two

CONTENTS,

506

chords of the' smaller ellipse parallel to

them and passing through the vertex,
138.
(304.) Three unequal circles being
given, if to every two of them common
tangents be drawn, the three points of
intersection of the tangents to each pair
of circles will
line, 139.
(305.)

lie

in the

same

straight

Two circles being given, a tan-

gent to one of them intersects the other,

the locus of the intersection of tangents
to the second passing through the points
of intersection, is a line of the second
degree, 140.

(306.) To find the equation of a line

of the second degree touching the three
sides of a given triangle, 141.
(307.) To determine the locus of its
centre, 142.

(308.) To inscribe an ellipse or hyperbola in a triangle so as to touch its

base at the middle point, and also to
touch one of the sides at a given point,

144.
(309.)

The

the centre of an ellipse upon an ordinate

to the axis equal to that ordinate, the
locus of the point where
ellipse,

it

meets

it is

an

151.

SECTION XV.
Of

the application

of the
and integral calculus to

differential

curves,

(318.) General method of determining

a tangent to a curve, 152.
Note.
On the different methods of
Roberval's method; examtangents.
ples of it applied to lines of the second

degree and the cycloid, 455.

(323), et seq. General formulae. for
the subtangent, normal, and subnormal,
155.

(326), et seq. Formulae for passing

from rectangular to polar co-ordinates,
and vice versa, 156.
(327.) The angle under the radius
vector and tangent, 157.
(328.) Note on polar subtangent, 458,
(329.) Method of rectification, 158.
(330.) Method of quadrature, 159.
(331.) Of osculating circles and evo-

locus. of the centre of an

hyperbola inscribed in a triangle, and touching one side of a given lutes, ibid.
Note, 458.
point, is a right line, ib.
(333.) Centre and radius of osculating
(310.) Given the base of a triangle,
the
double
being
circle, 162.
one of the base angles
other, the locus of the vertex is .an hy(337.) Note, 458.
145.
perbola,
(338.) Evolute determined, 164,
and
pomagnitude
in
Given
Note,
459.
(311.)
sition the vertical angle of a triangle,
(340.) Normal of the curve is the
whose area is also given, the locus of a tangent to the evolute, 165.
point which divides the opposite side in
(342.) Radius of osculating circle
equal to the arc of the evolute, ib.
a given ratio, is an hyperbola, 146.
(344.) The evolute of every alge(312.) The locus of the extremity of
a portion, assumed upon the sine of an braic curve rectifiable, 166.
arc equal to the sum or difference of its
(345.) Method of determining asymptotes, 167.
chord and versed sine, is a parabola, ib.
(313.) The ordinate to the axis of a
SECTION XVI.
Jine of the second degree being produced
until the part produced equals the diOf the general principles of contact
ellipse or

stance of the point where it meets the

curve from the focus, the locus of the
extremity of the produced part is a line

of the second degree, 147.

(314.) The locus of the middle point
of the normal is a line of the second degree, 149.
(315.)
the

origin

line

on the ordinate of a right

second degree, 150.

line being inflected from
(316.)

osculation.

by the number of constants,

SECTION

being inflected from

line equal to that ordinate, the locus of

the point when it meets it is a line of the

and

(347.) Conditions which determine

the degrees of contact, 168.
(352.) Contact of the nth. order, 72.
(354.) Order of osculation determined

Of the

73.

XVII.

singular points of curves.

(363.) Point of inflection, 175.

(364.) Note, 459.
(368.) Multiple points, 177..

CONTENTS,
On

the determination of mul459.

(370.) Double, triple points, &c. 178.
(372.) Cusps of the first and second

Note.

tiple points,

kind,

ib.

(374. ) Conjugate points, lb.

Note.
On the origin of conjugate
points, 462.

SECTION
Of

and

curvature of lines of the second degree.

The

(375.)
179.

rectification of the circle,

(376.) The quadrature of the circle,

181.
Note.
On the quadrature of the
circle, 463.
(378.) The quadrature of the ellipse,
ibid,

Note, 463.
(383.) The quadrature of the hyperbola, 183.

The

(386.)

quadrature of the para-

bola, 184.

This quadrature discovered

Note.

by Archimedes, 464.

The

osculating circle to a
(387.)
point in an ellipse or hyperbola, 1 84.
(390.) The osculating circle to a
point in the parabola, 1 85.

(393.) The evolute of the ellipse or

hyperbola, 186.
(396.) The evolute of the parabola,
188.

Van

Note.

this curve,

method

(405.)
192.

The

quadrature of this curve,

The

conchoid of Nicomedes,

(408.)
193.

Note. Of the invention of this curve.

Description of the trammel of Nicomedes, an instrument for describing it
by continuous motion. The trisection of
an angle, and the insertion of two mean
proportionals by this curve, 467.
(410.) The tangent and singular

XVIII.

the rectification, quadrature,

507

Huraet's rectification of

and the application of this

and hyperbola,

to the parabola

464.

points, 194.

(412.) The cissoid of Diodes, 196.

Note. Of the invention of this curve*;
An instrument for describing it by continuous motion invented by Newton.
The quadrature of the cissoid. Other
inventions of Diodes, 471.
(4 1 4. ) Of the figure of the cissoid and
its

tangent, 197.

(418.) The lemniscata of James Bernoulli, 198.

Physical properties of this
Note.
curve, 473.
(421.) Its figure and quadrature?
200,
(422.) The curve of sines, its figure
and quadrature, 200.
Note.
Of the invention of these
Of harmonic curves, and their
curves.
connexion with trigonometrical curves.
The rectification of harmonic curves reduced to that of the ellipse, 474.
(427.) The curve of tangents, its
figure and quadrature, 202.
(429.) The curve of secants, 204.
(430.) The logarithmic spiral, 205 o
Note. Of the invention of this curve,
and its several properties. Its physical
properties. Instrument for describing it.
Its relation to the loxodromic curve.
Its genesis derivable

SECTION XIX.
the properties of the logarithmic,
conchoid, cissoid, and other curves ,
both algebraic and transcendental.

(397.) The logarithmic, 189.

Note. Inventor and physical property of this curve, 467.
(398.) Equidistant values of y in
geometrical progression, 190.
(400.) The axis of x an asymptote,
ibid.

The

tangent and subtangent,

The

osculating circle and point

19L
(403.)

This method

from the logarithgeneralised and

shown

Of

(401,)

mic.

to apply to curves in general,

476.
(431.) Equidistant radii vectores in
geometrical progression, 205.
(434.) Tangent and polar subtangent,

ibid.

(437.) Its rectification and quadra-

206.
(441.) Its osculating circle and evo'
lute, 208.
(445.) The spiral of Archimedes, 209.
Note. Of the invention of this curve
ture,

by Conon.

of greatest curvature,

ibid.

Its properties discovered

by

Archimedes.
Of the other discoveries
of Archimedes, 479.

CONTENTS.

508

(447.) Equidistant radii vectores in

arithmetical progression, 209.

(448), et seq.

Its tangent

which
242.

and qua-

this

(538.)

curve

The

derives

its

name,

multisection of an angle

drature, 210.

by

General class of spirals of

which this is a species, 211.
(454.) Hyperbolic spiral, ibid.
Note.
Physical properties, 48 1
(456), et seq. Its asymptote and
tangent, 212.
(460), et seq. Its polar subtangent
and quadrature, 213.
(464.) The lituus, its asymptote and
tangent, 214.
(471.) Of cycloids, 215.
Note. Of the inventors of these
curves, 481.

(539.) The quadratrix of Tshirnhausen, ibid.

Note. On the inventor of this curve,

(453.)

(472), et seq.

and common
(477.)

The

prolate,

curtate,

cycloids, 216.

The

intercept of the ordinate

to the axis between the generating circle

and cycloid, bears a given ratio to the

corresponding arc
circle, 218.

of

the

generating

On the notation cos. _iA, 483.

(479.) The tangent and figure of the
cycloid, 219.
(481.) Geometrical methods of drawing tangents, normals, &c. 220.
(487.) The quadrature rectification
and evolute of the cycloid, 222.
Note.

(496.) Remarkable relation between

the common cycloid and the involute of
the generating circle, 2-25.
(497.)

this curve,

485.
(541), et seq. The figure and quadration of this curve, 245.
(544.) The multisection of an angle
by it, 247.
(545.)

(547), et seq. Its tangent and

curves, 228.

Of

epitrochords

and epicy-

cloids, ibid.

The

inventor of epicycloids,

(510), et seq. Tangent, rectification

and evolute of these curves, 231.

Note.

Of the

cardioide, 236.
Physical properties, 484.

(520.) The
tification

238.
(529.)
tus, 240.
Note.
485.

rectifi-

cation, 249.

(551), et seq.

Its

osculating circle

and evolute, 251.

(554.) Its quadrature, 252.
{555.) The involute of the circle, its
tangent and quadrature, 252.
(561.) Its rectification and polar subtangent, 254.
(566.) Remarkable relation between
this curve and the spiral of Archimedes,
255.
(567.) Of the tractrix and equitan-

gen rial curves,

Note, 486.

ibid.

(569), et seq.

The

tangent, figure,

256.
(572), et seq. The rectification and
C
evolute of the tractrix, 25S.
(576.) The syntractrix, 261.

and quadrature of the

tractrix,

SECTION XX.

This curve identical with the

sinusoid, 483.
(502), et seq. The tangent figure and
quadrature of this curve, 226.
(505.) General equation of cycloidal

(516.)

catenary, ibid.

The companion of the cvcloid,

Note.

Note.
484.

The

Note, 486.

ibid.

(506.)

244.

tangent, quadrature, rec-

and evolute

The

On

of this

curve,

quadratrix of Dinostra-

the inventor of this curve,

(530), et seq,

The nature and properties of the roots

of equations illustrated ly the geometry of curves.
(580.) General method of constructing the value of y for any given value
of a 265.
Note, 486.
If two numbers, substituted for x in
any equation produce results with opposite signs, there must be an odd number of real roots between them, and at
least there must be one, 268.
If two numbers, substituted for ,r in
any equation' give results affected with
the same sign, there must be either no
real root or an even number of real roots
between them, ibid.
If two numbers, whose difference is
less than the least difference of two con1

secutive roots of an equation, substituted

The

properties from

for

;i'

in the equation, give results affected

CONTENTS,
with different signs, one and only one
between them ; and if they
give results affected with the same sign

real root lies

no

real root lies between them, 269.

If two numbers, which include between them an even number of real and

equal roots, be substituted for

in

any

equation, they will give results affected

with the same sign, 270.

If two numbers, which include between them an odd number of real and
equal roots, be substituted for x, they
will give results with different signs,
ibid.

If numbers greater than the greatest

root of an equation, whether positive or
negative, be substituted for #, they will
continually give results with the same
sign, 271.

Curves classed by the degrees of

296.
Note, 490.
(595.) The analytical parallelogram
of Newton, 298.
The analytical triangle of De Gua,
their equations,

299.
(596.) The number of terms in a
general equation, 300,
(597.) How far the angle of ordination affects the curve, ibid.

(598.) Complex curves, 301.

An algebraic curve of the nth
*
n (n + 3)
,
,
,
degree may be drawn through
(600.)

points, 304.

(601.)

The greatest number of points

in which a right line can

ibid.

Equations of an odd order have always an odd number of real roots, 272.
Impossible roots exist by pairs, ibid.
Every equation which wants the last

term has a root

0, ibid.

An equation of an even order, with

the last term negative, has at least two
real roots with different signs, ibid.
By changing the value of the last term
of an equation, real roots passing through
become

impossible,

and vice

versa, 273.

meet an alge-

expressed by the exponent

of its order, 305.
(602.) Two algebraic curves of the
mth and nth order can only intersect in
mn points, 306.
Note. On the degree of a final
braic curve

Equations of an even order have either

an even number of real roots or none,

equality

509

is

equation, 490.
(606.) If two right lines parallel to
two right lines given in position intersect a curve of the n\h order, the continued products of their segments intercepted between their point of intersection

and the curve will be in a constant ratio,

309.
(607.) Diameters in general, 310.
Curvilinear diameters, 3 2.
1

The

equation of limits and its properties, 274.

(581.) Method of constructing the
roots of equations by the intersection of
curves, 275.
(582.) Constructions for the roots of
a quadratic equation, 276.
(583.) Constructions for the roots of
an equation of the third degree, 278.
(585.) To find a cube which shall
bear a given ratio to a given cube, 285.
(5S6.) To find two mean proportionals, 286.
(587.) The trisection "of an angle,
ibid.

absolute diameter, ibid.

Counter diameters,

ibid.

Centres in general, 313.

(608.) Classification of lines of the
third order, 314.
Note, 493.

SECTION XXII.
Geometrical problems, illustrative of
the application of the preceding
parts of algebraic geometry*
(609.) Given the base of a triangle
ratio of the rectangle under the
sides to the difference of their squares
to determine the locus of the vertex,
315.
(610.) Two right lines, each passing

and the

(588.)

An

The

resolution of (x

m a)

into its simple factors, 288.

Note, 487.

SECTION XXI.
Of the general properties

of algebraic

curves.

(592.) Division of curves into algebraic and transcendental, 295.

through a given point, intersect in such

a manner as to. intercept between them
a given magnitude of a right line given
in position to find the curve traced by
their intersection,

316.

CONTENTS,

510

(611.) Given the base and locus of

vertex of a triangle, to investigate the
loci of the points where the inscribed

square meets its side, and also that of

the centre of the inscribed square, 317.

curve whose subtangent varies as the

its co-ordinates, 332.
(624.) To find the equation of a curve

rectangle under

whose area equals twice the rectangle

under

A given right

angled triangle
moved, that the vertex of the right
angle, and one extremity of the hypotenuse, describe right lines perpendicular to each other, and given in position ; to find the nature of the curve described by the other extremity of the
hypotenuse, 319.
(613.) To determine the curve in
which the sine of the angle of projection
varies inversely as the square of the ra(612.)

is so

To

find the locus of a point

from which several right lines being

drawn to several given points, the sum
of their 2mth powers will be given,

being supposed a positive integer, 321,

(6 1 5. ) To find the locus of a point,
the difference of the 2mth powers of
whose distances from two given points
is given,
being supposed a positive
.

co-ordinates,

ib.

radius vector, 333.

(626.) Of two right angles one is

given in position, and the other is so
moved that while one of its sides intersects a side of the fixed angle at a given
point, the intercept of the other side, be-

tween

its

vertex and the other side of the

fixed angle shall be of a given

magniby

tude, to determine the curve traced

and a line perpendicular to it passing

through^ given point on the circle, 334.

integer, ibid,

its

(625.) To find the spiral whose area

proportional to the logarithm of the

the middle point of this intercept, ib.

(627.) To find the locus of the intersection of a tangent to a given circle,

dius vector (equilateral hyperbola), ibid.

(614.)

is

(628.) Two equal parabolas being

placed in the same plane, and so as to
touch at their vertices, let one of them
be supposed to roll upon the other, to
find the loci of its focus andvertex> 335.
(629.) The ordinate to the diameter
of a circle being produced, until the rectangle under the whole produced ordinate, and the absciss, shall be equal to
the rectangle under the original ordinate
and diameter, to investigate the locus of
its extremity, 336.
Note. On the name and inventor of
this curve, 493.
(630.) To investigate the figure of
the curve, whose equation is #4
cPxP
- V*>sfl + cPl* <% 0, 339.

(6 6.) To find the locus of a point

from which the sum of the mth powers
of right lines drawn at given angles to several given right lines shall be given, m.
being supposed a positive integer, 322,
(617.) To find the equation of a
curve of a given species passing through
any proposed number of given points,
323.
(618.) To investigate the figure and
=
area of a curve represented by the equa_ y*&'ls
W 2,r
16#4= 0, 327.
(631.) To find the locus of the intertion cfiij*
(619.) To investigate the figure and section of the tangent to an ellipse, with
quadrature of the curve represented by a perpendicular to it passing through
a*aP + a a y 2 = 0, the centre, 340.
the equation #4
Note, 494.
328.
(632.) To determine the locus of the
(620.) The ordinate to the axis of a
cycloid being produced until it becomes intersection of-the tangent to an hyperequal to the cycloidal arc intercepted bola, and a perpendicular to it through
between it and the vertex; to find the the centre, 345.
1

locus of
secting

extremity, 329.
and a right line interare given in position, the part

its

(621.)

A circle

it,

of a radius, or produced radius, intercepted between the circle and right line,
is divided in a given ratio, to determine
the locus of the point of division, 330.
(622.) To investigate the figure and
quadrature of the curve represented by
3
&*y - x*y
0,331.

(623.)

To

find the equation of the

(633.) Given the base and rectangle

under the sides of a triangle, to determine the locus of the vertex, 347.
Note, 494.
(634.) Given the base and area of a
triangle, to find the locus of the centre of
the inscribed circle, S49.
(635.) Two given curves, one referred to rectangular, and the other to
polar co-ordinates, are so related

that

the ordinates of the one are equal to the

CONTENTS.
corresponding radii veetores of the other,
to determine the conditions by which the
equation of either of these curves may
be found from that of the other, 355.
Note, 494.

cities,

and

511
to find the loci of their- vertices

370.

foci,

(648.) Given the velocity direction of

a projectile to find the point where it will
meet a given place, and also the time of
flight, ib.

SECTION

XXIII.

(649.) Given the velocity of projection

to find the angle of projection, at

Propositions illustrative of the applica-

of the preceding part of Algebraic Geometry to various parts of

Physical Science*

tion

right line of a given length

(636.)
being erected perpendicular to an horizontal plane, to find the nature of the

curve traced out by the extremity of its

shadow, 360.
Note, 494.
(637.) To find the curve traced by the
vertex of the earth's conical shadow, 361.

which

the distance of the point where the projectile meets a given plane, shall be a

maximum, 371.
(650.) To find the locus of the empty
of the orbits of several planets
having a common point of intersection,
and at that point having the same velofoci

city,

374.

(65 i .) To investigate the figure of the

earth from the horizontal parallax of the

moon

accurately observed in different

latitudes,

375.

(638.) If a body revolves in any proposed curve, to find the curve of a fixed
star's aberration as seen from this body,

perfectly flexible and ine(652.)

lastic chain of uniform density and thick-

362.
Note, 495.
(639.) The orbit being a line of the
second degree with the centre of force
at the focus, to find the curve of aberration, 363.
(640.) The orbit being an ellipse or

points, to find the curve into

hyperbola, with the centre of force at its

centre, to find the curve of aberration,

365.
(6*4 1

.)

The

orbit being a parabola, the

force acting along the diameters, to find

the curve of aberration, ib.

(642.) The orbit of the. planet being

supposed a circle, with the sun in the
circumference, to find the curve of aberration, 366.
(643.) The orbit of a comet being
supposed parabolic, to find the place of
perihelion from two distances from the
sun, and the included angle, ib.
(644.) The parabolic orbits of several

comets having a

common

tangent,

to

find the locus of the perihelia, 367.

The

ness being suspended from

will

form

itself

by the

effect

two fixed
which it

of

its

own

weight, 376.

Note, 496.

flexible and elastic chain is

attached to two fixed points, to find the

(653.)

curve into which it will form itself by its

own gravity, 377.
given orbit is described by a
(654.)
body round a given point as centre of
force, and from any point in it a body is

projected with the velocity in the orbit

in a direction

immediately opposed to the

action of the force, to find the locus of

the point at which it shall cease to recede

from the orbit, 379.

Note, 497.
(655.) A given orbit is described
round a given point as centre of force,
and a body being placed at any point in
the orbit, is moved by the action, and in
the direction of the force, until

quires the velocity

orbit, to find

it

would have

it

ac-

in the

the locus of the point at

vertices,

which this velocity shall be acquired,

380.
material point is moved by
(656.)
its own weight on a curve, the plane of
which is vertical, to determine the perpendicular pressure on the curve, 383.
(657.) To determine a curve such,

scribed

that a material point constrained to

(645.)

parabolic orbits of several

comets intersecting

at the

same

point,

to find the locus of the perihelia, 3,68.

thrown from
a given point with the same velocity in
(646.) Projectiles being

different directions, to find the loci of the

and foci of the parabolae deby them, ib.

by the force of gravity

Note, 495.

in

(647.)Several projectiles being thrown

with an uniform velocity, 388.

m the same direction with different velo

it

Note, 497.

will

move

descend

CONTENTS,
(658.)

right line fixed at a point in

To

(664.)

find the

an horizontal plane is so fixed as to revolve in a vertical plane, to determine

line in a lens, 41 8.

the locus of a point in it such, that the

time of descent from it to the fixed point
shall be the same at all elevations, the
friction being supposed proportional to
the pressure, 389.
(659.) Two weights are connected by
a string which passes over a fixed pulley;
one hangs vertically, the other is supported upon a curve, the plane of which
is vertical, to find the point on the curve
at which the weights will be in equilibrio,
391.
(660.) To find the centre of gravity
of a plane curve, 393.
(661.) To investigate the centres of
gyration and percussion, or oscillation of
a plane curve, 403.
vessel sails between two
(662.)
light-houses, to find the track she must
describe so as to receive an equal quantity of light from each, 416.
(663- ) To find the image of a straight
line in a spherical reflector, 417.

that parallel

image of a straight

(665.) To find a refracting curve such,

on

it,

homogeneous rays incident

same

shall be all refracted to the

point, ibid.

To determine the caustic by

(666.)

flection of a

To

(667.)
cle,

re-

given curve, 419.

find the caustic of the cir-

the radiant being on the circum-

ference, 420.

(668.) To find the caustic of the cirrays being parallel, 421

(669.) To find the caustic of the cycloid, the rays being parallel to the
cle, the

axis,

422.

(670.) To find the caustic of the logarithmic spiral, the radiant being at the
pole,

424.

SECTION XXIV.
Praxis.

This section contains a collection of

questions without solutions, adapted for
general exercise.

LONDON
PRINTED BY THOMAS DAVISON, WHITEFRIARS,

LIBRARY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

TREATISE

ON

ALGEBRAICAL GEOMETRY

Rev.

S.

W.

WAUD,

M.A.

F. Ast. S.

FELLOW AND TUTOR OF MAGDALENE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

PUBLISHED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR

THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

LONDON:
BALDWIN AND CRADOCK, PATERNOSTER-ROW,
MDCCCXXXV.

LONDON

PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONg

Stamford Street,

CONTENTS.
PART

I.

APPLICATION OF ALGEBRA TO PLANE GEOMETRY,

CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTION,
Pag

Art

1.

Object of the Treatise

2.

4.

The method
The method
The method

5.

General signification of an equation when referring to Geometry

6.

Particular cases where the equation refers to areas

3.

of expressing the length of a straight line

of expressing the size of an area

by Algebra

of expressing the volume of a solid

and

7.

Equations of the second and third order refer to some Geometrical Theorem

The

9.

10, 11.

an equation leads

metrical Constructions

ab

h,
12.

The Geometrical

>

Method

*M

*/a*b%

cd,

*/*

+ + *,

Geo-

aT&>iJI

not homogeneous with the linear unit, or

2
a/" "^

h/ a >

4
4

Construction of the quantities

W+
is

....

either to numerical calculations, or to

of uniting the several parts of a construction in one figure

13. If any expression

->

surfaces

8.

solution of

^ C,

^e

expressed prior to construction

numer i ca l un ^

understood,

is

of the form

and must be

...

CHAPTER

II e

DETERMINATE PROBLEMS,
14.

Geometrical Problems
terminate

may be

.....
....-

divided into two classes, Determinate and Inde-

an example of each

15.

Rules which are generally useful in working Problems

16.

To

17.

describe a square in a given triangle

In a right-angled triangle the lines drawn from the acute angles to the points of

18.

To

bisection of the opposite sides are given, to find the triangle

divide a straight line, so that the rectangle contained

be equal to a given square.

Remarks on the double

by the two

roots

parts

may

...
a2

CONTENTS.

iv

Page

Art.

19.

Through a given point

20.

Through

draw a straight

M equidistant
given length

line of

same point

the

from two perpendicular straight

draw a

to

lines, to

various solutions

sum

line so that the

upon the

of the squares

two portions of it shall be equal to a given square

21.

To

find a triangle such that

....

three sides and perpendicular on the base are in

its

..

a continued progression

CHAPTER

13

III.

THK POINT AND STRAIGHT LINE.

22.

Example

of an Indeterminate Problem leading to

x and

quantities

Definition of a locus

y.

24.

Some
The

y=zb;

a,

or (y

Geometry

The

(x

To

30.

The

D2 =
distance between

= 0r-a')

D2
The

31, 33.

(a

the

- o!f + {b - VJ

two points referred

2

position of points in

36.

Examples of

loci of the

equations y

-K&-&') +
y = ax -f- b
2

loci

b,

and y

16

.17

...

(-')

-&')cos.

(b

.19

and

u,

20

21

corresponding to equations of the

order

first

..

22

22

37. 39. Exceptions and general remarks

to a straight line passing

40 The equation

y
41.

The

yi =.

a,

(x

finite portion of a

43. If

= ax+b
X +b
y
z=z a.

44.

The
y

given line

a!

x 4"

If a third line, whose equation

.25

line parallel to it is

lines

.25

y=zctx-{-b, and

is

an

+b

,r
,

26

a,'

passes through the point of in-

then
(a &'-

*' b)

- ( &"-

and & are the angles which two

o3
~-7
{p - 9) =

u'f

b)

lines

r ,

(' b

- " b ) =i 0.

make with

the axis of x,
\ -\-

u,

tan,

and bisecting a

^\Y=^ .....

b f , are

45. If 6

point,

two given

intersection of

X = a u)
tersection,

line, the straight

co-ordinates of the

23

is

24

through a given

be a given straight

is

'

find the equation to a straight line

To

Xi)

y-y\~
42.

......

through a given point

a straight line through two given points

equation to

18

19

*>

proved to be a straight line

34. Various positions of the locus corresponding to the Algebraic signs of

The

!5

to oblique axes

locus of the equation

35.

.14

15

........

to

find the distance between two points

29..

af =

applied

on a plane, and examples

position of points

14

Equations to a point,

bf -f

26. Consideration of the negative sign as

27. 28.

.......

equations do not admit of loci

position of a point in a plane determined.

an equation between two

.

and Transcendental

23. Division of equations into Algebraical

25.

co3,(0-tf)

a. u.

= -^==========

26

CONTENTS.

Art.

46.

Page

The

equation to a

line,

making a given angle with a given

'- i=s ni^3 <*-*>

&7. If two lines y

have

1 -J-

=
a! =

a? -{-

a,

and y

= a' x

-{- 6'

line, is

....

are perpendicular to

27-

each other> we

or the lines are

0,

y~ax-\>b

and y

a?

,27

'

fi'

48. If p be the perpendicular from a given point {x x yi) on the line

y =: ##

6,

then
7>

49.

The

= ^z^=r-

length of the straight line drawn from a given point, and

angle with a given straight

29

....

29

on the opposite sides meet in

triangle

51. If the straight line be referred to oblique axes, its equation

= -sin. sin.
t
6

The tangent

6 )

~ yi ~

-J-

a, a.'

-j-

a!) sin.
-

+ )
;

sin.

&f

sin.

/S

j3

(1

is

eo

COS.

cos.

<y

a given line

ai)

(*

cos. )

"

(vi

oi

}.

upon the sides of a

is

...

#i S) sin. <y
-^ y{l+2cos.-f- 2
.

is

a?l) '

of the perpendicular from a given point on a given line

^
52. If

30

b.

making a given angle with

equation to a straight line

is

4)

of the angle between two given straight lines

f

The length

~ x +

...... =
tan. (6
The

making a given

...

V_i

The perpendiculars from the angles of a

one point

28

line, is

50.

triangle, as diagonals, parallelograms be described,

having their sides parallel

two given

to

lines,

the other diagonals of the

parallelograms will intersect each other in the same point

CHAPTER

3i

IV.

THE TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

53.

The

object of the transformation of co-ordinates

54. If the origin be changed,

and the
y

where

at

and y

55. If the axes

=X

sin. 6

direction of co-ordinates

.32

remain the same,

= 6 4- Y, # = #{- X

are the original co-ordinates,

X and Y the new ones

33

3*

be changed frcm oblique to others also oblique,

+ Y sin. =

-ZI

sin.

o)

f
f

v
a
Y sin. w
X sin. v
X Ax
Y Aa?
+ tr

xA
*

1
J

*-

sin,

Xsin.(-0+Y8in.(-O

fv
VA
L-4 = {Xsm.XAH-Ysm.YA^-r* =
sin.

,r

* J gin,

1
so

A*y

CONTENTS*

vi

Page

Art e

and the new

57. If the original axes be rectangular,

oblique,

y = X sin. ^ 4- Y sin. &\

#
Xcos.^ 4 Ycos.^

58.

y =r

To

X sin. 4 4 Y cos. 6 = X cos. X A 4 Y cos. YA^,

sin. 4 = X cos. X Ax -f Y cos. YA*.
4

.34

.34

2/

= X cos. Y

a?

60.

Let both systems be rectangular,

x and y,

transform an equation between co-ordinates

polar co-ordinates r

and

between

6.

r sin. (0

into another

= &4"

sin.

,.-,.
^Sfl-f
,.

<p)

<w

{-(* +
?)}
~"-^-

si n.

"

CO

sm.

61. If the original axes be rectangular,

=6
=a

y
a?

62.

To

express r and

-f-

si

+ r

I.

b) sin.

r2

= (x a) 4
2

(y

A) 2

63. If the original axes be rectangular,

-.

tan.

>

,,

fl>

(a?

a) (y

and the pole

#2

4- y s.

36

CHAPTER

35

V ^4-ai2

V#H-a> 2
r2

6) cos. a.

at the origin,

L sin"" y =cos.

35

y,

(y
= tan.-i J
/ 6) cos.&
# a 4 (y
f

x and

in terms of

-.

n ^

cos.

Vc

ON THE CIRCLE*
Let a and

64, 65.

be the co-ordinates of the centre, and r the radius, then the

equation to the circle referred

(y

by

(a?

a) 2

to

rectangular axes

=r

If the origin

is

at the centre,

If the origin

is

at the extremity of that diameter

2

y r= 2 r #
66, 67.

Examples of Equations

68. Exceptions,

69.

The

The tangent

(y

b)

is

4"

/'

(y

x x =s r 2

b)

4*

(a?

e&X -j-r a/

(^

) = r2

.38
.39

is

.39

.49

39

y zzax-^-b^is

+ a2

find the intersection of a straight line

cut a line of the second order in

.37

the axis of #,

a)

x\

a point or imaginary

parallel to a given line,

y ^2

To

which

equation to the straight line touching the circle at a point xf y f

or, generally,

71.

is

referring to Circles

when the Locus

70.

generally

is

and a

circle.

more than two points

straight line cannot

.

.40


CONTENTS,

vii

Page

Art.

72. If the axes are oblique, the equation to the circle is

(^

6)

) + 2(y b) O a)cos.a>=r2
2

-+ (#

Examples, The equation

73, 74.

The

to the tangent

Polar equation between u and

u2
or

40

41

6 is

2cwcos. (4 a) + c ~r = 0,
2{6sin.4 + acos.^} w-ha +6 ~ r = 0.
2

CHAPTER

VI.

DISCUSSION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND ORDER.

75.

+ bxy + ex + dy +

The Locus of the equation ay 2

76* b z

on the value of b 2

the Locus

4 a c negative

as the roots x\ and

d2

4 a

/=

Examples
77. 5 s

78. b 2

4ac

2a

the Locus
0,

4ac) x + 2 (b d
2

x\ and

if

2ae)x-jr

and equal, or imaginary.

real

an Hyperbola

is

.42

x2

but consists of two straight lines

Examples

a Parabola when b d

2a

if

.43

are real

^ are

x\ and

e is real

and

.46

but

if

the locus consists of two parallel straight lines, or of one

..*

straight line, or
or negative

Ellipse, a point, or is imaginary, according

is

+ /= 0, depends

e#

and unequal,

unequal, or are imaginary

and equal.

an

is

Locus

the

of the equation (b 2

x2

real

are real

positive

4 a c,

is

imaginary, according as d 2

Aaf

is positive,

nothing,

79. Recapitulation of results

CHAPTER

48
49

VII.

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND ORDER.

ay f2

80. Reduction of the equation to the form

81. General notion of a centre of a curve.

The

+ bat y + ca/

+ /' =r o

and hyperbola have a

oentre,

ellipse

50

whose co-ordinates are

bd
4ac

2cd 6e

2ae
62

82. Disappearance of the term

angle

4,

determined by

#y

62

51

4ac

by a transformation of the axes through an

= b
a
c
,n +
-{-/' = 0,
y

53

tan. 2 4

84.

The reduced

equation
of

is a!

c'a?" 2

= \ { a + c V(-c) +6

cTs ~

{ a

where

+ cqp VT^^P }
1

f=-

e2

Jrcd?
b2

-bde

-Aac

'

+/

85 Corresponding changes in the situation of the figure

53

.54


CONTENTS.

Viii

..........

Art.

86. Definition of the axes

The

87, 88.

when

preceding- articles

89,90. Examples of Reduction

referred to oblique axes

an angle

92. Transferring the axes through

93.

The

coefficient of

a?

..

when belonging

91. Reduction of the general equation

or y* disappears

to a Parabola

where tan. 2

6,

~.

Q-=z

54

.55
.57
.GO

Page

.61

.61

94. Transferring the origin reduces the equation to one of the forms,

Y'

e'a?"

or c'*"

+ dhJ =

The preceding

96. 97.

98.

articles

when

62

ft

referred to oblique axes

.63
.63

95. Corresponding changes in the situation of the figure

Examples of Reduction when the locus

is

a parabola

CHAPTER

63

VIII.

THE ELLIPSE,
100.

equation to the Ellipse referred to the centre and axes

The

V + 6
Symmetry

101, 102.
103.
104.

The
The

sq.

:=a2 6 2

.r

of the curve with regard to

MP

on

.*

the rectangle

its

axes

; ;

sq.

A M, MA'

is

on

BC

sq.

proportional to the axis major and minor

The Focus

Eccentricity

The

SP

110.

To

111.

The equation

to

The equation

to the

Ellipticity

A S,
- ex; SP

rectangle

= + ex, HP = a

109.

is

constant

the tangent

CT,

is

68

-f-

= sq. on B C
HP = A A'

....
.

is

a2 y y f

sum

-\- L

x x*

tangent when the curve

is

CM = the square on A C

a 2 b2

116.

The
The

tangents at the two extremities of a diameter are parallel

and circumscribing

circle

consequently

,*

equation to the tangent at the extremity of the Latus

118.

The

119.

The length

directrix.

trix are in

=a+e

70

70
71

the

is

72

73

.73

73

Rectum

same

is

74

og

The distances of any point from the focus and from the direc-

the constant ratio of

.74

of the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent,

The

CT

M T = the rectangle A M, MA'.

69

......

rectangle

C M,

referred to another origin

The

for the ellipse

of whose distances from two fixed

115.

rectangle

69

S A!

The

117?.

Rectum

called the Latus

14.

AG

..........

find the locus of a point P, the

points

113.

on

ordinate of the Ellipse has to the ordinate of the circumscribing circle

A third

106-108.

67

the constant ratio of the axis minor to the axis major

106.

66

... .68
...
.

rectangle S y,

xf

2 a

120.

The

121.

The tangent makes equal angles with

SPT =

cy r;

=tan,

75

.75

Definition of Foci

locus of y or z is the circle on the axis major

tan,

H z = the square on B C
.

the focal distances,

HPZ.

CONTENTS,

it
Page

Art.

122.

of the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent,

The length

ab

Jrr

126.

y~y ~Wx>^~~
f

127.

CGreVj

The

rectangle

= -

CG'

H P in E, then PE = A C

the tangent, meeting

C E is drawn parallel to
The equation to the normal

125. If

y'

x!)

*'

PG = L ^77'

= the rectangle SP, HP

PG,PG'

78

MG= - ~

78

.79

130. All the diameters of the ellipse pass through the centre;

y
131.

= ax

There

a 2 ay

-\- c,

an

is

infinite

b 2x

-f-

the chord and corresponding diameter

0, are

number of

pairs of conjugate diameters

tan.

d'

79

b2
6

tan.

==

a2

.80

133. Equation to the curve referred to any conjugate diameters,

..........
+

iV

136.

The

sq.

137.

The

ellipse

on

QV

.t

= iW

being referred

sq,

: :

= i

x x'

=a

b2

x x'

zz.

a 2 yy'

+b

a2

-}-

yy

CD

82

83

is

a
.

0,

b 2,

.84

the tangent,

the parallel conjugate

= the rectangle SP, HP

PF =

a
-
b

or/) 2

.84

...

a2 b 2
r

85

85

product of the tangents of the angles which a pair of supplemental

chords makes with the axis major

a,

constant,

is

o!

cr

ft

.85

tangent of the angle between two supplemental chords,

v'x

2/,a

tan.

145.

The equation

146.

The

2b 2

__---_
PQF = --T- x'u
-4--4r, tan.ARA' =
,,

144. Supplemental chords are parallel to conjugate diameters

to the ellipse, referred to its

2 -\-

equal conjugate diameters,

= i

86

.87

.87

is

general polar equation,

a1

The

81

the two equations are,

perpendicular from the centre on the tangent,

147.

CP

axes, the tangent is parallel to the conjugate

#a?'

The

The

on

its

140.

The

sq.

+ i

square upon

143.

yy'

The

142.

GD

on

139.

conjugate axes, the equation to the tangent

to

being referred to

ellipse

diameter

141

82

P V, VP

the rectangle

tfi

The

{&'

135. aibi sin.

138.

6i

= a -|-6
-^ = ab

131. i 2 4-6i 2

(/

centre, the pole,

+u

sin. 8) 2

a 2 (1

u2
1

2
-f b

-e

(V

+ u cos.

$)

b2

87

e 2 (cos,

88

CONTENTS*

3C

Art.

Page

CI -~
e2^

148.

The

focus, the pole, r zz

.,,
,
,, ft ,
149. The pole at the vertex, u

88

e cos.

2 a (1

-^

zzz

e 2y
) cos. 4

(cos. ^) 2

2
1= ^ (r -f /), and r + =
6i 2

151, 152. rr'

89

r>

CHAPTER

IX.

THE HYPERBOLAs

The

153, 154.

general equation to the Hyperbola

is,

Pya-Qj? a =-1 oraV-& 8

==-a

aa

fi

90

155~7 Discussion of the equation

The
158.

sq.

MP

on

The equation

rectangle

AM, MA'::

sq.

on

BC

on

sq.

y*
159.

The

160.

The Latus Rectum

# = a
2

91

52

is

.92

by changing

results obtained for the ellipse are applicable to the hyperbola,

6 2 into

AC

to the equilateral hyperbola is

.92

defined to be a third proportional to the transverse and

conjugate axes

92

165.

The focus; the eccentricity:

the square on B C
The rectangle A S, S A'
SP = etf-a,HP = ear+a,
SP AA'
To find the locus of a point the difference of whose distances from two

163

The equation

161-3.

164.

points
,

HP-

is

constant

to the

tangent

The

168.

The equation

CT,

rectangle

to

~a

b*xaf zs

.93

b*

93

94

The

170.

The

171.

The tangent makes equal

is

a.

distances of any point from the focus

169.

and from the

directrix are in a

94

length of the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent,

The

rectangle

locus of y

S y,

is

H z =r sq. on B C

the circle on the transverse axis

95

.96

angles with the focal distances,

tan.SPT
The

the tangent, at the extremity of the Latus Rectum,

constant ratio

172.

93
fixed

CM = sq. on C
y

The

,93

is

a 2 yy'
167.

= il
cy

perpendicular from the centre on the tangent,

a b

*/rrf

96

CONTENTS.
Art.

Page

174. If

175-7.

CG-eV; CG'^
The

y'

98

MG -~;
P G = V7?, PG' = ^a/77
a*
a

bl

= the rectangle SP, HP

P G, PG'

rectangle

The

178, 9.

98

diameters of the hyperbola pass through the centre, hut do not all meet

the curve

There

180, 1.

H P in E, then P'E=A C

C E be drawn parallel to the tangent and meeting

The equation to the normal is

is

an

whose tangent

line,

number of

infinite

is

being the limit

98

pairs of conjugate diameters,

2

182.

The

184.

=a -b
= ab
aibis'm. (&

185.

The

QV

on

a 2 y%y*

The

189. If

sq.

PF

C D

on

b2

x 2 x'

62

##'

=
=

sq.

: :

onCD!

be drawn perpendicular on

C D,

'

CP

100

101

102

are

then

102

.102

b2

and

on

the conjugate

PFj=z^or^rr-^
u
+6
tf^Tp
a,

sq.

The equations

.100

a 2 b 2 the tangent,

= the rectangle SP,HP

ab

190-~2. If

parallel to the tangent.

^y _

PVJP'

the rectangle
is

is

^aPsr-aW

f)

sq.

99

........

187. The. conjugate diameter

188.

equation to the curve referred to conjugate axes

iV 183. i2

b
= ~a?

&

tan* 6 tan.

a?

102

be the tangents of the angles which a pair of supplemental

2

chords makes with the transverse axis, ' r=

There

are

Conjugate diameters are parallel

plemental chords.
193.

bola they are always equal to each other

The equation

to the

to sup.

chords

197.

The

198.

Method

hyperbola

lineal

is

asymptote

03

In the equilateral hyper-

is

103

the equation to the

curve, with the exception of the terms involving inverse powers of

linear asymptotes

......

no equal conjugate diameters in general.

1946. The Asymptotes.

the angle between sup-

Curvi-

oc

.104

the only one of the lines of the second order that has a recti-

asymptote

.105

of reducing an equation into a series containing inverse powers of a

variable.

The asymptotes

parallel to the axes

199. Discussion of the equation bosy

200. Referring the curve to

its

centre

2^ _

+ /=0
and

2 #2 -=

tt

the curve,
the asymptote

2
201. In the equilateral or rectangular hyperbola (y

the asymptotes

is

90

106

axes, the equations are

^2 _ 52^2 -.
202. 3. Asymptotes

..105

asymptote cuts the curve in one point only

the angle between

referred to the vertex of the cuxve

.107

== a 2 )

x2

107

a line parallel to the

.

107

CONTENTS.

xii

Page

Art.

204. Examples of tracing hyperbolas, and drawing the asymptotes

206. Reduction

of

(tan. 4) 2

xyz=i k 2 a
207.

To

find the value of

209. Examples.

and

+ 6 tan. + czzzO
.

ccy~k 2

'

.110

.110

to find the equation referred to rectangular axes,

equation a 2 ?/ 2

108

109

to obtain the lengths of the axes

From the

order to the form

second

If c z=za, the curve is rectangular

211. Given the equation

212.

general equation of the

the

x2

.112

a 2 b 2 referred to the centre and axes to

obtain the equation referred to the asymptotes,

xy
213.

......

The parallelogram on the

semi-axes

214.

The

...

parts of the tangent between the point of contact

given, the conjugate to a diameter is given

to the

217. 8.

219.

parts of

are equal.

The

The

220.

221.

The
The

*V

+u

223. 4.

r
focus, the pole,
i

The

sin.

is

6f

CTT'

= a&

115

= sq. on G D

.115

(V -J- u

J2

cos. 8)

=-

a2 b 2

116

-^

-^

e 2 (cos. 4) 2

116

116

e cos. &

(V-f? 7

2i
)=-^~

conjugate hyperbola.

diameter

.114

is

=
=

at the centre, w
pole
1

v
= ~fr
+ Oi

2& 2

the triangle

Q S'

rectangle S Q,

'

222.

any secant comprised between the curve and asymptote

general polar equation

a 2 (y

yf x

_j_

= 2a/,CT = 2y

The two

114

tangent referred to the asymptotes

XJ y

CT'

If the asymptotes are

114

and the asymptotes are

equal to each other and to the semi-conjugate diameter

The equation

ii<5

co-ordinates is equal to half the rectangle on the

215. Given the conjugate diameters to find the asymptotes.

216.

The

116

locus of the extremity of the conjugate

The

the conjugate hyperbola.

Both curves are comprehended

(

a 2y*-

equation

is

in the forms
ff)

=a

&

CHAPTER

ora?y

...

/&*

117

X.

THE PARABOLA.
225,

6.

The

equation to the parabola referred to

its axis

and vertex

227. Difference between a parabolic and hyperbolic branch

228.

The equation
vertex,,

229.

The

to the

by putting
and

its

z=:

px

ordinate.

the value of the Latus

Rectum,

In the following

Rectum

is

its
1

IS

a third proportional to any

articles

118

.118

parabola deduced from that to the ellipse referred to

AS =m

principal parameter, or Latus

abscissa

is

4m

is
<*

assumed
*

to be

.119

CONTENTS.

X iii

Art,

Page

230.

To

231.

The

distance of any point on the curve from the focus,

232.

The

equation

find the position of the focus

tangent

to the

~2'm

MT=2AM

The subtangent

4.

235.

The

coincides with the axis of

The

Directrix.

equal

The

of y

Rectum

on the

The tangent makes equal angles with the

121

.121

=Vmr
121.

cuts the directrix on

meets that line

directrix

focal distance

.120

is

directrix are

Sy :: Sy sa
AY. The perpendicular Sy

the axis

120

any point from the focus and

is

.120

tangent at the vertex

=x+m

the point where the perpendicular from

240.

SPraJ-f-^

of the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent

sp
The locus

238. 9.

.119

T M P.

distances of

The length (Sy)

(x-\-x !)

Ay =

y
y

237.

equation to the tangent at the extremity of the Latus

The

236.

is

yij
233.

122

and with a parallel

241.

The

v
~.
2a/

SPT =

the axis, tan.

to

equation to the normal

Definition of the Focus

,122

is

y-y = ~^(*-*>)
f

242.

The subnormal

is

equal to half the Latus Rectum

SG =
243.

The parabola has an

244.

5.

246.

The new equation

origin

and

to

247. Transformation of
is

249.

iJTmr

number of diameters,

.123.

..

all parallel to

the axis

given

new axes
y*=zp x

lu'3

Transformation of the equation to another of the same form referred

new

248.

infinite

andPG=

SP,

123

to a

12-4

new parameter p f
4SP
12*
the equation when the position of the new origin and axes

the

is

The ordinate through the focus

The equation to the tangent

= 4 SP = the parameter at the origin

25

12(5
12(5

250. Tangents drawn from the extremities of a parameter meet at right angles in
the directrix

The

general polar equation

252.

The

pole,

(y

The

+ u sin. ff =p

(#'

+ u cos.

>

cos. 6

2y

sin. &

.126

f)

127

cos.

(sin. 4) 2
;

(sin. 4) 2

at the vertex

.127

focus, the pole,

254..r^

is

any point on the curve,

u

253.

251.

=~(y + y)

cos "2-)

128

"

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XX
THE SECTIONS OF A CONE.
Pa& e

Art.

255. Definition of a right cone

256,

The

.128

<>

by a plane,

section of a cone

f = ~JT2

a sin

- sin

2
t*+/0 * }

129

(cos.-)

...........

257264. Discussion of
plane

......
......
......
.......

mechanical description, and that " by points

On

265.

the cases arising from various positions of the cutting

266. Tracing the Ellipse by

267 8. The

elliptic

means

of a string

Another method

compasses.

271 3.
274

string

Description of the ellipse by points

6. Description of

277 8. To
279.

means of a

From

and

the position of the directrix

focus,

281.

The

and

equa-

,137

the equations to the ellipse, to deduce those of the hyperbola and

general polar equation

is

Practical

to the hyperbola

2878. Tangents

to the

An

section

method of drawing tangents

2856. Tangents

to the ellipse

parabola

138

.139

.139

on a plane, to determine the

137

138

.
.

arc of a conic section being traced

and the axes

.....

_L_
1+ecosJ

r=

2,89292.

134

134

.136

parabola

2824.

134

135

focal ratio, to find the

w (l+e) =

j2^.(i e ^2.2
From

rectangular hyperbola

tion to the curves of the second order

280.

The

the hyperbola by points.

describe the parabola by points

132

.133

269. Tracing the hyperbola by means of a string

270. Tracing the parabola by

130

132

.139

293. If through any point within or without a conic section two straight lines

making a given angle be drawn

by the segments of the one

to

meet the curve, the rectangle contained

will be in a constant ratio to the rectangle con-

tained by the segments of the other

segments are equal

CHAPTER

its
.

140

294. I a polygon circumscribe an ellipse, the algebraic product of

alternate

141

XII.

ON CURVES OF THE HIGHER ORDERS.]

295.

A systematic

296.

To

examination of

find a point

P without

all

curves

is

impossible

a given straight

line,

'

142

such that the distances of the

point from the extremities of the given line are in a given ratio

143

CONTENTS.

xv
Page

Arte

297. Perpendiculars are drawn from a point

between the feet of the perpendiculars

298.

299.

To

is

given line moves between two given

point in the

moving

find a point

line

given

and the distance

constant, to find the locus of

lines

From the

make one angle double

To

find the locus of the centres of all the circles

line,

to

drawn

145

145

146

to

and passing through a given point

to the

drawn tangential

144

extremities of the axis major of an ellipse, lines are

143

of the other

ends of an ordinate, to find the locus of their intersection

302.

143

drawn from

300. Four problems producing loci of the second order, not worked
301.

the locus of a given

such that the

line,

the extremities of the given line shall

lines*

lines, to find

P without a

two given

to

a given

147

303. Descartes' Problem

304.

The

Cissoid of Diodes,

f=

sc

To

306.

The Witch of Agnesi,y = 2

trace the locus of the equation

308.

To
To

309.

The cubical

310.

The

307.

as

y ==:(& "mSCf )\/

\/

=x

"

x)

(2 a

The semi-

-^-p.

153

.-

152

->nx

152

+ mx

parabola, a 2 y^cc3

trident,,J

ay 2 ~x3

trace the locus of the equation

ay 2

;~

mx

trace the locus of the equation if

cubical parabola,

311.

149

305.

.154

= f-ZiL
ax

154

To trace the locus of the equation

The conchoid of Nicomedes,

oc

2
y 4- a y r= n

oo

-f p

.155

312. 3,

= (6 -y (^-tJLV. r^asec.^-f h
The Lemniscata,
+ y = a O - y r* = a cos. 2
a

a>

314.

(a;

2 2
)

315. Another Lemniscata

317.

318.

To

319.

To
To

equation y

~bx"^x ^ b 2

trace the locus of the equation %f -f

.

x2 y 2

or

5 a

.159

.162

intro-

Application to the steam-engine

order is w.
points

sum

move

.165

of independent constants in a complete equation of the nth.

-~
o

Example of a conic

326. If the

^4

find the locus of the middle point of a line whose two extremities

The number

.163

161

two

by the

x 2 y 2 -f- ^ 5

P to

+ 2y +x =
.

trace the locus of the equation y 5

along given circumferences.

324.

that the rectangle of the distances from

duction of a third variable u

322, 3.

160

given points shall be constant

320.

To trace the locus of the

To find a point P, such

316.

156

hence a curve
.

may
.

section passing

be
o

made to

pass through w.

through four given points

167

168

of the indices of x and y be the same in every term, the loci are

either straight lines or points

169

3,27 330. Theorems on the diameter and centre of a curve

170

CONTENTS.

xvi

CHAPTER

XIII.

ON THE INTERSECTION OF ALGEBRAIC CURVES,

Page

Art.

.,...>

may

be n intersections between a straight line and a line of the

may

be

331. There
order
332. There

m n intersections between two

exceptions

lines of the

mlh and wth

ni\i

171

orders

172

...
.....

333. Method of drawing a curve to pass through the points of intersection, and
thereby to avoid elimination
334. Example.

From a given

an

point without

Generally to any conic section

3367. To draw a normal to a parabola from any

338.

The

339.

To

341.

342.

343.
344.

172

to

it,

173
174

175

.........

construct the equation y

circle

340.

point

means of curves

construction of equations by

draw a tangent

ellipse, to

and parabola

4,

-\-

p y*

q y

-{-

-\-

-\- s

~Q

by means of a

To construct the roots of the equation a? 4 + 8 x 3 + 23 a? 2 + 32. r +16

The construction of equations of the third order. Examples
To find two mean proportionals between two given lines
.
To find a cube double of a given cube
To find any number of mean proportionals between two given lines

170

177

177

......

178

179
179

345. Newton's construction of equations by

179

means of the conchoid

346. 7. General use of these constructions

CHAPTER

180

XIV,

TRANSCENDENTAL CURVES.
Definition of Transcendental curves

348,

9,

350.

ax
The Logarithmic curve, y
The Catenary, #=r J (e +e-

351.

Mechanical curves

.181

*,.....

181

182

352. Trace the locus of the equation y

353. Trace the locus of the equation
to this curve

the letter

cuts that axis

354.
355.

The
The

curve of sines,

The

357.

8.

359.

The

y=z sin. x

correct figure

Quadratrix,

The

Cycloid,

Prolate

is

The

figure is in

The

figure in the last article applies

tan.

oc.

The

x)

vers.

tan.-

curve

.182

'

.183

.184

a?

A Y, where the

182

figure belongs to Art. 352.

+ ^2 a # ==

page 184, Art. 355

given in the Errata

y~(r
y zza

should be placed on the axis

locus of the equation y-=L

The
356.

= a*.

yznx x

184

185

and Curtate Cycloid,

=saver9.tf

18/

CONTENTS.

xvii
Fuge

Art.

360.

The

x =r

(a

= (a

&

-|-

&)

361.

The Cardioide

Q/

2 2
)

362. Varieties of the Hypotrochoid

363.

The

involute of the circle

m b cos

-~mb

+ # - 3a = 4
2

On

366.

The Reciprocal

Spiral, r

367.

The

=a

368.

9.

Spirals.

The

Lituus, r 2

-\

Spiral,

372. Tracing a curve from

its

.101

See Errata.

&

193

.........

= -

*=

190

=a

Spirals approaching to Asymptotic circles, (r

The Logarithmic

orr~2a(l - cos. 0)

cos. 1

onJ
Ib
(

6) = a

370. Spirals formed by twisting a curve round a circle

371.

not correct.

Spiral of Archimedes, r

1,

a
364.

is

when

f3

4=

sin,

the figure

the Hypocycloid

^ -J-

sin. $

mb sin.

sin. G

= (a 6) cos.

y == (a

+ 6) cos. mb cos,

The Hypotrochoid, which becomes

.r

m=

when

Epitrochoid, which becomes the Epicycloid

tf

#/ a r

2^

373. Investigating a question by means of polar co-ordinates

194

r = 6
94
.194
2

sin.

.194

<,

a*

polar equation r = a

195

.395

.196

CONTENTS.

PART

II.

APPLICATION OF ALGEBRA TO SOLID GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTION.
Page

Art.

376.

The system of co-ordmates in one plane not sufficient for surfaces

The position of a point referred to three co-ordinate planes7, 8. The projection of a straight line on a plane is a straight line.

379.

The

380.

The

374.

375.

the line,

its

projection on a plane or line

AB

is

cos. 6

sum

of the projections of the two sides

The

3.

384.

Two

385.

To

386.

7.

y=b,

=c

or

If ,

/3,

The

The

200

a) +
2

(y

bf

-f {z

c) 2

200

......

Equations corre-

is

known

201

201

= a* +

201

z*

af

=x

cos.

(cos.

2
/3)

+ y cos.

(cos. <y) 2
/3

~\~

1,

cos. y.

202

distance between two points,

(x

x{f

equations

to

the straight line,

as

a,

5.

198

the co-ordinate axis,

d2

To

line

be the three angles which a straight line through the origin

<y,

198

find the distance of a point from the origin,

(cos.

392

(a?

to various positions of points

makes with

396.

equal to

LINE.

of the projections of a point being given, the third

d2

389.

is

algebraical signs of the co-ordinates determined.

sponding

388.

197
be

equations to a point,
a,

The

382,

AB

197

II.

THE POINT AND STRAIGHT

oc

A cos.

If

upon the same straight

projection of any plane area, A, on a plane, is

CHAPTER

projection of the diagonal of a parallelogram on a straight line

the

381.

= (iz +

b,

(y

yd +
2

~~ b

- *i) 8

- (x a).
= 0,

where a straight

line

Equations to the line corresponding to various values of

find the point

jS,

a, 6.

meets the co-ordinate planes

202

203
.

204
205

CONTENTS.

xix

Art

Tage

398.

The

equations to a line through a given point

399.

The

equations to a line through two given points (>i y Y Zi) (x

2

xi

*i),

#1

(s

an

= ?LZ3
2
^1

*~

*,),

yi

(a f

a!

a,

a!

cos.l.r:=

(cos.

403.

The

//
/5

0)

-}- 5,

are

'206

among

(>'

/y

cos.

a af -*

|S'

is

a),

e!

207

makes with the

= -

co-ordinate axes,

z=z,

^XTi*

Iz

cos.

V + 2 + ^a
/y) + (cos. /z)2 =

lx) 2

.207

the coefficients

(V

6)

/y

straight line

^).

of intersection are

j3

The angles which a

a) ('

and then the co-ordinates

j3

401. If two straight lines intersect, the relation

z i)i

y2

i'.

402.

205

i)

^
= yi ~
(* #1 ^

The equations to a line parallel to x =r a z ~r

y =
^rraa + ^l/rr^ +

oo

400.

(z

y\ s\) t

(a?i

(cos.

1.

2
-f a 4'

.207

cosine of the angle between two straight lines,

* ' + g&' + i
A/a+ +ft va+' +
cos. /'a; + cos. /y cos. /'y + cos. Iz

cos

= cos. /a?

8
i3'

cos. /z.

'208

405. If the lines are perpendicular to each other,

*' -h
407.

To

0/3'

=0

.209

......

find the equation to a straight line passing through a given point (x\ y\ #i),

and meeting a given

line at right

angles

CHAPTER

209

III.

THE PLANE.
408. The equation to a plane,

xx\
or

413.

cos.

or

a? sin.

or

a?

cos.

-f-

dx

-f

z%\

cos.

dy

yyi

-\-

Vx
V yz

-\-

y
-\-

sin.

= d%

Py

cos.

-}-

P,

xz

The angles which a plane makes with

cos. P,

xy

ox

z cos.

-\-

sin.

-f

mx
d

?iy

-\-

p z ~l,

-\-

c/,

Psri,
jar

cos.

F,

xy

d.

21C

the co-ordinate planes,

cos.YyXZ

cos.

P,

y z

^i^

Nm^-^-n-+*
414.

The

equation to a plane through the origin,

xxi

+ yy\ +

zzi

212

415. Equations to planes parallel to the co-ordinate planes

by putting x,

416.

The

traces of a plane are found

417.

The

equation to a plane parallel to a given plane,

mar-i-tty-fpj&ss-j, or

?w

y, or

mx

-j-

213

0.

ny

(o?~#i)-|-(#~ yO+^C^ ^O 32 ^

212

+p

1, is

52

213

CONTENTS.

xx

Page

419.

The

% ==
20. If a plane

a.

422.

To
To

426.

nb

-\-

/3

-j-

1,

0.

-ith one

find the equation to a plane ro'-H.lir.g

The

among

the

find the intersection of two planes,

relation

,'214

the conditions are,

line coincide,

*x~ uZ-\-a>yz=.$z~\-b.

find the equation to a plane coinciding with two given lines

To

and straight

another

423

in
-j-

ma
421.

and plane,

intersection of a straight line

^'\

parallel

:id

215

to

.215

three planes, four planes

of a straight

coefficients

i;

214

215

and peipendU-ular

line

plane

=*/*=?
p
428.

The equation
given

216

p
plane passing through a given point, and perpendicular to a

to a

line,

429.

The

- yi~

~{z
V

217
*i
<ri)
yi)
*
* (ar
(y
equations to a line through a given point, and perpendicular to a given

plane

oc

fl7i

= m~

{z

zi),

P
430.

The length

z{).

mxi

ny

p zl

1
-.

Vm +
2

ft

2
-f-

^1/

If the point be the

find the distance of a point from a straight line.

To

.217

of the perpendicular from a given point on a given plane,

r=
431.

origin,

.. + ..-&#
433.

The angle between two

cos. 6

= cos. P, y z

cos. ~P f,y 2

~f-

planes,

??2

mi

-J-

V^+^+'p V

cos.

P,

xz

cos.

F xz
f

435- If the planes are perpendicular, the relation

mmi
437.

+ nn\ + ppi =

The angle between a

sin. 6

straight line

+ 2 +

ppi

-{ cos.

among

jo?

.218

cos. P', a-y.

the coefficients

P, # y

is,

219

and plane,

0.

-j-

oti

Vw

-.

CHAPTER

219

+ w2 + P2

IV.

THE POINT 5 STRAIGHT LINE, AND PLANE,' REFERRED TO OBLIQUE AXES,

438.

The

equations to the point remain the same

439.

The

distance of a point from the origin,

d2
440.

The

~x

+y 2jrz'2 +2xy

cos.

XY+2#s

distance between two points

d 2 z=(x

x{)

(y

yi)

2 (a?-#0 (*-*i)

cos.

cos.

(xyz) (x x

220

XZ +

2yz

cos*

YZ.

220

y\ z{),

.n) (# - #i)
+ (z ~ z{f + 2
X Z+2 (y-y,) (*-*0 cos. Y Z.
(a?

cos.

X Y.
.

220

CONTENTS.

xxi
Page

Art.

The equations to the straight line remain the same

*
The angle between two lines
The equation to a plane
The relation among the coefficients of a straight

441.

442.
443.

444.

220
22
.

line

.221

and perpendicular
222

plane

The angle between a plane and

445.

straight line,

CHAPTER

between two planes

222

V.

THE TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

To

447.

...........

transform an equation referred to one origin to another, the axes remaining

parallel

To

448.

223

transform the equation referred to rectangular axes to another also referred

to rectangular axes

ocm X-\-mi

Y-j-Zjj

y=:nX+ni Y +
2

n2

= pX+|)i Y+ p

450.

Hence

451.

The

Z\

m2

2i

I,

-f
2

ft

+ p*~l]

+wi 2 +/>i 2 =

three other

J^=0
,

transformation from oblique to other oblique axes.

=m X

m 2 2 Z,
m\ a\ Y
m &X +
faY + m^ faZ,
= m X + m Y + m2 Z.
a,

>

223

224
225

rectangular axes,

to

-j-

-j-

y =z

The

Pi=0\

n 2 +p

452. Another method of transformation from rectangular

453.

Wi-f-jo

m22 +?i 22 +p./ j miw 2 +wiw 2 -t/)]^ 2 =0 J

systems for X Y Z in terms of x y z

Zj

m m -\-n
m m2 +n
x

\,

tii!

.225

transformation from rectangular to other rectangular axes effected in

terms of three angles

= X (cos.
4-

= X (cos.

= X sin. &

4-

6 sin. 4- sin.

sin.

<p

4 sin. -^

cos.

<

sin.

cos.

sin. $ cos.
cos. ^ sin.

^ cos.
^ + Y sin.

(cos. 6 cos.

cos.

-j-

<p

(cos. d cos.

<p

-f-

sin.

6 cos.

<p)
<p)

sin. 4 sin. 0,

<p)

^ sin. <p) Z
^ + Z cos.

sin. 4 cos.

225

454. Formulas of transformation to obtain the section of a surface

passing through the origin

x
*

plane of

oc

z,

x
456.

To

sin.

<p

<p

<p

<p

= Y

sin. 6

when

= Y cos.

4,

-\-

* respectively

cos. 4

........
cos. 4

the cutting plane

= X, * = Y

is

sin. 4

227

perpendicular to the

...

......,

transfer the origin, as well as to

j b } c to #, y,

X sin. + Y cos.

455. Formulas of transformation

made by a plane

= X cos.

# ==

<p,

227

change the direction of the axes, add

227

CONTENTS.

xxh

CHAPTER VI
THE SPHERE AND SURFACES OF REVOLUTION.
Page

Art.

457,

The equation

8.

form

to a surface is of the

459. Surfaces are divided into orders

4604. The equation to the

(a.

f(x

The

466.

The tangent plane

(an

- a)

(x

228
228

- a y + (y - b) +
+ # + s = ra
2

(z

= r

c)*

229

229

a sphere,

to

- a) +
or ##1

(2/i

b) (y

+ y#i +

b)

equation to the sphere referred to oblique axes

equation

== ^-s 2

468.

The

The equation

^o the

common

paraboloid of revolution

470.

The equation

to the spheroid

by revolution round the

-f- 2/

_L

b2

2
,

230

230
230

x*+y* = pz

X2

=r

c)

469.

a right cone,

c) (z

The

x2

(^

2
s^i == f

467.

to

sections on the co-ordinate planes, or the traces, are circles

465.

The

surface of a sphere

ora? a

471.

z)

y,

.231

axis major,

2 2 -. 2

231

a2

equation to the hyperboloid by revolution round the transverse axis,

#2

2/

2_i!!

^ 2 -~

62

232

.....

472. General equation to the above surfaces of revolution round axis of z.

x*

473

6.

Section of these surfaces

+ y*=f(z)

by a plane

CHAPTER

232
232

VII.

SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER.

477,

8.

Reduction of the general equation of the second order to the central form.

There

is

no centre when

abc

+ 2def-

a/ 2 -be 2

possible

481. There

is

referred,

483,
484.

486.

The
The

cd 2

z.

This transformation always

only one system of rectangular axes to which,

it is

of the form La? 2 4-

central class gives three cases

Ellipsoid:

-fl

The Hyperboloid

a1

My

N* 2

if

The Hyperboloid

-1
-f-L-fiL
l
1
o

233

the equation be

234
235
236

of one sheet

~+

--

-~ =

48S. This surface has a conical asymptotic surface

489,

233

.......
=
+
.......

479. Disappearance of the terms xy, xz, and y

of two sheets

^ ~~

ss

.237

238

239

CONTENTS.

xxiii

....
......

Art.

Page

491. This surface has also a conical asymptotic surface

492.

The

240

general non-central equation of the second order can he deprived of the

terms

x-y,

xz,yz; and then

of three other terms

f =
^-+ ~-^zx

494.

The

496.

The Hyperbolic Paraboloid

498.

The

Elliptic Paraboloid

^-

so that

~=#

to the Ellipsoid

499. Consideration of the equation a 2

'

may

.241
241

be obtained

242

Cylinder with Parabolic base

-f ly.

CHAPTER

240

and Hyperboloid

form becomes

equations to the Elliptic and Hyperbolic Paraboloids

from those

its

243

VIII.

CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL SURFACES.

501. Generation of surfaces by the motion of

lilies

502.

To

503.

The general equation

505.

The

equation to a cylinder, with a circular base on

507.

The

equation to a right cylinder

508.

The

equation to a cylinder, whose base

510.

The

general equation

by the motion of a straight

and passing through a given straight line a Plane
find the surface generated

$z q>{x

{x-az xif + {y 1

|8 .2

z)

a,

245

xy

- y{f =zr*

246

y + (y-y y = ^z=0

246

(Zz) = p (x .z)
2

(y

244

to cylindrical surfaces

X ^x

243

....

line parallel to itself,

is

a parabola on scy

.247

to conical surfaces

9= =9 *J=1
Z G
Z C
512.

The

equation to a cone, with circular base on

saz
514.

A cone

519.

>

xy
\ 2

cy

248

axis coincident with axis of z

248

A cone with parabolic base,

A cone with circular base
( * + y +
The

(bz
tbz

z2

if

i" 1 "

517.

cx

with Elliptic base and

516.

247

dy 2 ~p xz
7 z)

249

= O* + f + *

(cos.

249

general equation to Conoidal surfaces

-M
521.

The cono-cuneus
zz

522.

The

250

of Wallis

UL = r

axis of z one directrix,

parallel to

xy

any straight
<

line another,
.

250

and the generatrix

251

CONTENTS.

xxiv

Page

Art.

The

523.

axis of

z one
2

524.

directrix,

and the thread of a screw the other

+g

'*

ea

sin.

....

251

straight line passes through two straight lines and a given curve, to find the

252

surface

525.

026.

A straight line passes through three given straight lines,

straight line, parallel to a given plane, passes through two given curves, to

find the surface

CHAPTER

to find the surface

253

253

254

IX.

ON CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE.

527

9.

The meaning

of the term curve of double curvature

530.

The

curve arising from the intersection of a sphere and cylinder

531.

The

curve arising from the intersection of a cone and Paraboloid

532. Surfaces found on which a curve of double curvature

533

536.

5.

To

To

find out

when the

538.

To

=
+ -l
z

by the equations

i,i_
y

=
+ l.
z

describe a Curve of double curvature

by

points.

'

255

Example 256
.

....
Examples

253

be traced.

intersections of surfaces are plane curves

find the curve represented

may

256

.257

ALGEBRAICAL GEOMETRY.
PART

I.

APPLICATION OF ALGEBRA TO PLANE GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTION.
1.

The

object of the present Treatise

is

the Investigation of Geometrical

Theorems and Problems by means of Algebra.

Soon after the introduction of algebra into Europe, many problems in
plane geometry were solved by putting letters for straight lines, and
then working the questions algebraically
this process, although of use,
did not much extend the boundaries of geometry, for each problem, as
heretofore, required its own peculiar method of solution, and therefore
could give but little aid towards the investigation of other questions.
It is to Descartes that we owe the first general application of algebra to
geometry, and, in consequence, the first real progress in modern mathematical knowledge ; in the discussion of a problem of considerable antiquity, and which admitted of an infinite number of solutions, he employed
two variable quantities oc and y for certain unknown lines, and then
showed that the resulting equation, involving both these quantities, belonged to a series of points of which these variable quantities were the
co-ordinates, that is, belonged to a curve, the assemblage of all the solutions, and hence called " the Locus of the Equation."
It is not necessary to enter into further details here, much less to point
out the immense advantages of the system thus founded. However, in the
course of this work we shall have many opportunities of explaining the
method of Descartes and we hope that the following pages will, in some
degree, exhibit the advantages of his system.
2. In applying algebra to geometry, it is obvious that we must understand the sense in which algebraical symbols are used.
In speaking of a yard or a foot, we have only an idea of these lengths
by comparing them with some known length ; this known or standard
length is called a unit. The unit may be any length whatever thus, if
it is an inch, a foot is considered as the sum of twelve of these units,
and may therefore be represented by the number 12 ; if the unit is a
yard, a mile may be represented by the number 1760.
represent the unit
fig. (1) may be taken to
But any straight line
contains the line
B an exact
of length, and if another straight line C
linear units, and omitting the
is equal to (a)
number (a) of times, C
is equal to (a).
words " linear units/' C
;

AB

D
D

INTRODUCTION.

In

(l)CDs3 times A B,

fig.

or

D = 3.
2

jl^.
t

_jj

___.)

_^
D

If C D does not contain A B an exact number of times, they may have

common measure E, fig*. (2) let, then, C D = m times E=rmE, and
A B =: n E, then C D has to A B the same ratio that m E has to n E, or

~~

m
n
In

fig.

(2)

CD= n
1TL

7TL

that in has to n, or that

has to unity
J

hence

times

AB

~~ of A B - A
D

B and C have no common measure, we must recur to

If the lines
considerations analogous to those upon which the theory of incommensurable quantities in arithmetic is founded.
We cannot express a number like *J 2 by integers or fractions consisting of commensurable quantities, but we have a distinct idea of the magnitude expressed by
2, since we can at once tell whether it be greater or
less than any proposed magnitude expressed by common quantities ; and
calculation, by means of reasoning founded
we can use the symbol jj 2
on its being a limit to which we can approach, as nearly as we please, by

common

quantities.

suppose E to be a line contained an exact number of times in

A B, fig. (2), but not an exact number of times in C D, and take a
E is less than C D, and (ra -f 1) E greater
whole number, such that
Then the smaller E is, the nearer
E and (in
than C D.
1) E will
be to C D ; because the former falls short of, and the latter exceeds, C D,
by a quantity less than E. Also E may be made as small as we please
for if any line measure AB, its half, its quarter, and so on, ad infinitum,
as a quantity which,
Hence we may consider
will measure A B.
though not expressible precisely by means of any unit which is a measure
of A B, may be approached as nearly as we please by such expressions.
is a limit between quantities commensurable with E, exactly
Hence C
as /J 2 is a limit between quantities commensurable with unity.
We conclude, then, that any line C may be represented by some one
of the letters a, b, c, &c, these letters themselves being the representatives
of numbers either integral, fractional, or incommensurable.

Now

CD

3.

If

upon the

linear unit

we

describe a square, that figure

is

called the

square unit.

D F E, fig.

containing
having the side C
the side C
containing (b) linear
P, &c, divide the rectangle into square units by drawing
units C O,
lines parallel to C E through the points M, N, &c, and to C
through
Then in the upper row
the points O, P, &c.
there are (a)
square units, in the second row
the same, and there are as
many rows as there are units in C E therefore altogether there are (6 X)

Let

(a) linear units

(1), be a rectangle,

CM, MN,

&c, and

OPRQ

COQD

square units in the figure, that

is,

CF

contains (a b) square units, or

INTRODUCTION.
equal in magnitude to {a b) square units
" square units," the rectangle C F is equal to a
If C D
5 feet and
3 feet, the area

is

CE =

suppressing the words

b.

CF

contains 15 square

feet.

w
The above proof applies only to eases where the two lines containing
the rectangle can be exactly measured by a common linear unit.
to be measurable by any linear unit, but C E (fig. 2) not
Suppose C
has been shown, we may find
; then, as
to be commensurable with C
approaching in magnitude as
commensurable with C
lines CM, C

please to C E.
Completing the rectangles

nearly as

we

and C
C P and C Q, we see, that as C
approach to C E, the rectangles C P and C Q approach to the rectangle
is the limit of the rectangle C M,
C F, that is, the rectangle C E, C
C D, just as C E is the limit of C M. Let therefore a and b be respect-

and C M, and let c be

commensurable numbers representing C
the incommensurable number expressing C E, then the rectangle C E,
the limit of the number a b,
the limit of the rectangle
by the first part of this article, =r the product of the respective limits of
ively the

CM,MP=

CD =

6
c c. *
Hence, generally, the algebraical representative of the area of a rectangle is equal to the product of those of two of its adjacent sides.
If b =r a, the figure C F becomes the square upon C D, hence the
2
square upon C D is equal to {a X a) times the square unit
We are now able to represent all plane rectilineal figures, for such
figures can be resolved into triangles, and the area of a triangle is equal
to half the rectangle on the same base, and between the same parallel

a and

lines.
4. To represent a solid figure, it will be sufficient to show how a solid
rectangular parallelopiped may be represented.
Let a, 6, c 9 be, respectively, the number of linear units in the three adjacent edges of the parallelopiped ; then, dividing the solid by planes parallel to its sides, we may prove, as in the last article, that the number of
solid units in the figure is a "Xb Xc, and, consequently, the parallelopiped

axbXc

equal to
The proof might be extended to the case where the edges of the parallelopiped are fractional, or incommensurable with the linear unit.
If b ==: c =z a, the solid becomes a cube, and is equal to a X a X a, or a3.
5. We proceed, conversely, to explain the sense in which algebraic expressions may be interpreted consistently with the preceding observations.
* That

"

the product of the limits of two incommensurable numbers is the limit of

may be thus shown. Let v and w be incommensurable numbers, and
and w = n 4- n , m and n being commensurable numbers, and m' and
ri diminishable without limit ; that is, v and w are the respective limits of m and w,
then vw = mn + mnf -f- nm> + m'n', the right-hand side of this equation ultimately
becomes mn t and the left-hand side of the equation is the product of the limits.
their product,"
let v
+ m'

=m


INTRODUCTION.

maybe

Algebraic expressions

homogeneous equations,
x

=a

x2

4~

ax

x3

ax 2

In the

+ bcx c= eZef
+ te + defa =r gMZ

-f a?
first

wl

may be

x times
2
a?

bcx

m~2

... torn terms.

may be understood

as referring to

be put instead of the words 'the linear

units,'

the

written

L ==

times 1L

= j^rs

&c

place, each equation

linear units; thus, if

equations

most simply under the form of

= be

+ a#

a?

classed

as follows

-\-

a times L,
ax times L, or (# 2 + ax) times

L =

6c times L,

bcx 2 +. de/k) times L == gMZ times L, and so on. The

.
solution of each equation gives x times L in terms of (#, &, c,
) times
L ; and thus the letters a, 6, c, . . . # are merely numbers, having
reference to lines, but not to figures.
This will be equally true if L is not expressed, but understood; and
it is in this sense that we shall interpret all equations beyond those of the
(a?

4*

third order.

to represent
The same reasoning would equally apply if we assumed
the square or cubic unit, only it would lead to confusion in the algebraic
representation of a line.
6. Again, these equations may, to a certain extent, have an additional

interpretation.

For if we consider the letters in each term to be the representatives of

drawn perpendicular to each other, the second equation refers to
areas, and then signifies that the sum of two particular rectangles is equal
to a third rectangle
the third equation refers to solid figures, and siglines

sum of three parallelopipeds

Moreover we can pass from an equation

nifies, that

the

is

equal to a fourth solid.

referring to areas to another

referring to lines, without any violation of principle; for, considering the

second equation as referring to areas, the rectangles can be exhibited in

the form of squares ; and if the squares upon two lines be equal, the lines
themselves are equal, or the equation is true for linear units.
7. It follows as a consequence of the additional interpretation, that

every equation of the second and third order will refer to some geometheorem, respecting plane or solid figures ; for example, the second
equation, when in the form X*
a (a
x) is the representation of the
well-known [problem of the division of a line into extreme and mean
trical

ratio.

By omitting the second and third terms of the- third equation, and giving
the values of 2a, a, and a to d, e and jT, respectively, we obtain the algebraic representation of the ancient problem of the duplication of the
cube.

8/ The

solution

of equations leads to various values of the

unknown

and there are then two methods of exhibiting these values ;

first, by giving to a, b, c, &c\, their numerical values, and then performing
any operation indicated by the algebraic symbols.
quantity,

'

CONSTRUCTION OF QUANTITIES.
Thus,

a zz

if

and

4, b s= 5,

we may have

<#

:=:

-f c

= 9,
6 = 8 times the linear unit.

20
2
-=:=
= ab
of the linear unit,
2
9
c
9

a?

..

We

a?
Vac === V36 s^ 6 times the linear unit.
can then draw the line corresponding to the particular value of

This is the most practical method.

Again, we may obtain the required line from the algebraical result, by
means of geometrical theorems ; this method is called the Construction
of Quantities' it is often elegant, and is, moreover, useful to those who
wish to obtain a complete knowledge of Algebraical Geometry.
'

THE CONSTRUCTION OF QUANTITIES.

Let x
a -f b.
In the straight line AX, let A
be the point from whence the
value of x is to be measured
b,
take A B == a, and B C
9.

D B

then

A C = A B + B C = a + b is the value of x.
a?=a 6, in B A takeBD= 6, then A D = AB B D =

Let

a-b.

ab
Let

and x

then
is

a fourth proportional to the

three given quantities c, b 9 and a ; hence

the line whose length is expressed by x,
is a fourth proportional to three lines,

whose respective lengths are c, b,

and a. From A draw two lines A C D,

ABE,

forming any angle at

take

AB = c,BEr:, and AC-6, join B C, and draw D E parallel to

CD the
BC; then, AB AC::BE :.CD, or c b a: CD
:

::

/.

is

required value of x.

= be

abc

Let x

=r:

construct

de
similarly for

Let x

abc

a?,

zz

def
==.

then the
10.

sum

a6

ab'
-,

or

abc

gfi

gfi

~,
'

of the terms.

= *Jab,
= ab, x a mean proportional
is

between a and

6.

In the straight

line

A B take A C = a, and C B s= b upon

A B describe a semicircle, from C
draw C E perpendicular to A B, and
meeting the circle in E then C'E is a
;

proportional to
C andC B, (Euclid, vi. 13, or Geometry, ii. 51,) and
is the required value of <r.
therefore C

mean

ay
:

abed

construct each term separately, and

gfi

Let x

Since x*

and then x

1?
dtf

CONSTRUCTION OF QUANTITIES.

The same

property of right-angled triangles

may be advantageously em2

ployed in the construction of the equation

draw C

E perpendicular to AC

AE

pendicular to

Let
tution

to a, join

AE

AC

take

for,

and draw

b,

and

EB

per-

CBs~,

then

= 06 +

construct y, and then

a2

=2 *Jab -f cd, x2

oc

and equal

a?

a?

ss (6

c<i

ss

ay by

substi-

y #y.

ss

upon which is equal to the sum of the

Again,
This sum may be reduced to a single rectangle, and
rectangles ab, cd.
the rectangle converted into a square, the base of which is the required
value of 3;.- Euclid, i. 45, and ii. 14; or Geometry, i. 57, 58.
a

a? is

Let

=2 fja?

a?

AB-a,

from

line,

2
b"

take a straight line

B C ( ==: 6) peris the value

draw

AB

pendicular to
of X.

the square

AC

= yV + b +
2

C draw

c\ from
perpendicular to AC,
the required value of x.

Let x

AD

CD(sc)

a?

is

mean

AB

Let x = ^{aa '+

and then a?.
Let a?
then

~~

J(a+b)(a-b)

proportional between a ~f h and a

but one)

last figure

Va - &

Let x =:

is

62

AE^

zz a, and

~d

find

2
?/

},

find

a8

6,

we have

+ r

a?

+
and

orby taking

BE=
b

V&
2

and

62

(in the

62-

2
,

and

Of course the preceding methods will equally apply, when instead

11.
of the letters we have the original numbers, the linear unit being understood as usual.

Thus<r= vl2
hence (see

last figure

V3. 4 is a mean proportional between 3 and 4 ;

but one) take A C equal four times the unit, and C B

equal three times the unit,

CE

the value of

is

or since

12

4
v4 2 by constructing a right-angled triangle of which
^/l6
the hypothenuse is four times the linear unit, and one side twice that unit :
2

the remaining side zz

Similarly

the form

r=

a?

Va +
2

vl2.

VT=
b

V4~+4 c

2
.

= J~+~2 ~-~F,
2

which

is

of

CONSTRUCTION OF QUANTITIES.
Let x s=

^ d 2-

fj"3

each be equal to the linear

Let x

^23

In the

4- 1.

V5 2

then

unit,

1*

AB,BC,

last figure let

AD- Ve?

1*T

the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, each of

a; is

- = 7T=\/l = v/|4 = \/&)* +

then

and

(i
^2.

whose

sides is

half the unit.

Let x

/ _;

this

a/ ^

Let x et

may be

number can be decomposed

squares upon

constructed as the

and so on

for all

last.

numbers, since any

finite

numbers representing the

into a series of

lines.

If the letter a be prefixed to any of the above quantities, it must be introduced under the root.
12. In constructing compound quantities, it is best to unite the several
parts of the construction in one figure,

Thus

if

from

AX

*J~oT^~1j\

A B == a,
B C (^ b) perpenA B with centre C and

the line

in

take

draw

dicular to
;
radius a describe a circle cutting

AX in D and D'

AD

D'

A D =,A B

4-

are the values required

for

AD'

and

BD =

+ V^ -

b\

= A B - B IT =

- V -

h\

This construction fails when b is greater than a, for then the circle never
cuts the line
this is inferred also from the impossibility of the roots.

AX

13. Since theorems in geometry relate either to lines, areas, or solids^

the corresponding equations must in each case be homogeneous, and will

remain so through

all

by

unity,

V a1

we

shall find resulting expressions,

-f 6,&c, in which,

prior to

must be expressed; thus these

da x

1,

If, however, one of the

and be therefore represented

the algebraic operations.

lines in a figure be taken as the linear unit

Va +^ x
2

I,

such as x

z=z

a/ a

construction, the numerical unit

quantities

must be written

and then constructed

as above.

DETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

CHAPTER

II,

DETERMINATE PROBLEMS.
14. Geometrical Problems may be divided into two classes, Determinate and Indeterminate, according as they admit of a finite or an infinite
number of solutions.
If A B be the diameter of the semicircle
E B, and it be required to find
B such, that draw
a point C in
B to meet
ing C E perpendicular to
shall be
the circumference in E,
equal to half the radius of the circle,
this is a determinate problem, because
B,
there are only two such points in
each at an equal distance from the centre.
Again, if it be required to
such, that joining EA, E B, the infind a point E out of the line
shall be a right angle, this is an indeterminate
cluded angle
problem, for there are an infinite number of such points, all lying in the
circumference
The determinate class is by no means so important as the indeterminate,
but the investigation of a few of the former will lead us to the easier comprehension of the latter ; and therefore we proceed to the discussion of
determinate problems.
15. In the consideration of a problem, the following rules are useful.
1. Draw a figure representing the conditions of the question.
2. Draw other lines, if necessary, generally parallel or perpendicular to
those of the figure.

CE

AB

AEB

AEB.

3.

known

Call the

unknown

lines

by the

lines

by the

letters

letters #, y, z,

a, b,

c,

&c, and some of

the

&c.

4. Consider all the lines in the figure as equally known, and from the
geometrical properties of figures deduce one, two^, or more equations,
.each containing unknown and given quantities.
5. From these equations find the value of the unknown quantities.
6. Construct these values, and endeavour to unite the construction to

the original figure.

16. To describe a square in a given triangle
the required square
Let
the altitude of the triangle.
C

DEFGbe

HK

The question is resolved into finding

the point H, because then the position of

D E,

and therefore of the square,

termined.

Let C

K=

a,

AB b

then by the question,

andDE AB
b
or D E
;.DE =
:

::

: :

and

H=

DE^H K,

CH
.

is

HK

cv

C K,
a,

a-~

oo

de-

ABC.

DETERMINATE PROBLEMS,
bx

=a
a

a third proportional to the quantities {a -f- &) and a.

In C A take C L =., produce C A to
so that L
K,
6, join
and draw L
parallel to
is the required value of x.
C
;
17. In a right-angled triangle the lines drawn from the acute angles to
the points of bisection of the opposite sides are given, to find the
Thus,

is

MK

M=

triangle.

Let

CE

Then

BD-

the square

upon

or

=s

\V/

2/

a?

Make'any

JlZl_2!*

right angle A,

and on one of

15

AFt=

the sides take

4a?

similarly 6 2

whence y

x, A E = E B = y.
~ square upon C A + square upon A E,
=
+
= "+4y

AD = CD =

6,

CE

with centre

and

produced in

circles cutting the other side

radii b

and 2

a,

describe

and H, respectively

draw

Hence AD,
required value of y.
and therefore
and A B are found, and the triangle is determined.
18. To divide a straight line, so that the rectangle contained by the
two parts may be equal to the square upon a given line b.

GI

parallel to

FH

then'2A

I is the

AC

Let

AB
A T>

Then

==

^-

/y.

the rectangle

or

A
cc
. .

=
6
ax = o

PB
x)

P,

(a
a
x

6*

==:

l 2

T)

''JTs

'/'

1
ff

gj\ a;
v,

i'

yo

N
1

j>

J3


DETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

10

AB

Upon

a semicircle, draw

describe

BC

=s b)

perpendicular to
P,
draw

A B, through C draw C DE parallel to AB, from D and E

E P', perpendicular to A B P and P are the required points.

If b

is

greater than

the value of

problem is impossible ; but then a point

2
6
such that, the rectangle A Q, Q B

AQ"i,

Let

.*.

From
draw

the centre

RQ

a)

(x

co

and therefore the

irrational,

is

Q may be

AB

found in

ss b

9j

draw the line O C cutting the circle in

O R, then Q is the required point

perpendicular to

OQ=OC

("T

produced,

R,'

6*

and therefore

Let us examine the other root

AQ =
"f"

^/
4v _
4
""

+ \/+b\

^ wn cn

_j_

from

for

s negative,

'

and may be written

l\/ +

form

in the

&

iL[

of this quantity, independent of the negative sign, or

tude,

is

its

the magnitude

absolute magni-

BQorAQ'.

evidently

had been " to find a point Q in either A B pro2

produced, such, that the rectangle AQ, Q B t=z b ", we
might have commenced the solution by assuming the point Q to be in B A
2
Q'
x, we should have x {a + x) ==6 ,
produced as at Q' thus letting

Now

the problem

if

duced, or

BA

and x

+ \f
v

A/

=-

JL

'

jl

2,

<4" - */
v
I

of which two roots the

4 +

\h

or

first

the absolute value

of

the negative root in the last question ; hence the negative root of the last
question is a real solution of the problem expressed in a more general
form, the negative sign merely pointing out the position of the second
;
Both roots may be exhibited in a positive form by measuring
point Q
being greater than b ; for letting
x not from A, but from a point F,
x, we find
=: c, and F Q or F Q'
.

AF

FA

a"

The celebrated problem of dividing a given straight line in extreme and

mean ratio, is solved in the same manner letting A P = x we have the
rectangle

AB,
a

BP-

the square

^V
\/a*
a + 4
2

-i

upon AP, or a (a

x) rr

<z

2
,

whence

here the negative root, which gives a

DETERMINATE PROBLEMS.
point to the
nerally

*.

left

of A,

is

a solution of the problem enunciated

J4w.ro> 7-z>

II

.'

py-J-

?-?c<?/<? ^

#? yj
.

more ge-

equidistant from two straight lines AA' and

19. Through a point
B' at right angles to each other, to draw a straight line P
Q, so
that the part P Q intersected by
A' and B B' may be of a given
length b.

M draw the perpendicular lines MC, M D.

Let M D =
D Q = GPs y,
then PQ = PM + MQ,
From

a,

a?,

Va2 + y*+ Va*

or b t=

and

from

x\

the similar triangles

PCM, M D Q

= */ a*+ ~

:. b

+.

V^2

= V^T^ (1 +
+ 2ax -f (2& 6

a?

#2

whence

a?

We

2a3

or

a4

0.

It

and then construct the four

problems but since the roots of an equation of four
dimensions are not easily obtained, we must, in general, endeavour
to avoid such an equation, and rather retrace our steps than attempt its
Let us consider the problem again, and examine what kind of a
solution.
might solve

this recurring equation,

roots, as in the last

result

we may

expect.

* Lucas de Borgo, who wrote a book on the application of this problem to architecture
and polygonal figures, was so delighted with this division of a line, that he called it the
Divine Proportion,

DETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

12

PMQ,

Since, in general, four lines

P'MQ',

R S M,

R'S'M, may

be drawn fulfilling the conditions of the question, the two former, in all
cases, though not always the two latter, we may conclude that there will
is similarly situated with respect
be four solutions ; but since the point
to the two lines A A', B B', we may also expect that the resulting lines
Thus, if there be
will be similarly situated with regard to AA' and B B'.
Q' such that OQ'" OP, and
one line PMQ, there will be another

FM

OP'=OQ.

OR

to
Hence, if we take
S', and
R'.
Again O S will be equal to
upon the line
for the unknown quantity
the perpendicular from
(2/), we can have only two different values of this line, one referring to

SR

the lines

R and

P Q and

S' R', the other to

In

equation will be of two dimensions only.

by

Again, since

2a?y - ba*

12

P' Q'

hence the resulting

this case the

equation

is

0.

MRrMR'we may take M H, H being the point of

section of the line

S R,

unknown

for the

quantity,

bi-

and then also we may

expect an equation, either itself of two dimensions, or else reducible to

one of that order.

LetMH=^#; .\MR = +
a?

and

MR :MD
MS OD
:

MS=
,

a?

::RS:/0 =

ab

RO~

ab

RS

::

*-y;
but the square upon

RS=

square upon

RO

\2

ab

ab

b*\

.\

a?

= 7 { 0' +

7-

square upon S O,

cPb*

a Vo*

62 }

an expression of easy construction ; the negative value of oc is useless of

the remaining two values that with the positive sign is always real, and
S R, MS'R'; the other, when real, gives the
refers to the lines
lines PMQ, P'MQ'; it is imaginary if b* is less than 82 that is,
and drawing
perpendicular to O M, if b is less* than
joining O
:

-PMQ.

..:

PMQ

.'..vvw^>,-:J

<//*:

-:.-.-

1,

This question is taken from Newton's Universal Arithmetic, and is

given by him to show how much the judicious selection of the unknown
quantity facilitates the solution of problems.
The principal point to be
attended to in such questions is, to choose that line for the unknown
quantity which must be liable to the least number of variations.
20.

sum

Through

the point

of the squares

a given line

6.

upon

M in the last figure to draw P M Q so that the

and M Q shall be equal to the square upon

PM

DETERMINATE PROBLEMS.
Making the same substitutions
we shall obtain the equations
2

**

-fa

2
2/

.\

or

To

a?

a?

a9

y*

=
'a?

as in the former part of the last article,

=a

b% xy

=6

2xy

6,

whence

2
,

and

13

<*?

a?

2/

b,

4 //Ti
5

Ji

construct these four values describe a circle with centre

AA

cutting

two points L,

in

flS

M and radius

with centres L, 1/ and radius

describe two other circles cutting

A' again in four points these are the
required points.
21. To find a triangle
such that its sides
C, C B, B A, and
perpendicular B D, are in continued geometrical progression.
:

ABC

Take any

line

A B m a for one side,

AC:CB CB:BA
D

hence the triangles A C B, A

Geometry, ii. 33,) and the angle

BC

let

::

B,

a?,

equiangular, (Eucl. vi. 7,

a right angle ; also

are

ABC

==

BA BD;

::

or

AC =

is

then

the square

x
_

upon

AC

r= the square

upon

BC+ the square upon A B

4,

.\

whence

a\ or

a?

x*

= 4/

J0

a9

a*'=

0,

V54

of these roots two are impossible, since

a2 v 5

is

aq

greater than

two

remaining

the

and of the
one is

negative

useless.

In

AB

describe a semicircle,
4

BE =

produced take

/ \~{a +

fl

V5

and

and draw the perpendicular

a ^5)1=:

/-

CHAPTER

is

the required value of #.

lit.

THE POINT AND STRAIGHT

22.

= ; uponAF
2
E G then EG =

EF

LINE.

Determinate problems, although sometimes curious,

much attention.

lead to nothing important, are unworthy of

as they

how-

branch of geometry that algebra was solely applied for some

Descartes, a celebrated French
its introduction into Europe.-

ever, to this

time after

yet,

It was,

GEOMETRICAL SIGNIFICATION

24

philosopher, who lived in the early part of the seventeenth century, was
He applied algebra to the consideration
the first to extend the connexion.
of curved lines, and thus, as it were, invented a new science.

Perhaps the best way of explaining" his method

AB,

line

so that the

to the square

Let
Let

will be by taking a simrequired to find a point P without a given

of the squares on
and P B shall be equal

Suppose that

ple example.

sum

it is

AP

A B.

upon

be the required point, and

AM =

MP = y,

let fall

the perpendicular

ABsa;

and

PMonAB,

then by the question,

we

have

onAB ^ the square on A P + the square on P B.

= the squares on AM, M P + the squares on P M, M B,
=
+ + (a x)
- 2^ -f+ 2a* -y 2ax + a
F
ax

The square
or as

(a?

7/2)

.".

t/

a:

Now
finite
a?

or

~r

equation admits of an innumber of solutions, for giving to

this

AM

any value, such as

&c, we may, from

the equation,

MP,

find corresponding values of y or

each of them determining a sepawhich satisfies the condition of the problem.

rate point

Let C, D, E, F, &c, be the points thus determined. The number of

the values of y may be increased by taking values of x between those
above-mentioned and

this to

an

infinite extent,

thus

we

shall

have an

in-

number of

points C, D, E, F, &c, indefinitely near to each other,

so that these points ultimately form a line which geometrically represents
the assemblage of all the solutions of the equation.
This line

finite

A CDEF,

whether curved or straight, is called the locus of the equation.

In this manner all indeterminate problems resolve themselves into investigations of loci and it is this branch of the subject which is by far the
most important, and which leads to a boundless field for research*.
23, For the better investigation of loci, equations have been divided into
;

two

classes, algebraical

An

and transcendental.
two variables x and y

algebraical equation between

is

one which

can be reduced to a finite number of terms involving only integral powers

and it is called complete when it contains
of #, y, and constant quantities
all the possible combinations of the variables together with a constant
term, the sum of the indices of these variables in no term exceeding the
degree of the equation ; thus of the equations
:

ay 2

-f-

ay
bxy

'-\-

+ c~
+ dy +

-f hoc
c

$2

ex

+/

a complete equation of the first order, and the next is a complete equation of the second order, and so on.
Those equations which cannot be put into a finite and rational algebraical form with respect to the variables are called transcendental, for
the

first is

* For the definition and examples of Loci, see Geometry,

article Locus.

iii,

and the Index,

OF AN EQUATION.

15

they can only be expanded into an infinite series of terms in which the
power of the variable increases without limit, and thus the order of the
equation is infinitely great, or transcends all finite orders.

y == sin. x, and y
The loci of equations

cf, are

transcendental equations.

named

after their equations, thus the locus

of an equation of the first order is a line of the first order ; the locus of
an equation of the second order is a line of the second order the locus
of a transcendental equation is a transcendental line or curve.
Algebraical equations have not corresponding loci in all cases, for the
equation may be such as not to admit of any real values of both oo and y\
is an example of this kind, where, whatx2
the equation y 2
a2
ever real value we give to a?, we cannot have a real value of y there is
therefore no locus whatever corresponding to such an equation.

24.

are

THE POSITION OF A POINT

IN

A PLANE.

The

position of a point in a plane is determined by finding its situsome fixed objects in that plane ; for this purpose suppose the plane of the paper to be the given plane, and let us consider as
of unlimited length, and
of two lines a?X and
known the intersection
from any point P, in this plane, draw
also the angle between them
parallel to AX, then the position of the point
parallel to AY, and

25.

ation relatively to

yY

PM
P

PN
AM

AN

are known.
and
For it may be easily
evidently known if
shown, ca? absurdo, that there is but one point within the angle Y
is P
and P
such that its distance from the lines A Y and
re-

is

AX

spectively.

A M is called the
called the ordinate

abscissa of the point

AM

and

MP

A N,

or

its

equal

AX
M
M P,

is

are together the co-ordinates of

;
Xa? is called the axis of abscissas,
The
y the axis of ordinates.

A where the axes meet

termed the origin.

point

is

The axes are called oblique or

is
rectangular, according as
an oblique or a right angle. In
this treatise rectangular axes as the
most simple will generally be em-

j.

A.

YAX

co

ployed.
a
P'
Let the abscissa
, and
then if on
the ordinate
and
measuring these lengths A
P we find the first equal to a
V
and the second equal to b, we have,
this
point
of
P,
position
the
the
two
equations
determine
to
r

AM =

MP=y,

os

and as they are

a y
9

==:

sufficient for this object,

we

call

them, when taken together,

the equations to this point.

The same point may also be defined by the equation

2
(a? - af
(y - b)
only
satisfied
equation
can
be
for this
by the values x

sr:

a and y

b.

POSITION OF A POINT IN A PLANE.

16

And in general any equation which can only be satisfied by a single real
value of each variable quantity x and 3/, refers to a point whose situation
is determined by the co-ordinates corresponding to these values.
can be
26. In this manner the position of any point in the angle
determined, but in order to express the positions of points in the angle

YAX

YA#, some

further considerations are necessary.

In the solution of the problem, article (18), we observed that negative

quantities may be geometrically represented by lines drawn in a certain

An extension of this idea

When we affix a negative sign to

direction.

leads to the following reasoning.

any quantity, we do not signify any

change in its magnitude, but merely the way in which the quantity is to
be used, or the operation to be performed on it. Thus the absolute magnitude of

is

just as great as that of

but

m&ans

that 5

is

to

is applied
5 ,that it is to be added.
As the sign
will have in each of these
to quantities variously estimated, the sign
various cases a corresponding meaning, necessarily following from that of

be subtracted, and

Whatever + means, we must always have a + a 0.

Hence we may define a to be a quantity estimated in such a manner

the sign ~f

a reduces the result

that the altering it by the operation indicated by
This is properly the meaning of the sign
it depends
to nothing.
;
entirely on that of the sign -fr- in every case.
The symbol of positive quantity is used in a variety of ways; but in
every instance the above principle shows in what way the negative quan-

tity

must, as a necessary consequence of the meaning of the positive

quantity, be used.

Thus, if we placed a mark on a pole stuck vertically into the ground, at

some point in the pole which was bare at low water and covered at high
water, and scored upwards the inches from that mark, we might express
the height of the surface by the number of inches above the mark, posibut at low water when the
tively, when the surface was above the mark
surface is below the mark, 11 inches for instance, we should call the
because when 11 inches were added to the height, (that is,
height
11
when the surface of the water was advanced ] 1 inches upwards, which is
the direction in which the positive quantities are supposed to be reckoned,)
the surface would be just at the mark, and would be no inches in height
;

reckoning from the mark.

Suppose a man to advance directly from a given point p miles in the
first 6 hours of a day, and to go back in the next 6 hours q miles ; at
the end of the 12 hours his advance from the given point would be
Thus, suppose p
10, and q =: 6, he will advance
(p q) miles.
But suppose he recedes 10 miles, then his advance
(10
6) or 4 miles.
:
he will be just where he was at
10) or
will in the 12 hours be (10
Suppose he recedes 15 miles, at the end of the 12 hours he will be
first.
Here we say behind, because the move5 miles behind the original point.
ment in the direction of the original advance was considered to he forward.
And it is clear that in this case, from an advance of 10 miles, and a recess
of 15, the advance is 5; that is, it requires a further advance of 5
miles to make the, man exactly as forward as he was at starting.
Now let us consider a fixed point A, and a line measured from it by
positive quantities in the direction A X. Suppose the line to be described
along
by the motion of a point from
and after the point has been
^
carried forward (that is, towards X)
linear units, as to B, let it be carried

AX;

_~-_~~iL~~^^

POSITION OF A POINT

IN.

A PLANE.

17

back n linear units, as to C then altogether the advance of the point or

A C will be (m - n) linear units.
Again, suppose n to become
m
that is, let the point be carried back
exactly to A; then the advance of the
A
point along
will still be measured
by (m n)
0.
Once more, let n exceed m that is, let B C exceed A B ; the advance
of the point will be expressed by
(m 7i) still but this will now C
,___.
X
JJ
be a negative number, showing by
;

the length of

AX
= mm=

how many

linear units the point

must be advanced in order to bring it forward to the original starting point

A. Now any line A C may be considered to be determined by the motion
of a point either simply along A C, or along first A B and then B C.

We

see, therefore, if

tion

A X as positive

we begin by reckoning distances from A in the direcwe are compelled to consider distances from

quantities,

in the opposite direction as negative quantities.

Conversely again, having designated positive quantities by lines in one

direction from a given point, suppose the calculation produces a negative
result, what meaning are we to assign to it ?
The negative result shows
how much positive quantity is required to bring the whole result to

Now

nothing.

positive quantity,

in the original direction

by the hypothesis,

is

measured
shows how much

distance

therefore the negative quantity

distance measured in the original direction is required to bring the result

to nothing.
But if there be a distance from A, such that a linear units in
the original direction must be subjoined to bring the result to nothing,
(that is, to reduce to nothing the distance from A,) it is clear that this dis-

opposite
tance must be that of a linear units measured in a direction from
That is, the negative quantity must be represented by lines drawn in the direction opposite to that in which the lines

to the original direction.

representing the positive quantities are drawn.

It is immaterial in which direction the line is drawn which we consider
but when chosen, negative quantities of the same kind must be
positive
taken in the opposite direction.
27. We are now able to express the position of points in the remaining
angles formed by the axes, by con:

sidering

A X to

all lines

in

the direction

be positive and those in

and similarly

to be negative:

a;

all

AY

those drawn in the direction

will be considered positive, and
therefore those in A y will be negative.

We

have then the following table

(1

!sr

of co-ordinates.

F in the

angle

X AY, 4- x +
Y A #, - +

in the angle

Q'

in the

angle

F in the angle

z,

y,

a'

y,

A #, #, y
X A y, + y.

oc

cc,

EQUATION TO THE STRAIGHT LINE.

18

Hence

P
Q
Q

the equations to a given point

.........
.

a?

=
=
=

a;

t=

are x
..

a?

r
.

P'

a,

a,

=i

=
y =

a,y~

AM remaining the same, the ordinate MP diminishes,

nothing, P
and when MP
the point P approaches to the axis AX
28.

the abscissa

If,

in this case the equations to the point

i^c,2/^0:
Similarly

when

x
If both

AM

0,

1.

the angle
axis of

(a?

a) 2

or (y

- bf

-f-

0.

s=z

situated on the axis

is
:

are

AY, its equations

are

0.

M P vanish, we have the equations to the origin A,

= 0, = or y* + ^ = 0.
2, situated in
The point whose equations are x ~ 4,
X Ay,
and

2/,

2/

and

Ex.

the point

or

is

is

situated on that axis

3/

MF^:

is

2/

AM^4

times the linear unit from the

twice that unit from the axis of x.

at a distance

situO 4- 2)
= 3, from the axes.
in the line
Ex. 3. The point whose equations are x
0, y = 3
A y, at a distance = 3 times the linear unit.
at a
in A
Ex. 4. The point whose equation
y* -f (x + a) = 0,

The

point whose equation is (y

ated in the angle xAy, at distances

Ex.

2.

AL

==z

3) 2 -f

2,

is

z=z

is

distance

a from

is

LQ'

is

a;,

the origin.

The preceding articles are true if the

To find an expression for the

29.

co-ordinate axes be oblique.

between two points

distance

and Q.
Let the axes be rectangular and
let the

equations to
P be x t==: a,

a',

=
=

b
b'

or in other words, let the co-ordi-

nates of

P be A M

a,

MP=
N z

and those of Q be A
Q &', draw Q S parallel

N =

Then

the square

upon

upon

the square

PS

upon

QS+

to

6,
a',

AX.

QP

=;

the square

^^^...^

NM = AM - AN = a
= PM - Q N = 6 - 6'
A B = (a - a') + (6 If Q be in the angle Y A
we have AN = -a',
D = (a + a') + (^ - 60
If Q be at the origin we have a! =
=
and
and

QS =

also

&') 8

s-

00

.%

6'

~f 6

2
,

or

30. If the angle between the axes be oblique and

parallel to

on

and

parallel

to

AX;

Q S then the square upon Q P

P S 4- twice the rectangle Q S, S R

perpendicular to
the square

A Y,
;

&>,

draw

P R

PM

and

be drawn
zz the square on Q S -falso

let

EQUATION TO THE STRAIGHT

Q
P

and,

a - a\

LINE.

19

- V,

PSR
= PScos. YAX
= (6 6') cos.

SR = PS

cos.

(x)

D 2 \a -

.\

and when the point

a')

&')

at the origin,

is

D =

a2

b*

2 (a

a') (6

and therefore a
2 a 6 cos. w.

6') cos.

and

6'

0,

THE LOCUS OF AN EQUATION OF THE FIRST

DEGREE.
31.

To

find the locus of

unknown quantities.
The most general form

2/

and

B# + C

-f

~ =r 6

simple form y

of such an equation

0, or

we

an equation of the

z=t

B
-r-

first

is,

C
on

or

2/

c= o?

will in the first place consider the

degree between two

+ o if.
7

equation in

B
-^t-

its

most

a?.

Let AX, A Y be the rectangular axes, then a point in the locus will be
determined by giving to x a particular value as 1, 2, 3, &c. ; let AM,
and A N, N Q be the respective co-ordinates of two points P and Q thus

MP

determined

since

#,

we have

MP-.AM
andNQ .AN
.\

therefore the triangles

MP: AM::NQ AN;

:

A MP, A N Q

NAQ,

are similar,

hence the two lines

equal to one another
be taken in the
a third point
:

locus,

then, as before,

coincide

A P

with

AR

and

points P, Q, R,

same

that

&c,

straight line

is, all

Q.

V^'

the

are in the

A R,

and by

negative values to x we
can determine the point S, &c,
to be in the same straight line
Hence the
A produced.
jrivino;

straight

line

RA

S produced

both ways indefinitely, being the

assemblage of all the points dea <v,
termined by the equation y

is

MAP,

coincide.

will

Consequently all the lines drawn

from A to the several points of
the locus coincide

and the angles

A P, A Q

the locus of that equation.

If

EQUATION TO THE STRAIGHT LINE.

20

In considering the equation y

a x -f b, we observe that the new ordinate y always exceeds the former by the quantity h ; hence taking A E in
the axis
equal to b, and drawing the line
parallel to S R,
the line
E F is the locus required.
Hence the equation of the first order belongs to the straight line.

HEP

AY
H

32. To explain the nature of the equation more clearly, we will take the
converse problem. To find the equation to a straight line
F, that is, to
find the relation which exists between the co-ordinates, x and y of each of

its

points.

Let

AR

A be

H F, and
AX

perpendicular to

Let

AY

AX,
the axes ; from A draw
from any point P' in the given line draw

the origin of co-ordinates,

parallel to

AM =

x,

A R in F.
and A E = b

FPM

and cutting

M F =r y,
MF = PM + PF
= AM tan. P AM + AE
= tan. FGX + &;
;

then

o?

or
If

AG

fore the

we have

sr ,

ax

FGX=

if tan.

b,

AE- A G.

may

equation to the straight line

a.

E G A,

tan.

a a, and thereor b
be written under the form

a a.
a x
33. In general, therefore, the equation to the straight line contains two
or is the
constant quantities b and ; the former is the distance

AE

ordinate of the point in which the line cuts the axis of?/, the latter is the
tangent of the angle which the line makes with the axis of x, for the angle

FGA

PAM:

the angle

tan.

hence

FGA= tan.PAMs=-

It is to be particularly observed that,

in

angle which the line makes with the axis of x,

and not F G x.

FGX

calling

oc

the tangent of the

the angle

we understand

34. In the equation y

oc x
&> the quantities oc and b may be either
both positive, or both negative, or one positive and the other negative ; let
us then examine the course of the line to which the equation belongs in each
Now it is clear that the knowledge of two points in a straight line
case.
is sufficient to determine the position of that line; hence we shall only find
the points where it cuts the axes since they are the most easily obtained.
1.

a and b positive;

=
=

Let x

y
join
2.

,\

/.

=ax

/.#= ;

BD;

Let x =r

y
join

BD produced
;

=r

CE

in

is

a positive and b negative

,".

:. a?

CE

=
=2

6,

Jr b;

A Y take AD

in

=; h;

A x take AB

=:

the required locus.

,\

in

Ay

zz a

take

b
AC =

;in AX take A E ~
b

oc

produced

is

the required locus.

; ;

EQUATION TO THE STRAIGHT

3.

a negative and b positive;

6 in
.\ y
Let x
;

=
=

DE D E

join

Let x
2/

join

The

35.

B C

:.

.*.

BC

ax

b;

-f-

AD =

produced

is

the required locus.

=s

a?

may

.'.

y z=

in

Ay

take

ax

AC

-=z

;mA T take AB=^

t

produced

and

lake

AX take A E =
a

quantities a

in

a negative and b negative

4.

.'.

AY

21

,\

=
^

LINE.

is

the required locus.

also change in absolute value.

Let 6
0; .". y rt a x and the loci are two straight lines passing
through the origin and drawn at angles with the axis of x whose respec;

tive tangents are

0=0;

Let

a.

,\

.\ 2/

i&

an d

a?

= ~r

the former of

these results shows that every point in the locus is equidistant from the
#
axis of x, and the latter (or
0) that every value of x satisfies the
original equation ; hence the loci are two straight lines drawn through

and

both parallel to the axis of

It has

been stated (28), that the system of equations y ss

refers to a point

straight line

yet

it

we here

see that the system

hence, although the equation

must be considered as

Let a rr

may be
becomes

x.

written

t=:

6,

x
is

&,

x s^

refers to

generally omitted,

essential to the locus.

referring to article 32, the equation to the straight line

y
x

r=

ax
a

act or

y =r^-f,

hence, as before, the system x

which when a ==

a,

y =-^-

EQUATION TO THE STRAIGHT LINE

22

i a denotes two straight lines parallel to

a from that axis.

or more simply the equation <#=

the axis of 3/ and at a distance

Again

both a =^

let

becomes

^/

<r

&z0;

and

0,

and

and hence, y

t=z

and the locus

is

the equation y

0,

x ^z

Qy

sn

/.

a?

the axis of x.

If or

and

ss

?/

and

es

Hence

the equation becomes

0,

the equation

<#

es

a?

;.

denotes the axis of

2/.

36. By the above methods the line to which any equation of the first
order belongs may be drawn.
In the following examples reference is made to parts of the last figure.

Ex.
take

3 y

1.

AD

again

let

--

sr;

# s:

0, ,\

1/

on the axis

AY

one-third of the linear unit, then the line passes through

0, ,\

x =2

then the line passes through

is

let

Ax take ABs

on the axis
hence the

of the unit,

line joining the points

and

the locus required.

C E.
and the line passes through
the origin also or the tangent of the angle which the line makes with the
axis of x zz 1, therefore that angle z= 45; hence the straight line drawn
Ex.

2.

10 y

Ex.

3.

21 x

x is

let

a?

a line situated like

t=z

.'.

=z 0,

YAX

through the origin and bisecting the angle

is

the required locus.

The line passes through the origin as in the

0.
Ex. 4. 5 y 2 x
last example, but to find another point through which the line passes, let
hence take
5, and from E draw E P (= 2)
x
5; .'. y z=z 2
perpendicular to AX; then the line joining the points A, P is the locus

AE =

required.

Ex.

5.

ay

Ex.

6.

+ bx ^
3x =

drawn through A, and parallel to B C.

two straight lines making angles of 60 with

a line

the axis of x.

Ex.

drawn

7.

3y

parallel to

=0;
A X is

take

4
AD s=
o

a line through

of the unit,

the locus.

AB =

AE^l,

take
2 s=
Ex. 8. x* 4* #
and
through E and B parallel to A Y are the required loci.
The equation to a straight
4.
Ex, 9. y Jr 2x
;

under the convenient form

and when

s 0, s

x
-j

si,

2, the lines

line

and since when y

may

drawn
be put

~ 0, x ~

#,

the quantities 6 and # are respectively the distances of the origin from the intersection of the line with the axes of y and x.

Thus Ex.

?/

9. in this

5,

form

is

+ ~ =

1,

take

AD

=s 4, and

AE

= 2,

DE,

this line produced is the required locus.

37. If the equation involve the second root of a negative quantity

join

its

locus will not be a straight line, but either a point or altogether imaginary

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LINES.

23

y+2xs/ 1 azziOis a point whose

= a, for no other real value of x can give a
but the locus of the equation y + x + a V~l =

thus the locus of the equation

co-ordinates are

and y

real value to y ;
is
imaginary, for there are no corresponding' real values of x and y. (24)
38. We have thus seen that the equation to a straight line is of the
form y =s a x + b and that its position depends entirely upon a and b.
f

By

a given line we understand one whose position is given, that is, that
a and b are given quantities ; when we seek a line we require its position,
b to be its equation, a and b are the two indeso that assuming y =2 a x
terminate quantities to be found by the conditions of the question if only
one can be found the conditions are insufficient to fix the position of the

line.

By

we understand one whose

co-ordinates are given ; we

of a given point,
and to avoid useless repetition, the point whose co-ordinates are x l and y l
Similarly the line whose equation is
will be called " the point x l} y v "
y rr ax 4* b will be called " the line y ==^ a x + by

a given point

and y

shall generally use the letters x x

for the co-ordinates

same problem we use the equations to two straight lines as

and y z=i a! x + b it must be carefully remembered that x
and y are not the same quantities in both equations we might have used
a'X + b\ X and Y being the
the equations y .= a x -j- 6, and Y
If in the

t=i

ax

+b

variable coordinates of the second line, but the former notation

to be the

39.

is

found

more convenient.

We

regret

much

that in the following problems on straight lines

cannot employ an homogeneous equation as

-y-

we

1/

=1

1.

In algebraical

geometry the formulas most in use are very simple, much more so indeed
than they would be if homogeneous moreover the advantage of a uniform
system of symbols and formulas is so great to mathematicians that it
should not be violated without very strong reasons. To remedy in some
degree this want of regularity, the student should repeatedly consider the
meaning of the constants at his first introduction to the subject of straight
:

lines.

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT
40.

To

LINES.

find the equation to a straight line passing

through a given

point.

point being given its co-ordinates are known ; let them be x L y u

b ; we signify that
the equation to the straight line be y == a x
line passes through the point x 1 y u by saying that when the variable
scissa x becomes x^ then y will become y x hence the equation to the

The

let

becomes

y s a x\ +
;.b i=iy ~ ax,
x

substituting this value for b in the first equation,

y zz a x
or

y - y

]}i

a (x

#1

~~ x\)

we have

and
this

abline

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LINES

24

The

shortest

from the

tion

method of eliminating b is by subtracting the second equaand this is the method generally adopted.

first,

Since a, which fixes the direction of the line, is not determined, there may
infinite number of straight lines drawn through a given point ; this
also geometrically apparent.

be an
is

^ 0, and /.
y a x.

If the given point be on the axis of a?, y i

;. y
if it be on the axis of y, x x

and

=a

(x

x );

z=i

If either or both of the co-ordinates of the given point be negative, the

proper substitutions must be made thus if the point be on the axis of x
x 1 and ;
and in the negative direction from A, its co-ordinates will be
therefore the equation to the line passing through that point will be
:

= a {x

y
41.

points

To
x\,

xj.

-{-

find the equation to a straight line passing

y and x^ y^

through two given

ax
b
Let the required equation be y
(1)
then since the line passes through the given points, we have the equations

=:

y2

zz

ax ^
ax2 +
x

b-

(2)

(3)

Subtracting (2) from (1)

#i =s

#i

- xj

a (x

(4)

Subtracting (3) from (2)

= (#i Vi ~~
a =
X\

3fe

2/2

i2?2

Substituting this value of

of

in (4),

we have

xl

finally

z a

conditions have sufficed to determine a and 6, and by their

elimination the position of the line is fixed, as it ought to be, since only
one. straight line can be drawn through the same two points.

The two

This equation

will

assume

forms according

different

to

the particular

situation of the given points.

Thus

if

the point #2

"

if it

be on the axis

and

if it

y2 be on
y

oft/,

the axis of

x2 zz0

This

?y 2

- yi =

^-C*-

..3,=

-*.
?/l

last equation is also thus obtained

origin, its equation

we have

-y

be at the origin both y2 and x

.".

<r,

the line passing through the

must be of the form yzsax($l) where a

is

the tangent

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT
makes with the

of the angle which the line

axis of

to

through the point x^ y l9 a must be equal

LINES.
a?,

and

yt=L

/.

25
this line passing-

oc.

If a straight line pass through three given points, the following relation
/
exist between the co-ordinates of those points
; \z^ </<.-,
7
7/
oc Y
r 2
0.
x\ ?/ 2 )
(y, <r2
2/ 3 )
(y x <r3
(y2 r8
y3 )

must

42.

point

To
r3 ,

find the equation to a straight line

2/3,

and bisecting a

finite

passing*

'

through a given

portion of a given straight line.

be limited by the points

^y

y25 and therefore the co-ordinates of the bisecting point are

Let the portion of the straight

<r2

4L

?.

line

hence the required equation

2/3

* (*

and

-,

is

- * = ++ g2/2-23/3
2"^ U " ^
^
2/1

>

8)

43.

To

find the equation to a straight line parallel to a given straight

line.

Let y ts a x

'#

(1) be the given line

-{-

b'

(2)

.... required

then since the lines are parallel they must

of # or '= a .'. the required equation is

yz=ax + V

line.

make equal angles

with the axis

(3).

course V could not be determined by the single condition of the

parallelism of the lines, since an infinite number of lines may be drawn
but if another condition is added, b' will be
parallel to the given line
then determined: thus if the required line passes also through a given
point x 1 y u equation (2) is

Of

y
.*.

(3)

- yx = ' (* - j?0

becomes

2/1

(a?

#0

44. To find the intersection of two given straight lines C B, E D.

This consists in finding the co-ordinates of the point O of intersection.
Now it is evident that at this point they have the same abscissa and ordinate; hence if in the equations to two lines we regard a? as representing the
same abscissa and y the same ordinate, it is in fact saying that they are the
co-ordinates X,Y of the point of intersection O.

^0

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LINES.

26

and y=a'o?

+
+

Y^aX + 6sa'X +

Let

then at

y=za$

we have

ED

iv
Y

<v
aX
+
,

5'

"T

ab'
a&
7+ 6s a a'
a

#6'

&

J\,

and

CB

b be the equation to

ct'b

Ex.

1.

Ex.

2.

To find the intersection of the lines whose equations are

y == 3# + 1 and y ~ 2x - 4 =3 0. X =s 3 and Y = 10.
To find the intersection of the lines whose equations are
y

and Sy

2x

1.

X=

"#

Y=

and

1.

If a third line, whose equation is 7/

b'\ passes through the
point of intersection, the relation between the coefficients is

(a
45.

To

V -a'b)

(<*&"

find the tangent, sine

or" 6)

(a' 6"

a" 6')

0.

and cosine of the angle betwen two given

straight lines.

Let y =1

y
and
tan.

6'

ax

s= a'

+ b be
+ 6'

the equation to

CB

ED

the angles which they

make

DOB = tan. EOC = tan.

(0

respectively with the axis of

tan.
0')

?=
l

also cos 8

DOB

sine

+ tanV0tan.0'

DO B =

tan.

DOB

Vr+'c'ta'n.'DOB) 8

DOBx

cos.

46.

To

'

DOB=

find the equation to a straight line

then

l'+'W

V(l+a )(l+ a
2

VI
another straight

a?

Ha'

=s
sec.

and

tan. d

a8

ZjL.
.

Vl

a' 2

making a given angle with

line.

Let y =z a x
y ==: a' x

+
+

b be the given line

bf

B,

required line

E D,

= tangent of the given angle DOB.

Then ' = tan. DEC = tan. (B C X BOD)
a _ tan. B C X - tan. BOD _
~~
"~
1 + /T
1 +tan.BCX .tan. BOD
/3

/3

Substituting this value for

'

in the second equation,

1 H-CKjb
If the required line passes also through a given point

tion is

x ly y l9 the equa-

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LINES.

21

DOE

be considered the given point o? n y^ then not only the line

If
but another (the dotted line in the figure) might be drawn, making a
given angle with B C, and its equation is found, as above, to be

2/1

x^

~"

a v*

r~

so that both lines are included in the equation

For example, the two straight lines which pass through the point
and cut B C at an angle of 45 are given by the equations

Vi

= r-r
O~
a

*i)

0*

-J-

2/

2/i

1
1

Also the equation to the straight line passing through

the axis of a; at an angle of 135 is

or

Vl

7/

O= + *V

infinitely great

135 (x -

tan.

=-

#0

is

'

_a

^ _

given line

This

-~

therefore the fraction

y ts #

may be

-J-

also

OCXs

6, is 7/

directly proved,

we have

a!

a?

which are perpendicular

OE

perpendicular to

OEX-

tan.

OEC-

hence in the equations to two straight

one another

to

two

to

drawing

for

== tan.

or

versely, if in the equations to

we have a

straight lines,

these lines are perpendicular to one another.

If the perpendicular line pass also through

equation

==z

is

/3

hence the equation to a straight line perpendicular

C, as in the next figure,

cot.

a^),

to be perpendicular to the given line,

?+
a

(a?

cutting

2/i

If the required line

47.

<zj)

^3

D and

a!

we

and, con-

find oca'

.lines

-\-

a given point

cc x

0,

yly

its

is

2/1

*i)

and, of course, this equation will assume various forms, agreeing with the
position of the point x 1 y l ; thus, for example, the line drawn through the
6, is one whose equation is
origin perpendicular to the line y s= ax

y rs
48.

To

a?,

for here

both x x and y x

0.

find the length of a perpendicular from a given point

on a given straight

line

B.

{x x

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT

28

Let y
then

a x -\-b

(1) be the equation to

zz

(,r

x\)

(2)

C B,

the equation to the per

is

DOE,

pendicular line

= DO;

then if
and
Let |)
from (1) and (2) we have f, ==

from (2)

LINES.

Y = y,

(X

Y
x

(X -

(Y

=iaX + b

Vl

from

a?0

(X

Of

determined

(29)

(1)

^O -f- Of^i
=^ - a r=

/.

be the co-ordinates of

(X - x,f

4*' 6,

&,

a?i

Of

(#i
.-.

j/

#i

(X

-xy +

(Y

(X

~V X ~ ^

-^
1

^)
a

4-

(X -

superior sign
line,

(X -

ct\)

2/0

7=

and the

'

be taken when the given point

to

is

V,/1

</i

given straight

y,

*,)'

(1-f*

:.

Y-

(/

The

6), also

above the

is

inferior in the contrary case.

If the given line pass through the origin b

/.

p=

~z
Vl

If the origin be the given point, x x

and y

/. _p

is another way of obtaining the expression for ^?.

6 applies to all points in
Since the equation y z=z a x

'-.

'2

cr

-,

There
to

Q, where

Now

MD

sin.

cuts

DO^DQ
but

and

or

COB; :,MQ =

sin.

DQ

O,

DQ = D M - M Q = y, ~

DQO ^

sin.

CQM =

cos.

^ +

QC.M =
a

x\

CO

B,

it

must

6.

b,

sec.

tvtt-tjt ~
QCM

'

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LIN^S.

29

yfl

(tan.

DO

Q C M)

or

=?'2/

Vl

#!

VT

V'l

if
-t*

was below the

line.

49. If the line

E had been drawn making a given angle whose tangent was (3 with the given line C O, the distance
O might be found
for instead of equation (2) we shall have

y-yi~

O ~ *i)
we

hence, following the same steps as above,

_
This expression

Let y =:

is

sine of

Vl +

shall find

also very easily obtained trigonometrically.

the.

given angle, then

~~

The

46 )

DOQ

sin.

50.

Vi

a*

equation to the straight line

demonstration of the following theorem

'

may

be used with advantage in the

If from the angles of a plane

perpendiculars be let fall

triangle

on the opposite sides, these perpendiculars will meet in one point.

let A E,
In the triangle
BD, C F be perpendiculars from
A, B and C on the opposite sides
and
let O be the point where
B
meet, then the theorem will

ABC,

AE

established by showing
the abscissa to the point G is

be

Let

that

A F.

A be the origin of co-ordinates,

A B the axis of x,
A Y, perpendicular to A B, the axis

and
Let the co-ordinates of C be x^ y x
x2i
B

we have then

of y.

the following equations,

to

AC

Ml

(41)

0C X

to

D,

to

C, y

or

3/

#i

a (#

y%

*""**

x%

tfg)

Vi

(#

:=

-y*

(x

(a?

- *,)

# s ) since y 2

<r 2

(41)

= 0.

(47)

STRAIGHT LINE REFERRED TO

30

/.

A E, y

to

for the intersection

= ~

ax

O of B D and A E we have, by
(X - X ) = -

a?,

equating the values of y,

3/l

v
Jy?/
is, the abscissa of the point O is found to be that of C.
In the same manner it may be proved that if perpendiculars be drawn
from the bisections of the sides, they will meet in one point.
Similarly we may prove that the three straight lines FC, KB, and A L,
in the 47th proposition of Euclid, meet in one point within the triangle

that

'

"

ABC.
51.

We

have hitherto considered the axes as rectangular, but

oblique, the coefficient of x, in the equation to a straight line,

they be
not the

if
is

tangent of the angle which the line makes with the axis of x.
the angle between the axes,
Let w
6 t=i the angle which the line makes with the axis of x
sin. 9
yb
J
then a
(33);
r
sin. (w 0)
x

= -

..

h remains, as before, the distance of the origin from the intersection of the
y : hence the equation to a straight line referred to

line with the axis of

oblique axes

is

sin.

y
Since this equation

sin. (*>

y ss a x

of the form

is

0)
&

all

preceding;
& articles which do not affect the ratio of
r

when

equally true

Thus,

To

find the tangent

Let v^ia x

from =:-:

sin.

tan.

0'=

*u

v\

and 44, require no modification.

equations

have

a w
-

w
Y-Ya
sin.

tan.
-

a' sin. w
_--.;

hence

/3

and,

-;

similarly,

cos.

0j

(e-0')

tan.

(aa

) sin. o>

73T^T7-^:~^
L-f-cx a + (air
)
r

o)

To find the equation to a straight line passing through

y and making a given angle with a given straight line.
j3

be the tangent of the given angle,

&, the given
y r= a^

From

the last formula

f

zz a

{x

Xi),

line,

the required

line.

we have
a

sin.

o>

sin.

w-f (j

and the required equation is

a sin.
u Jl

/3

(1-f-a cos.

a>)

(a-j-cos. a>)

(l

sin. w-j~|3

(a

(jj

+ cos. w)
+ cos. w)

cos.

"
w

a given point

x,

Let

be

of the angle between two given straight lines.

l-j~<rcos.

x\

+bK
jl

(/3)

-(w we
sin.

-?
will
sin. (o) -~ 6)

the axes are oblique.

articles 40, 41, 42, 43,

the results in the

OBLIQUE CO-ORDINATES.
If the lines be perpendicular to each other

l+#

(3

cos.

a+cos.
and the required equation

to
o)

is

1+a

cos.

a +cos.

To

31

find the length of the perpendicular

to

u)

from a given point upon a given

straight line.

Instead of equation (2), in article 48, we must use the equation just
found, and then proceeding as usual we shall find
(2/i

a h)
cc 1

sin.

~ ~ J{i + 2 cos. u+a*y

It will be concluded from an observation of these formulas, that oblique

axes are to be avoided as much as possible ; they may be used with advantage where points and lines, but not angles, are the subjects of discussion.
As an instance, we shall take the following theorem.
52. If, upon the sides of a triangle as diagonals, parallelograms be described, having their sides parallel to two given lines, the other diagonals
of the parallelograms will intersect each other in the same point*
Let
B G be the triangle, X,
the given lines,

HA IB

EBDC,CFAG,

AY

the parallelograms, the opposite diagonals

D E, FG,

meet in one point O.

the oblique axes
Let A be the origin* AX,
x x y x the co-ordinates of B

will

AY

<r 2 2/ 2

To

find the equation to

let it

DE

.........

C.

= ax + b
= otx 6 at D
y ~ y* (^ - ^1)
&== 0*2 -ffi) at E

be y
2f 2

-\-

2/i

y-y.

( *-*
= Flr
^1
<i 2

-"

i)

(1)

and

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

32

To

find the equation to

FG

= ax

y2

z=z

-\-

b at

= ax
dx

y*

y2

2/-2/ 2 '=

To

find the equation to II I

at

-f*

ax

-{

0+6

Vi

?/i

at

=
= ^ at I
aa?

or

y-y^-T*
Equating the values of?/

(2)

2^=
'

and

in (1)

(2)

we

(3)-

find

X~

-li-1-~-__^y x x2

Xi y%

;
also equating' the values of y in (2} and (3) we find the same value for
hence the abscissa for intersection 'being the same for any two of the lines,

they must

all

Similarly

three intersect in the

we may prove

straight lines be

meet

in

drawn

that

same
if

point.

from the angles of a plane triangle

to the bisections of the opposite

sides, they will

one point.

CHAPTER

IV.

THE TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

we proceed to the discussion of equations of higher orders,
necessary to investigate a method for changing the position of the coordinate axes.
The object is to place the axes in such a manner that the equation to a
given curve may appear in its most simple form, and conversely by the
introduction of indeterminate constants into an equation to reduce the
number of terms, so that the form and properties of the corresponding
53. Before

it is

locus

may be most

easily detected.

An alteration

of this nature cannot in the least change the form of the curve,
but only the algebraical manner of representing it; thus the general equation to the straight line y
a x + b becomes y
a x when the origin is on
Also on examining articles 46 and 51 we see that the simthe line itself.
plicity of an equation depends very much on the angle between the axes.

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
Hence

in

many

33

cases not only the position of the origin but also the direc-

may be altered with advantage. The method of performing these operations is called the transformation of co-ordinates.
54. To transform an equation referred to an origin A, to an equation
referred to another origin A', the axes in the latter case being parallel to
those in the former.
tion of the axes

Let

a?,

Ay

A' X, A'

be the original axes

the

new axes

M=
MP -y original co-ordinates of P
A' N = X\
new co-ordinates, of P
cc)

AC = a\ the co-ordinates of the new origin A'

CA' = &J
then MP = MN + NP, that
y = b + Y,
A M r= A C +CM,
x = a + X
is,

substituting these values for

y and

the transformed equation between

55.

To

cc

the equation to the curve,

referred to the origin
and
in

transform the equation referred

referred to other oblique axes having the

ii

Let A#, At/ be the original

AX,

AY

be the

new

'

to

oblique axes, to an equation

same

origin.

Mr

axe?-,

axes,

M P = y) original co-ordinates of
AN=Xl
,-p
y
NP Yf new co-ordinates or r.
7i/TT

we have
A',,

to

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

34

ky zz

Let the angle x

Draw
then

N R parallel

to

^AX =

w,

P M,

= MP = MQ + QP

0,

NQ

and

NR + QP

sin.

sin.

and

a?

==

sin.

sin.

PQ

(a)

ARN
"""

.*.

+'Y

sin.

sin

fo

'

sin.

NQP
~^
oj

&

sin.
^

sin.

sm.

^ +Y

sin.

_ X

sin.

(x)

+Y

0)

sin.

- 0')

(w

sin.

Let the original axes be oblique, and the new rectangular, or

e=

90.
.\ 2/

= X

sin.

0-f

cos.

sm.

^ X sin.

(&>

o)

0)

2/
<r

- 0)

cj

Let the original axes be rectangular, or

.'.

(w

cos.

sin.

58.

NRA +

(o

si "'

=V

57.

S'

A M,

A M = AR + RM = A R + N Q
sin.

56.

AY=

,2?

parallel to

""

o'

= X sin. + Y sin.
s= X cos.
Y cos.
<9

o)

s= 90.

0',

-J-

0'

Let both systems be rectangular, or io == 90 and

.\ ^ s= X sin.
-f Y cos. 0,
a?

fl'

90

= X cos. Y sin.

These forms have been deduced from the first, but each of them may
be found by a separate process. The first and last pairs are the most
useful.
Perhaps they may be best remembered if expressed in the following manner.
Both systems oblique, the formulas (55) become
59.

= {X

sin.

*= {Xsin.
Both systems
y

X A* + Y

XKy +

sin.

Ysin.

A4 sm. x Ky
.

YAy}
J

rectangular, the formulas (58)

sm.

^-
Ky

a?

become

X cos. X A + Y cos. Y A y

x ==

2/

cos.

XA

a?

~f-

cos.

Y A x.

If the situation of the origin be changed as well as the direction of the

axes, we have only to add the quantities a and b to the values of x and
y
respectively
however, in such a case, it is most convenient to perform
;

each transformation separately,

If the new axis of
falls below the original axis of a?, the. angle
must
be considered as negative, therefore its sine will be negative and its cosine
positive.
Hence the formulas of transformation will require a slight alteration before applied to this particular case.

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

Since the values of <r and y are in all cases expressed by equations of the
order, the degree of an equation is never changed by the transformation of co-ordinates.
60. Hitherto we have determined the situation of a point in a plane by
its distance from two axes, but there is also another method of much use.
Let S be a fixed point, and S B a fixed straight line ; then the point P is also
evidently determined if we know the length S P and the angle P S B.
If S
r and
0, r and 9 are called the polar co-ordinates of
P.
S is called the pole, and SP the radius vector, because a curve may
be supposed to be described by the extremity of the line S P revolving
round S, the length of S P being variable. The fixed straight line S B is
first

P=

PSB =

also called the axis.

To transform an equation between co-ordinates x and y into another

between polar co-ordinates r and 0,

Draw S

AM =

Let

A X,

parallel to

and

let

the angle

Let S

AM- AC

y>

S D, or

coincide with
b

SQ = a+r

-f

sin. (0

D =r

AC-

a?,

theny=MP==M<; + QP:= b+r

x~~

0, and the angle

C S

a,

6,

0)

(0

sin.{w-(0+0)]

r
(O
Sill. 0)

sin. (oj

0)

r
Sill.

Let the original axes be also

61.

rectangular, or
-

y-b + r sin.
x = a + r cos,

s.

and

U)

if

the origin

7T

01

(H)

e]

be the pole,

we have a

and

60.

0)
:.y = r
^
x = r cos. 0j
sin.

'

Of

these formulas (3) and (4) are the most useful.

62. Conversely, to find r and

terms of

in

and y:

no

from (1) we have

_
~~

sin.-fftj (0+0)}
sin.

y
;.

tan. (0

(0

_
= sin.

cot. (0 +

where the symbol tan."" 1 ^ is equivalent

whose radius is unity, and tangent .''
(x

a)

(o

(2/

a?

cos.

= 5)sin. cos. w
b)
a + (y
x
-1
= tan
6) cos. w
- a

+0)

also r2

0)

0)

(y

2
5) -f- 2

(a?

(y

to the

words " a circular

a) (y

6) cos

(30)

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

35

orw

63. If the axes are rectangular,

therefore #

and

=s=

therefore

and

and

0,

r*

=
z
7T

^ 0,

also

= tan.
= +

- 1

we have

Vx =

tan. 0,

and

and

-y

a?

the pole at the origin,

2/

(29)

and these are the formulas generally used.

From

tan. 6

y
= --

we have

cos. 9

= ^_

(ta e)2

*JTT]F

a?
(jc

and

sin.

cos. 6

=>
v
+x

tan.

9
2

VV-fo?'

may

hence the value of 9

2/

also be expressed

by the equations
or

c?

cub.

CHAPTER

V.

ON THE CIRCLE.
64.

Following

would be the

the order of this treatise, our next subject of discussion

general equation of the second degree; but there

loci of the

one curve among these loci, remarkable for the facility of its description
and the simplicity of its equation this curve, we need scarcely say, is the
circle; and as the discussion of the circle is admirably fitted to prepare the
reader for other investigations, we proceed .to examine its analytical cha-

is

racter.

The common definition of the circle states, that the distance of any
point on the circumference of the figure from the centre is equal to a given
line called the radius.
If a and b be the co-ordinates of the centre, x and y those of any point
on the circumference, and r the radius, the distance between those points
is
V { (V """ t>Y (# ~~ aY } (29) hence the equation to the circle is

{y
65.

To
let

by +

O a) = r*
2

obtain this equation directly from the figure,

be the origin,

A
A X, A Y the
a:N = fll
A
No
tvj-

.i

rectangular axes,
,...

c lU

co-ordinates or the centre,

THE CIRCLE.
TV/["p

BOQC

those of any point

37

on the circumference;

a line, parallel

to the axis of x.

Then

OP the

upon

the square

square upon

PQ +

upon

the square

OQ,

PM-QM = y-6
alsoOQ=AM-AN = xa\
r* = {y &)* + O - a)
or (y- &)* + (> a) = r (1)

andPQ =

;.

If the axis oft/ or that of * passes

through the centre, the equation (1)

becomes

respectively

(y2

or

*)'

+(

2/

+ *'

= ^1(2)
=n

If the origin be at any point of the circumference -as. E, we have then

a
the equation of condition a2
6
r ; expanding (1) and reducing- it by
means of this condition, we have

y*
If the origin

is

B,

at

26

BO
or

3
2/

"

The above equations

and

-j-V-

?/

Again, placing the origin

2rx

x2

+ z ~r
2

all useful,

(3).
a:,

we have

6=0

and a=rr;

=0

- 2r#

(4).

O, we have b

at the centre

are

2
<r _- 2 a a?
being the axis of

?/

.\

s==0

and a

(5).

but those most required are (1), (4),

(5).

66. Equation (1), if expanded,

y* + x *

is

-2by Hax +

a2

1r

~ r

=e

0.

This differs from the complete equation of the second order (23) in
having the coefficients of a; 2 and y 2 unity, and by having no term containing
the product x y.
Any equation of this form being given, we can, by comparing it with the
above equation, determine the situation of its locus, that is, find the position of the centre, and the magnitude of the corresponding circle.
2
2
0.
Ex. 1.
8 x - 5
4 y
y + x
2
2
- 2, a
6 - r =: - 5 ;
here b
4, and a
1

.\ r

+ ^ +

25.

THE CIRCLE,

38

A be the origin of co-ordinates, AX, A Y the axes.

AX take AN = 4 times the linear unit, from N draw NO

Let
In

perpendicular
but downwards, and equal to 2; then O is the centre of the circle.
With centre O and radius 5 describe a circle; this is the locus required.
The points where it cuts the axis of a? are determined by putting y z? ;

to

A X,

5 = 0;
= 4 JW}
_
hence A B ~ 4 + VsT and AC = 4- JYh
.\

Similarly putting x
67.

The

z=z

For example,

AD-1

find

way of describing

shortest

into the form (y

cc

we

0,

- 8x

x*

.'.

b) 2

a) 2

=r

cy

(a?

the locus

x*

doc

+e=

becomes, by the addition and subtraction of

cy

+ of + dx +

Ex.

+ -e

4-

2.

8,

c'

e}

?/

the radius of the required locus,

is

4x

4y
2)

4 -f

a?

-f (a;

2)

4 x

+-

= 16

16

=2

hence the co-ordinates of the centre are a

Ex,

0,

and the equation becomes

y
or (y

4-

2/

j
cZ

-j-

d and are the co-ordinates of the

directly that

^{

that

add and subtract

radius

d
4 and-,
4

and

0,

+ ~-y + O + "gO ^ ~4~"

(y

where we observe
centre,

put the equation

to

is

the equation

3/

AE^5,

and

and

6 =s

and the

2,

4.

is

5.

4a? + 1 = 0; a = 1, b 1, r = yya = - 2, 6 = 3, r = 4.
+ -6 +4 3=
13
2
7
+ 14 = 0; a ~ 6 = r =
6?/ -f 6a? 21#- 8

6.

7/

7.

3.

4.

3/

2/*

a;

a?*

In these

a?

*/

- 4y

a?

o?

a^

3a;

4?/

2a?

5
3
= 0; a =
6= - 2, r =
= 0;a=-l, 6 = 2, rs= VX
-

two examples there

is no occasion to calculate the length of

the radius, for the circumference of the circle passes through the origin of
co-ordinates, as do the loci of all equations which want the last or con-

last

stant term.
8.

#*

9.

i/

10.

In the

2
l

+^

-~

6 a;
6 j?

-f

a;

a;

last three

=
=

= 0, b = 2, r =
= - 3, 6 = 0, r = 3.
=
a z= 3, b =z 0,
+8=
0;

a
a

2.

examples the centre of the

circle is

1.

on the

axes.

THE CIRCLE.

39

68. We have seen that the equation to the circle referred to rectangular
2
axes does not contain the product xy, and also that the coefficients of y
and x2 are each unity; we have, moreover, seen that generally an equation
of the second degree of this form has a circle for its locus, but there are
some exceptions to this last rule.
.

For example, the equation y2

is
12 x
52 t=
x2 - &y
is not a circle,
apparently of the circular form ; its locus, however,
but a point whose co-ordinates are x
6 and y
4, for it may be put
under the form (y - 4) 2 -f- (x 6) 2 =s 0, the only real solution of which
2
is x = 6 and y == 4 ; and this will always be the case when r zn 0, hence
a point may be considered as a circle whose radius is indefinitely small.

Again, the equation y 2 -f- x2 4 y

2 # -]- 9
0, may be put under
2
4 ; but there are no possible values of
l)
(y~2) 2 + (#
X and y that can satisfy this equation, therefore the locus is imaginary. (24),
69.

the form

To

find the equation to the tangent to a circle.

Let the origin of co-ordinates be

at the centre,

and x\

y'

any point on

the circumference.

Then

the equation to the straight line through

y -

y'

a (x -

y' is

a/,

the equation to the radius through x\ y

is

#;

s=

(2/

but the tangent being perpendicular

y y' -

or

*\ y y

y' 2

xx

-\-

to the radius,

^
=

2/'

=r r 2

a? a?'

-j- a?'

# /2

we have

as -

(47.)

equation yy
x x sr*, thus found, may be easily remembered,
from the similarity of its form to that of the equation to the circle, it
being obtained at once from y 2 -f x 2
r2 by changing y 2 or 3/7/ into ?/ y\

The

and # 2 or
If

we

a?

x into

a? a/.

take the general equation to the circle, (y

the equation to the radius

^- y '~ h

x'- a
Of:

af- a

To

(4?

a)

==

,2

and the equation

to the tangent is

b'

=
+ (a/ a) =

(y--&) (y'-b)
70.

-f-

y'-

The equation (y b)
equation to the tangent to the form
f

b) 2

(.*-). ...(41)

*0
x')
^<x(x
a (*y 2/'
y irs
l

is

>2

_6

0*

ar)

enables us finally to reduce the

(a-a) (^-a)

find the equation to the tangent of a circle parallel to a given

straight line.

Let y == ocx +
and y y' -f x x

b be the given line,

z=l

r 2 the required tangent, in

which x\ y are unknown.

THE CIRCLE.

40

Since these lines are parallel,

y'

:.

a/1

Hence by

(43) or-

=r, a,

To

tx 9

2
<*

ys-

substitution in the equation

+ ^

a?

consequently two tangents can be drawn parallel to the given

71.

"

find the intersection of a straight line

and

circle

we have

line.

Let the centre of the circle be the common origin, and let the equations
r2
at the point of intersection, y and cc must
be y
a x + b, and y 2 +cc*
9
.''. r 2
#a
(ax
be the same for both.
&)

whence x ==

1 4-

two values of a?, we have two intersections

be constructed, and the points of intersection found.

there being

2
s
If r (l-j- )
touch the circle.

===

If r

these values

two values of x are equal, and the

the
2

'

(1 -f

2)

is

+
+
+

a?

=:

a?

may

line will

than 6 2 the line will not meet the

less

circle.

Ex.

1.

if

Ex.

2.

?/

Ex.

3.

7/

+
+
+

x*

^2

25,

?/

=25,

y
4y

25,

3o?

=
=

a?

4 and

a?

The

2T;

-3, y
0, y

and

=
=

and 5

touches the

line

3 and 4

circle.

We may observe that the combination of an equation of the first order

with any equation of two dimensions will, as above, give an equation of
and hence there can be only two intersecthe second order for solution
;

tions of their loci.

72. If the axes be oblique and inclined to each other at an angle w, the
equation to the circle is

(y

by +

(x

af

2 (y

(x

b)

a) cos.

io

t= r 2 ,

(30)

r
if the origin be at the centre
and y + # + 2tt/ cos. w
hence the equation y 2 -f cxy -f a? -f dy + eo? +
0, belongs to the
circle in the particular case where the co-ordinate angle is one whose
2

/=

cosine

c
=

Comparing

it

with the general equation to the

2 cos.

- 2a 2b

o)

cos.

a)

whence, by elimination,

=
=

we

c,

<?,

a8

obtain

2 6

circle,

2 a cos. w

+ 2a 6

2 c

c3

-"-- '';-;*

cos.

<2

- 4

we

find

= d,
b

w -

2 d
c

= /;
ce
- 4

-/i

hence the co-ordinates of the centre and the radius being known, the
locus can be drawn.

Ex.

if

1.

here 2 cos. w

,\

o;

ocy

-j- or

= 60;

1 =--

hence/ this equation will give a circle

if

THE CIRCLE.

11

,2~

the axes be inclined at an angle of 60

3'

This
centre

2.

and the radius =s

;
'

7/

V3

ay

a*

referred to the centre as origin,

obviously y 2

is

a?

and

zzr* zz

= 0.

9'

axes be inclined at an angle of 45, the

at the origin of co-ordinates, and the radius
3.

will giv a circle

is

when

to this circle,

to rectangular axes,

Ex,

the co-ordinates of the centre are

The equation

41

the

if

Of

course c must never be equal

must be less than unity.

or greater than,

to,

2, for cos.

If the circle be referred to oblique co-ordinates, the equation to the

radius

is

y'-b

and the equation

2/

2/

(x'a)

(41)

is

4- (jjjb) cos.

b)

(ay-arO

y /_fc)-+ ('_) cos. w

article 69 we have the equation
(

in

(V ~ &) (#' - 6 )

tangent

to the

and reducing as

(7/

a)

Co?

at

6) cos.

Cr - )

=r

o)

(#'

a)

4-

(a?

(51)

tangent

to the

) {y'-^b) cos. w

4-

(V

2
.

73* To find the polar equation to

the circle.

Let the pole be at the origin S, and

the angle P S
(= 0) be measured

from the axis of

x.

Let S

MP;

>

SN = o

and

NO=

SP-

j"

SO =

OSX";

Let
c, and angle
a,
(61) or by the figure yz=u sin. 0, x~u cos,
Substituting these values of x and

y"+ x2

we

2by -

2 ax

then by the formulas

a=zc

6,

cos.

oc,

and 6=^c

sin.

oc.

in the equation to the circle,

a?

= 0,

have

w2

(sin. #)

4-

w2 (cos.
c

or

u2

74.

and

2cu
or

be rectangular co-ordinates of

e)

(cos. )
{ sin.

c?/ sin.
2

4- c
sin.

2 cz^ cos.

(sin.

sin.

2
<x)

4- cos 9

(O-a)

r2

cu

cos. } 4- c

4- e

-r

cos.

oc

cos.0 4-

0,

0,

0.

If a and b are not expressed in terms of the polar co-ordinates

the polar equation is then of the form

a,

11*

- 2

{ b sin.

fl

cos.

4-

a2

4- &

rs

= 0.

DISCUSSION OF THE EQUATION OF

42

If the origin be on the circumference

we have a2

+a

=z 2 (b sin.

62

^r

and

there-

cos. 0)

= 0,

If the axis of x passes through the centre, 5

2au

u2

becomes

fore the equation to the circle

cos. 6

-\-

- r =^
5

a?

and the equation

Whence w = cos. V^2 &2 (sin.#)'2

may also be directly obtained from the

which equation

CHAPTER

is

0.

triangle

SPO,

Vie

DISCUSSION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION OP THE

SECOND ORDER.
The most

75.

ay*
where a

general form in which this equation appears

-\-

&c,

b, c,

oc

-\-

c x*

-\-

dy

_bj+e

On

a C

fzz

is

are constant coefficients.

Let the equation be solved with respect

r=

-\-

{ib ,_ Aac)y
_^_^
C

to

y and x

separately, then

+ 2Cbe _ 2cd)

+_ 4c/ }

( 2 ).

4/

account of the double sign of the root

in (1), there are, in general,

two values ofy; hence there are two ordinates corresponding to the same
abscissa: these ordinates maybe constructed whenever the values of a?
render the radical quantity real but if these values render it nothing, there
is only one ordinate, and if they make it imaginary, no corresponding ordinate can be drawn, and therefore there is no point of the curve corresponding to such a value of a?. Hence, to know the extent and limits of
the curve, we must examine when the quantity under the root is real,
;

nothing, or imaginary.

This

will

depend on the algebraical sign of the quantity

(#*

_ 4^ c

x2

2 (b d

2 a

e)

d2

4 af.

In an expression of this form, a value may be given to a?, so large that

the sio-n of the whole quantity depends only upon that of its first term, or
2
npon that of its coefficient W 4 ac since x is always positive for any
%

real value of x.

For,> writing:
o the expression in the form

absolute value of the greater of the two quantities

stitutin"

(<J

1) for

a?,

mm

x+
and ~
m

m ($ +

the expression becomes

) let

q be the

then sub-

THE SECOND ORDER.

,

2g+l
m q
m

m
71

which, whatever be the values of

43

+ -},
m)

7)

and

true for any magnitude greater

-,

is

and the same

positive,

is

hence the sign

r ;
than
of the expression depends upon that of m.
When b 2
is negative, real values may be given to x, either
positive or negative, greater than
r, which will render y imaginary.
The curve will then be limited in both the positive and negative directions of x.
When b 2 4 a c is positive, all values of x not less than
r will
render y real, and therefore the curve is of infinite extent in both direc-

4ac

tions of x.

when

Lastly,

4ac

is

under the root

the quantity

nothing,

becomes
2

(bd~-2ae) x

d*

4 af.

2 a e be positive, real positive values may be given to x,

which shall render y real ; but if a negative value be given to x greater
If b

than

2{bd-2ae)

,
'

y
*

is

imaginary
J>; therefore the curve
&

definite extent in the direction of

x positive and limited

be of

will

in-

in the opposite

direction.

2ae be negative, exactly opposite results will follow,

bd
the curve will be of indefinite extent in the direction of x negative
and limited in the opposite direction.
Taking equation (2) we should find similar results.
The curves corresponding to the equation of the second degree, may
But

that

if

is,

therefore be divided into three distinct classes.

1.

4 a

c negative,

4a

c positive,

4 a c nothing, curves limited in one direction,

mited in the opposite direction.

2.

3.

b*

76. First class b

b
-2
a

Let
and

let

==

curves limited in every direction.

curves unlimited in every direction.

but unli-

4 a c negative.

d
- _

62

I,

-4ac

4 a2

2a

fa

x x and x2 be the roots of the equation

(6

Then

4 a c) x 2

2 (b d

- 2 a e) x +

d*

- 4 a/=

0.

equation (1) or

bx + d

Ab 2 -4ac

bd-2ae

becomes by substitution
yz=:ccx

+
l

*/{-/*

O~^0 0~O}

d*-4af

b*

AaC

NEGATIVE.

.--- i-r

AY

the oblique axes.

Let A be the origin of co-ordinates, AX,
7
equation
the
by
represented
line
y = a x + J,
the
be
Let H B
one of its ordinates corresponding; to any value of x between x l and x2

Along the

(x #s)},

line

MO

take O P and O
and P' are two points

then

MP -MO + OP=
MF-MO - OF=

a?

c*tf

MO

each equal to

J{-

Or x )

/*

in the curve, for

+ + V i ~ f (*-^) 0~^)
+ Z- Vi"-/* (^-^i) <>~<^)
I

}
}

If we repeat this construction for all the real values of x which render
the root real we obtain the different points of the curve.

The
chords

HH

line

is

' which

called a diameter of the curve, for

are parallel to the axis of?/.

it

bisects all the

The reality of?/ depends on the reality of the radical quantity, which last
x 2 ), that is, on the
depends on the form of the factors (a? a^) and (x
roots x and x 2
Now these may enter the equation in three forms real
and unequalreal and equal or both imaginary.

Case
then

if

1.

x2
x AB'
Let x and r a be real and unequal, take A B
x or x2 the quantity /a (xx^) (x~-x 2 ) vanishes, and the orL

=:

ly

dinate to the curve coincides with the ordinate to the diameter, therefore
the
and B' IV parallel to
drawing through B and B' two lines
and R'.
curve cuts the diameter in

BR

AY

For
x

xl

all

(x x.2 )

values of a? between

and x

is

positive

is

positive.

x and x2
x

x2

<

>

there are two real values of. ?/, for

jjl (x
xj
and therefore

negative,

is

\i (x~x^) (x x ) is negative, the

x 2 or
xx
For all values of x
2
root being impossible cannot be constructed, hence there is no real value of
y corresponding to such values of #, and therefore the curve is entirely con-

fined between the

two

lines

BR

and

R'.

Similarly by taking equation (2) in (75),

line Q Q' is a diameter ; that the curve cuts

drawing lines
between those

parallel to

AX

through

we

shall find that a straight

two points Q, Q
that
and Q' the curve is confined
it

in

parallels.

We have thus determined that the curve exists and only exists between
its form is not yet ascertained.
certain parallel lines
We might by giving
:

&a

-*

ac NEGATIVE.

45

a variety of values to x between x x and x 2 determine a variety of points

P, Q, &c, and thus arrive at a tolerably exact idea of its course, but independently of this method, its form cannot much differ from that in the
figure, for supposing it to be such as in fig. (2) a straight line could be
drawn cutting it in more points than two which is impossible (71).

This oval curve

called the Ellipse*

is

AX

put y
require the points where the curve cuts
0, then the
5
are the abscissas of the points of
roots of the equation ex 2 -{-ex -\- fz=i
intersection, and the curve will cut the axis in two points, touch it in one,
If

we

or never meet it, according as these roots are real and unequal, real and
Similarly putting
find the points, if any,
equal, or imaginary.
where the curve meets the axis of y.

xcOwe

Case

Let the

2.

roots

x x and x 2 be real and equal,

I + (x Xj) v
/. y zz a x
x^ therefore the locus
imaginary except when x

which

whose co-ordinates
Case
x

or

I,

b2

and

4 ac

the point

is

bd

2cd2

fr

4c

be
a

x x)

1 .'
x*zh2px
1 and
#i) 0?-~O
p
q
4- cf which quantity is always positive for a real value
=i
(x
zhp)*
q
Hence in this case the radical quantity being impossible there is no
x.

dtp
p*
of

ocx x -

2ae

be impossible, then no real value can be given to

x 2) negative, for the roots are of the form
(x
<r 2

(a?

and

are x x

Let x and

3.

make

to

/.i

is

-f q "J

-j-

locus.

We

have not examined the equation of x in terms of y at length, for the

dependent on those of the former. By comparing
equations (1) and (2) in (75), we see that c stands in one equation where
a stands in the other, and therefore that the radical quantities are contemporaneously possible, equal, or impossible, provided that a and c have
2
the same sign, which is the case when b ~ 4ac is negative,

results of the latter are

In discussing a particular example reduce

it

to the

forms

+ l V{~~ h (* *i) C*-^)}

xa!y + V */{-p'(y-yd (y-y*)}

2/~ ax

there are then three cases.

Case 1. x and x 2 real and unequal. The locus is called an ellipse, its
boundaries are determined from x x x2i 3/i an ^ y* its diameters are drawn
I and x
ax
a! y -j- I', and its intersections with the axes
from y
in the original equation.
found by putting x and y successively
x

and x2

and equal

the locus

Case

2.

x\

Case

3.

x and x 2 impossible: the locus

Ex.

1.

AB=
Ex.

The

real

2
2/

2,

2.

4,

is a

point.

imaginary.

- 2 y - 4 x + 9 = 0. Case Fig.
A C = 4 - */T, A C - 4 + a/T, A H =

- ^ xy +

A B'=
2

is

2x

+ xy + x* +

1.

5" 0.

Case

AB'= - 3,AC =

ABr:

six points are sufficient to

determine

1.

2 J-,
curve cuts the diameters when
3, and it cuts the axes at distances 1 "7 and

A G' - These

1.

its

2*7

course.

nearly;

24-,

46

b*

Ex.

3.

Ex.

i/

4.

?/

Ex.

5.

3/

Ex.

6.

2/

a?

7.

It is to

that will

ac positive.

Case

2/

tersection of the diameters in

Ex.

+ 2 xy + 3x*-A.x~ 0. Case 1.
2 2?7/+3o? ~2z/ + 2 r=0. Case 1.
+ 12 = 0. Case 1.
-f-2a? -- 10
- 2 j?y + 3 x 2 - 10 x + 19 ~ 0.
-

4=xy

Ex.

+ 2y

2
a?

2.

The

in-

1.

4x

2 t=

0.

Case

3.

be observed that no accurate form of the curve is here found,

be hereafter ascertained, all that we can at present do, is to obtain

an idea of the situation of the locus.

Second

77.

class,

Arranging and substituting as

y
Let

H H'

a x -f

4a

c positive.

in (76) the equation

aJ {/x

becomes

(a? #0 (>-~a? 2 )}

be the diameter whose equation

is

= ax +

Then

as before there are three forms of the roots x x and

Case

1.

draw

R,

x2

=x
R and

^and AB'
2 be real and unequal, let
parallel to AY, the curve meets the diameter in

Let x x and

B'R

AB ^

<.r

2,

7i-r

The radical quantity is imaginary for all values of x between x x and

R'.
#2 but real beyond these limits, hence no part of the curve is between the
parallels B R, B' R', but it extends to infinity beyond them.

fr

4a c positive*

47

for x in terms of ?/, we may draw the diameter

Q' parallel to
between which
determine the lines C Q,
no part of the curve is found, and beyond which x is always possible.
From this examination it results that the form of the locus must be something like that in fig. 1, consisting of two opposite arcs with branches proceeding to infinity.
This curve is called the Hyperbola.
We must observe that the second diameter does not necessarily meet
the curve, for the contemporaneous possibility or impossibility of the radical
quantities depends on the signs of a and c, and these may be different in
the hyperbola ; so that one radical quantity may have possible and the

Taking the equation

QQ' and

AX

other impossible roots.

Case

2.

x l and x2 real and equal.

y
this is the

=z

cc

-f- 1

equation to two straight

Xy)

(x

vp

lines.

and x 2 imaginary whatever real values be given to x the

is real, and therefore there must be four infinite branches.
Also since \l (x x x ) (x x2 ) can never vanish, (76, Case 3.) the diameter
H H never meets the curve, but we may draw the other diameter as in
Case

3.

radical quantity
;

the first case.

If neither diameter meets the curve, yet they will at least determine
where the curve does not pass, we must then find the intersections with
the axes.
If these will not give a number of points sufficient to deterlocality of the curve we must have recourse to other methods
be explained hereafter.
In discussing a particular example reduce it to the forms

mine the
to

zz ax + l aJ
x^ody+v V

(xXj) (x x2)}

/a

{/*(y-#i) (y-y*)}

there are then three cases.

Case 1. x\ and x2 real and unequal. The locus is an hyperbola, its

boundaries determined from x x o?2 y and y 2 the diameters are drawn from
a! y + Z', and its intersections with the axes found
ax 4- I and x
y
by putting x and y separately equal nothing.
Case 2. x x and x2t real and equal. The locus consists of two straight
lines which intersect each other.
Case 3, x l and x2 impossible. The locus is an hyperbola, draw the
,

diameters, and find the intersection,

any, of the curve with either dia-

if

meter and with the axes.

Ex.

1.

y*

Sxy +

x2

Case

0.

1.

Fig.

1.

The

origin being

at the intersection of the dotted lines.

The

equations to the diameters are

AB ~ -

,AC'=

\/ 5

Sx
and y =
= -
2

^ACV
5

+ 2=

2x

AB'=

V5

a/ b

1.
The two diameters pass
through the origin and make an angle of 45 with the axes, the second
1 the curve inter1 and
Q Q' never meets the curve,

Ex.

2.

y*

2 xy

Case

0.

AB-

AB'^

sects

the axis of x at distances

2.

&9

48

Ex.
Ex.
Ex.

4y B

3.

^a
y

4.

to

a??/

2#- 1=
y

2 z*

- Axy

os

Ex.

6.

2/2

Ex.

7.

Ex.

8.

2/

0,

4#y 3a? + 8 3/-+4,r+16 = 0. Case 1.

5a? - 2y + 40* - 26 = 0. Case 1.
6
+ 8 x -f 2 x 1 0. Case 2. The equations
the two straight lines are y 4 x + 1 = 0, and

4o?y

5.

4ac

a?

3x

+ 10

<%

0.

2/

+
-

os

+ =

Case

0.

2.

= 0.

Case 3. Fig-.
Case 3. Fig. 3.

0.

a?

2/

+1=

a;

10

2.

Here neither diameter meets the curve but the curve passes through
the origin and cuts the axis of x at a distance 1, and that of y also at
1.
a distance
0.
Case 3.
x 2 - 2 y -f 5 a? - 3
Ex. 9. ?/ 3
are parallel to the axes, but the curve never meets that
diameters
The
;

diameter whose equation

2

Ex. 10.

2/

#*

2/

is

Case 3

=-'

Third

78.

5
-.

1=1

Class,

b*

4 ac

0.

In this case the general equation becomes

fea

2/= ~

+d
h

Let
let

2a~

And

Tr"
2a VI

2a

~"

"'

2(6d ~ 2e)
_^

"
~2a~

bd

7
'

be the root of the equation

d2
2 a e) a?
2 (6 d

+d

a/}

(1)

ae

2^

'

cr

/= 0.

Substituting equation (1) becomes

The

locus of

2/

a^

jc

+ V{
Z

is

a diameter

(^~^i)}
H H' as

before.

v be positive, then if o; = r
B xl
the root vanishes ; or if
be drawn parallel to
and

Let

BR

A Y,
R.

in

.od, 2/

the curve cuts the diameter

As r increases from x Y to
increases to qd, hence there

R Q, RQ'

extending
x be less than #., y is
impossible, or no part of the curve
extends to the negative side of B.
s
Let v be negative, then the A
side
results are contrary, and the curve only extends on the negative
this case is represented by the dotted curve.
of B
This curve is called the Parabola.
are

two arcs

to infinity. If

If'bd-2ae

0,

ax

d2

af

y//(\^i
,

as
and the locus consists of two parallel straight lines; and, according
_ 4 a f s positive, nothing, or negative, these lines are both real, or
unite into one, or are both imaginary.
In discussing a particular example, reduce it to the form
y.7z ax ^l
a/{v (>~^i)}

cs

THE CENTRE.
Case

Case

and
v

2.

one straight
Ex.

The

v positive or negative.

1.

the diameter
meter.

The

0.

==r

or

locus

called

is

a"

parabola; draw

where the curve cuts the axes and dia-

find the points

line,

49

locus consists of two parallel straight lines, or

imaginary.

is

y*~2xy + x*~2y - 1 =0. Case J.

~~ 2xy + x* -< 2y - 2# = 0.
Case 1.
,y* + 2xy + x + 2y +
+ 3 = 0. Casel.
y* 2xy + x - 1 = 0. Case 2. Two parallel

1.

Ex.2.

2/

Ex.3.

a?

Ex.

4.

Ex.

5.

Ex.

6.

fa
?/

79. Before

2xy

2x y

we

+'2y -

-|- a;

#9

2j?+1=='o; Case

=0.

-f 1

leave this subject,

it

straight lines.

One

2.

straight line.

Imaginary locus.

Case

2.

may

be useful to recapitulate

the.

results obtained from the investigation of the general equation

a y2
If b

lowing
1.

circle.

2.
3.

4ac

x2

dy

an

is

+ /= 0.
admitting of the

ellipse

fol-

:<

and

a,

xy

be negative, the locus

varieties

cosine of the angle between the axes, locus a

(72.)

- 2a e){bd 2aeY
(bcl

(6

4 a

c)

(d 2

less than

(7/

4 af).

4ac) (d 2

Locus

a point.

Locus ima-

4a/).

ginary.

If b 2

4 a

be

positive, the locus is

an hyperbola admitting of one

variety.
1.

(b

2 ae) 2

(b*

4 cc) (d

4 a/).

Locus two

straight

lines.

Lastly, if7> 2
4
following varieties,

1.

2.

bd

3.

ac

2 ae =. 0.

2 a e =:
2 a

0,

rz 0,

= 0,

the locus

Locus two
and

2
c

and d 2

a parabola admitting of the

parallel straight lines.

4 af
less

is

0.

than 4 a/.

Locus one

straight line.

Locus imaginary.

Apparently another relation between the coefficients would be obtained

each variety, by taking the equation of x in terms of y but on examination, it will be found that in each case the last relation is involved in

in

the former.

;.

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

50

CHAPTER

VII

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION OF THE

SECOND ORDER
In order

80.

investigate the properties of lines of the second order

to

we proceed to reduce the general equation to a more

simple form, which will be effected by the transformation of co-ordinates.
Taking the formulas in (54.)
more

conveniently,

y
and substituting
(Y + n T
(^ + m) + /

z y' -f n, and

in the general equation,

+ b 0^+ )
=

+ n)

(y'

a?

z=z

-\-

we have

(V

m) 2

d (y

n)

or arranging

a
x

y' 2

-\-

a n2

y'+

2
oc'

bmn +

-{

a n

(2

+ b m + d) y +
+ emfO.
f

ciTfl-t-dn

(2 c

m+

As we have introduced two indeterminate quantities, m and 7?, we

make two hypotheses respecting the new co-efficient's in

at liberty to

last equation

2 a

.*.

whence we

therefore, the co-efficients of x !

let,

-f b

/i,by

,.

iind

The value of the

4-

elimination,

constant term, or /',

===

are

the

0.

2cm+b + e-0;

and

0,

2ae bd

,.

and y each

e)

may be

and

?i

2cdbe

obtained from the equa-

tion,

f'zzan

or, since

-J- cZ ?i

c ra

& n2

of these two equations by

m + /=
-\-

0,

and the second by f 2

tz,

we have

and, adding the results,

7i

and 2

0,

cZ

first

2 a

mn + cm

m -f- =

2 a n -f b

Multiply the

~)r

m n 4-

2 b

b rn

2c

-\- c

m +
2

+ em =
+ era

dn

<i tz

r^

hence/' =3

by the

substitution

+ e m +/ =
of the values of m and n, becomes
nr _ a & + c d b d e
+

tf ?i

The reduced equation

a y>*

is

now

& #'

of the form

y+

c lt /2

/'

0.

-~
2

+/, which,

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

81. The point A, which is the
the centre 'of the curve, because

every chord passing- through

new

origin

of co-ordinates,

it is

51
is

called

"\p

For the
last equation remains the same
when x and y are substituted for 4- x and -f y
hence,
bisected in that point.

every point P in the curve,

whose co-ordinates are x and y,
there is another point P', whose
co-ordinates are
x and
y, or
M' and M' P' hence, by comparing the right angled triangles,
P, A M' P', we see that the
vertical angles at
are equal, and
is a straight line bisected in A.
therefore, the line P A
Whenever, therefore, the equation remains the same on the substitution
of x and y for 4- x and -j- y respectively, it belongs to a locus
for

AM

referred to

its

centre.

If the equation be of an even order, this condition will be satisfied if

the sum of the exponents of the variables in every term be even ; thus, in
b xy
c a 2 4- d y 4*
the general equation of the second order, a y 2
e x -\0, the sum of the exponents in each of the three first terms
is 2, and in the two next terms is 1; changing the signs of -a? and y, the
equation does not remain the 'same ; or for one point P, there is hot
another point P' opposite and similarly situated with respect to the origin ;
hence that origin is not the centre of the curve. But the equation a y*

f=

+f=

0, refers just as much to the point P' as to P,

here the centre of the curve.
If the equation be of an odd order, the sum of the exponents in each
term must be odd, and the constant term also must vanish for if both
these conditions are not fulfilled, the equation would be totally altered by
putting x and
x and 4- y respectively. Therefore a locus
y for

4- b x y
and thus

x2

the origin

is

may

be referred to a centre if it be expressed by an equation which, by

transformation, can be brought under either of the two following conditions

(1) Where the sum of the indices of every term

be a constant or not, as a y 2 -f* b x y 4- c x 2 4"
(2) Where the sum of the indices in every term

is

f=

even, whether there

0.

is odd, and there is no

0
constant term, as a y z -\- b x y2 4* c x2 y -j- d x 3 -j- e V ^ x
Now it has been stated (59) that no equation can be so transformed
that the new equation shall be of a lower or higher degree than the oriHence, if the original equation be of an even degree, the
ginal one.
transformed equation will be so too, and the locus can be transferred to a
centre only where the equation can be brought under the first condition ;
but if the original equation be of an odd degree, the transformed equation
also will be of an odd degree, arid the locus can only be transferred to a
centre when the equation can be brought under the second condition.
Hence we have a test, whether a locus with a given equation can be
If the axes can be transferred so that (1) The
referred to a centre or not.
original equation being of an even degree, the co-efficients of all the terms,
the sum of whose exponents is odd, vanish.
(2) The original equation
being of an odd degree, the coeflicients of all the terms, the sum of whose

f =

E2

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

52

exponents is even, and also the constant term, vanish, then the locus may
be referred to a centre, and not otherwise.
Now in the transformation which we effect by making y y' + ?i, and
x '== x + m, we can destroy only two terms; we cannot therefore bring,
by any substitution, an equation of higher dimensions than the second
under the necessary conditions, unless from some accidental relation of
But in the case of equations of
the original co-efficients of that equation.
the second degree, we can always bring them under the first condition,
and n, are found to
unless the values of the indeterminate quantities,
be impossible or infinite.
and n are
In curves of the second order, we see that the values of
consequently the ellipse and hyreal and finite, unless 6 2
perbola have a centre and the parabola has not ; hence arises the division
of these curves into two classes, central and non-central.
0, and at the same time 2 a e b d
In the case where b 2 4 a c
or 2 c d b e vanish, the equation becomes that to a straight line, as
appears on inspecting the equations (1) and (2) in (75).
should vanish, the equation beIf by the transformation the term
2
whence
;
comes of the form a y* -f b x y + c x

4ac=0;

f =

={-

lines
is

V 6* -

4 a c

and the curve

which pass through the centre

or

if 6

is

reduced

4 etc

two straight

to

negative, the locus

is

the centre itself (25).

82. The central class

may have their general equation still further reduced' by causing the term containing the product of the variables to
Taking
vanish, which is done by another transformation of co-ordinates.
the formulas in (58) let
Let

~
=

y'

x"

fl

substituting in the equation ay'

a(x''smJ"ty' f cos $f
.*.

2/"

{a

2 a

(cos. 0) 2

or {a

cos.

cos.

c)

0+6

cos.

cos.

cos.

sin.

cos. 0,
sin. 0,

+f=

ex' 2

we have

0,

c (sin. 0) 2 }

a/'

{a

(sin. 0) 2

2 c

sin.

c (cos. 0) 2
}

b (sin. 0) 2

0cos. 0}

0,

6 (sin. 0) 2c sin. 6 cos. 0-0,

0+6 {(cos. 0) - (sin. 0) } = 0,
2

(a

we have

0,

+
+

(cos. 0) 2

c) sin. 2

tan. 2

Here

x yf

(cos. 0) 2

x f/ y ,f

0+6

.".

and dividing by

-f-

cos.

b sin.

co-efficient of

sin.

y"

cos.

+ x''y"{2as'm.
+ /' = 0.
/.

-f

b(x"sind -{"y ff cosJ)(x"cos J y%mJ)+c(x"cosJ ~-y im\.0) 2 +ff 0

-{-

b sin.

Let the

ff

sin.

0=

-f 6 cos. 2

the angle which the new axis of x makes with the original
hence, if the original rectangular axes be transferred through

is

one (58)

an angle

0,

such that tan. 2

the transformed equation

will

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

53

have no term containing the product x ff y ff , that is, the equation, when
referred to its new rectangular axes, will be reduced to the simple form
a' 2/"

As a tangent

c'

f>

+f~0.

to oo , posicapable of expressing all values from

has always a real value, whattive or negative, it follows that the angle
ever be the values of , b, and c, and thus it is always possible to destroy

83.

is

the term containing xy.

The values of sin. 2

and

are thus obtained from that of

cos. 2

tan. 2 0;

cos,

V +
And

ey

(tan. 2

= cos. 2

sin.

0. tan.

+
t

^2

V(a ~0* +

cy

0=

V
t

- cf +

(a

62

must be less than 90, and therefore sin. 2 Q positive, the sign
Since
of the radical quantity must be taken positive or negative, according as
b is itself negative or positive.
84. To express the co-efficients a' and c of the transformed equation
in terms of the co-efficients in the original equation.
Taking the expressions for the co-efficients in article (82) we have
f

a'

t=2

c' t=i

/.

a (cos.

0)

b sin.

cos.

2
-f c (sin. 0)

Of

b sin.

cos.

(sin.

^-c^a{(cos.0)

c (cos. 0)

2
,

-(sin.O) }-26sin.0cos.0+c{(sin.0) 2 (cos.0) 8 }

c cos. 2
b sin. 2
rr a cos. 2

=
bul. cos.

20

(a

V (a

c)

c) cos.

<0

b sin. 2

and

~"

0=

sin.

V (

2
.

c)

+6

hence substituting, we have

/

(*

cf

,sl~(a

c)

(a

""

(a

+
c)

V O^T) +

&*

2
'

+ &
c) + 6
or a'
d = V (a
Also a' -f c =: a +
.\ a' = I {a + c V(a~c) -f 6 .}
"^ "?}
c' =:
J {a + c qpV(a - c)
c)

c,

Hence

the final equation

The upper

is

or lower sign to be taken all

as the sign of b in the original equation

is

through

this article, according;

negative or positive

6t

'

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

54

85. Hitherto in this chapter we have been making- a number of alterations in the form of the original equation: the following figures will show
the corresponding alterations which have been made in the position of

The ellipse is used in the figure, in preference to the hyperthe curve.

bola solely on account of its easier description.
y'

-,//

Y
x

fA-y

U)

Fig. 1. We have here the original position of the curve referred to

angular axes
and
Y, and the corresponding equation is

AX

a y2
Fi.

The

2.

rect-

origin

xy'

is

-\-

x2

A', the co-ordinates of which are

The new axes A' X' and A'

equation to the curve

-\>

dy + ex + f ==

here transferred from

bd

ae

b2

0.

to the centre of the curve

Aac'

and n
~"~
'"

cci

62

be

Aac

are parallel to the former axes 5

and the

is

ay'*

b x'y'

/2

+/
/

0.

Fig. 3. The origin remains at A', but the curve is referred to the new
;/
rectangular axes A'X" and A'
instead of the former ones A'_X'
and A' Y'. The axis A' X' has been transferred through an angle X' A' X"
;/
into the position
the angle X' A' X", or 0, being determined. by the
,

A X
r

= " c

equation tan, 2

and the equation

to the

curve

is

now

tt

a'y"*+ c'x"*+f

0,

word "

axis" is used in a limited

86. In the ellipse and hyperbola the
sense to signify that portion of the central rectangular axis which is

bounded by the

curve.

,f
successively s= 0, we
a?" and y
then obtain the points where the curve cuts the axes, or, in other words,
we have the lengths of the semi-axes.
In the equation
a'y"* + c x" 2
0,

To

find the lengths of the axes, put

Let y"
Let x"
In
id,

fig.

A'

0,

a'y" s

3, the semi-axes are

^/

+f =

+f =

0,

and

oc'

+f -

0,

and

J/"

A'C and A' B,

putting for

a', c',

so that A'

and/',

y- -/'

their values in

terms

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION,

55

of the original co-efficients (80, 84) we have the squares upon the semiaxes both comprehended in the formula,

fa

+cV

cV
+ (-j^ =i

-7y
Then,

if

+ c d bde
b*-4ac

y' ls

+/'

(a-cy + bA

Let the equation a'

be written in the form

0,

the curve

or, since b zz

is

an

we must have

ellipse,

we must have

in the present case,

4#c

negative,
f

c
a
~
and -^ both positive

and therefore

negative,

a and d

thus both axes meet

the curve, (the case where both

an imaginary locus).

and therefore
values,

If the curve

-^

are negative,

an hyperbola,

is

must be

Ty )

and the other

positive,

would give

4 a

c is positive,

or

one of the

positive,

negative

hence,

one of the axe in the hyperbola has an impossible value, and therefore
does not meet the curve.
The relative lengths of the axes will depend entirely on the magnitude o*
a!

and

j.

87. Hitherto the original co-ordinates have been rectangular, but if they
were oblique, considerable alterations must be made in some of the

formulas.
Articles 80 and 81 are applicable in all cases, but 82, 83, and 84, must
be entirely changed ; the method pursued will be nearly the same as in
but on account of the great length of some of the
the more simple case
operations, we cannot do more than indicate a few steps, and give the
;

results *.

To

destroy the co-efficient of the term containing the product of the

variables, take the formulas in (55)

ce" sin.

y"

sin.
,

_
"~

-x" sin.

sin. 0'

(<o-6)

+ y'

sin, (to

sin. w.

Substituting in the equation ay'

(sin.

6'f

b sin.

$' sin. to

b xf

0'

f
-f*

ex' 2

c (sin,

+ f 'sa
1

uT^Tf

a/'

(sin. 0)

b sin. 6 sin.

oi

-0 +

c (sin.

'

0)

article,

and the following ones marked with an

at the first reading of the subject.

asterisk,

we have

(sm. w)

1
J

* This

0,

(s^ 11

co

had better be omitted

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

56

ff

x y"\\2 a
2 c

sin.

u>

0. sin.

i
>

co-efficient of\v

dividing by cos.

(0

b cos.

{ tan.

c (cos.

tan. 0'}

0. tan.

0, sin.

{ 6

c cos.

and

0'

} sin. w.

0.
r

a value of

and consequently of

number of

that there are an infinite

curve be referred,

now examine

Let us

2 tan.

value of

-*>

the

sin.

Whence for any given

0) may be found, so
if

expanding

w) 2

c (sin. w) 2

shall obtain the equation

axes to which

= 0;

y ff

w-0'

sin.

= o.

+jr

b sin.

we

0'

cos

0.

f!

(sm. w)

Let the

w-0 +

sin. 0. sin. 0' -f b sin. 6' sin.

its

may assume

equation

pairs of

the form

these pairs of axes, to find what systems can be

rectangular:

For

purpose

this

we must have

6'

- and therefore

tan. Q 1 =s

tan. 9

By substituting
tan.

0',

2 {a

b cos.

--

sin. w.

and

this value of tan. 0' in the equation containing tan.

we have

[-

c (sin. a>)

iv

w)

-f c (cos.

{2c

cos.

6 }

0.

tan.

c sin. 2
.'.

tan. 2

&

6 cos.

6 sin.

iv

c cos. 2

tu

separated from
two angles which have got the same tan. 2
There
each other by 180, therefore there are two angles 0, which would satisfy
the above equation ; however, as they are separated by an angle of 90,
rf
the second value only applies to the new axis of y
Hence there is only owe system of rectangular axes, and their position
is fully determined by the last formula.
*88. To find the co-efficients a' and c in terms of the co-efficients of the
Taking the
original equation, the new axes being supposed rectangular.
are

co-efficients

6f

a' (sin.

in

transformed equation given above, putting

the general

7T

(sin.

{-

w)

w)

:. (a!

0,

=
~

and multiplying by

a
a

(cos. 0)
(sin. 0)

c') (sin.

sin. 0sin.

r=

a cos. 2

=r {

6 cos.

w)

6 cos.

b sin.

=a

0'}

5 cos. (w

have,
2

-\-

io

oj

c{(cos.

0)

-(sin.w

2 0) + ccos. (2 w 2 0)

c cos. 2

w}

cos.

20

Also, following the method in (83)

cos.

we

Q c (cos. w 0)
sin. w
+ c (sin. - 0)'
<9) (sin. 0) } 6 {cos.
cos.
cos.

{(cos.

w) 2 ,

(sin.

-f c cos.
= a b cos. &M
7-iCr

we

'.

and

sin.

from tan. 2
_

=
'

csin. 2

-j-

0) }

w 6 sin. cS)

(csin. 2
find

to

sin.

9.

that

/;sin.

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

M= V
or = ^

Where

{ '(a

Hence (a -c
f

and

(a'

w) a .=

) (sin.

(sin.

c')

-f-

+ ^ .+

c*

2 b

6 cos. w)

(a

(6

-Jr

c ) cos

4 a c)

2flC cos 2 w }.
"

(sin. to)

1
j-

w) 2 zn a

b cos.

.'.

a'

{1

b cos.

+ cM

and

c'

==

{1

6 cos.

Hence the

57

c ^f

-f c
^-7-:
r
2 (sin. (oy2

}
J

M
2

w) 2

(sin.

final equation is

d2

&

de

-:

'

+/

fx

6 sin. w is positive
the
sign is to be used according as c sin. 2 w
or negative, since 2
is assumed to be positive.
These analytical transformations may be geometrically represented as in
In figures (I), (2), and (3) we must suppose the axes AX, AY,
(85).
and also the axes A'X' and A' Y', to contain the angle w.

And

The article (86) will equally apply when the original axes are oblique;
the value of the square on the semi-axis is,

(sin.

uy

w +~c

b cos.

/ ae2

"

-{-

c d*

b*

bde

4~ac

We

89.
shall conclude the discussion of the central class by the application of the results already obtained to a few examples.

The original axes rectangular,

+ buy + c/ + dy +
u

aif

ex

jf=

= + m formulas to be used.
2cd-be
2ae-bd
m = -777
(2), = -77
x

>

x'

_.

/'

+rem- +/= ae
d?i

3/'l

v
^

6a?

=
=y

V+

a/' sin.
,,
;

a*

cos.

(1)

ca/

tan.

62

/'

cd?

bde

+/ W

"=TT^C

(3)

5
( )

,.
,
V h cos. 0)> formulas
,
j
to be used,
fl
SU1 e )
7/
,

0==

(6)

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

58

+ cM}

i-{

a! ==

M^

^/ (a

c)

+ c T m}

/=-!{ a

(7)

6%

according as 6

(- f >< -7) *=>

(8)

is -f

(2) and (3) determine the situation of the centre, and together with (4)
reduce the equation to the form (5) ; (6) determines the position of the
rectangular axes passing through the centre, (7) and (8) enable us to
and the co-efficients of
reduce the equation to its most simple form (9)
y" 2 and a/' 2 inverted are respectively the squares upon the semi- axes
!f
measured along the axes of y ff and x \
:

Ex.

1.

xy +

m=

.'.

y
1

/'

-2

~ 90 and = 45

6>

'a

zz and

a'

and

.\

M= +

jf

or

& is negative,

>

c'

locus an ellipse.

n x'y'+ x n -~ 2

y
tan. 2

<&

and

a?"

t^

The squares on
selves are

-~

the semi-axes are

hence the semi-axes tnem4

ana

and therefore the lengths

ot the axes are 4

and

V3
Ex.

2.

~-z=..

V3

3y*

4,

3/

The reduced equation

is

5/

-f

a;

/2

-f a/'

9
-s0;
10

1.

The

locus an ellipse.

axes are 2 and

V
Ex.

3.

f+

+^-

a?

The reduced equation

Ex.

4.

by 2

m=

+ 6xy +
2,

71

. '

tan. 2 6 ~z 00

is

*/'

8
a?

3/

4x + 3 =

- 22y

/=
,a

2/

- - y f,2 ~h ~~

/.,

1,

- 2

6a?

^
29

- +/=dn

a?'2/

-\-

em

a?

/s

x r/2 r=l.

- 0;
-

locusan

ellipse,

6 s= 45; hence the formulas of transformation are

J and

T
V2.

a/ ==

-=L %

V2

locus an ellipse.

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

.

-| (*

y"y

_-^- + - <y - y y -8^0

Ex.

5.

Ex.

6.

2/

2#

or 4 #"
2
5 < - 12 ^

2/

<2

y~y +n
2

<y + ?i)

=4

a?"

2y 2 +x +&y 2x 6=0;

12

(a/+ m) 2

-f

m =

and
1
Let 71+1
hence the transformed equation

(y'

locus an ellipse.

m~l

.\

and no further transformation

+m -f 4 --2m--6=
2

7i= 1

and
9

The

is requisite.

axes are 6 and 3^2.

3/

sj/2,

the axes are each

9.

The

origin

that which

measured along the new

is

meeting the curve.

axis of a:" alone

Ex.

//2

~~

Ex.8.

xy

--

<x

2 = 0;

locus an hyperbola.

already at the centre, and thus only one transformation

is

necessary.

*90.

The

0=1. \

M^J

0=45;

8,

c'-~V 2

a'~ A/2,

>

f^W

is

2-

The axes

oblique.
values of w, w, and /' remain as for rectangular axes.
6 sin. w
c sin. 2 w
tan.

a'

z=i

c'

~
2

1.

?/

-~

b cos.

{1

h cos.

w 4-

+xy +

c2

asc
a?

sin.

e cos.

M}
M}

2 6 (a

c) cos.

2w-6 sin w
=

2/ 4- a?

co

..

'

rr
^ ,
2 (sin w) 2

c =p

'

b2

b cos.

20-

\1

M = V {a +
Ex.

and /'== ,9;

is

0.

10 xy + x + y + x+l=z0; locus an hyperbola.

6y"
4o?
-f-0.
4?/ -8tr^-4o? 42/ + 28o; 15 = 0; locus an hyperbola.
2

7.

tan.

is

+ w) - 2 (a/ + m) 6 ~

2y ,2 +x f2

Here

-0

locus an ellipse.

2
(n+1) 3/'+ 2 (m~l) tf'+2?i

2
2
or 2?/' -{-a/ -{-4

Ex.

sj

and xzzcc'+m, hence the transformed equation

Let

59

is

r^
(sin. (w)

2 a

c cos.

2 w}.

.
the angle

between the

axes being 45.

m^ _

i_ n
3

tan.3 0?3l

-,3e==45;M=s + (l- V

2).

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

60

The reduced

equation

is

3(2 The

curve

is

an

Ex.

2.

2/

16

a?

+(2 + V2)*""-

1.

and the squares upon the semi-axes are

ellipse,

and

-V2)

3 (2
2

/'2)y w

7i

a
s 0,
f

V2

2 -f

16 a* -f 32

28

_ + / =

2/

64

a?

The angle

0.

60.

m
The form

r=

i-

2,

jp/

of the equation

a
7 y'

0^

16

is

=:

dn + em

36.

now

a/

2/'

16

a/

36

reduction to rectangular axes is effected by merely

60,
0, and
transferring the axis of y' through 30 ; hence, putting
the formulas (56) of transformation become
since tan. 2

0, the

?/
J

2y"
=-,
V

and

a?'

#";/

y"
-~=.

V3

Substituting these values in the last equation,

4y"*

Hence
Ex.

16

a?" a

-36 =

it

becomes

0;

the axes of the ellipse are 3 and 6.

f 3 y + +1=0; the angle w = 60.

= 30; M = +
m = 0, n = 0, tan. 2 = V 3,
' = 5, c =
^>f = ^ and the reduced equation
B

3.

on

d?

is

4.

is

The curve

'

first

w=

an hyperbola, of which the axes are 2

V3

of these, which is" the greatest, is measured along the

axis never meets the curve.

and

new

tne

axis of #"

The second

91. It was observed, at the end of art. 81, that the curves corresponding to the general equation of the second order were divided into two
classes, one class having a centre or point such that every chord passing
through it is bisected in that point, and another class having no such
This fact was ascertained from <the inspection of the
peculiar point.
and n introduced into the
values of the two indeterminate quantities
equation by means of the transformation of co-ordinates, and for the
purpose of destroying certain terms in the general equation. The values
of
and n were found to be infinite, that is, there was no centre when
the relation among the three first terms of the co-efficients of the general
0.
equation was such that b* 4 a c
being characteristic of the parabola, it
This relation 6 2
4 a c
follows that the general equation of the second order belonging to a
parabola is not capable of the reduction performed in art. (80) ; that is,
we cannot destroy the co-efficients of both x and y, or reduce the equation

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

8

a?
.

form a y

to the

+ / ==

x y

+ /=

x2

0, or, finally, to the

61

ay +
2

form

0.

Although, however, we cannot thus reduce the parabolic equation, we

it to a very simple form, in fact to a much more
simple form than that of either of the above equations. This will be
effected by a process similar to that already used for the 'general equation,
only in a different order.
We shall commence by transferring' the axes
through an angle 0, and thus destroy two terms in the equation, so
we shall
that it will be reduced to the form ay 2 ~t-dy +
then transfer the axes parallel. to themselves, and by that means destroy
two other terms, so that the final equation will be of the form

are yet able to reduce

ex+f=:0;

ay
92. Taking the formulas

y zn x

-j- e

0.

in (58), let

sin.

-f-

x' cos.

y
y

cos.
sin.

ubstituting these values in the general equation

\.nd

+ ex+f^O,

ay^ + bxy-^-cx^-hdy
arranging, we obtain the equation

a (cos. Of

6 sin.

+c

(sin.

6(sin.0)

0f\

Let the

2c

-\-

-\-

a (sin.

0)'

b sin. cos.

-j-

x'

c) sin

or (a

if Jf .'/sin.
-\-e cos.

c/cos. 6

sin,0

&

.*'+/=<)

=
+

c) sin.

6 {(cos.
0.

0=

6>)

6 cos.

if

-\-

c(cos. $y

cos.

and
Hence,

sin. 6 cos. 6

co-efficient of x' y'

2 (a

./.

-f 2 a sin. 6 cos. d
2
b (cos. 6)

cos. 0|

(sin. 0)

2
}.

0,

0,

tan. 2

~,

as in (82.)

the axes be transfered through an angle

such that tan. 2

the transformed equation will have no term containing the product

of the variables

that

is, it will
2

-f

2/'

c' x>*

be of the form

d'

-\- e

+/=

0.

equation belongs to a parabola, the relation among

But,
general conthe co-efficients of the three first terms must be such that the
f
0, we must
holds good. In this case, since b
4 a c z=z
dition b 2
that is, the transhave -4tt'c'=0; hence either a' or c' must
formation which has enabled us to destroy the co-efficient of the term
H
2
containing x' y will of necessity destroy the co-efficient of either x' or y
cothe
of
values
the
And this will soon be observed upon examining
h
h
efficients of x and
since this last

93.
let b

Let the

co-efficient b in the original equation

= 2Vac

be negative, that

From

tan. 2 9

is,

we have

cos,

Vl

(tan. 2 0)

Vu(

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

62

a c ~

must be

since sin. 2

hence

V/

and

positive,

+ cos. 2

/
4( 1

V~

-\*

and

sf

'

transformed

in the general

cos.

-J

a-f-c

4~ c

c -f- c

*=;

-f-

a + 2 a

c c

^a

2 a c

4- c

-4-

a -f

c.

+/=

0.

-f- c

e *J c

va +
d.

a
b

a-f~ c

+ e a/ a
+c

c
/

V #

And
,

the transformed equation

it

article,

(a

,
/2

(a -f c)

2/

now

is

J pz=P
v a + c

~- e
c
*f
L-

2/

*J c
,

+ e-11Ja
a + c

is manifest that if b had been positive

the reduced equation would have been

c)

+y~ -y +
v #

x f2

the

all

94. In order to reduce the equation

parallel to themselves

*'

way through

^4-/=

,-^

V#

4* c

a?"

r,

we have
a a

And

b is itself negative

Substituting- these values of sin.

sin &
<, u

co s. 2

sin.

equation,

and
anu

-~c\
V/_ + aT" - \//_ <//~~V~.

= ,//I - ~

cos.

and

a
==

>

this

0.

4- c

lower, let us transfer the axes

r
!f
y 4- n and x ^s

still

by means of the formulas y'

4- wi (54.)

2
then the equation a! y'

' (y"

or a

And

%j

m+

+ ") +

d' y' 4-

(2 a'

<*'
!

e'

xf

+ *) +

G/"

f ~f

x"

/=

-f-

(x"

4" a'

we have two independent

2
7i

becomes

+/^o,
4-

d n
f

-f

e'

H-

/ = 0.

m and n, we

can make
two hypotheses respecting them let, therefore, their values be such that
the co- efficient of y and the constant term in the equation each
since

quantities,

that

is, let

2 a' n

4- d! == 0,

whence

?i

and a r?
f

d'
r

and

-h d<

wi

n
d'

4- e
a

2 a'

and the reduced equation

is

now

a!

,f

of the form
e

x ,!

zz

-f

-- 4 a'
r-r--

a'

e'

/=

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

and
e'

it is

if b had been positive, the equation

would have been reduced to the form

manifest that

+f

~=z

= 0,
d
d xm
and n would be found from

c'

63

xn

&' \j

> f
f

where the values of m

m -- _

'

an(j

/2

the equations

4 c'f

71

c'

c d'

95. The following- figures will exhibit the changes which have taken
place in regard to the 'position of the locus corresponding to each analytical

change in the form of the equation

X*

Y
X'

X'
U)

X
In

fig.

1,

the equation

angle

fig. 2,

the curve

referred to rectangular axes A.

is

and

Y, and

X',

Y', the

20

is

a
In

(A

(*)

if"

4" b

x y

2
cc

dy

a?

+ / =^

the axes are transferred into the position

XAX

or 6 being determined

the corresponding equation

a'

is,

by the equation

0.

tan.

for b negative,

y'

+/=

6.

If Z> is positive, the curve would originally have been situated at right
angles to its present position, and the reduced equation would be
2
c a/
f

d<

x'

ef

+ f ==

0.

In fig. 3, the position of the origin is changed from A to

ordinates] of A' being measured along A X' and A Y', and
determined by the equations
df

for b negative,

for b positive,

m=

and

The reduced equation

m~

d fi

a' e'

and n
4

c'

the co-

off

A',

their values

c'

c'

d'

is

for b negative,

a y f/2

for b positive, c'

xm

-J- d'

ff

== 0.

y" =s

0.

96*. If the original axes are oblique, the transformation of the general
equation must be effected by means of the formulas in (55). The values
of a, b', and c will be exactly the same as in (87).
We may then let b' ^r 0, and also find tan. 2 when the axes are reetf

See Note, Art.

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

64

angular, whence, as in (87), we shall find that there is but one such
system of axes.
The same value of which destroys the term in x xj will, as in (93),
n
f2
also destroy the term in oc or y ; hence the reduced equation will be
f

2w-6 sin, w positive, a!

for csin.

for c sin. 2

To

97.

b sin.

find the values of

y' 2

negative,

to

d!

-V

x' 2 -f d' y'

+f=

d x'
d x* +'/ =

0.

0.

and d.

a!, d, d',

values of ' and c 7 are best deduced from those in art. (88),
Since 6 2
4 a c =? 0, we have for c sin. 2 w 6 sin/ w positive

The

:=

6 cos. w,'+ c

a =: {
1

6 cos.

cos. 2

b cos.

a - b

cos.

=
.

7/

Also

d'

cos. 6

and

e'

sin. 6

e sin.

6 cos.

^/

(o>

sin.

(d

__

Vc

e cos. to)

a'y'
c sin. 2

c (cos.

b cos.

w) 2 } e

j,

a'

6 a/

6 sin.

now

is

a'

t=.

d'y

(a

cos. 6

w) 2

{a

6 cos.

4- c
}

b cos.

-j-

c (cos.

w) 2 }

of the form
f

d x

+/=0';

& cos

b cos.

0)

c)

c)

'

ioy

merely change values,

(decos.

(d

e cos. wi)

J c e J { &-6

o))

{a

J \a b cos.

b cos.

w-j-c(cos.

sin.

c'<r

is
/2

a)

rr
sj {a

now

wV-}

cos. w-f-tf (cos.

v

and the reduced equation

The

*/ c (sin.

w negative, the corresponding values of a\ c\ M,

aJ

and d

are

e'

and

hence

-+ c
}

(sin.

6 cos.

from the transformed equation

{a

M = (a ""

sin.

o)

and the reduced equation

and

.a

0)

/J {a

eZ',

2
-fc (cos. w)

sin.

For

/a-b'
f a b cos. W
/

/i

to

s/\a

e cos. to)

2 w

'

0)

__ (d

'

(w

e cos.

cos.

w-j-V

b cos.

sin

and

c cos.

a/ c

vy

(sin.

</

tja

c] -.

b cos.

c}

^^\ +

io)

-j-

c}

e A/c(sin.
v
v
~_
.

w) 2
x-

of the form

d'y' -f e'tf'

+ /=0.

transformation required to reduce the equations still lower is performed exactly as in (94) ; and, by making the angle between the original

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION.

65

axes oblique, the figures in (95) will exhibit the changes in the pasiiion of
the curve.
98.
shall conclude the discussion of this class of curves by the
application of the results already obtained to a few examples.

We

Ex.

1.

6xy

9 x2 -f 10 y

tan. 20

may be found by

hence

0; locus a parabola.
the tables.

b is negative

.\ by (93)

a'
/.

Also by
n
J (94)

and the

final

+ =

10

10,

/2

2/

VIo

= VTo and = 3 VlO,

+ 3 VlO + 1 = 0.

y'

d!

equation

aJ

a?

and the locus

+ Vx

+ -t

+ Vgy

is

Vd

==

d =: 2

J xy,

2 a?y

a?

locus a parabola.

rr 0.

and y

2 dy

a parabola because

in the figure

zO;

This equation may be put under the

we

2 dx

satisfies

it

4 a c

tracing the curve as in (78)

PBCQ

or

By

V10

is

x "*

Ex. 3.
form y -f-

-1

and

+2^ + ^ + J/-3^il

e'

m = ~r=
4

2^10

V10

2.

0, d!

a?'

-1
-2'r = 7=:

y" 8

Ex.

e'

d 2 r=

the condition

0.

be that of

shall find its position to

=x

<2

are the equations to the diameters

BEandCF.
A #', A y', are the

3^

new

axes, 6 ov

ce

being 45.

a'

= 2,

d'

0,' e'

= 2 d J2",

71

0,

the last two quantities are to be measured along the

take

A A'

and A'

is

the

new

,_

2^2

new

axes, therefore

origin.

V2

The

final equation is

Ex.

y= d +

yt^dicJz.
or

4.

- 4.0./=

x -f\/V. The

locus

is

a parabola, since

0.

4 a c


THE ELLIPSE.

66

Let y ss y

-f

n and x zz x

m\

-\*

= d + (V + m) + / (V + m)
y +
n
fx + (2 m f+ x ~ y + /m + e w + d =
Let 2 m f + e = 0, and / m + e wi + d
4
d
/
m 2^ and w -^
4

.%

e)

.\

/'

seduced at once to the form

is

/
The axes

99.

fi

a?

Here, c

sin.

8
a?

2 w

sm. y

3,

a*

y'

0.

oblique.
a?

the angle between the axes being 60,

b sin.

is

= -- =

a' == 4,

=; 0, d'

c'

4 y2

positive,

60

sin.

M =s

==:

and the equation

=0.

?i

ra

.-.

6, e'

J?

= 30

V3

~~

CHAPTER

3^3,
V 3*, m = -

0.

VIII

THE ELLIPSE.
100. In the discussion of the general equation of the second order, we
have seen that, supposing the origin of co-ordinates in the centre, there is
but one system of rectangular axes to which, if the corresponding ellipse
be referred, its equation is of the simple form

/'

/*
or,

where the

Qa*

and Q are both positive. (86, 87.)

deduce from this equation the various properties of

proceed to

the ellipse.
To exhibit the coefficients in a better form

curve

coefficients

We now

'

Pi/ 2

let

be the centre of the

X Y y, the rectangular axes meeting in C; CM= a?,MP = y,

Then

<r,

at the points

where the curve cuts the axes, we have

0,

Q a*

1?

a?

sb

0,

P 0

1,

/.

=
= -v

THE ELLIPSE

CA'

In the axis of x take

:and

67

A=

Vq
also in the axis of?/
J take

CB =

=-

and C B'
_ __

Vp

,_

Vp

then the curve cuts the axes at the points A, A', B, and B'.

Also

if

A =

a and

o2

= - and P =

CBs6,

therefore the equation to the curve

we have Q

or

becomes

**

a
n

~~
a*

b*

a2 y2

b2

a?

a 6

>-*).

2/*

We

b,

101.

and a be greater than

have already seen (76) that the curve

is

limited in every direc-

tion,

The

points A, A', B, and

equation

determine those limits.

From

the last

we have

= Va* a?

(1),

and

cc

T V6

-2/ 8

(2).

if a? is greater than db ct, y is impossible, and from (2) if y is

b, cc is also impossible ; hence straight lines drawn through
greater than
the points A, A', B and B' parallel to the axes, completely enclose the
curve.

from (1)

Again from (1) for every value of oc less than a we have two real and
less than C A' we have
equal values ofy, that is, for any abscissa
sign determining their opposite
P , the
two equal ordinates MP,

CM

directions.

b
to + ct these values of y decrease from
Also as x increases from
hence we have two equal arcs B P A', B' P A' exactly similar and
opposite to one another.
7

to 0,

[f

cc

be negative, and decrease from

to a ac* is positive, and the
of y must recur, hence there are two equal and opposite
9

same values

F2

THE ELLIPSE.

68

arcs

A, B'A.

Therefore the whole curve

is

divided into two equal

parts by the axis of x.

From (2) the curve appears in the same way to be divided into two
equal parts by the axis of y hence it is said to be symmetrical with
respect to those axes.
Its concavity must also be turned towards the centre, otherwise it might
be cut by a straight line in more points than two, which is impossible
:

(71) '

From

102.

the equation

= (a x*) we have
2

cp = v^+?= \/* + *n&-n =

%

\A +

--^-^

C P is greatest when x is greatest, that is, when x = #, in which

C P becomes also equal to a, hence C A or C A' is the greatest line
Again C P is least when
that can be drawn from the centre to the curve.
,rr:0, in which case C P becomes equal to b hence CB is the least line
The axes A A' and B B' are thus
that can be drawn from C to the curve.
hence
case

shown

to be the greatest

The

centre.

greater

transverse axis, and

and

A A'
B

least lines that

B' the axis minor or lesser

and

AM =x

Then

a?

AC

axis.

W are called

the vertices or summits of

of these points may be taken for the origin, thus let
the axis of x, and let the axis of y be parallel to C B,

103. The points A, B, A' and

Any
the curve.
be the origin,

can be drawn through the

axis, or

called the axis major, or greater

is

1
.

= C M = AM - A C =

a/

lb

CL

CL

or suppressing the accents,

?/

=
6

(2

a x a;2 )

last equation

is

x)

AM,MA'

the square

a-

geometrically expressed by the following proportion.

rectangle
:: the square upon B C

The square upon M P the

: the square upon A C.
Hence

(2

ct

ci

This

x
o

upon

the ordinate varies as the rectangle contained

by the segments of the axis major.

If the origin

putting x for

beat B, y

be at C,

C A'

y and y for

the axis of

#, the equation

y and C B
y

the axis of

= (6
2

8
a?

),

a?,

we have,

and if the origin

~(2bx-x*).

104. If the axes major and minor were equal to one another, the equawould become y 2
x\ which is that to a circle
a2
whose diameter is 2 a, hence we see as in (79) that the circle is a species
As we advance we shall have frequent occasion to remark the
of ellipse.

tion to the ellipse

analogy existing between these two curves.

Let A
Q A' be the circle described upon A' as diameter, and
Q
P (=2/)
or a?, let
be an ordinate corresponding to the abscissa C
or
be the corresponding ordinate to the ellipse, then we have

THE FOCUS.
Y ^

69

a2

(a2
tf

8
a?

=-Y

and y

thus the ordinate to the ellipse has to the corresponding- ordinate of the
circle the constant ratio of the axis minor to the axis major.
is less than a the
and A' where they meet.

Since b

wholly without the ellipse, except at

if a circle be described on the axis

circle is

Similarly

minor, it is wholly within the ellipse except at

curve lies between the two circumferences.

and

B'.

Thus

the elliptic

THE FOCUS.
105.

tzzl

The

2
a?

ax

may

be put under the form

which case the quantity

in

==

is

called the

ci

ci

principal Parameter or Latus

Since

{2

2 b2

equation y % =:

= a = 2a the
A

2 b%
-

b*

Rectum,
Latus Rectum

is

a third proportional to the

and minor.

axis major

106. To find from what point in the axis major a double ordinate and
be drawn equal to the Latus Rectum.

Here 4 y*

4 b2
or

(a 2 -

a? )

a?-tf~

b*

or a?

a8

and a?

db'*Ja*

4 b4

62

b*.

and radius describe

a circle cutting the axis major in the
points S and H, then we have

With centre

CHc

+ V^ -

and

CS

~ - J^T^IF,

thus S and H are the

L S L' be drawn, it is

points through either of which if an ordinate at

equal to the Latus Rectum ; henceforward then we
shall consider this line as the Latus Rectum or principal parameter of the
ellipse.

thus determined are called the Foci, for a

points S and
be hereafter explained.

The two
reason
107,

to

The

fraction

which represents the ratio of

CS

to

C&

THE FOCUS,

70
is

of this curve from the

depends upon the magnitude of

called the excentricity, because the deviation

circular form, that

ex-centric course,

is, its

this ratio.

If the excentricity, which

the letter

=r 1

e,

we nave

evidently less than unity, be represented by

is

J^ZT^

whence

ss z

and the equation

may be

to the ellipse

y*

(1

b* ml,

b*

/.

ba2

put under the form

a*).

(a

e )

a?
r =

108. The line S C is sometimes called the ellipticity ; its value, as above,
2
ae but it is also expressed by the letter c. Also since a2 b = a? &
s
2
2

hence
ae) {a -f ae)
we have b*zz a a e = (a
The rectangle AS, S A = The square upon B C.
is

To find
P - r,

109.

the distance from the focus to any point

HP~

Let S

**=(y -y'Y +

/.

also

y\

a?'

.\

3/2

(#

== (1

in the curve.

(a -*')... (29)

we have y

being the co-ordinates of S,

2

r\

and

sr

(a9

a8 )

(a?

e*

a-

a?

~e,

e) 2

- + e
=a
+ x* + 2 a x + a
= a + 2 $ +
= (a 4- ea?)
$ similarly HP = ~e^,
S P = a
2

a?'

a ey

-1-

e )

e .r

e%

.\

-f-

HP

we
In all questions referring to the absolute magnitude of S P or
must give to cc its proper sign thus if P is between B and A, the absolute
magnitude of S P is a etc, because a? is itself negative.
/
2fl
By the addition of S P and H P, we have SP +
;
that is, the surrrof the distances of any point on the curve from the foci
;

HP =

is

= AA

equal to the axis major

This property is analogous to that of the

any point from the centre is constant.

where the distance of

circle,

110. This property of the ellipse is so useful, that we shall prove the
To find the locus of a point P, the sum of whose distances
converse.
is constant or equal 2 a.
from two fixed points S and
2c, bisect S
in C, which point assume to be the origin of
Let

SH=

rectangular axes

CA

;
,

CB

let

M=

#,

and

M P = y,

SP^ Jlc^ay+Y
HP-V(c- xy + y*
but SP + HP = 2o, or S P - 2 a - H P
V (c + *Y + y* =2* - VO- *y + y*
9

then

.\

;. (c

4- x) 2

4 a*

4 a

V (c

hence, transposing and dividing by 4,

V (c

"~

a?

7)*

we have

ca?

(c

cc)

y*

THE TANGENT,
a

\ a

3>

ss a*

a2

and v 2 ==

71

a #

a;

(a2

- #2 )

Hence the locus is an ellipse whose axes

whose foci are S and H.

are 2

# and 2

^/

a -

and

THE TANGENT,
111.

To

find the equation to the tangent to the ellipse at

be the point P
x fr y" be any other point Q
the equation to the line P Q through these two points

Let
.

x'

any point*

y-y'zz

J^(a-aO,

is

( 41 )

PQ

TPT'

will come to the position

Now this cutting line or secant
or just touch the curve when Q comes to P, and the equation
when a?" =s x' and y ,f e= y f.
become the equation to the tangent

PQ

will

PT

y' y
becomes
a/ x'
ff

In

this case the

term

+
+

a 2 y' 2

a 2 y ff2
a? (y'

.\

(y

but

its

x f y\ x" y" are on the curve,

for since the points

y")
#
'

a?'

y"

(y'

h*x'

2 *n*
b x'

+b
+ y") +
2

b-

x"

*~

~a

~"

may yet be

value

we have

<y -

(a/

a2

y'

x" 2 )

x") (x f

when x"
The equation

to the

3/

By

multiplication
.\

tangent
y'

a*yy'

&yy' +

(a?

&W

y)

~ - * a'
= aV + 6V
2

/2

3/

ft

~a

2
.

= o,

=s #' and y"

is

a?")

a"

fl"3T
.\

found,

-1-

69

Jt/

zz.

y.

THE TANGENT,

In the figure

and

is of

MP

is

x and y

arid

are the co-ordinates

of any point in TPT'.

The equation to the tangent is easily recollected, since it may be obtained
2
a2 b 2 by putting yy' for y and xx'
from that to the curve a2 y 2 4- b 2 x 2

for

x2

PT

is a tangent is evident, since a straight line cannot cut

112. That
the curve in more points than two, and here those two have gradually
coalesced ; it may, however, be satisfactory to show that every point in

PT

except

is

P is

without the curve.

and y be the co-ordinates of any point R then if a~y 2 4- b 2 x 2

2
For, join the
the point R is without the curve.
greater than a2 b

Let

cc l

with the centre of the ellipse by a line cutting the curve in Q,

2
2
2
2
x and y be the co-ordinates of Q, then if a y -\- b x is greater
2
2
2
2
2
than a2 6 2 or than a 2 y + & %*-> we have b (x^ - x ) greater than a (y 2
2
but b is less than a, therefore x x 2 must be greater than
7/f)
2
or ^i 2 + y 2 greater than x 2 + y 2 and therefore C li greater than
2/i
V"
point

and

let

CQ

'

(29), or

without the curve.

is

we have

In the present case

a 2 yy'

a*y

b x'

a y

&

-I-

greater than a 6

But y and #

a
J?'

(y'

ci

6*

a? a?'

= &V +

a:)

(2/'

=a 6
= a*b*

x'

is

x
2

- 2a*yy' + &
- 2/) + b (V -

or a

which

a 2 y 12

:.

/.

the two equations.

4- b

?/)

b*

a8
2

a;

a2

(V

*)

2
.

are the co-ordinates of any point in the tangent

; therefore
generally any point on the tangent is without the curve ; in the particular
x\ that is at P, we have the equation
and x
case where y
y
2
9
& > 2 therefore at that point the tangent coincides with the
a 2 y 2 -f- fr 2 *

curve.

113. If the vertex

y*

z=z

and the equation

be the origin, the equation

(2

ax

x 2 ) or a 2 y 2

to the tangent,

a*yy'

&

tangent

Generally,

is

if

yy

^' -

(a?

4- 6

a? 2/

the equation to the tangent

ah* (x
s

2 a b2 x

a/)

= m a?
nxx'

4" #')

-f- c

x2

is

71a?

0,

is

the equation

60;'+ d)y

1/

a?

4-

4-

/:=

0,

is

2 cj/

ay

-\-

2
or (2 a y

curve

the equation to the curve be

a 2/ 2

:i

~\- 1/

found exactly as above,

If the equation to the ellipse be y

to the

to the

4- (2

cx

by

&#'

'c) a;

4- ^3/ 4- e

4-

2/=

0.

THE TANGENT,
Again

let

tzl

ax

4*

d be the equation

then, comparing this with the equation a 2

nating

a?'

and

a2 2
and

To find

114.

&

ci

a?

= a 6 and elimi= & 6 we have

s

x 12

the point where the tangent cuts the axes.

yy +
f

x x'

a2

put

?/

.*

b*

x s= a2
f

a?

2
,

= CT
The

similarly

CT(

',

hence

we have

CT,CM = The square upon A C,

rectangle

-A

ft

r:CT'=

and The rectangle CT',

Since

the co-efficients of the equation

and

xx

f -f b

a tangent to the curve.

it is

In the equation a2

= d\

among

the necessary relation

this is

= ax + d when

a tangent to the ellipse;

to

y' 4* b 2

by means of the equation

?/

73

MP= The square upon B C

does not involve y\

it

the same for

is

all

ellipses

which have the same axis major, and same abscissa for the point of
contact ; and, as the circle on the axis major may be considered as one
is the same for an ellipse and its cirof these ellipses, the distance C

cumscribing

circle.

a?

Again, since

CT=:

is

at the

independent of the sign of y\ the tangents,

two extremities of an ordinate, meet in the same point on the axis.

to the lower tangent is found by putting y' for y in the

The equation

general equation to the tangent (111).

from the foot of the ordinate to the point
115. The distance
where the tangent meets the axis of a?, is called the subtangent.

MT

In the

MT = CT-CM = - -aj' = * ~ *
The rectangle C M, MT = The rectangle A M, M A'.

ellipse,

x'

x'

Hence,

a2 b 2 let
tangent being a?yy -j- b 2 x x
2
=:
and
x
a;
hence
tangent,
a?b
the
at
y
At B, the
the extremity of the axis major, is perpendicular to that axis.
b ; hence the tangent at B is perpendicular
equation to the tangent is y
to the axis minor.
2
a 2 b 2 or
The equation to the tangent being a2 y y -j- b xx f

The equation

116.

and

x' =z a'\

.'.

to the

0,

.*.

b2

ax =

b x'

If P C be produced to meet the curve again in P', the signs of the

co-ordinates of P' are both contrary to those of P ; hence the co-efficient

~sxy' remains the same for the tangent at P',

a
F are parallel (43).
b~

117.

To

or the tangents at

find the equation to the tangent at the extremity of the

Rectum.

The equation

to the tangent is generally

a2 y y'

~{-

xt zzi a? b*

and

Latus

THE TANGENT,

74

At L, x
a?

a e and y =s

W x aet
a

7/
J

^z

If the ordinate

ex.

y,

cut the ellipse in P,

SP =

or

M Q,

we have

+ ex (109)
;.MQ = SP.
a

lo

118.

to

find the point

where

this particular

tangent cuts the

axis, let

From T draw T R perpendicular to A C, and from P draw P E parallel

A C then, taking the absolute values of C M and O T, we have
;

PR-M.T = CT+ CM=

ex

-.SP;

Consequently, the distances of any point P from S, and from the line
are in the constant ratio of e
1.
is called the directrix ; for, knowing the position of this
This line T
line and of the focus, an ellipse of any excentricity may be described, as
will hereafter be shown.
If x
0, we have y
a.
Thus the tangent, at the extremity of the
Latus Rectum, cuts the axis of y where that axis meets the circumscribing

T R,

circle.

By

producing

The
119.

To

M to meet the ellipse again

rectangle

Q P, Q P'

==

in

r
,

it

maybe proved

that

The square on S M.

perpendicular from the focus on the

find the length of the

tangent.

Let S y> II 2, be the perpendiculars on the tangent PT.

Taking the expression in (48.) we have

Where y

y
is

=ax+ d
also

=
is

= -

~~

ax d
x

and x l
ae are co-ordinates of the point 5, and
But the equation to P T
the equation to the line PT.

'

THE TANGENT.

b*

x'

&2

y'

*"

4
ft

fr

Let S

or a

a2

-7

e x')
4

4-&

*' 8

y *'"> + 6V9 =

(a2

and

r,

H P or

By

multiplication

The

To

120.

The

we have

we havep p' =.

rectangle

Sy,Hz

find the locus of

equation to the tangent at

c,

0)

(a?

~2a

r r= r\

The square upon B C.

2

is

3/'

-J-

a?yy'

is

&V =

ft

+ ^ xx'

a2 62

(1)

a2

(2).

perpendicular S y (the co-ordinates of S being

and this line being perpendicular to the tangent

to the

~a

is 3/

Hence,

o;

or z in the last article.

equation to the curve at

The
The equation

#'

p' 2

{a9 - 2 -^*"}

Z>

2a-r
p',

ytt

6 r

Hz =

);

a?'

a8

e8

Similarly, if

if

(^ 4- ex

ea/

^ ~7

If

ae-

(a 4-

* (" 6 * ""

~.

-J-

-5-t and d
2/

~ V^y
aV* +

Z>
,

a?

;.=-

And

Wx'

75

c)

*s /

(2),

we have a

7-;

r=

and therefore the equation

=-S?<* +

c)

(3)

Sy

to

is

f
If we eliminate y and a?' from (1) (2) and (3), we shall have an equation
involving x and y ; but this elimination supposes x and y to be the same
their intersection.
for both (2) and (3), and therefore can only refer to

Hence

the resulting equation

From
%

'

(3)
v y -,

&
-7
ar

y* +
L
""

a7

ancl

is

the locus of their intersection.

y
7
=
x 4- c
*

(jr

a
"

(a?

~>

4- c)

(a?

4- c)

from

,_
2

a?'
X

"

h ~ o)

w
b*x

"
r

a*

=
y*

'

"

2
3/

(,2?

x (x

+ 0)
+

x(x

c)'

c)'

THE TANGENT.

70

and

Substituting- these values of x'

aH*

2
3/

.\
9

Or, a

2
2/

c if

y*

I)

a8 {y 8 +(*

"

Wa*

a*

tf

is

is

From

may

9
2/

c)*

c)'

-f

+
+

4
2/

2/

2
2/

2
(2/

2/

+ c)}

-f x (x

{?/

(x

2 x

The

2>

c) 8

**

{^(*-M)+c } +
+
^ + (* + c) + x (x -f cf
2

**(*

<0*

3/

*')

+ (y + O
2

+ CY

(*

8
a?

the equation to S y,

To

combined with

C P and S y meet

that to

is

b*

SP

-,

passing through S

SPT = tan.

(P S C

-\

a*y

b*x f2 -{-b*cx

"~V {O'-f

_6
"~"

C2

(a

cy' (a 2

a -

c)

6" a'}

c x')

-\-

c x')

~~ cy'"

HPT =

HPT =

,;

a*b*
{

(a

makes with

the

^+

a?'

(V, y !)

is

"V

y/

+ b*c
6

x'

a 2 c}

we must put c for c in the

would evidently lead us to the equation

tan.

this

HPT

hence, tan,

cy'

HP^ =

b*

\ we

hj*_

PT to

To pass from tan. S

preceding investigation

_
~/

and

0)

c,

- PTC) =

y'

=~

b*

a2 y

y
tan.

in the directrix.

P T.

equation to S

And

CP

angle which the focal distance

find the

equation to the tangent

The

tan.

c)

the equation to a circle

prove that

121.
tangent

tan.

~{if + x(x + c)Y

y*
2

>

we have

(1),

whose radius is a. Hence, the locus of

the circle described on the axis major as diameter.

This

=
=
.\

(a?

r=

c)"

a*

(a?*

y', in
8

or the two angles

SPT,

tan.

(180

HPz

-HPT) = -

are equal; thus the

tangent makes equal angles with the focal distances.

It is a

H P be

property of light that,

reflected

equal the angle

HP

2.

if

a ray proceeding from

H in the direction

P y, the angle S Fy of the reflected ray will

Now, in the ellipse, these angles are equal;

by the line z

THE TANGENT.
hence,
will

if

77

a light be placed at H, all rays which are reflected by the ellipse

to S.
Hence, these points, S and H, are called foci.

proceed

This very important property

=p = 6 4/

Sy

Sy.Hz-r

.%

~;

and

v/-;

and the angle S

H P 2.*
y

p=-

Vl

article 119.

122. To find the length of the perpendicular

the tangent

here y,

from

z =z p' =2 b

r':;SP
HP;
Vy and H P z are similar,

hence the triangles S

to the angle

also thus proved

is

0,

x e=

0,

oc v

w,

P y equal

from the centre, on

--d
2

~j~

b*

--,andrf=
y
y
-

6
y'
2

.Cu -

/}
1

r a*y'*i

Vl a
a

^0 +

tt
2

'b*

x') (a

(119)
=T==--^7.
a b ^a?
Z'"^ "x

3
A''

*Jri J

* The following geometrical method of drawing"

tangent to the ellipse, and proving that the locus
of the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent j
is the circumscribing circle, will be found useful.
a

Let A P A" be the ellipse, P any point on it.

Join S P and II P, and produce
P to K, making
PS; bisect the angle
by the line
y P 3, and join SK, cutting P y in y.

H
KPS

PK =

Py

a tangent to the ellipse ; for if

be
in the line P y, we have S R -fKH, greater than
II
greater
than 2 a ; hence, R and every other point in z P y
except P is without the ellipse.
1.

is

any other point

= KR-h

KH,

z parallel to S y, and join Cy ;

2. The locus of y is the circumscribing circle. Draw
then, because the triangles S P y,
are equal, we have the angle S y P a right
z are perpendicular to the tangent. Also, since S y
angle, or S y and
y, and

KPy

= CH, we have C y

=K

= KH =

and Cy
4
i (SP + PH) =r C A.
3. The rectangle S y,
the square on B C. Let Z H meet the circle again in
O and join C O ; then, because the angle y z O is a right angle, and that the points y
and O are in the circumference of the circle, the line y C O must be a straight line,
O are equal ; and the rectangle
and a diameter. Hence, the triangles C S y, C
the rectangle AH, HA' = the square on
Sy, Hz rr the rectangle Z II,

SC

BC

<i.

parallel to

Hs

HO

(108).

Let

SF=r,

HP = 2 ~SP=

For by similar triangles, Sy

2

PP

K H,

ss

62

p*~

b'

2a~

SP

::

2a-

Hs

r,

Sy= p^ndHz

HP

>p

a= p',

2a-

then p 2

b*r

2a

r;

and, as above,

THE NORMAL.

78
123.

To

find the locus of

2

a y
2

a yy

= -7^-7

+
+

f2

J?

b
b

=
=

x f2

a2

(1).

x'

(3), the equation to

a* 6

(2).

f
Proceeding, as in (120.), to eliminate x and y we
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
locus is an
#
the
~
equation b y -J- <z a?
(?/
}
)
ellipse at the extremities of the axes, and bulging' out
something like the lowest of figures 2 in page 44. We
to trace this curve hereafter.
f

arrive at the final

To

124.

we have

which the distance

find the angle

oval meeting the

beyond the curve,
shall

C P makes

CPT

hence tan.

is

From C u
a

'

ay'

with the tangent,

= Cy

we have

u,

zz a sm,

y'

yr

zc

Cy

sin.

a2 b 2

found

. .

sin.

C yu

=2

r'

>y/r

Also from

Hz^HP
/ = /

sin.

HPz

we have
b

HPz

sin.

.\

sin.

HPz

==
aJ r r

/.

in

have occasion

the equation

toCP,y = ^a?;andtoPT,y= _

125.

w.

angle

Hence, if C
E, we have

Cyu

zz angle

HP2,

and C

t/ is

be drawn parallel to the tangent

PE^C^AC.

parallel to

H P.

T, and meeting

THE NORMAL.
126. The normal to any point of a curve is a straight line drawn
through that point, and perpendicular to the tangent at that point.
To 'find the equation to the normal P G.
The equation to a straight line through the'pornt P (2' y') is

y
This

line

must be perpendicular

and the equation

a2 y
to the

To

whose equation

to the tangent

b
+

normal

find the points

a (x

y
127".

y' =r

:.

a y'
=
b

x'

is

y'

J-f>

(*

*')

where the normal cuts the axes

is

THE DIAMETERS.

o?

-y'= ^(oj-a/)

=0.\

Let y

mal,

/7

/7 2

P2

SG^SC-CG = ae-e = e(a-^') =e,

2

Hence

SP.

o;'

distance

is

M G, from the foot of the ordinate to the foot of

From

<r

--

a2

or.

the above values of

f

h*

= v{y'+ ^r^

havcPG
6

the nor-

subnormal

called the

Its value is

128.

of

CG.
/7 9 7/'

The

= of -

,\

79

b2

62

r' a

*JW consequently,

PG.PG'^r/r:

The
The

a?

# v

fl

PG'

and similarly

M G, C G and C G' we
h
= V{-sr( '-^ )+

SP,HP.

rectangle,
the rectangle
greatest value of the normal is when x'
hence, at the extremity
;
of the axis minor, we have the greatest value of the normal
Similarly,
b.
the least value of the normal is at the extremitv of the axis major, the

= b

value being then

Also,

SG'

or half the

^r^

and

Latus Rectum (105.).

GG'

= ^b

If a perpendicular
L be drawn from
angles P
L, S P y, and
P s, are similar

PL = PG.^-,or=PG~ =

Jr7

upon S

.\

G G' =
or

G'.

P, the

tri-

e.

hence

the

Latus Rectum.

129. Since the tangent makes equal angles with the focal distances, the
normal, which is perpendicular to the tangent, also makes equal angles
with the focal distances. This theorem may be directly proved from the
above value of C G ; for S
::
:
+
:

e2

a e
hence, the angle S P
Geometry, ii. 50 *.
: :

HG SC - CG HC CG
G
+ e x' a ex1 a+ e x' S P HP;
H is bisected by the line P G. Euclid, VI. 3, or
2

\ \

: :

THE DIAMETERS.
130.

A diameter

parallel chords.

was defined

We

shall

in (76.) to be a line bisecting a system of

now prove

* The absolute values of S

and

that all the diameters of the ellipse

H P are here taken. See

109,

THE DIAMETERS.

80

and that they pass through the centre, which last cirsince no line could bisect every one of a system of
parallel chords without itself passing through the centre.
a x + c be the equation to any chord ;
Let y
are straight

cumstance

lines,

evident,

is

a y2
2

x2

a2

6 2 , the equation to the curve.

of the chord, by
Transfer the origin to the bisecting point x' y
y' for y and x -\- x for <r, then the equation to the chord
putting y
r
c ; also
a a/
c or y t= a x, since y
xf )
a (x
becomes y
y
2
2
2
2
2
2
the equation to the curve becomes a (y -J- y') -f & (# -f a;') == a 6
To find where the chord intersects the curve, put a x for y in the sef

+
+

cond equation

a2

/.

or,

2
(a 9 a

But since the

x must be equal
term of the

b )

last

O x + 7/0 +
2

2 (a a y

(a?

b*

a?')

a* 6

2/'

a/

a2 b\

is at the bisection of the chord, the two values of

one another, and have opposite signs, or the second

origin
to

equation must

0.

ay'

a*

b 2 x'

0.

This equation gives the relation between x' and y' and, since it is ina x -f c ;
dependent of c, it will be the same for any chord parallel to y
hence, considering a?' and ?/' as variable, it is the equation to the assemblage of all the middle points, or to their locus.
This equation is evidently that to a straight line passing through the
Conversely, any straight line passing through the centre is a diacentre.
;

meter.

pair of diameters are called conjugate when each bisects all the
131.
chords parallel to the other.
Hence, the axes major and minor are conjugate diameters, and the
2
2
2
a2 b\ which we have generally employed, is that
equation a y* -f b x
to the ellipse referred to its centre and rectangular conjugate diameters.
If the curve be referred to oblique co-ordinates, and its equation remains
2
2
of the same form, that is, containing only a;
y and constant quantities,
for each value of one cothe new axes will also be conjugate diameters
We shall,
ordinate will give two equal and opposite values to the other.
therefore, pass from the above equation to another referred to oblique conjugate diameters, by determining, through the transformation of co-ordinates, all the systems of axes, for which the equation to the ellipse pre-

serves this same form.

Let the equation be a 2
ation are (57),

= x'
x = x

a2 (y

.".

or {a (sin.

+y

sin.
0')

2 {a

sin.

cos.

sin. Q'

the formulas for transform-

y' sin. 6
1

l)

sin. 0') 3

a2 b2

-|-

(cos. B'f} y'

sin.

63 x 1

cos.

&,

b 2 (x cos.
f

-f {a

+y

(sin. 9)

cos. 6

a2 b 2
2

(cos. 6) } x'
== a 2 b 2 .

-j- 6

cos. Q cos. 6'} x<

In order that this equation may be of the conjugate form, it must not
but since we have introduced two indeterminate
contain the term x y
quantities, 6 and 9\ we are enabled to put the co-efficient of x y
;
hence we have the condition
T

a9

sin.

sin,

-j- 6

cos. Q cos.

THE DIAMETERS.
2
or dividing by a cos.

81

0\

cos.

tan. 0. tan. 6'

Now this condition will not determine both the angles and &, but for
any value of the one angle it gives a real value for the other ; and hence
there is an infinite number of pairs of axes to which, if the curve be referred, its equation is of the required conjugate form.

we draw

the next figure,

If, in

CD making an angle

CP

making any angle

6

0'

(whose tangent is

A',

and

0) with CA', then

CP

with

cot.

CL

and

Also since the product of the tangents

must be drawn in
be drawn in the angle A' C B 3 C

are conjugate diameters.

negative, if

is

CP

BC

A.
132. There is no occasion to examine the above equation of condition
but
in the case where 6 or Q' tn G, for then we have the original axes
let us examine whether there are any other systems of rectangular axes.
the angle

Let 6 r= 90
f

^ cos.

sin. 0'

:.

0,

-f-

and

0,

cos. 0'

sin. 0,

hence the equation of condition becomes

(a

b 2 ) sin.

cos.

0,

2
6 2 we must have
by the nature of the ellipse, a cannot
the original axes again
values
give
90,
which
both
hence
0, or
This rethe only system of rectangular diameters is that of the axes.

and
6

since,

mark agrees with

article 87.

We may

observe iri the above transformation that, although we have

and 0', it does not follow that
introduced two indeterminate quantities
we can destroy two terms in the transformed equation, unless the values
of these quantities are real: for example, if we attempt to destroy any

we

other term as the second,

there
a?'

if

1,

a value to which

no corresponding angle 0; hence, in putting the

we adopted the only possible hypothesis.

is

b y

=r

find tan.

co-efficient of

0,

The

133.

{a* (sin.

equation to the curve

y + 6*

is

now

+ {a

0'y}y'*

(cos.

(sin. 0) 2

b (cos. 0) 2 } a/ a =:

a*b\

0, we have the distances from

0, and x'
successively make y
the origin to the points in which the curve cuts the new axes; let these distances be represented by a x and b l9 the former being measured along the

If

we

axis of

f
,

and the
y'

And

=
=

along the axis of y

latter

.% { a~ (sin. )

0,

/.

0,

{a?

(sin.

e>y

f
;

+ 6 (cos.
+ b* (cos.
2

then
0)

we have
a

*
x

6')*} b,

= a b\
= a b\
2

the transformed equation becomes

u
y'
y

b*

4-

X^

b%

fa

or,

Where

a?

the lengths of the

-'

or,

y'

new

2
'

a*
2

'CD'

rr

ch* bf

conjugate diameters are 2 a x and 2 b^

THE DIAMETERS.

82

From

134.

we obtain

the transformation

a? {a -

V
a2

{a

(sin. 0)

(sin. 0')

+b
+b

a2 b 2

(1),

(cos. 0') }

a2

(2),

<9)
2

2
sin. 0' -j- 6 cos.

sin.

the three following equations

2

(cos.

b*

cos. 0' ;= 0,
2

b
-

tan. 0' =:

tan.

or,

a
Putting

(sin. 0)

and a

(a*

(a

=a
(cos. Of a

b )

(sin. 0)

6-)

we have

for (cos. 0) s in (1),

^
Putting b for
found from (2)

a?

b\

-a
-<

2
,

we have

in this expression,

i7 x

(3)
v '

\
2,

the value of (tan.

as

b?

hence by multiplication,

(tan.0) 2 (tan.0') 2

or,

(a

bx

.\

a4

a, 2

af) (a

~~ a,
4

&

5 =
4

62

62

6^

a b?

~~ from C3
4

= (a* &) (b - 6
V = ^ i b - b

- V)

~i

2
L

a?

V*

=a
+ 6^) - 6 (^ +
= (a - 6) (a +
a + b = a, + &
2

.\

),
2

&i

6*

b x *) t

5, ),

bx

sum

of the squares upon the conjugate diameters is equal to

the sum of the squares upon the axes.
135. Again, multiplying (1) and (2) together, and (3) by itself, and
then subtracting the results, we have
that

a?

is,

the

{a" (sin. 0) 2 (sin.

0') 2

+ an
a? (sin, #) 2 (sin. 0') 2

b* (cos. 0)

(sm. 0) 2 (cos.

2
(cos. 0')

0') }

(cos. 0) 2 (cos. 0') 2

cos.

~
+

a?b*

2
(sin. 0')* (cos. 0)

o> b\

2 a2

sin.

sin. 0' cos.

THE DIAMETERS.
a? h^

.\

a? 6 2 { (sin.

+
or,
or,

(sin.

(cos. 0)

ey

{ sin. 0' cos.

{ sin. (0'

f
i 6 t sin. (0

83

0) }

a* b\

cos. 0' }

sin.
2

=a
=a

cos. 0>

sin. 6' cos.

sin.

&y }=z:

(cos.

a? b*

,\

Now

6>') 2

a2

6s

2
Z>

b.

PCD,

between the conjugate diameters C P

6 is the angle
hence drawing straight lines at the extremities of the conjugate diameters, parallel to those diameters, we have, from the above equathe rectangle A C B E, and therefore
tion, the parallelogram
the whole parallelogram thus circumscribing the ellipse is equal to the
rectangle contained by the axes *.
If the extremities of the conjugate diameters be joined, it is readily
seen that the inscribed figure is a parallelogram, and that its area is equal
to half that of the above circumscribed parallelogram.
We may remark, in passing, that the circumscribed parallelogram, having
its sides parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters, is the least of all paral-

CD

and

PCDT =

lelograms circumscribing the ellipse and that the inscribed parallelogram,

having conjugate lines for its diameters, is the greatest of all inscribed
;

parallelograms.
136. Returning to article (133.), the equation to the curve, suppressing
the accents on a/ and y , as no longer necessary, is
f

+ b? - a? 6
CD = b CV=
2

a?
In the

figure,

CP

a?

2/

au

and

cc }

VQ-y,

* The theorems in articles 134 and 135 may be proved also in the following manner :
Referring the curve to its rectangular axes, as in article (138.), let the co-ordinates
2
of P be x' and y ; then the equation to C D is a yy' -\- b x x' == 0, and eliminating
2 2
2
x and y between this equation and that to the curve (a 2 y 2 -f b* x = d V ), we have
the co-ordinates CNand DN, fig. 135, of the intersection of C D with the curve, C
>2

s=

~- and

DN = y =

hence we have

j
"*"

(a?

** -

No

PCD =

+ *') 5

*,

oY

Ul^l^ tJt + ^~
a
2

Also the triangle

fr

the trapezium

PMND -

~ ~Z

therefore the parallelogram

*\

a?

^x'*

+ P.

V+

* ,2

+ V 2

'

the triangles

PG

M and D C N
'lab

PCDT^ai.

notice has been taken of the positional value of the abscissa

a question of absolute values*

G N,

since this is

(entirely

la

&

THE DIAMETERS.

Putting the equation into the form

KW-

f=
we have

upon C D

as in (111.)

The
(114.)

is

points

ax y
*

*).

PV,VP'::

the rectangle

any point
bx K

to the tangent at

y*

oc

and T', where

whence

*) (i

The equation

137.

upon the ordinate Q V

the square upon C P.

the square

the square

= i (i

x*)

CT = ~,
x

x<

a?

new

cuts the

it

CT'

(x y

found exactly

axes, are determined as in

and the tangents drawn

,;

at the

in the diameter to that chord (114.).

referred to its rectangular axes, and let the

two extremities of a chord meet

now

138. Let the ellipse be

co-ordinates of

is

y
v

equation to

be x y\ then the equation to

f

2
ar

tangent at

to the

a}

yy +
(

b2

P
xx

is

cot.

a? a?'

y'

x,

and the

b*a!

a2 y

a2 y y' 4- 6 s

or,

But the equation

&

tan. 6'

CP

r- $*
r

0.

is
f

=a

6a

CD or the

diameter conjugate to C P is parallel to the tangent at P.

From this circumstance the conjugate to any diameter is often defined
to be the line drawn through the centre, and parallel to the tangent at the
extremity of the diameter.
The equation to the conjugate diameter is readily remembered, since it
is the same as that to the tangent without the last term, and therefore
may be deduced from the equation to the curve, as at the end of article
111.
The three equations are

hence

a2 y 2

a2 y y

a y y

The equation

+
+

b2

to the tangent

b x!

co-ordinates are

x2 rr a 2 b\

b2

and

to the curve,

= a 6 to the tangent,
= 0, to the conjugate.
2

cc

xx

D T passing

through the point D, whose

a %f
~2{note 135), and

x'

parallel to

P,

is

or reducing

y x

And

the equation to

C P

xy

zz a

be

is

y
These equations

of

to the tangents

x yf

0.

and conjugate diameters, combined

with the equation to the curve, will be found useful in the solution of

problems relating to tangents.

SUPPLEMENTAL CHORDS.

85

f
f
139. Let co and y be rectangular co-ordinates of P
a* + b* .equation a?
bfz* a 2
b\ we have b?

a/

2
t/'

(a

a?+

(a

eo, ')

b*

a'

ca?',)

2
tf'

=
= or

then, from the

<=a

= x n ~ a? - eV

rf'.

That is, the square upon the conjugate diameter C D s= the rectangle
under the focal distances S P and H P.
140. Draw PF perpendicular upon the conjugate diameter C D, then
by (135.) the rectangle PF,CD
a5,

ab

VV + 6

bx

was shown

It

hence,

The

PG

in (128.) that

rectangle

and The rectangle

and The rectangle

=-

= VtV;

Vr r', and P G'

P G, P F The square on B C,
PG',PF r= The square on A C,
PG.PG'r: The square on C D.

SUPPLEMENTAL CHORDS.
141. Two straight lines drawn from a point on the curve to the extreThey are called
mities of a diameter are called supplemental chords.
principal supplemental chords if that diameter be the axis major.
P' be a diameter, Q P, Q P' two
Referring the ellipse to its axes, let
f
y'
a?',
supplemental chords ; then, if x y' be the co-ordinates of P,

are those of

hence, the equation to

and the equation

At

the point of intersection,

being the co-ordinates of

but a2 y %

+6

and

at

(*

cc

hence. y %

= &
*' ~ a

^2

aV + &
y - ?" = - ^
a

to

y and

2
Z>

QP
P'

is

is

are the
'

y'

same

'<*'

a {x

a'

(a?

x') f

os').

for both equation?,

(&

x'*}

'

Q,

atP;
*">

that is, The product of the tangents of the angles, which a pair of supplemental chords makes with the axis major, is constant,

* If the distance C P ss u and

gent at P, this equation is
}

ss?

the perpendicular from the mitre on the tan-

'

-f.

_u

SUPPLEMENTAL CHORDS,

86

If the curve was referred to any conjugate diameters, 2 a L and 2 b x we

should find exactly in the same manner that the product of the tangents
of the angles, which a pair of supplemental chords makes with any axis
,

2 a l9

is

The
to its

and equal

constant,

equation to a chord

QP

being y

Q P'

supplemental chord

to

is

-f

(<r

the equation

a?'),

(a? -j-

a &

).

# .*. a a' ==
1, which proves that in the circle the
In the circle &
supplemental chords are at right angles to each other, a well-known property of that figure.
The converse of the proposition

Let

AC K!

be any diameter,

thus proved.

is

the origin, and a

a'

-, then the
a
\

A R is y =

equation to

and A'R,

a{)

(x

(a?

i) (1),

To

(2).

y and x be

let

multiplication

6s

~
a' (x-aS)

same

the

and

for (1)

(2),

is

AR

and eliminate a by

hence,

A'R

to

find the intersection of the lines

(^2 _ ^8)
or a 2 y* + }>*
a
an ellipse whose axes are 2 a and 2 b v

y%

and the equation

_L

^2 ^ an(

fo^g Q f

fe

remarkable, as showing that a

a'

tf

the

b2

142.

The

equation a a' ;=

is

the same, not only for different pairs of chords drawn to the extremities
of the same diameter, but also for pairs of chords drawn to the extremities
of any diameter ; hence, if from the extremity of the axis major we can
parallel to Q P', the supplemental chord
draw one chord
A' will
be parallel to Q P this is possible in all cases, except when one chord is

is

AR

parallel or perpendicular to the axis.

143.

Let

To
x,

find the angle

between two supplemental chords.

Q 2 and x y' those of P,
f

y be the co-ordinates of

y -y'
mu
Then

+
a

PQF =

-n^-o,
tan.
*

a'
,

ot

y+y'

77xJ
~ x
'

r x

'

hl

a'

'

"

x'y-y'x
= a-7
-r~rr
T7
b
or
2.a 9

;
5

a?'

a*
or,

x y
f

b"

y%

y' x
y'
2

For the principal supplemental chords, we have x f

.".

tan.

2
2 b

-o w

AEA's:
A

a2 -

b2

is

also evident, since

the circumscribing circle.

all

This value of the tangent being negative, the angle

obtuse, which

a, y'

the points

on the

ARA'

is

always

ellipse are within

THE POLAR EQUATION,

87

As y increases, the numerical value of the tangent decreases, or the

angle increases (since the greater the obtuse angle, the less is its tangent)
hence, the angle is a maximum when y is, that is, when y zzi b. This
shows that the angle ABA' is the greatest angle contained by the principal supplemental chords, and therefore by any supplemental chords.
is the least angle contained by any suppleAlso, its supplement
mental chords. The angle between the chords being thus limited by the
angles A'BA, BAB', of which the former is greater, and the latter
less, than a right angle, chords may be drawn containing any aagle between these limits. This is done by describing a segment of a circle,
containing the given angle, upon any diameter, except the axis, and joining the extremities of the diameter with the points of intersection of the
Also, from the value of tan. P Q P', it appears that,
ellipse and circle.
if the angle be a right angle, the two chords are perpendicular to the
;

BAB'

axes.

shown

144. It was

in (131.) that if 8

and

were the angles which

B'

conjugate diameters

make with

the axis major, tan.

6.

f
tan. Q

= ~b

being tangents of the angles which two supplemental chords

but a,

make

with the same axis 3

we have a

a' z=

/.

tan, 0. tan.

if

one diameter be

Co

a a

f
;

a, we have tan. 0'

if tan.
any chord, the conjugate diameter

hence,

parallel to

a*
is

or

parallel to the supple-

mental chord.
145. Since supplemental chords can be drawn containing any angle
within certain limits, conjugate diameters parallel to these chords may be
drawn containing any given angle within the same limits.
Also, since the angle between the principal supplemental chords is
between the conjugate diameters is also
always obtuse, the angle
and
In
B'.
obtuse, and is the greatest when they are parallel to
this case, being symmetrically situated with respect to the axes, they are

PCD

AB

equal to one another.

The magnitude of the equal conjugate diameters
equation

a^+ If

2
a?

to the circle,

a9

6s ,

ax *

.\

~\-

is

found from the

2
-.

its equal conjugate diameters is

however, this must not be confounded with the equation
which only assumes this form when referred to rectangular

The equation
if

a?

to the ellipse referred to

axes.

THE POLAR EQUATION.

146. Instead of an equation between rectangular co-ordinates % and y,
obtain one between polar co-ordinates u and 9.
Let the curve be referred to the centre C, and to rectangular axes, and
the angle which the
let the co-ordinates of the pole O be x and y',
radius vector O P, or u, makes with a line O cc parallel to the axis of a?;
then, by (61.), or by inspection of the figure, we have

we may

y^zy ,jru
#

5 W

sin.

U COB,

THE POLAR EQUATION.

88

also <&*#"

.%

by

&

s
tf

&2

+Mcos.

0)

quantities.

and

:=

a?'

a 2 wa

Of

0,

-f 6

m2

(cos. 0) 2

a2

(cos. 0)

(sin.

<9)

(cos. 0}

Let the focus S be the pole

.\ y' ~ 0, x' =: a e ==

148.

(a2

a2 (I
2

62

(sin.G) a

y'

(sin.

a
2

^'

terms of

in

147. Let the centre be the pole

.%

= a*b*;

Whence u may be found

and constant

+ m sin. 0)

substitution, a? (y f

a2

2
)

(cos. 0)

c )

(cos.

tf)

and u becomes

c,

hence the transformed equation (146.) becomes

/.

or,

(sin.

b* c

6>)

z=z

oi%

-f

6>)

a2

2
Z>

since s

=
=

av

^r

+6
+b

(c r cos.

cr

=s a 8 6 2

re

cos,6>

c 2.

8
c r (cos. e)

6* r c cos.

2
a

cos, 9

a* (1

b*

c -f r cos.

+ 6 r (cos. ^) - 2 6 rc cos. -f W c
+ a r (cos. 6f c*r* (cos. 0) - 2 6
a

(sin.)
2

(r sin. 6)

a~
2

(1-

e )

e )

c cos.

cos.

e cos. 6

>

149. Let any point on the curve be the pole:

Expanding- the terms of the polar equation in (146.), and reducing by
means of the equation a* y r * -f b* x'* =: a2 6 2 we have
,

d y/
l

M
If the pole
9

'

'

When

tz^

?/

(sin.

A, we have y'

is at

"

150.

~~ "

===

(sin. 0)

the focus

is

6>)

2
ft

x f cos.
(cos.

and x zz
f

0,

cos. 6

sin. 6 -J- b*

a,

2a(l-e
izr"

6 2 (cos. 0) 2

'

6>)

cos.

1 ~~ e

"

the pole, the equation

(cos. 0) 2

often obtained directly

is

from some known property of the curve.

IM

C5

r,

then

MSP

a?,

and

2<z

ma
r

r cos,

A S P - e,

+
+

ss

ea?

(109.)

(S

M-

S C)

- ae)

r cos,

& e2 and r ss
%

(1

-@)
s

6 COS.

THE POLAR EQUATION.

89

This is the equation generally used in astronomy, the focus S being the
place of the sun, and the ellipse the approximate path of the planet.

Let a

Then

e )

the last equation

r *~

= d = p> where p
52

(I

may be

written under the following forms

_
~

V
~2

e cos.

the parameter. (105.)

is

P
~2

7
"Ycos.
l-e + o
2ef

+c)^coB.gj+ (1-e)

(1

e V
j

(^sin.gj

be measured, not from S A, but from a line passing through

If
and making an angle a with S A, the polar equation is

S,

_P
2

PS

151. If

then r

<int
n(]

/
?

P', let

e cos. (tt

and
or

the

rr'^Y'
4 1 (e
/

rectangle S P,

= _

r+r'r PP =

r',

e cos.

0)

/.

a)

SF =

.
2

P
= -2

(6

1 -j- e cos.

meet the curve again

___

cos.

'

a 2
cos. 0)

(cos.

6>)

(r

1
4

r ')

S P' s= \ of the rectangle under the principal

parameter and focal chord.

152.

Let CD,
l*

or b be the semi-diameter parallel to

~1-

e 2 (cos.

6>)

,\

that

is,

~
r

a focal chord at any point P,

to that chord.

major and diameter

~2
-

is

(cos.
b,

6>)

S P, then (147.)

~2^

a third proportional to the axis

THE HYPERBOLA,

90

CHAPTER

IX,

THE HYPERBOLA.
153. In the discussion of the general equation of the second order, we
observed that, referring the curve to the centre and rectangular axes, the
equation to the hyperbola assumed the form

&)'+&)'where the
Let

have different signs, 85. 86,

co-efficients

77;

/'

be negative, then the equation becomes

-(=7>-

orP/-

-/'

Qa? 2

=-

1.

We now

proceed to investigate this equation, and to deduce from it all

the properties of the hyperbola.
154. Let the curve be referred to its centre C, and rectangular axes
then, at the point
x, and
X x, Yy, meeting in C ; C
where the curve cuts the axes, we have

M=

y=
*

0,0 3*=

In the axis of x take

Xa

0,P2f

CA

1,

MP=:^;

.%

*=
1,

;.y^%/-~

and CA'

J~q

in
and A: Since the value of y
cuts the axis
the other axis never meets the curve ; nevertheless we
points, B and B', in that axis, whose distances from
1

JL an d CB'z-

--L.

and the curve

is

impossible,

mark

are

off

two

CBz

THE HYPERBOLA.
Also

ifCAsa,

and

CBs5,

we have Q

=s

1
Ps~;

there-

equat ion to the curve becomes

re the

x2
6

the last
\

From

a
(1)

if

V^

# be

drawn through

&

or y

From

--

a8

6'
3

n we have

a2

(1)

than

less

and

i;

&2

e<:matio

_
~

~ a2

or

155,

91

~ -

and #

a,

A', parallel to

is

V y2

J_

52 (2).

impossible ; if, therefore, lines be

part of the curve is found

C Y, no

between these lines.

Again, for every value of

x, greater than #, we have two real and

equal values of y ; that is, for any abscissa C M, greater than C A, we
P',
P,
have two equal and opposite ordinates,
Also as x increases from a to gd, these values of y increase from
P', exactly equal and oppoP,
to -jz 0 ; hence, we have two arcs
site to each other, and extending themselves indefinitely.
If x be negative, x 2 being positive, the same values of y must recur
hence, there are again two equal and opposite arcs which form another
branch extending from A' to go ; thus the whole curve is divided into two

equal parts by the axis of x.

From (2) it appears to be divided into two equal parts by the axis of
y ; hence it is symmetrical with respect to the axes ; and its concavity is
turned towards the axis of x, otherwise it might be cut by a straight line
in more points than two, (71.)
156. If P be any point on the curve, we have

cp = v* + f
=
J
8

*2

M +a
,^ ~~ ^
V (^
^) = v r6

a"

^8

b*

hence C P is least when x is least, that is, when x ss , in which case

C P becomes also equal to a hence C A, or C A', is the least line that
can be drawn from the centre to the curve thus, the axis A A / is the
The
least line that can be drawn through the centre to meet the curve.
other axis, B B', never meets the curve.
2
1, the imaginary axis may be greater
In the equation ~P y 2 Q x
or less than the real one,, according as Q is greater or less than P ; hence
the appellation of axis major cannot be generally applied to the real axis
In this treatise we shall call A A' the transverse axis, and
of the curve.
;

W the conjugate

axis.

/
are called the vertices, or summits of the curve:
157. T'he points A,
either of these points may be taken for the origin by making proper sub-

stitutions.

Let

be the origin,

Then

M=

xf

a?=sCM=:CA +

AM = fi+';

THE FOCUS.

92

.-.

y*~~ ( - = ~
2

to

suppressing accents, #
1

or,

This
tion

equation

last

+ *T -

a}

{2

* +

*%

CI

(2 # x f #

b*-

) sr:

x (2 a

a?).

geometrically expressed by the following" propor-

is

The square upon

the square

{ (.a

11

upon

AM,

rectangle

If the origin be at A', the equation

158. If

M A'

\\

(a?

the square

upon

BC

A C.
zz

is y*

2 a

).

a2 ;
becomes y* cc?
called the equilateral hyperbola, and has, to the common

the equation to the hyperbola

6,

curve is
hyperbola, the same relation that the circle has to the ellipse.
this

159. The analogy between the ellipse and hyperbola will be found to
be very remarkable ; the equations to the two curves differ only in the
%
s
as 6 2 we put
sign of 6 ; for if, in the equation to the ellipse a* y + b* a:
s
2
we have the equation to the hyperbola hence we might
b for 6
conclude that many of the algebraical results found in the one curve will
s
be true for the other, upon changing 6 into - b* in those results ; and in
fact this is the case, the same theorems are generally true for both, and
may be proved in the same manner for this reason we shall not enter at
length into the demonstration of all the properties of the hyperbola, but
merely put down the enunciations and results, with a reference at the end
of each article to the corresponding one in the ellipse, except in those
To
cases where there may be any modification required in the working.
prevent any doubt about the form of the figure, we shall insert figures in
and, with this assistance, we
those places where they may be wanted

trust that the present plan will offer

no

difficulty.

THE FOCUS,
160.

The equation -y*

= (2fli+

may be put under

>

2/

zz.

3? 9 in

which case the quantity

principal parameter, or the Latus

the form

2 62
is

called the

Rectum.

4 b%
ss *- K2 , the Latus Rectum
2 6s

Since

is

& third proportional to

the transverse and conjugate axes*

161 To find from what point in the transverse axis a double ordinate
oan be drawn equal to the Latus Rectum,

Here 4 y

1% or

68

(#

a?) =s

4 h
~-

THE TANGENT
or,

:r

a2

2
-f b

93

Join

B, then

/A?

AB = J a

9 -j~ 6*

C and

with centre

scribe a circle cutting- the transverse axis in the points

CS = V

H=-V

b 2 , and C
a*
a*
bs
then
points through either of which, if an ordinate as

radius

thus S and

AB

de

S and H, we have

LSL'

are the

be drawn,

it

is

equal to the Latus Rectum.

The two

points

S and H, thus determined, are

Va +
2

The

162.
is

fraction

which represents the

called the eccentricity: if this quantity,

be represented by the letter

unity,

v +
perbola

b*

may

.*.

called the foci.

which

we have

e,

e2

CS

ratio of

C A,

evidently greater than

is

\/a 2

=a

and the equation

1,

to

e,

whence

to the hy-

be put under the form

y>

(e

1)

(a?

a2 ).

2 e2
a2
a e\ we have b
(a e
b*
a)
Since a?
a) ;
the square upon B C.
Or the rectangle AS, Si'
164. To find the distance from the focus to any point P in the curve,
proceeding exactly as in (109.) we find
163.

{a

SPr=ec7?

a,

= A A',

HF =

jc

the difference of the distances

2 a
P
P
Hence
of any point in the curve from the foci is equal to the transverse axis.
165. Conversely, To find the locus of a point, the difference of whose
is constant or equal 2 a.
distances from two fixed points S and
2 c, the locus is an hyperbola, whose axes are 2 a and
If S

- S

that

is

Va

H =
+ c
2

and whose

foci are

S and H. (110.)

THE TANGENT.
166.

To

The

find the equation to the tangent at any point

required equation obtained as in (111.)

a2 y y ~f

b*

x'

=r

a~ 6

is
s
.

(a?

y'),

THE TANGENT.

94

This form
for

x2

recollected, since

is easily

a2 y2

tion to the curve

x2

may

it

be obtained from the equa-

a2 62 by putting y y

for

2
y and x
,

or

167.

To

Let y

find the points

.\

0,

t=i

x = C T

we have
The

rectangle

and The rectangle

Since

CT

the branch

where the tangent cuts the axes

a2

PA

is

similarly

MT- x

less

upon
upon

the square

the square

than

C A,

x f2

a2
x

2
;

hence

AC
B

C,

the tangent to any point of

-a

C and

A.

at the extremity

7
y

CT,C M =
CT',MP^

always

= CT = -

2/

cuts the transverse axis between

The subtansent

The tangent

(115.)
f

x'

of the transverse axis is perpendicular

to that axis (116.).

be produced to meet the curve again in P ; the tangents at P

be found to be parallel (116.).
168. To find the equation to the tangent at the extremity of the Latus
If

PC

and P'

will

Rectum,
Generally the equation to the tangent

a2 y y
at L,

#'

~~

is

W xx =
f

a2

62

b2

e,

zz.

a2 y

a
e

b2

x ae

a*

a9 b\

THE TANGENT,

Let the ordinate

e x - a (164.).

CT =

Also

or

?/,

Q, cut the curve in P, then we have S

.\MQ =

SP:

TR

hence from

95

draw

perpendicular to

C, and

from

P draw P R

parallel to

C, then

PR=MT = MC-CT

line

TR

iL

e0D ~"

JL

from

and from

S,

Consequently, the distances of any point

are in the constant ratio of e : 1

The

we have

fche

line

T R,

called the directrix.

is

If x
a ; hence the tangent at the extremity of
0, we have y
the Latus Rectum cuts the axis of y at the point where the circle on the
transverse axis cuts the axis of y.
169.

To

from the focus on the

find the length of the perpendicular

tangent.

Let S

?/,

Hz

be the perpendiculars on the tangent

Taking the expression

in (48.)

we have
y a x
x

V
here y l =s
-f~

is

and

oo l

the equation to

e are

Py

fl

co-ordinates of the point S, and

Py

but the equation to

6 2 a?

and

<i

(166.)

a*y'
f

v-~

b*x
-7, a
a y

aW
~~

P T.

ab

a{

(e x'

{&

a)

x'

is

2 }

= +
^ &/
~"
-

b 2 (e

a?'

lV '

~~

e #'

-J-

e'

also

THE TANGENT.

96

= r' .\ p= b ^/^orp*
/' r
2a+r
Similarly if H z = p\ we have p' = b
r
hence
By multiplication we have p p = 6

LetSP^ r,andHP = 2a +

rectangle S y,

The

To

170.

is

a2 y ,z

equation to the tangent at

is

to the curve at

a2 y y

The equation
eliminating #' and

S y

to

is

3/

xn

f
-

By

upon

zn the square

C.

find the locus of y or z in the last article.

The equation

The

Hz

&2 W

x x

(x

=- 77

6^

a? b

a2

2
.

c)

a?'

exactly as in (120.),

zzz

we

arrive at the equa-

tion

a2

Hence
meter.
171.
tangent

the locus of y

To

is

2
2/

is,

focal distance

62

on the transverse

axis as dia

makes with

the

T.

The equation
to

circle described

which the

find the angle

^2

to the

hence

*' -~ c

tangent

y
tan.

y'

HPT=r

zz

a y

#'),

PT =

tan

62 *' 8

c y'

and the equation

b* c

b*

X - PTX)

a2 )

c{cx' a

b
y

(P S

a* y n "

(c *'

j'a
2

(#

a% y'

Similarly tan,

is

SPT,

/.the angles

HPT

are equal;

thus the tangent makes equal angles with the focal distances.
Produce S P to S', then it is a property of light, that if a ray probe reflected by the line
the angle S' P T' of the
ceeding from
Now, in the hyperbola, these
reflected ray will equal the angle HPT.
angles are equal ; hence if a light be placed at H, all rays which are incident on the curve will be reflected as if diverging from S ; or if a body
of rays proceeding to S be incident on the curve, they will converge to H.
are called foci.
Hence these points S and
This important property of the curve is also thus proved from article

TPf,

(169.),

r
Sy=p=6 J
t

and

rf

z =:

s: b

THE TANGENT.
Sy

H?

::

.. r'

::

97

SP HP;
:

.. angle S P y
II P 2, and the tangent makes
equal angles with the focal distances *.
172. To find the length of the perpendicular C u from the centre on the
tangent.

^r

here

173.

^=

To

= -=

ot

Vi +

and a =2

,,

,-,

C w

find the locus of u.

2

The equation

C u

to

is

:=

^
ft

V*

eliminating

#,

a'

from

?/'

this

equation, and the equation to the tangent, we find, as in (123.), the re2
2
sulting equation to be a 2 x 2
6 y =r (a? 2
y*)\ which cannot be discussed at present.
174. From the equation to the tangent, and that to C P, we find, as
in (124.),

ffi A2

tan.CPT = -f-r.
c cd y'
2

* The following geometrical method of drawing a tangent to the hyperbola, and

proving that the locus of the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent is the circle
on the transverse axis, will be found useful.

AP

be the hyperbola, P any

join S P and
P, and in
P take P
= PS; bisect the
angle S P
by the line P y z, and
join S K, cutting P y in y.
1. P y is a tangent to the hyperbola; for if
be any other point in
- S
the line P y, we have

Let

point on

it

HR

KR

HR

HK

than
^Geom.
i. 10) less than 2 a, hence R, and every
other point in P y, is without the curve.
is less

2. The locus of y is the circle on

the transverse axis : draw
z parallel
to S #, and join C y
then, because
the triangles S P y,
P y are equal,
we have the angle S 7/P a right angle,
or S y and
z are perpendicular to the tangent.

C H, we

have

C y

parallel to

K, and

Cy

Also since S y

HK:

i- (H

P -

and S C

y,

S P)

= C A.

H z r=r the square on B C. Let z meet the circle again in

then the line
is a straight line and a diameter, hence the
triangles CSj/,CHO are equal, and the rectangle Sy, II z
O,
the rectangle
Hz the rectangle A',
the square upon B C.
3.

The

rectangle S y,

0, and join

C O

4.

Let S

OCy

= HP
r,

similar triangles,

S y

HA

==2

2 a

S P

::

+
H

Sy

r,

-p
P,

.*.

and

p\ then

p =

p'j
I

&%.-.|i

=
a

~|~

'2

n.

-*-

and, as above,

=
2a

-\-

for

p'

by

THE NORMAL.

98

From

C =

C y

Also from

rr a

rr'

2 =2

sin.

have

y u

Lyu^

sin.

/..

~j=->
r T'

*J

J
^

C y u, we

sin.

HP

H P 2,

sin.

HP:,

sin.

we have

HP^ -==
J

sin.

.'.

r r

is parallel to H P.
.\ angle C y u =% angle H P 2 and C
And if C E be drawn parallel to the tangent P T, and meeting H P
in E, we have
2/

PE^C^~AC.

THE NORMAL,
/
perpendicular to the tangent

x
-

#2

y #

.-.

Also the subnormal

176.

From

trate that

The
Also

y'

MG

+
w

ss

the above values of

P G =

a v

rectangle

(a?'

b2

3/

),

is
J

*0-

.-.

a/

if

+ -^

4- h 2

&2
a?

and

.-.

Let

w'

- y' = - -^ry 0* To find where the normal P G cuts the axes.

a y
- y> =s - -^
Let y =
( - *')
a2

through the point

to the line passing

The equation

175.

rr

P G'

t=

a?'

^-

52

&2

and S

==

e.

S P.

'

M G', we

may demon-

C G, C

G',

5= -

r /, and consequently that

PG.PG'sr r

SG'- ^4G G' ~

j7?
v
6
9

and

== the rectangle

G'.

V"77', and

S P,

P.

G G'=

.-.

e.SG'.

177. Since the tangent makes equal angles with the focal distances,
the normal, which is perpendicular to the tangent, also makes equal
angles with the focal distances, one of them being first produced as to H\
for
This theorem may be directly proved from the above value of C

II P,

H.G

::

e*x'

hence the angle S

ae

H'

is

a e : ex a : ex
bisected by the line P G.
a?'

: :

THE DIAMETERS.
173. It may be proved as for the ellipse (130.), that all the diameters
of the hyperbola pass through the centre, and that any line through the

THE DIAMETERS.
centre

is

a2 a y

99

a diameter.
If y t=i a x
c be the equation to any chord,
6 2 x zn
is the equation to the diameter bisecting- all chords

parallel to

ax

c.

179. In the ellipse all the diameters must necessarily meet the curve
but this is not the case in the hyperbola, as will appear by finding the coordinates of intersection of the diameter and the curve.

Let y
p x be the equation to a diameter
value of y in the equation to the curve.

a?

,\a

a
ft a?

a?

|3

.'.#

a?*

#
6

=/3

V6 -

greater than

andif/3

a2

if

/3

2
,

2 '

'

These values are impossible,

a2

"

a* b\

-=
2

P, and substitute this

is

fl

a"/3 2

2
greater than 6 , that

is, if /3 is

the diameter meets the curve only at

an infinite distance. The limits of the intersecting diameters are thus

determined; through A, B and B draw lines parallel to the axes meeting
f

in

and

E', then tan.

ECA

and

tan.

E'CA= -

a hence CE
,

and C E' produced are the lines required. Hence, in order that a diameter meet the curve, it must be drawn within the angle ECE'; thus the
line C D never meets the curve.
The curve is symmetrical with respect to these lines C E, C E', since

C E'.
the axis bisects the angle
180. The hyperbola has an infinite number of pairs of conjugate diaThis is proved by referring the equation to other axes by means
meters.
of the formulas of transformation (57.)
y

:rr

{a

(sin.

y -

aa

2 (a* sin*

0+2/'

sin.

cos.
2

fr

b*

sin.

+ ?/ cos. ;

b x a
becomes
y
(cos. Q f} y + {a* (sin. 6>) - (cos. 0) } tf
2
sin. $' - cos, & cos.
} x y s= - a 6
x =: x

hence the equation

! '2

112

THE DIAMETERS,

100

In order that this equation be of the conjugate form, let the co-efficient
r
0,
of if x
2
6 2 cos.
cos. 0'
0,
.\ a sin. 9 sin. G

= -

tan. Q tan. 0'

or,

a2

we have

a real value of Q
that is, there is an
if the curve be referred, its
of the required conjugate form.

Hence

for

infinite

number of

equation

any value of

is

0,

pairs of axes to which,

than

If tan. 6 be less

must be Greater than

tan. 6 f

that

is,

if

one diameter C P, in the last figure, meets the curve, the conjugate diameter C D does not ; therefore in each system of conjugate diameters one
Also, since the product of the tangents is positive, both
is imaginary.
in the figure they are both acute, but
angles are acute, or both obtuse
for the opposite branch they must be both obtuse.
181. As in article (132.), it appears that there can be only one system
of rectangular conjugate diameters.
;

The equation

182.

{a*

(sin. Q') ~

If

we

to the curve is

(cos.

now

+ {^ (sin. Of -

y' 2
}

make y

successively

from the origin

0') 2

= 0,

b (cos. 0) 2 }

a?'

- a? b\

and x'
0, we have the distances
which the curve cuts the new axes; but

to the points in

know

(180.) that one of these new axes never meets the

represent one of these distances by an imaginary quantity.
Let the axis of x f meet the curve at a distance a x from the centre, and
let the length of the other semi-axis be b x connected with the symbol

we

as

curve,

then

already

we must

that

=
=

y
x

And

is, let

the

new conjugate diameters be 2 a and 2

x

{a 2

/.

(sin.

{a2

.\

Qf

(sin. 6

I,

f -

y' 2
b

or,

183.

From
a
6t

a8

Of} a*

if

b x* x'*

we

~~-a

{a2

(sin. 0')

sin.

sin. Q'

(cos.

<9)

article,

we

putting

= -

a2

b2 ,

(3).

V
'

in article (134.), or,

for 6

and

arrive at the result

a?

(2),

( 1),

6*

Following the steps exactly as

thing,

b?.

same

a2 h\

obtain the three- following equations:

--ab
(cos. 6'y} = + a 6
6 cos. cos. 6 = 0,
6
tan. Q =
tan.

(sin. 0)

or,

(-

2
(cos, 0') ]

=-

=2-1,

the transformation

{a 2

b 2 (cos.

becomes

the transformed equation

~"

ihe

bx

we have

~~ b?

a8

6%

for

which amounts to
all through that

V"

THE DIAMETERS,

101

or, the difference of the squares upon the conjugate diameters is equal to
the difference of the squares upon the axes.
184. Again, multiplying (1) and (2) together, and (3) by itself, then
subtracting the results, and reducing, as in the article (135.), we have
! 6 X sin. (0

Now

6f

6>)

b>

PCD

CP

e is the angle
between the conjugate diameters
hence, drawing straight lines at the extremities of the conjugate
diameters, parallel to those diameters, we have, from the above equation,
the parallelogram P C
T the rectangle A' C B E, and hence the whole
parallelogram thus inscribed in the figure is equal to the rectangle contained by the axes *.
185. Returning to article (182,), the equation to the curve, suppressing
the accents on x f and y', as no longer necessary, is

and C

* The theorems in articles 183 and 184 may be proved also in the following manner
Referring the curve to its rectangular axes, as in art. (187-)> ^ et tne co-ordinates of
2
2
P be a/ and y\ then the equation to
is a y y b x x' = 0, and eliminating #
and y between this equation and that to the curve ( 2 y a b2 x 2 z=z a 2 A a ) we have
:

CD

the co-ordinates

N and D N,

independent of the sign

with which they are

1,

both affected,

CN

= -,

and

DN =

y" -

?/=

Hence we have
a*

b?

#' 2

+y
+

Also the triangle

triangle

PCM

-(*/-*)

x2

x'

8 &a

a y"

Px*

b2

x$ - o s

y'

&
a 2 b*

bl

PCD =

lia

-h

the trapezium

+ ^jl

PMND

_vv

y *

-f the triangle

1
,

h x'

V1
therefore the parallelogram

x'--

a"y"

2 ab
V C D T ~-

a* tf

_ab

2a6=-y>
% b.

P CN .

?/'

the

D=

last figure, C P e= a i9 C
Putting the equation into the form

In the

we have

THE DIAMETERS,

102

upon Q V
upon C P>

the square

the square

186.

= x and QVsjf:

CY

6n

P V, VF::

the rectangle

The equation to the tangent at any point Q (V

a? yy -h?xx' = - a,2 bf.

the square

upon

y') is

187. Let the curve be referred to

ordinates of

^
J

is

x tan.

ayy'
But

a2 y

y'

oc

a*

rr

cot.

the co-

let

being y s= j-x, the

a?

x, or,

x' zz 0

is

x' t=

or the diameter conjugate to

equation to the conjugate diameter

is

C D,

hence

the equation to the tangent at

6-

B, and

y'

C P

be x y\ then the equation to

CD

to
equation
1

C A, C

axes

its

P,

&s

the tangent

is parallel to

at P.

The

gent, omitting the last term

b2

the

same

as that to the tan-

P; then from

f
188. Let x' and y be the rectangular co-ordinates of
b t2
a2 b 2 we have
equation a x 2

bfszaf

tf

+ fc^rft+y'i tf +

#2 _L 5 2
.

ft

3/ 2

the

fl

e 2 ^/2 -.

fl

b*

+(

2-

/8

(e

8
a?'

2
ft

a*

a)

That is, the square upon the conjugate diameter

under the focal distances S P and H P.

(e

/
t7?

^)

CD= the

+&

r'

rectangle

be drawn perpendicular from P upon the conjugate C D,

189. If P
=: ab,
(see the last figure but one,) we have the rectangle PF,

CD

(164-).

PF
Also

PG

Hence

the rectangle

And

the rectangle

And

the rectangle

* If the distance

r',

V#

and

G'

PF

G,

PG',

ab

^i

'

-f b

= 4" V r

Vrr

r',

=s the square on

B C

PF^ the square on A C

P G, PG'=

CPz, and

p z=

the square on

C D.

the perpendicular from the centre on the tan-

gent, this equation is

*?__

THE ASYMPTOTES.

103

SUPPLEMENTAL CHORDS,
190. Two straight lines drawn from a point on the curve to the extremities of a diameter are called supplemental chords ; they are called
principal supplemental chords if that diameter be the transverse axis.

The

equations to a pair of chords are

Whence a

a'

ij ess
?/'

aA

a (x
'

{cc

a?0

as in (141.); hence the product of the tangents of

the angles which a pair of supplemental chords makes with the transverse
axis is constant; the converse is proved as in 141.

The angle between two supplemental chords

191.

is

found from the ex-

pression
tan.
if A R, A'
on the curve,

And,

R be

PQP = -VT-T* Hf"V

principal supplemental chords

tan.

ARA's
7-r
(a +
2

fr)

drawn

to any point

A R

The

angle
A' is always acute, and diminishes from a right angle
A' R' increases at the same time from a
the supplemental angle
right angle to 180; hence, the angle between the supplemental chords
may be any angle between and 180o

to

Chords may be drawn containing any angle between these limits, by

describing on any diameter, except the axes, a segment of a circle containing the given angle, and then joining the extremities of the diameter
with the point where the circle intersects the hyperbola. And therefore
principal supplemental chords parallel to these may be drawn.
192. Conjugate diameters are parallel to supplemental chords (144.)
and therefore they may be drawn containing any angle between and 90.
193. There are no equal conjugate diameters in the hyperbola, but in
a 9 we have the equation
that particular curve where b
;

a?

b?

a2 -

&

0;

hence the conjugate diameters a x and b x are always equal

The

to

equation to this curve, called the equilateral hyperbola,

y*

x%

each other,
is

= a\

THE ASYMPTOTES.

We

194.
have now shown that most of the properties of the ellipse
apply to the hyperbola with a very slight variation there is, however, a
whole class of theorems quite peculiar to the latter curve, and these arise
from the curious form of the branches extending to an infinite distance ;
:

it

appears from the equation tan.

tan

b*

~-

in (180.), that as tan.

THE ASYMPTOTES.

104

approaches to

tan, 6

approaches also to

Cb

and

thus, as a point

(t

recedes along the curve from the origin, the conjugate diameters for that
point approach towards a certain line C E, fig. (179.), and finally at an
infinite distance come indefinitely near to that line.
now proceed to show that the curve itself continually approaches to
But as this
the same line C E, without ever actually coinciding with it.
species of line is not confined to the hyperbola, we shall state the theory

We

generally.

Lei

195.

CPF be

a curve whose equation has been reduced to the

form

And

let

TB

S be the

line

a x

For any value of x we can

M Q,

curve
(P',

f
,

Since

find

from

and by adding

similarly

whose equation
y s= a x

ordinate

to

is

b.

-f-

this last equation a

MQ

corresponding

we determine a point

we can determine any number of corresponding

in the

points

&c.) in the curve and straight line.

decreases as x increases, the line

P Q'
;

will

be

less

than

Q,

and the greater x becomes, the smaller does the corresponding P' Q become so that when x is infinitely great, P' Q' is infinitely small, or the
r

curve approaches indefinitely near to the line TBS, but yet never actually
is called an asymptote to the curve, from three
meets it hence
Greek words signifying " never coinciding."
a x + 6, or is the equaThe equation to the asymptote T B S is y
tion to the curve, with the exception of the term involving the inverse

TBS

power of

x.

196. The reasoning would have been as conclusive if the*e had been
more inverse powers of x ; and in general if the equation to a curve can
be put into the form

ss &c.

+ mx +
3

n x2

4-

ax

+ &+

d
X
+ &c.
c

-&-

X*

THE ASYMPTOTES.
Then

the equation to the curvilinear asymptote

+ m

es &c.

Also the equation y

x3

m x*

&c. -f

n
n

~f-

2,

oc

x*

105

is

cc

a?

gives
c

<

6 -f

-f-

a curve

much more

asymptotic than the preceding equation, and hence arises a

more nearly coinciding" with the original curve.
197. Let us apply this method to lines of the second order, whose
general equation is (75.)

series of curves, each "

h
= - ~~~L ITa^'^ ~ 4 a C) ^ + 2 (bd " 2ae) X + d

V {m +
a?

2a

2 a

a?

-f

2 a

Hence

?i a?

\
n

in

bx
~~

-f

by substitution,

mx

constant terms

powers

ot

is

*J

b*

4c
%ac

2 a

V{* + i^}

2 a

bx

mx
,

the equation to the asymptote

mx*

Now

~ 4

"

J
I*

4 a c is

62

2&c
- 4ac

i
J

negative in the ellipse, and therefore there is no locus

2
4 a c
0, the equation
to the above equation in this case ; also if b
6

V^

term
and thereto the asymptote, found as above,
5
fore will belong to a curvilinear asymptote ; hence the hyperbola is the
only one of the three curves which admits of a rectilinear asymptote.
sign, that there are two asymptotes, and that
It appears from the
will contain the

the

y ss
diameter *

2a

pass through the centre

for giving to

bx
V

bisects them.

"~

Also these asymptotes

,

xl

x the value

2 a

d
,

we have

+ d^2cdbe
"""

~~2~cT~

#-

ac

'

and these values of x and y are the co-ordinates of the centre (80.).
2
198. If the equation want either of the terms # or y\ a slight operain
equation
a
series
the
of inverse powers of
express
tion will enable us to
be
equation
if
the
thus
x;
or
y
b

xy

-f

ex2

+ dy +

-f

/ 0,

THE ASYMPTOTES,

!C6

we have

bx ^x d7/

cx

-f e

-f-

:= -

# 2 Jr

-y
(

X\

-\

4.

yL-

bxj\

bx

[<

\
b

+d/
:

bx

+ \bxj ^
)

the equation to the asymptote, found by multiplying

lecting inverse powers of a?, is

Hence

ex
y

~"

or,

&c

and neg

+ b 2i
"J
b
c d b e

-(- c

~tf

<r

other asymptote is determined by the consideration that if, for any

value of <r, we obtain a real infinite value of y, that value of a? determines the position of an asymptote.
00 ; hence a line drawn pa
d
0, we have y
Here when b x

The

finite

rallel to the axis

of y % and through the point x =2

is

the required

asymptote.
If the equation be

+ b xy

ay*

-\-

dy

ex

-^

-j-

f==L 0,

the equations to the asymptotes are

ay

-f-

b d
a e
~~
=

and the second asymptote

is

and

4* e

parallel to the axis of

If the equation be
b

x y

-f

-f-

ea?

and

d( 3/

+/

0,

the equations to the asymptotes are

6

x -f d

= 0,

the former asymptote being parallel to the axis of y> and the latter parallel to that of a?.

199. Lastly, if the equation be

b x

+f=

0,

and the curve

the asymptotes are then the axes themselves,

its

centre and asymptotes as axes.

The position of the curve in this case

equation

Let C

and

f
-7

decreases, and

OX

= m

referred to

from the

directly obtained

is

by substitution.

be the axes, then

when x

is

r= cd,

7/

for

s= 0; hence

as a increases
0, y = 00
we have the branch Y X.
1

THE ASYMPTOTES,

10?

For a? negative, y is negative; and as x increases from to oo, y decreases from co to

hence another branch y <# 3 equal and similar to the
;
former.
200. To find the equation to the asymptotes from the equation to the
hyperbola referred to
y

= '

Hence

a V

a?

its

centre and axes,

a 2 ==

ii^i-i^+.to,}

-cc\/\~

the equation to the asymptotes

is

To draw these lines, complete the parallelogram on the principal axes

(see the figure, art. 179,) ; the diagonals of this parallelogram are the loci
of the last equation, and therefore are the asymptotes required : thus C

and

when produced,

are the asymptotes.

The equation to the asymptotes, referred to the centre and rectangular
axes, is readily remembered, since it is the same as the equation to the
curve without the last term ; the two equations are
E',

a2 y 2
%

a y

b 2 a? zz

b 2 , to the curve,

a2

x tn

to the asymptotes.

If the curve be referred to conjugate axes 9 the equations are

a \ V*
2

a y

#2

&i

"

2
\

^i

t the curve,

to the asymptotes.

a, the equation to the hyperbola referred to its centre and

201. If b
2
2
a2 therefore the equation to the asymrectangular axes is y x =:
2
x ; hence these asymptotes cut the
x 2 == 0, or y ^z
ptotes is y
axes at an angle of 45, or the angle between them is 90; hence the
equilateral hyperbola is also called the rectangular hyperbola.
and rectangular axes, the
202. If the curve be referred to its vertex
equation to the curve is

('+vy.

and, expanding and neglecting inverse powers of

asymptotes is

-(t-'>

x, the equation to the

THE ASYMPTOTES,

108

203. If

we take

the equation to any line

[y~ x

-j-

parallel to

the asymptote, and eliminate y between this equation and the equation to
the curve, we find only one value of x ; and thus a straight line parallel
to the asymptote cuts the hyperbola only in one point.
204. In article (77.) it was stated that, in some cases, the form of the
thus, when the curve cuts neither
curve could not be readily ascertained
:

some

diameter, there might be

difficulty in ascertaining its correct position:

be found very useful in this respect: for

the asymptotes will, however,

examnle,
1

the equation

if

is

xy

2
<r

-f b

s
,

or

=x +

-\

cd
and when x becomes very great, y approxiy
hence the lines A Y and TBS, in figure (194), wilL
and since the curve never cuts the
represent the asymptotes of the curve
S and the
axes, its course is entirely confined within the angle
opposite angle T B A ; hence the position of the curve is at once determined, as in figure (194).

we have
mates

for

-f b

to

0,

YB

Ex.

l?

2.

(a

2)

(a

1) (a

3),

or

= (^JzlUfLZJl

In the first place we ascertain that the curve is an hyperbola by the

4 a c being positive ; then draw the rectangular axes A X, A Y

find the points

test
:

to

where the curve cuts the axes,

Let x
Let y

=
=

0,

,\

0,

.*.

#
x

also X

= - = A B,
= 1 = A C,
3 ~ A D,

t=i

thus the curve passes through the points B, C, and D,

Again, to find the asymptotes, we have y s^ oo for x

2 ; hence, if
2, the line
G, drawn perpendicular to AX, is one asymptote.

AE m
To
y

FE

find the other,

(x

1)

we have

(xj- 3)

"~

(x_

1)

2
1

*K

(x~ 3)_

(x

1) (x

-3)
xj

THE

J.l

+,

ASYxVEPTOTES.

&c. 1

109

+,&c;

on 2, and therefore this line

hence the equation to the asymptote is y
must be drawn through the point E, making' an angle of 45 with
X.
We can now trace the course of the curve completely for all values of
x less than I, y is negative, hence the branch BC; for x greater than
to co, hence the
1, but less than 2, y is positive and increases from
branch C F for x greater than 2, but less than 3, y is negative, hence
the branch G D
and for x greater than 3, y is positive and approxextending to the second
imating to x 2, hence the branch from
asymptote.
For negative values of x, y is negative, and increases from to go,
hence the curve extends
approximating also to the value x 2
downwards from B towards the asymptote.
a and y zz x
Ex. 3. y (x a)
2 a). Here x
a, are
x (x
the equations to the asymptotes.
The figure is like the last, supposing

D
;

that

and

coincide.

= a xx~~
gives y = co
l

Ex.
x

y%

4.

ij* =.

-f-

The

.r*.

axis of

one asymptote, since

is

2/

Also

x -{- 2 # gives the other asymptote.

205. In order to discuss an equation of the second order completely, we
have given, in Chapter VII., a general method of reducing that equation
to its more simple forms.
In that chapter we showed that the equation, when belonging to an
2
2
0. (84.)
c x -f
hyperbola, could be reduced to the form a y
& 2 ; and
Now the same equation can be reduced also to the form xy
as this form is of use in all discussions about asymptotes, we shall prohence ^

/=

ceed to its investigation.

206. Let the general equation be referred to rectangular axes, and
it be

+ bxy +

ayv

cx*

+ ex + / =

dy

let

0.

n, and then, as in article (80.), put

Let x
m, and y == y r
xf
by this means the curve is rethe co-efficients of x and y' each ==
;
ferred to its centre, and its equation is reduced to the form
r

ay n +

+/'=

bx y -fc' 2
f

0.

take the formulas of

x
transformation from rectangular to oblique co-ordinates (57.).

Again, to destroy the co -efficients of

f

then, by substituting

y
J-

rn

{a

x" {a

y rr

x' f sin.

zz.

and

(sin.

(sin.

'

cos. 6 -h

y
y

and

f}

,f

y',

sin.

cos.

Q\
r

arranging, the central equation

+ b sin.
* b sin. 6
f

0'f

ey

becomes

eos.0' -f c (cos. 0*'/}

cos. Q

-f

o (cos.

6>)

THE ASYMPTOTES.

110
-4-

G f sin.

x" y T! {2 a sin,

cos.
+ sin.
+ /' = 0.
0'

b (sin.

cos.

0'

cos. 0)

2 c cos.

0'

There are two new indeterminate quantities and 0' introduced therefore we may make two suppositions respecting the co-efficients in the
,h and y" 2
0,
transformed equation hence, letting the co-efficients of x
;

we have

ey

(sin.

(sin. 0') a

Dividing the

first

cos.

h sin.

( cos e ')

& ( sin e
-

c (cos. 0) 2

c ( cos

(1),

y=

0t
-

2
of these two equations by (cos. 0) ,

(tan. 0)

hence

b tan

=r

tan.

C2 )-

we have

the similarity of the equation (1) and (2), it is evident that we

same value for tan. 0' ; hence, letting one of the above
or both the new axes are de
;
values refer to 0, the other will refer to
termined in position from the above values of tan, 0.

From

shall arrive at the

The equation

is

now reduced

V
To

207.
b

zz2a

sin.0' sin. 6

= cos.
From

find the value of b

{2 a tan.

cos.

+f=

and therefore

tan. 0'

cos.

tan.

+
_

^/ (a
&'

(a

c )*

tan. 0'

c )2

:{2c-
+

2 c

cos.

2 c }

tan. 0)

cos. 0,

we have

tan.

0'

b (tan.

0,

6/

cos.

cos. 6' -f sin. 0' cos. 0)

the eauation involving tan.

tan.

0.

we have

b (sin.
f

form

to the

x y

2c}

tf

4#c

c)

+ /=

//=^4Z! +/

(a

6*

Also

Hence

the final equation

6

-4ac
~ cy +

4 a c

is

ae+c(P- 6^6
'

*"

2/

b*

FT7
p Aac

-15

208. If the original axes are oblique

and then, following the above

process,

= i V^
2 (a 4-

^/

{(a

+c

c (cos.

(6

b cos. w)

we must
we find

4ac

tan.

(80.).

"

take the formulas

fr

2 c cos.

w) 2

b cos. w)

\\\

(56.),

4 a c)

-f (5

~4ac)

(sin.

w) 2 }*

209. The following examples relate to the reduction of the general

equation referred to rectangular axes, to another equation referred to the
asymptotes.

THE ASYMPTOTES.
Ex

1.

2/

10 x y

m==-|.,n=-|-,/

x&

Ill

0,

T ;ten.==52V6,y==

==

48

- ~;

15
or,

a>"

4y - 8

Ex.2.

= -

6':

or

1,

28

a?

15

o,

t^2

0,

a?

x n y ff

or,

_a +

'

128

~8V Ta?" y"

9*.

Ex.3.

4y +

4 #2

ff

~4 V~2
zzz

'

ce.

The axes are here parallel to the asymptotes (198.) : in order to transfer
f
the origin to the centre, let y
a?' 4- m, hence we have
y + n and x
, ?i =^ 6, and the reduced equation is

m=

y -= a

x'

b.

210. If
and 0' be the angles which the asymptotes make with the
original rectangular axes, we have from the equation (206.),

(tan.

Now

when

a,

Of

===

0,

=
a

tan. e tan. 0'

this

b tan.

equation becomes tan.

6. tan. 6'

1, or,

f
tan. 0. tan. 6 -f Is: 0; hence by (47.), the angle between the asymptotes is in this case =: 90 ; and thus whenever, in the general hyperbolic

equation,

Ex.

4.

we have
2
2/

a?

c
a

= a, the cnrve
= V 2.

is

a rectangular hyperbola.

The curve is a rectangular hyperbola, and is referred to its centre and

in (206.), we have
rectangular axes
also taking the two values of tan.
~- 45, and
tan.
and tan. Q r
1 ; hence 9 := 45 and &
;

= -

0=1,

the formulas of transformation become

V2

V2

or

and

a?'

a?' 2/'

y= -

</ 2,

-y-g.

In this example the curve is placed as in the next figure, and at first
was referred to the axes C X and C Y, but now is referred to the asymptotes C x and C y, supposing C y and C x to change places, and the
angle

xQy ^

90,

THE ASYMPTOTES.

112

211. Conversely given the equation xy == k\ to find the equation reand thence to deduce the lengths of the axes
For this purpose we use the formulas of transformation from oblique to

ferred to the rectangular axes,

rectangular axes (56.).

sin.

-f
:

cos.
-,

Sill. (O

a:

(w

x' sin.

4- 1/3/ {cos.

Let the
,\

sin. (10

co-efficient of a/

cos.

sin.

sin (w

sin.

0)

,r^ k\ we have

?/'

cos. (<w

cos.
cos.

sin.

(w

0)}

0)

= F (sin.

w) 2

3/'

/.

0)

0) ~~
= 0,

0)

(w

sm. w

substituting these values in the equation

x f2

y' cos. (w

0)

cos, (o>

sin.

and

0,

0), or sin.

^-

(w

0)

hence the new rectangular axis of a?, determined by the angle 0, bisects
to between the asymptotes
this agrees with the remark at the
end of (179.).

the angle

The transformed

equation, putting

_ ^2

sin. ___

is

JM _ p

-,

tz.

C0Sj

2 sm.

or, putting

cos.

4 k2

Comparing

for

is\n.~)

this with the equation

2 k cos.

W
V

cos.-f-

-7

and dividing

sin.. tv 9

( s i 0j

<

and b

=
2

/<:

/^

L we

sin.-~
^

have

hence the lengths of the semi-axes are determined.

had been x y -}- a a? -f /;;?/ + c

0, first refer the curve
and then proceed as above.
212, To deduce the equation x y
k 2 from the equation to the curve
referred to the centre and rectangular axes.
If the equation

to its centre,

Let

CX,CY
C
C

x,

Cy

be the rectangular axes,

the asymptotes, or the

- x)
M=
x
M P = y\
CN = /|
,_

tv,
IS;

n
P

=:

new

axes,

the original co-ordinates of P,

>

the

y'l

new co-ordinates of P.

THE ASYMPTOTES

113

Then taking the formulas of transformation from rectangular to oblique

axes (57),

y~x
=

x
and substituting

or,

sin.

(a?'

{a

+y

sin. 0')

6 (cos.

sin.

sin.

(sin. 0')*

2 { a2

-}-

y' cos.

sin.

cos.

equation a2

in the

t/

&2

O'

0O }?/

6f

sin. 0',

oc

cos.

0',

y' cos.

Q'f

we have

62 ,

( sin Q )

cos. 0' } a/

b cos.

&2

= -

a2

2
( cos e ) }

2
,

*'*.

~ -

a2

2
.

In order that this equation may be of the required form, it must not
contain the terms in x n and fs
but since we have introduced two indey
terminate quantities, we can make the two suppositions that the co-efficients of these terms shall
;
;

.%

From

(sin. 6

(sin.0) 2

the last of these equations

2
(cos. 0')

(cos. 0)

0,
= 0,
=

we have

tan.

and as we

ci

obtain from the other equation the

and

values of

/
is, if

tan. 6

tan.

0', it

follows that the

are both contained in the equation tan.

6'

zn -

to the axis of?/,

same value of

db

refers to

(we have chosen

aJ

= for the

tan.

to the curve referred to

2 {a2
or 9

sin.

2 cos.

but since tan, 6

that

axis of #, in order

to agree with the figure).

The equation

sin. 0'

cos. 0'

2
6 cos.

tan.

we have

its.

asymptotes

cos. 0'}

tan. 0'

oc'

&

f
j-

oc

is

now

=F

y zz

6 2,

s
a? 6

THE ASYMPTOTES

114

cos.

V +
1

h2

2
-f b \

a2

Aa b
~s
7T
a + 6
2

o r 9

If b

""

, or the curve

ferred to the asymptotes

parallel to

CN,

o2

'

* V
J

a2 b 2

:
'

be the rectangular hyperbola, the equation

is

a?

The angle between

213.

drawn

a2

a?

a2

(tan. e) 2

-.

the asymptotes

the area

re-

a2

PN C R

is

== x

2 0;
sin.

if

therefore
z=:

xy

PR
2

be

sin.

all the parallelograms constructed upon co-ordinates parallel

asymptotes are equal to each other, and to half the rectangle in the

Thus
to the

semi-axes.

214. Let CS, CS^ be the asymptotes to the curve referred to con(a x 6 X ), then if P T be parallel to C D, it is a
jugate diameters C P, C
;
is also a double ordinate to the asymptote,
tangent at P (187.) ;

TPT

for the equation to

CS

is

r=

cc, and when x

==:

a u y~=z

b^

Hence

PT-

P rF, or the parts of the tangent contained between the point of

contact and the asymptotes are equal to each other, and to the semi-conjugate diameter.

215. Join

and

D T,

parallel to

then

D P is

P T', we

a parallelogram

have the

line

DP

also because

parallel

to the

is

equal

asymptote

THE POLAR EQUATION

115

C S'. Hence, if the conjugate diameters be given, the asymptotes may

always be found by completing' the parallelogram upon the conjugate
diameters, and then drawing the diagonals. Also, if the asymptotes be
given, a conjugate diameter to C P may be found by drawing P
parallel
to C S' and taking P
double of P R.
If the asymptotes be given, a tangent maybe drawn by taking
double of C R, and joining P T.
If the position of the focus is known, the length of the conjugate
axis is equal to the perpendicular, from the focus on the asymptote.
216. To find the equation to the tangent PT, when referred to the
asymptotes as axes,
Let x y 1 be the co-ordinates of P, and x ff y n co-ordinates of another

CT

point on the curve.

.'.

When

x !f =r

y
a/

=r

x ff

we have

y-y'

.'.

y
x

-y, and y" == -j.

x
x"

(x

^2

x xn

_
~~

y'

x"

) is the

equation to a secant.

the equation to the tangent

- ^(s-a/)=--jjj* +
a/y

y'x

2x

y'

0'

2k\

to the tangent is readily obtained from the equation to

k 2 or xy
xy =s 2 k 2 ) by putting x y and xy' successively
for xy, and then adding the results.

This equation

the curve (xy

Lety-0
The

/.

The two

its

conjugate

to the curve

ptotes

(y

218. If

Thus

-I..

2
a/.

CN;
2 y'

and C

sin.

T =

TCT^

= 2 NP

a/ y' sin.

2 9

b,

S Q, S'Q' of any secant S Q Q' S comprised

for if the diameter C P V
asymptote are equal
VQ' from the equation
be drawn, we have

y = db

its

VQ =

Jx

- a?

and from the equation

and y are the ordinates

to the

asym-

J,

= ~- x, ^ we have VS - VS'
Y

2y'

parts

between the curve and

and

CT = 2a/=

C T T'

triangle

(213.)
217.

V S, V Q

/.

SQ =

S'Q'.

respectively,

we have

or(Y-3/)(Y + 2/) = ^.
Q S' = the square upon C I).

the rectangle S Q,

12

THE CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA.

116

THE POLAR EQUATION.

219. Let the curve be referred to the centre C, and to rectangular axes
C B, and let the co-ordinates of the pole O be x f and y\ O being
situated anywhere in the plane of the curve and P any point on the curve,
makes with a
the angle which the radius vector
as in (146.),

A,

OPorw

line parallel to the axis of

a? (y

t=i

oo

zz x r -\-u cos. 6

+ u sin. 0) 2

'

~~

x*

(61.)

sin.

(oc

b"

0,

and y =:

_^

- ~

2
4- u cos. 0)

.'.

or 6

^sinTej2 -

'

220. Let the centre be the pole,

a? if

also,

Then we have by

cc.

(cosTety 8

a? b

0,

1)

(cos. 0) 2

(e

1.

221. Let the focus S be the pole,

.

Substituting these values,

a
If the angle

A.S

0,

a?'

becomes

?.

i\

we

steps in (148.),

a(e

c cos.

find

1)

cos

we have

0,

g
1

is

and

_
This

and following the

(e

1)

COS.

It may easily be obtained from

the equation generally used.
e a?
a, fig. (161) 2= e (a e - r cos. 0) - a,

the equation r

,\

(e

1)
.

1 -\- e cos.

222.

8
If -H- == a (e

1)

we have

PS

meet the curve again

(PS

+ SP) = jPP.

The

in P',

= ~2

w e have
r

S P, and

the rectangle S P,
.

length of the chord through

the focus
to

if

e cos>

^ 2^- where
a

fr,

SP'^

is

'

the dia

meter to that chord.

THE CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA.

223. There
If

-fr

is

another equation to the hyperbola, not yet investigated.

^ e negative in

article 153, the

equation

is

P y* - Q

#s zz

'

THE CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA,

or a 9 y*

-b

<fi

a2

if

P =

and

=s

117

If we examine the

-.

2 6 is the real or transcourse of this curve, we shall find that B B'

A!, or 2 a, is the conjugate axis, and that the curve
verse axis, and
extends indefinitely from B to B', so that it is, in form, like the hyperbola
already investigated, but only placed in a different manner.
Both curves are represented in the next figure ; the real axis of the
one being the conjugate or imaginary axis of the other.
It is evident from the form of the equations that both curves have got
F.
common asymptotes
be two conjugate diameters to the original hy224. Let C P and C
it is required to find the locus of D.
perbola

ECE',FC

APE)

Let

CM- x MPry,CN=:^ND = y,
f

h? = a - 6
^z
+ y* + a*
2

then a;2
.\

but the equation to

j?' a

/.

and

i.y**:

tf

zi.JL'L

^ilf! * ^
^'*

4
?/

2/

^2 4 i/H

a;

6",

a
a?

#'9 e=

#4

JG

64

~- 6*

a?

x x ! ==

y"

y' 2

is

a*yy'
aP

-f

a2

&*%

+ t+

6 ),

O +
2

64

a;

&

(*

*8

2/

f
2
Substituting these values in the equation a 9 y ,<2 x * zz a 2 6 , and
2
s
2
2
2
2
a b hence the locus of
6 a;
is the conreducing, we have a y
jugate hyperbola, and hence arises its name.
By changing the sign of the constant term in the equation to any
-

hyperbola, referred to its centre, we directly obtain the equation to its

conjugate, referred to the s .me axes of x and y.
Both curves are com*
prised in the form
(a* y*

52

x ,y

a4

^ or ^ y

__

*
t

THE PARABOLA.

118

CHAPTER

X.

THE PARABOLA.
equation to the parabola, referred to rectangular axes, has
1
e x
(94.).
to the form a! y
this equation we proceed now to deduce all the important proper-

The

225.

been reduced

From

of the parabola.

ties

Y
Let

Let

^-7

A be

.*.

p,

the origin

2
2/

A X, A Y

x.

'

the

sOwe

have y
0, and
axes ; then for
the curve passes through the origin A.

For each positive value of a? there are two equal and opposite values of
to c ;
to go, according as x increases from
y which increase from
hence there are two equal arcs,
and
P', proceeding from A, without
X, and
any limit. This curve is symmetrical with respect to its axis
its concavity is turned towards that axis, otherwise it could be cut by a
straight line in more points than one.
For every negative value of x y is imaginary.
the
226. The point
is called the vertex of the parabola ; AX,
principal axes ; but, generally speaking,
alone is called the Axis of
the parabola.
Thus the equation to the curve referred to its axis and
vertex is y2 ss p x.
From this equation we have The square upon the ordinate ss The rectangle under the abscissa and a constant quantity ; or the square upon the
9

AP

AY

AX

ordinate varies as the abscissa.

227. The last property of this curve points out the difference between
the figures of the hyperbola and parabola; both have branches extending
to infinity, but of a very different nature ; for the equation to the hyper-

bola

is

2/

=:

O
-

a2 )

a*

!,

and

therefore, for large

values of sc the values of y2 increase nearly as the corresponding values of

x2 or y varies nearly as x ; hence the hyperbolic branch rises much more
9

x.
rapidly than that of the parabola, whose ordinate varies only as
When (2? is very great, the former takes nearly the course of the line

y ss

#,

but in the parabola, y

is

not

much

increased by an increase of

w,

and therefore the curve tends rather towards parallelism with the

of

x.

228.
ellipse

The equation

to the parabola

may be

by considering the axis major of the

axis

derived from that of the

ellipse to

be

infinite.

THE FOCUS.
Let

119

be the centre, and S the focus of an ellipse whose equation

y* --

Let

_
2

_y

a>

#.

(105.)

= AS = AC-SC=- V
b s= 2 a m m

is

&,

(fig.

106.)

y
Now

2m

/
/2
2

911

& be considered to vary, this will be the equation to a series of

which the distance A S, or m, is the same for all, but the axis
major different for each thus giving to a any particular value, we have a
corresponding- ellipse.
Let now a be infinite, then, since all the other
terms vanish, the equation becomes y 2 zz: 4 m x hence the ellipse has gradually approached to the parabolic form, as its axes enlarged, and finally
coincided with it when the axis major was infinite *.
In the same manner the equation to the parabola may be derived from
if

ellipses, in

that to the hyperbola.

THE FOCUS,
229. The quantity p, which is the co-efficient of oc in the equation to the
parabola, is called the principal parameter, or Latus Rectum of the parabola.
1

if

Since p ss

the principal parameter

---,

is

a third proportional to any

its corresponding ordinate.

2
4=m x for the parabola,
In article (228.) we have used the equation y
merely to avoid fractions with numerical denominators ; it appears that
many of the operations in this chapter are similarly shortened, without
for p ; hence we shall use
losing any generality, by merely putting 4
2
x in most of the following articles, recollecting
\
the equation y
that all the results can be expressed in terms of the principal parameter, by

abscissa and

putting
230.

To

for

wherever

m occurs.

find the position of the double ordinate

Latus Rectum.
.".
4 y 2 =s 16 2 or 16
Let 2 y t= 4 m,
take AS^ra, then the ordinate
In A
is the Latus Rectum.

The point S is called the focus.

The situation of the focus S may be

which

is

equal to the

m x = 16 m and xts. m.
LSL' drawn through S,
2

also thus determined

AM-^MP-^, join A P, and draw P O perpendicular to A P,

AS = m = ^MO
Then AM M P ::MP:MO = -^- = 4tw,
Let

/.

cs

* If x is very small when compared with a, the equation to the ellipse is very nearly
that to a parabola ; and this is the reason that the path of a comet near its perihelion
appears to be a portion of a parabola,

THE TANGENT,

120

To

231.

Let S
,\

r2

find the distance of

(# -

any point

in the curve

from the focus

= 0,
A M s= M P = y also at
+ (# my = 4 m
2/0 + (# ^T =
= + w)
r = S P =
+ m,

r,

,r,

s, t/'

and

2/

m,

a?

(x ,y') of the

a/

(a?

m) 8

.*.

a?

THE TANGENT.
To

232.

find the equation to the tangent at

any point

parabola.

The

equation to a secant through two points on the curve

M
Also y ! - == 4

2/'

ana

Thus

r
1

and

??2 a?',

!t

j.

2/'

ft
;

971
jf

*~"

\%

<# )

2/"

but when the two points coincide y" s^

3/',

and the secant becomes a

Jangent,

m (r
2? ~ ^'
),
y h =2wi
4

y-y
or
.%

?/

7/

y y

(?/

233.

To

Let y ==

Hence

for

z/

2
,

,\

y y

a?

(x

^ 4m1 - 2 m

and #

find the points

0,

(a?

-f 2

a?

-h

a?'

-j-

a? for

a?

(2;

(a;

a/).

immediately deduced from that

is

by writing y y

f + 2ro(-^')^4if
'.

This equation

.t)

to the

curve

a?.

where the tangent cuts the axes.

0,

/.

becomes
4

y-y

r..

2/

^ 4 mx

/2

4 m

a?"

the equation to the secant

2/'

(#',

a?

==

z',

the absolute value of the sub-tangent

or

MT

AT
is"

= AM;
A M.

,.

THE TANGENT,

Let*

f2i =#-7=

0, /.

The equation

234.

at the vertex

?/ each

becomes 2 m x
0, or x =:
is the equation
But # =

Hence

-f

to the tangent being*

and

x!

121

yy

A y-iMP.

~ 2 m (x

0, therefore the

-}- a?'),

we have

equation to the tangent

to the axis

A Y;

the tangent at the vertex of the parabola coincides with

the

axis of y.

To

235.

find the equation to the tangent at the extremity of the princi-

pal parameter.

y y

At

we have x
2

,\

my

If the ordinate

(231.),

236.

.".

To

zz

/.

z=z

From

cc

)
f

m, and y zz 2 m,

2m (x
x +

-f wi),

771,

yorMQ cut the

MQ =

parabola in P, we have S

= # -f m

SP.
where

find the point

tangent cuts the axis of #.

this particular

- 0, ,3?=AT = -m= A S.
T draw T R perpendicular to A X, and from P draw P R paLet y

rallel to

"

(x 4*

/.

X, then taking the absolute value of A T, we have

'PR = AT +

AM = m

+ =:SP.

Consequently the distances of any point P from S, and from the line T R,
are equal to one another.
R, is called the directrix ; for knowing the position of this
This line,
line and of the focus, a parabola may be described.
(35. Ex. 3:)
This tangent cuts the axis at an angle of 45.

237. To find the length of the perpendicular S

tangent.
Taking the expression in (48.) we have

S y =z

,.

Vi +

PT

PT

also the equation to

,\

T-m +:.

S y

{+

=m

x\
for the cothe equation to the line

(m

and

*)>

2mx

r> and, b r=

T^"]
"TTf

= 4m

(x

m
y

is

is

o?

But from the figure 232, we have y l

a x -f- b
ordinates of the point S, and y

the focus on the

-b

ax^

y from

""""

-f x

V
f

\y

+ a/)
+4 }

(m

m (m -f #')
4m
^+ 4wi'}
Vi
2

~~

VwJ'j ifSP = r;

THE TANGENT,

122

Hence

the square on

S y

the equation to

pendicular to

PT,

to the tangent

The equation
Hence

Sy

::

P, S

SA.

find the locus of y in the last article.

To

238.

the rectangle

"SP: Sy

or,

T,

232,

fig.

= r O

is

-f </)

passing through the point (m, 0), and per-

3/

is

~~

(a?

m).

To

find

put x

this line cuts the axis of y,

where

0,

:.

=?.

but

where the tangent at P cuts the same axis (.933.) ; hence

the tangent and the perpendicular on it from the focus meet in the axis
AY, or the locus of y is the axis AY.
239. Again, to find where the perpendicular S y cuts the directrix, put

this is the point

m,

m)

2m (x
K

_ -~y ( m
2 m

m)J

==

y\
J

P hence a tangent being drawn at any point

but this is the ordinate
P, the perpendicular on it from the focus cuts the directrix in the point
where the perpendicular from P on the directrix meets that directrix.
240. To find the angle which the tangent makes with the focal distance
The equation

to the

The equation

P <=

and

tan.

PT

7JI

0'
?/

(V

+ 7m

).

through the points S (==

0,

??i)

m)

(x f
-J-

- m)
2

M P = MT

m),

(a?

__

m a7 - 2 m x

m y'
2 m
3T

But

a?

"

/'

y'

^-y (x

(PSX-PTX)

x'

tan.

y
X

zz

is

) is

And

PT

tangent

to the focal distance

a?',

tan.

P T M,

y (V

-f 2

-f w.O

?/

.*.

since

tan.

2/'

2m =
PT

2 x

(V + m)
(V + m )

M = 2^

.".
5

tan,

SPT

THE NORMAL THE DIAMETERS,

STPk tan.

T'PQ,
P makes

123

PQ

be drawn parallel to the axis of x.

equal angles with the focal distance, and
with a parallel to the axis through P.
This important theorem may also be deduced from the property in
is
article 233.
It is there proved that the absolute value of
ATas'm
x z=r. S P, and therefore the
hence we have
angle Q P T'.
angle S P T
angle
If a ray of light, proceeding in the direction Q P, be incident on the
parabola at P, it will be reflected to S, on account of the equal angles
QPT', S P T similarly all rays coming in a direction parallel to the axis,
and incident on the curve, would converge to S ; and if a portion of the
curve revolve round its axis, so as to form a hollow concave mirror, all
rays from a distant luminous point in the direction of the axis would be
concentrated in S. Thus, if a parabolic mirror be held with its axis pointing to the sun, a very powerful heat will be found at the focus.
Again, if a brilliant light be placed in the focus of such a mirror, all the
rays, instead of being lost in every direction, will proceed in a mass parallel
to the axis, and thus illuminate a very distant point in the direction of that
This property of the curve has led to the adoption of parabolic
axis.
mirrors in many light-houses.
tan.

Thus the tangent

at

if

AT

ST s SA +

AM,

STP =

THE NORMAL,
normal P G, at a point P (x y ).
The equation to a straight line, through P, is y y' -=. a (x u/), and
as this line must be perpendicular to the tangent whose equation is y
241.

To

find the equation to the

itl

we have a

(x 4- a/),

7-

= m
2
-

-,

hence the equation

to the norL

yt

mal

is

242.

To

-w'

s=

( a?

find the point

Let y ==

,\

x - x

t=z

~~

^O-

where the normal cuts the axis of a?.

m, or the subnormal
G is constant and equal

to half the principal parameter.

Hence S

PG

G = S M + M G =1
/2

of

4- 2

m =

m x' + m = S P

(V -f m)
-f4m
V4
V4 mr.
V 4 a?'+ 4
V2/
is a mean proportional between the principal
Hence the normal
parameter and the distance S Po

And

==

PG

THE DIAMETERS,
243. It was shown in article 81, that the parabola has no centre.
Since for every positive value of x there are two equal and opposite
values of y, the axis of x is a diameter, but that of y is not ; hence the
The parabola has an infinite numaxes cannot be called conjugate axes.
ber of diameters, all parallel to the axis ; to prove this,

Let y =z a x
2
3/

et

b he the equation to

p x- the

any chord,

equation to the curve.

f

Transfer the origin to the bisecting point x y' of the chord, then the equa-<
tions

become yzzccx, and (y

+y = p O + #')
f

)*

THE DIAMETERS.

124

To

find

where the chord intersects the curve, put a x for y in the second

equation.

(ccx+y y~p(x + x')

f

.\

or a 2

a;

-f (2

>) * +

a y'

px

t/ 2

zz

But since the origin is at the bisection of the chord, the two values of a?
must be equal to one another, and have opposite signs hence the second
0.
2 ay p
0,
term of the last equation must
This equation gives the value of y\ and since it is independent of b, it will
;

be the same for any chord

.*.

parallel to

^ax +

b; hence

= &P

is

the

<x

equation to the locus of all the middle points of a system of parallel chords,
is evidently that to a straight line parallel to the axis ;

and this equation

and conversely.
244.

and

to

To transform the equation into another referred to a new

new axes, and so that it shall preserve the same form,
Let x

t=z

and

-\-

x f cos.

0',
0',

b-\~ x/ sin.

y' cos.

-|~ y' sin.

(57.)

^zpx and

Substituting these values in the equation y 2

origin

arranging,

we

have

^(sin.ey

of* (sin.

oy

2a/y' &m.0sm.6'

-f x' (2 b sin. 9

And

as this equation

oy-0

sin, 0. sin. '

2 6

0'

sin.

the equation

becomes

(sin. 0') 2

2/'

or since 9

:~: 0,

z/

+ (2 6

j=

y' (2 6 sin.0' pcos.0')

~ ap =
p

#,

(2),

(3),
.

-poc r

0.

we must have

(1),

(4).

- p cos. 0)

sin.

2
(sin. 6')

0'

==:

pcos.

b*-~ap~
Hence

-f- b

must be of the form y 2

(sin.

p cos. 0)

a?'

r=

~ 0.

2-45. On the examination of the equations (1) (2) (3) and (4), it
appears from (1) that the new axis of x' is parallel to the original axis of
being
from (1), of course (2) is destroyed, aud thus the
x ; and
equations of condition are reduced to three but there are four unknown
quantities, hence there are an infinite number of points to which, if the
origin be transferred, the equation may be reduced to the same simple
form.
We may take the remaining three quantities a, b and 0', in any order,
and arrive at the same results. Suppose a is known, then from (4), 6 2
=s p a, this equation shows that a must be taken in a positive direction
from A, and also that the new origin must be taken on the curve itself, or
the new origin is at some point P on the curve, as in the next figure.
:

From

~- ~
7)

(3)'
v

we have

tan.

=s

26

2a'
b

is exactly the value of the tangent of the angle which a tangent

the curve makes with the Axis (240.) hence the new axis of y is a
tangent to the curve at the new origin P.

but this

P T to

THE DIAMETERS.

125

The results are therefore these, the new origin is at any point P on
The axes are one (P
the carve (see the next figure).
) parallel to the
axis
X, and the other (P Y') is a tangent at the new origin P. Lastly,
from the form of the equation, the new axis of x is a diameter.

The equation

246.

=p
4

&)*

(cosec.

-i(

is

y' 2

p(l

z=z

=4SP

x 2 p f x where p
f

(sin. e<y

cot. 6

=p

4 a2

(sin Q'

\
j

e=

4 a

(231.)

new parameter at P is four times the focal distance S P.

The equation to the parabola, when we know the position and
direction of the new axes, is readily obtained from the original equation
Hence

the

247.

referred to rectangular co-ordinates.

Let the point

Y'PX'

be the new

origin,

PX', PY'

the

new

axes, angle

0.

A N = N Q = y be the rectangular co-ordinates of Q.

AndAM = fl,MP = 6
P.
P V = a/, V Q = y be the new co-ordinates of Q.

Also, let

a?,

Then #

N ~ MP +

OQ^Hy'

we have

but

0,

^AN=AM + PV4-YO- + / + y

2
Substituting these values in the equation y

.\

sin.

(b
/2

2/

=p

y' sin. 0) 2

(sin. 0) 2

b*~pa, and

tan.

(a

(2 6 sin.

a?'

oc

y' cos 0)

cos. 0)

= tan. PTM^

==:

/+

cos. 0.

= a+p
b
^ p
~ "26"

b2

<p

a?

'

2 a

i3

A
and the equation

is

2 b

sin.

p cos.

G,

reduced to the form

y
Also from (tan.

f2

(sin.

Oy^px'.
4 a1

-j2 we

have

(cos. 6

4 aM

41 Ct

and

(sin 0) 2

"

4 a2 -f

4 a -f p

'

b*

THE DIAMETERS.

126

:.

(4 a

f
p) x s= 4

4 a

-j-

~-

--V

/2

J?/

r
=zpcc
L

a/

=^

the

/ =:

where

',

4 S P.

under

the

length of the ordinate which passes through

the

Hence the square upon the ordinate

and parameter.

rectangle

abscissa

248.

To

find the

focus

a?=PV=ST = SP =

Here,

..

y* =:

.\

px

zz

4t

.r=z 4 r*

= 2r

Hence,-QQ' = 4SP.
Thus the ordinate through
distance S P,

the focus is equal to four times the focal

equal to the parameter at the point P.

is

Hence, generally, if the origin of co-ordinates be at any point P on the

and if the axes be a diameter and a tangent at P, the
parameter to the point P is that chord which passes through the focus.
parabola,

249. The equation

new axes P X', P Y',

to

a tangent at any point

yy'=
Let y zz
Let x

-f~(^

\ *y

(#'

referred to the

),

#'

hence the sub-tangent

= -^ = ~2 - ~
'O

is

twice the abscissa.

1J

A
^

the ordinate.

2^/

For 2/ put
y, then we have the equation to the tangent at the other
extremity Q' of the ordinate QVQ'; hence it may be proved that tangents
at the two extremities of a chord meet in a diameter to that chord.

QVQ'

pass through the focus, as in the figure, the

250. If the chord
f
also
co-ordinates of Q are y =s 2 S P
2 r, and

e= 4 r

hence the equation to the tangent at Q, or y y

that

=?.

v'

(x

a/)

~x +

r, and similarly the equation to the tangent at Q' is

and these lines meet the axis P X' at a distance r from
tangents at the extremity of any parameter meet in the di-

becomes y
y x +
P,

^'-PV^SP-r,

is,

r,

rectrix.

Also, the angle between these tangents

tan. 6

is

determined from the equation

a
w
-1J-
f

(a

) sin.

+ a a' (a + ) cos.
(1 + 1 ) sin.
-- (since sl
__
1 X + u
I

-[-

(51.)

to

a>

ana a ss

- 1
j

tan. 90 o

Hence, pairs of tangents drawn

meet in the directrix at ris'ht-ans'les.

at the

extremities of

any parameter

THE POLAR EQUATION.

127

THE POLAR EQUATION,

To

251.

find the polar equation to the curve.

Let the co-ordinates of any point

be a/ and y\ and let Q be measured
from a line O a?, which is parallel to the axis of the curve i

Then by
the figure,

by inspection of

(61.), or

we have

zz y f -f

sin.

cos.

Substituting these values of

Jr u
(y
f

x and y

sin. 6)

in the equation y

=:

(#' 4-

r=

x,

we have

cos. 0)

252. Juet the pole be at any point on the curve,

.

'

or,

ij 2
i

sin.

2 ?/'

= p cos.

(sin. 0)

w2

-f

Q 2y' sin.

= p

cos.

.\

And

if

the vertex be the pole,

we have
iz

jt>

r (sin. 0)

or

r 2 (sin. 0)

The

~r

Vr

~~

?'

cos.

A S P =z

#'

cos

r cos.

cos. 0)

e>

r cos.

r 2 (cos, 0)

orrs . -~
also easily

-.

deduced from

= SP = AM + A'S=:2AS+SM = |r

P
2

r cos.

*
!

cos,

cos.
article

0,

,".

becomes

is

- and u becomes

> (#' 4*

-x

:=

^ +

polar equation in this case

Let angle
then r

sin.

r 2 s:

~ p of

cos.

.*.

pu cos.

>

4- r 2 (cos. 0)

;.

if

-\-

?/ sin.

= 0,
0)

(y' -f

since y' 2

6?,

(sin>0yi

253. Let the focus S be the pole,

hence the general equation

~px

(sin. 0)

(4)"

(231).

THE SECTIONS OF A CONE.

128

254. If

PS

meet the curve again

in P',

cos.

(ir

we have S

p
2

cos.

hence the rectangle

PS,SP' --^
4

l(co,.)-T

(SP+SP )= f' PP

'

CHAPTER XI
THE SECTIONS OF A CONE.
255. It

is

well

known

that the three curves, the ellipse, the hyperbola,

and parabola, were originally obtained from the section of a cone, and that
hence they were called the conic sections. We shall now show the
manner in which a cone must be cut by a plane, in order that the section
may be one of these curves.
A right cone is the solid generated by the revolution of a right-angled
triangle about one of its perpendicular sides.
The fixed side, O H, about which the triangle revoives, is called the axis
and the point O, where the hypothenuse of the triangle meets the axis, is
If the revolving hypothenuse be produced
called the vertex of the cone.
above the vertex, it will describe another cone, having the same axis and
Any point in the hypothenuse of the triangle describes a circle ;
vertex.
;

hence, the base of the triangle describes a circular area called the base of
the cone.

is/,,

\/"-~""~

Section

made by

Vi//

-y^'

YD

\
""""""""--A

planes which pass through the vertex and along the

; these are, evidently, triangles.

axis are called vertical sections

THE SECTIONS OF A CONE.

129

If a plane pass through the cone in any direction, the intersection of it

The nature of the
with the surface of the cone is called a conic section.
ine thus traced will be found to be different, according- to the various
It is our purpose to show, generally, to
positions of the cutting plane.
what class of curves a section must necessarily belong and, afterwards,
to point out the particular species of curve due to a given position of the
;

cutting plane.

Let

256.

OBQC

be a right cone,

OH

the vertex,

the axis,

the line in which the cutting plane meets

the circular base, P
being the point in the curve nearest to the
the surface of the cone ;
be a vertical plane passing through the axis
Let O B
C
vertex O.
M.
and perpendicular to the cutting plane P
M, the intersection of these planes, is a straight line, and is called the

B CQ

A
A

OH
A

axis of the conic section, the curve being' symmetrically placed with
regard to it.
Let F P
be a section parallel to the base, it is therefore a circle, and
C A, is a diameter.
F D, its intersection with the vertical plaae
are perand the cutting plane P A
Since both this last plane F P
C,
P the intersection of the two
pendicular to the vertical plane O B
former is perpendicular to the vertical plane, (Euc. xi. 19, or Geometry

OB H

iv.

Hence
lines meeting it in that plane.
and to A M.
which is the inclination of the cutting plane to
draw A JE parallel
a, and let the

18,) and, therefore, to

is perpendicular to

MP

all

FD

O AM,

Let the angle

=
ZAOB^ft
O B.
ML
M P = y, and A O
Let A M =

the side of the cone,

parallel to
to
and

BH

x,

Then

by the property of the circle

M P = the rectangle F M, M D
a
MA MAD
_
and M D =
MDA

The square on

sin.

sin.

'

sin.

cos.

Also,
'

PM = EA-AL =

But angle
duce

O+

OEA =

ML to
ft)

meet

90

O A, we

hence

n
nf
FM

=a

A O-

Sm P
3
-

ALM =

~~

sin.

90

+ &
&T
~

Sln
~"

+ ~,

~-

cos.

or f

sin.

ft

COS.-

and

AML

_i

sin.

(a

-f ft) ]

cos.^
J

cos

4)

AML
At-t-ttLM

sin.

sin.

AM

shall find that the angle

cos.

t^

AOE
EA
O w

sin.

sin.

angle

ft

if

we pro180

THE SECTIONS OF A GONE.

130

which equation being of the second degree, it follows that the sections of
the cone are curves of the second degree.
Comparing this with the equation if ==. p co -4- q a? 2 , which represents
an ellipse, a parabola, or an hyperbola, according as q is negative, nothing,
or positive; we observe that the section is an ellipse, a parabola, or an
To
hyperbola, according as sin. (a -f /3) is positive, nothing, or negative.
investigate these various cases, we shall suppose the cutting plane to move
to 180.
about A, so that a may take all values from
1

257. Let
straight line

k^O,
which

is

.*.

z=z

0,

the axis of

and y

this is the equation to the

oc.

Ancl^ this appears, also, from the figure

for when a -=. 0, the cutting
plane just touches the cone, and hence the line of intersection
is in
the position
O.
;

AM

258. Let a -f
figure the angles
lines

OE

and

/3

be less than 180.

The curve is an ellipse. In the

being together less than 180, the
meet in A', or the sectional plane cuts both sides of the

AOE

AM

and

OA

cone.

259. Let

= A'G;

M be the

centre of the ellipse, then

FM = HE

and

MD

.*.
The square on the axis minor
The rectangle A E, A ; G.
Also by drawing perpendiculars from A and E upon A'G, it may be
proved that

The square on

the axis major

The square on

AG +

The

rectangle

E, A' G.

And

,\

The. distance between the foci

If the straight line

angle

E A

And

A A' in

A', then

AK

AK

is

:==

AG.

be drawn making the angle

the latus rectum of the section.

A A

EAK =

the

?
a circle be inscribed in the triangle
Q, it will touch the line
the focus of the section.
(Geometry, Appendix, prop. 21.)

if

THE SECTIONS OF A CONE.

~~

260. Let a

~
= 90

/3

and the equation

the base.

is

sin.

--,

2'

131

(a +
-^^
=

sin.

fi)

then

1,

that to a circle, the cutting plane being parallel to

1

180, .\ sin. ( a
0, and the curve is a
261. Let a -f /3
/3)
parabola.
The plane, continuing to turn, has now come into the position
F, or the cutting plane parallel
being parallel to
Q, the axis
to a side of the cone.

AN

AN

The equation
If

AK

to the parabola is

be drawn making the angle

4 #

sin.

EAR =

a?.

the angle

A OK,

then

A K is the latus rectum of the section, and the circle which touches A O,
A N and O F, will touch AN in the focus of the parabola.
262. Let a +
be greater than 180 ,\ sin. (a + /3) is negative,
/3

and the curve

A L R;

an hyperbola

is

The

cutting plane

A L, E O

must meet

is

now

in the position

produced backwards,
or the plane cuts both cones, and the curve consists of two branches,
one on the surface of each cone.
As in the ellipse, it may be proved that the square on the conjugate axis
=. the rectangle A E, A" G' ; that A G' is the distance between the foci,
that A
is the latus rectum, and that the circle touching A' O, O A and
in this case the lines

if

A L touches A L at the focus.

263. We may also suppose

have

to

different values, or the cutting

plane to meet the cone in some other point than A, for example

Let a

.-.

t
J =

sin.
-

(
(

Since

a and

sin.

cos.

sin.

(a-^B)
^~L2
$

^
a

C0S "2

are positive,

the rationality of this equation

depend upon sin. (a

/3).
If a -f fi is less than 180 the radical quantity is impossible, and the
only solution of the equation is <2?
and y
0, or the section is a point;
this is the case when the cutting plane passes through the vertex O, and is
will

any

parallel to

elliptic section

A PA'.

we have two straight lines which cut

each other at the origin.
In this case the cutting plane is drawn through
O, parallel to
and the intersection with the cone is two straight
lines meeting in O.
264. We may conclude from this discussion, that the conic sections
are seven
a point, a straight line, two straight lines which intersect, a
circle, an ellipse, an hyperbola, and a parabola or all the curves of the
second degree and their varieties, with the exception of two parallel lines,
which is a variety of the parabola.
The three latter sections, the ellipse, hyperbola, and parabola, are those
which are usually termed " conic sections," and which have been the
If a

/5

is

greater than 180

ALR,

In his
study and delight of mathematicians since the time of Plato.
school they were first discovered ; and, his disciples, excited, no doubt, by
the many beautiful properties of these curves, examined them with such

K2

CONIC SECTIONS BY CONTINUED MOTION.

132

that in a very short time several complete treatises on the

Of these, the best still extant is that of
conic sections were published.
It is in eight books, four of which are elementary ;
Apollonius of Perga.
and four on the abstruser properties of these curves. The whole work is
well worth attention, as showing how much could be done by the ancient
analysis, and as giving a very high opinion of the geometrical genius of

industry,

the age.
Apollonius gave the names of ellipse and hyperbola to those curvesHyperbola, because the square on the ordinate is equal to a figure
"exceeding" (" vweppaXKov '') the rectangle under the abscissa and latus

B. i. p. 13.
rectum by another rectangle.
Ellipse, because the square on the ordinate is " defective'* (" gWeittov )
p. 14.
with regard to the same rectangle.
It is not known who gave the name of parabola to that curve
probably
Archimedes, because the square of the ordinate is equal (" wapafiaXkov ")
91

to the rectangle of the abscissa

and

latus rectum.

Thus, the ancients viewed these curves geometrically, in the same

manner as we are accustomed to express them by the equations

= px +

if

= px

x\
-f~~
di CI

DESCRIPTION OF THE CONIC SECTIONS BY

CONTINUED MOTION.
The

conic sections being curves of great importance, not only

mathematical properties, but also from their usefulness in the
arts and sciences, it becomes necessary, that we should be able to
Now, a curve may be drawn in two
describe these curves with accuracy.
ways, either by " mechanical description " or by " points." As an
instance of the first method we may mention the circle, described by the
compasses, or by means of a string fastened at one end to the centre, and
the other carried round by the hand, the hand tracing the curve,
This
mechanical method, or, as it is sometimes called, " that by continued
motion," is not always practicable no curve is so simple, in this respect,
as the circle ; hence we are often obliged to have recourse to the second
method, or that by points this is done by taking the equation to the
curve and from some property expressed geometrically, finding a number
of points, all of which belong to the curve, and then neatly joining these
We shall commence with the
points with a pen or other instrument.
mechanical description of these curves.
266. To trace an ellipse of which the axes are given :

265.

from

their

Let

centre

A', B
be the axes with
and radius A C describe a
circle cutting A A' in S and H, these
points are the foci.
Place pegs at S
and H. Let one extremity of a
string be held at A, and pass the
string round H back again to A,
and there join its two ends by a
:

CONIC SECTIONS BY CONTINUED MOTION,

133

AH

place a pen or other

knot, so that its length shall be just double of
;
pointed instrument within this string, and move it round the points S
and H, so that the string be always stretched ; the pen will trace out the
For if P be one of its positions, we have
required ellipse.

SP + PH + HS = 2AH = A A' + HS;

/. SP + PH = A A'.
267. Another method is by means of an instrument called the
compasses, or the trammel.
Let X x and Y y be two rulers with
grooves in them, and fastened at right
angles to each other. Let B P be a
third ruler, on which take B P equal
to the semi-axis major,

semi-axis minor.
At
fixed that the point

PA

and

elliptic

the

B a peg is so
B with the peg

Yy

can move along

a similar peg is
;
turning the ruler B P
round, a pen placed at P will trace out the curve.
Suppose C to
be the point where the axes meet,
and
P s= y, the rectangular co-ordinates of P 5 and suppose that B
is drawn parallel to C

By

fixed at A.

CMsj

and meeting

M in N,

The square on

then

AM = -BN,
and
d

APs the square on P M

or h 2 =r y 2
*
.\

268. The following

is

a y

the square on

AM

2
,

a*
2

x z=a?b 2

method of describing the

are two rulers, each equal

also a very simple

FG

ellipse.

to half
a ruler of any length, CF,
These rulers are fastened together by a
the sum of the semi-axes.
F P is taken
moveable joint at F, and F C turns round a pivot at C
Let the point G slide
equal to half the difference of the semi-axes.
then the point P will trace out the curve. Draw
cs,
along the line
perpendicular to CX, and let
x, and
and
y, then

X<r

is

FD

PM

The square on

CM=

FG =
a

the square on

(a + h y V

-f the square

fa -f 6 x V
~%~~b) + \T~a)

*"

"*"

b*

FD

I)

MP

on

DG

CONIC SECTIONS BY POINTS.

134

For a

description of the Elliptograph,

and other instruments

for describ-

our readers to the treatise on Practical Geometry, where an extremely good account is given of all the instruments,,
and also the advantages and disadvantages of each are well exhibited

we must

ing* ellipses,

refer

269. To trace the hyperbola by

continued motion, let A A' be the

H the

transverse axis, S
between the foci,

distance

HPKa

ruler

A string, whose
than H Kby AA'

movable about H.

length is less
and S ;
fastened to

is

is.

when the ruler

moved round H, keep

and

stretched,

the string

11 -A'

by a pencil as at P ; then, since

constantly the same, the point P will trace

in part attached to the ruler

the difference of

H P and P S

is

out the curve.

If the length of the string be
K, a straight line perpendicular to
S
will be traced out; and if the string be greater than
K, the opposite
branch, or that round H, will be described,
270. To trace the parabola by
continued motion. Let S be the
focus, and B C the directrix. Apply
to the
a carpenter's square O C
asasBsiO
ruler BC, fasten one end of a thread
whose length is C O to O, and the

other end to the focus S ; slide

the square
C O along B C, keeping the thread tight by means of a
pencil P, and in part attached to
the square.
Then since S P := P C, the point

BA

P will

describe a parabola.

Description of the Conic Sections by Points*

~K

271. Given the axes of an ellipse to describe the curve.

Let A A' be the axis
With centre S,
major, S and
the foci.
and any radius
less than A A', describe
and radius
a circle, and with centre
describe a second circle, cutting the
A'
former in two points P and P' ; then since

AM

SP +

PH^AM + MA' = AA',

;*P

Pis

a point in the required curve ; and thus any

number of points may be found, and the curve described,

*"

272. Given a pair of conjugate

diameters to- describe
the curve.
Let
A', BB', be the conjugate

diameters.
parallel to

AD
and

Through

parallel to

AC

draw

BD

A C, and
B

through A draw
C.
Divide A

same number of
three.
From B draw

into the

equal parts as

lines to the dividing points in

AD,

and from B' draw lines to the dividing points in

P, Q ? of these lines are points in the ellipse.

AC

the intersections

CONIC SECTIONS BY POINTS,

For

let

Then

be the origin

the equation to

=a

CA

BP

is

l5

CB

b x "r=

135

=; hv

^- <#

0^

and the equation

to

B'P

is

b l =s

Sb,

lence the product of the tangents of the angles which these lines

B'P make

with the axis of

ss

b,

3b,

bf

-arid

P,

is

constant:

of
therefore

is

a point in the curve (141).

Innumerable points may be thus found

quadrants of the

in the four

figure.

The

273.

following

is

perhaps the best method of tracing the

ellipse

by

points

Let
and A

A A'

be a diameter
equal and parallel
to the conjugate diameter.
Through B draw B C paA' and equal to
rallel to
any multiple of
In
A'.
produced, take
the
same multiple of
B. Dim
vide B C into any number of o ^~~J~s~~2~~I"''B
Through
equal parts, and
into the same number of equal parts.
draw lines to the points of division in B C, and through A' draw lines
to the points of division in
the intersections of corresponding lines
;
will give points in an ellipse whose conjugate diameters are
A' and

BA

AD

AD

AD

A B.

The proof is

the

same as

in the last case.

274. Given the axes of an hyperbola to trace the curve.

A A'

the foci, which are given

be the transverse axis, S and
greater than
A', describe a
with centre S and any radius
describe a second circle, cutting
and radius A'
circle, and with centre
the former in two points P and P, these are points in the> required curve.
The proof is much the same as that for the ellipse (271.)
Again, if, in article 273, B C was taken to the right of B instead of the
left, as in the figure, the intersections of the corresponding lines will give

Let

points

AM

an hyperbola.
27 5 To describe the rectangular hyperbola by points.

Let C A, C B be the equal semi-axes

with any centre O in C B produced and
with radius O A, describe a circle ; draw
perpendicular to C O meeting the
circle in P, then P is a point in the curve ;
Let CMt^cr,
2/; then the square
=: the square on O
the
on
square on C A ;

OP

MP =

CO

ovyi

oc*

a\

fpse***

""

CONIC SECTIONS BY POINTS,

12

276. Given

tfte

asymptotes

C X, C Y
by

in the curve, to describe the curve

of an hyperbola, and one point

points.

10

Tnrough P draw any line S P S' terminated by the asymptotes; in it take

S'Qs SF; then Q is a point in the
curve (217), and similarly any number
of points may be found.

Together with the asymptotes, another condition must always be given

to enable us to trace the curve, for the position of the asymptotes only gives
us the ratio of the axes, and not the axes themselves.

To

277.

is

describe the parabola by points,

when

the principal parameter

given.

AY be the rectangular axes; in Ax take AB = p; with any

AX and radius C B describe a circle B D M, cutting A Y in D
and A X in M, draw D P and M P
perpendicular to AY and AX reAX,

Let

centre

in

spectively

curve.

then

AM =

Let

the square

o?,

AD

on

a point in the

is

MP =

y; then

== the rectangle

BA, AM,
or

2
y ss p

i\

278. Given the angle between the axes and any parameter
the curve.

Let

to describe

A X, Y A y be the axes,

AB
B

the parameter. Through

parallel to AX.
draw

Through

FAG,

AY

CB
A

take

draw

draw any

DP
AG

parallel

Draw M P

~x

A X,

to

in P, then
cutting
point in the curve.

and

line

B C in F; in
A D = B F, and

meeting

P is

parallel to

A Y,

let

AM = x and MP y,
MP MA AB FB,
9

then

ovy

::

m
>

279. Given the position of the directrix T

of the conic sections by points.

2/

=:

x.

R and the

focus S, to trace any

CONIC SECTIONS BY POINTS,

Draw S T

perpendicular to

137

R, then

TS

produced will be the axis of the curve.

Let e I be the ratio of the distance of
any point. P in the curve from the focus
and from the directrix ; hence if A S
A T : e 1 ; A is a point in the curve.
in AX, and with centre
Take any point
S and radius equal to e times TM, describe a circle ; draw
P perpendicular to AX, and meeting* the circle in P, then P is a point in the curve.
Let
be the origin of rectangular co-ordinates,
i,
P == y 9
:

M
AM = M

AS

AT-;
7Yh

""

=z m, and

SPse ,TM-fi PR
#+
y 4- (# - my =

then

;.

or y

.\

which

2mo? + w = e x +
+ (I - e ) x - 2 m x (1
2

"

mx + m

2e

4- e)

2
;

the equation to the curves of the second order.

is

Let

4*

be

less

than unity,

,\

sr (1

(2m

e2) s

a?

>.

=
Z>

Comparing

this

equation with that to the ellipse y 2

(2

ax

a?

),

have
2

2 =

and

hence the curve

Let

is

an

(1

(1

ellipse

,\

is

9
,

<?*

are

and 2

1-

07

and the curve

1 +e
m 12m

e )

e)<

whose axes

be greater than unity,

an hyperbola, whose axes are

m y^
-f

and 2

fl

0?

m
1

Let

be equal to unity,

the curve

280.

is

The

a?

a parabola, whose principal parameter

general equation to
y*

it

y* s= 4

.\

follows that if

we

(1

e )

all

a8

is

4 m.

the conic sections being

a?

(1

e)

0,

find any property of the ellipse from this equation'

will be true for the hyperbola and parabola, making the necessary
changes in the value of e

it

Thus

the equation to the tangent

e*) xx

is

m (1 + e)
+ of) = 0, for the ellipse,
yy 4

e
m
(I
4(e
xx
yy'
1)
+ ) (# #0 0> for the hyperbola,

for the parabola,

and yy
2 m (x 4 #') =
r

(1
2

(oc

TANGENTS TO THE CONIC SECTIONS,

138

found in Chapter VIII. for the ellipse will be

6 2 for 62 ; and will be true for the
parabola by transferring the origin to the vertex of the ellipse, by then

Also most of the

results

true for the hyperbola, by putting

putting--

for a,,_
and

w?,

for h 2

and then making

the equation to the tangent at the extremity of the Latus

ellipse, when the origin is at the vertex, is

y s^ a

or,

.'.

281. If S
traced

easily

is

r,

and

found

in tho

+ e^
let e

s2 I

zz

Rectum

a) (117) 3

e)

and then

a (1

a put

for

e (a?

-J-

esl. Thus

~[~

ASP=

as in (235).

.z,

the polar equation to the curve thus

SPse.PE=:e(TSi
(m

SM),

r cos. 6)

ra {1 ~j-"e)

Or

since

parabola,

(1

e) s=

we have

e cos,

for the ellipse

(putting

and hyperbola, and ss 2

m for the

for the principal parameter) the general

jp

polar equation to the three curves,

r

2L
2

L
4- e cos.

(150).
v
'

To draw

282.

Draw

a tangent at a given point P on the ellipse.

the ordinate MP, and produce it to meet the circumscribing

Q, from Q draw a tangent to the circle meeting the axis major

produced in T, join
; this line is a tangent to the ellipse (114).
Again, taking the figure in the note appended to Art. 121, join SP,
HP, and produce
to K, so that
PH; join SK; the line
P y bisecting S is a tangent.
283. To draw a tangent to the ellipse from a point T without the curve,
circle in

PT

HP

PK =

(2)

**

JS

TANGENTS TO THE CONIC SECTIONS.

Draw

139

TPCP

/
through the centre, fig. 1. ; draw a conjugate
then the question is reduced to finding' a point V in CP,
through which a chord Q VQ' is to be drawn, so that T Q and T Q' may

the line

diameter to

CP

be tangents.

CT

and C P, then
is the required
Take C
a third proportional to
point (136).
(
,TC describe circles C O, P' R, draw
Again, with centre T and radii
any line T O R, cutting these circles in O and R ; join P O, and draw
then it may be proved by similar triangles that C
is a
parallel to P O
is the required point.
third proportional to C T and C P, and therefore
the foci,
284. If the axes, and not the ellipse, are given, take S and
A' describe a circle, and with centre T and
fig. 2, with centre 8 and radius
and
radius
describe another circle, cutting the former in the points
and
K' ; from T draw the lines T Q and
K'; join S
and SK',
lines meet S
and SK' in the
and
perpendicular to
, these
required points Q and Q'. The proof will readily appear upon joining
Q
and H Q', and referring to the note, page 77.
285. To draw a tangent to the hyperbola at a given point P on the

TP

RY

TH

HK

HK

HK

TQ

curve.

Join

SP and H

the line

HP

PK sSP

take
P, note, page 97; in
is the required tangent.

PY bisecting SK

and join

SK;

a tangent from a given point T without the curve.

for the ellipse will apply, with the
necessary alteration of figure, to the hyperbola.
287. To draw a tangent to the parabola at a given point P on the curve.
to the axis, fig. 232, and in the axis produced
Draw an ordinate P
take
T
A M, join P T ; this line is a tangent (233) 5 or take S

To draw

286.

The two methods given (283)

S P, and

join

To draw

288.

T=

P T/
a tangent to a parabola from a given point

T without the

curve.

TP

Y parallel to the axis, and cutting the curve in

Draw a diameter
PT, and draw an ordinate Q V Q' to the abscissa PY,
P, take
then T Q and T Q' are the required tangents (249).
If the directrix and focus be given, but not the curve; with centre T
and
and radius T S describe a circle, cutting the directrix in the points
Q' parallel to the axis, and then
R', join R S and R' S ; draw R Q and
TQ and T Q' perpendicular to R S and R'S (239).
289. An arc Q P Q' of a conic section, being traced on a plane to find
to which of the curves it belongs ; and also the axes and focus of the

PY =

section.

Draw

L through

the middle of

two

and another line

the lines L, L' are
parallel, the curve is a parabola, if they meet on the concave side of the
curve it is an ellipse, if on the convex side it is an hyperbola. (130. 243.)
a line

parallel chords,

U through the middle of other two parallel chords,

290. Let the curve be an ellipse, the

point where the lines L 1/ meet is the
;
be a diameter, its concentre C; let
found ; describe a
is
thus
jugate C
R,
circle on P P' as diameter, and draw
C B perpendicular to P P'; join Q, and
parallel to
draw B
Q, meeting a line
parallel to Q V, passing through C ; then

PP

C Dis

the conjugate diameter (136),

if

INTERSECTING CHORDS.

140

To

CE
*J

in

{a2

triangle

PF

and position of the axes draw

perpendicular on
to E, making
CD, join C E, and bisect
join P H
then from the triangle C P E we have the side
terms of C P ancl
2 a, b x sin. (Q> -- 0)}
{a? -f &*

find the length

CD, and
C E in H
b

produce

2 a b}

we have

major, and

PE=

it

===

CD = J
a 6
CH~
,\

PH s a+

PH HE

is

also

PH+ HE

hence

from the same

is

the small-axis

the semi-axis minor.

HK = H

is the direction of the axis-major,

P take
E, then C
291. If the arc QPQ'be an hyperbola, the conjugate diameter may
be found by a process somewhat similar to that for the ellipse ; the asympThe direction of the axes bisects
totes may then be drawn by Art. 215.
the angle of the asymptote, and their length is determined by drawing
a
a tangent PT, and perpendicular P M, to the axis, and taking

In

CA

mean

proportional between

and

CT

(167)
2/

292. If the arc be a portion of a parabola,

draw TPT' parallel to Q V, and then draw P S,

making the angle SPT
the angle T'PV; re-

peat this construction for another point P', then

the junction of PS and P'S determines the focus
(240); the axis is parallel to PV, and the
vertex is found by drawing a perpendicular
on the axis, and then bisecting
(233).

3%.

TM

We shall conclude the

293.
theorem.

subject of conic sections with the following

If through any point within or without a conic section

making a given angle with each

other, be

drawn

to

two straight lines

meet the curve, the
be in a constant ratio

rectangle contained by the segments of the one will

to the rectangle contained by the segments of the other.

Case 1. The ellipse and hyperbola.

be two semi-diameters parallel to the chords POP',
Let CD,
QOQ'; then, wherever chords parallel to these be drawn, we shall always
have the following proportion
The rectangle PO, OP': the rectangle Q O O Q :: the square on
C D l the square on C E.

CE

Let O be the origin of oblique axes

the curve will be of the form

OX, O Y

then the aquation to

INTERSECTING CHORDS.

+ ex + dy

ay*-\-bxy
Let x s=

# ^2

.*.

^2/ +/.=

-J-

and the product of the roots being

0,

we have

The

QO,OQ^^-;

rectangle

Similarly the rectangle

Q O, O Q

the rectangle

.\

141

e#+/= 0.

the rectangle

f
=

O P'

O,

P O, O P'

::

af f
:

::

Now,

let the origin

be transferred to the centre without changing the

form of the equation

direction of the axes, then the

+ bxy +

ay*

Let # e=

the square on

,\

CE

+/'

onCE^

the square

/.

cx*

CDr:

and the square on

the square on

is

(81).

: :

the rectangle QO, OQ'

the square on C D.
:

.*.

the rectangle

C E

P O, OP'

the square

: :

on

CD

do not meet the curve ; but in

In the hyperbola rig. (2), C E and
order to show that these lines are semi-diameters, let the axis of y be carried round till it becomes conjugate to CD, then the formulas for transformation in (55) become
,

for

sin. d'

s= if ~r

sin.

0=0,

x'

-f-

sin.

(w
:

sin.

(o

0')
.

(o

If these values of so and y be substituted in the general central equation

r
0, the
above, and it be reduced to the conjugate form by putting b
f
c x2
transformed equation is of the form a! y 2
> where

+f =

and/' are not changed, and

f"
is

the square on the semi-diameter

along the axis of x (86) ; hence the theorem is true for the hyperbola.
Case 2. The Parabola fig. (3.)
rectangle Q O,
As before, we have the rectangle P O,
: the

OP

OQ'::cu.
be the parameters to the chords POP' and QOQ';
the focus, the axes remaining parallel to P O,
and Q O, by which transformation c and a are not altered.
Now in this case, the chords passing through the focus, we have the

Let

P and Q

transfer the

rectangle

and

O Q'

origin to

PS, S

also as c
: :

: :

P'

and

and hyperbola,

the rectangle

a; hence the rectangle

294. If the point

as well as

S,

SQ';

::

P 0, OP':

jP ~Q
:

the rectangle

(254)

Q O,

Q.

be without the curves, and the points

become tangents, we have

Q', or the lines

P' coincide

for the ellipse

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

142

onOP;

The square
square on CE;

the square on

OQ

::

the square on

CD

the

orOP:OQ::CD:CE.
For

the parabola

The square on O P
may be proved that,
:

the square

onOQ::SP: SQ;

a polygon circumscribe an ellipse, the

And the same
algebraical product of its alternate segments are equal.
theorem will apply to tangents about an hyperbola; the tangents commencing from any point in the asymptotes.

hence

it

if

CHAPTER

XII.

ON CURVES OF THE HIGHER ORDERS.

295. Having completed the discussion of lines of the second order, we
should naturally proceed to the investigation of the higher orders; but the
bare mention of the number of those in the next or third order (for they
amount to eighty) is quite sufficient to show that their complete investigation
would far exceed the limits of an elementary treatise like the present. Nor
is it requisite: we have examined the sections of the cone at great length,
because, from their connexion with the system of the world, every property of these curves maybe useful; but it is not so with the higher
orders ; generally speaking they possess but few important qualities, and
may be considered more as objects of mathematical curiosity than of practical utility.

third order is chiefly remarkable from its investigation having been

undertaken by Newton.
Of the eighty species now known, seventytwo were examined by him eight others, which escaped his searching
eye, have since been discovered.
Those who wish to study these curves, may refer to Newton's " Enu-

The

first

merate Linearum
same subject.

Of the

tertii

Ordinis

" or to the

work of

Stirling

upon the

fourth order there are above five thousand species, and the number
is so enormous as to preclude the possibility of their

in the higher orders

general investigation in the present state of analysis.

systematic examination of curves being thus impossible, all that we
can do is to give a selection, taking cere that amongst them shall be
found all the algebraical or transcendental curves which are most remarkable either for their utility or history.
shall generally introduce them as examples of indeterminate problems, that is, of problems leading to final equations, containing two

We

We

shall then trace the loci of those equations, and explain,

necessary, anything relating to the construction or properties of
the curves.

variables.

when

would be useless

to give any general rules for the working of these

those given for determinate problems will here serve equally
weli
but, in both cases, experience is the only sure guide. In the solution
of these problems we shall not always follow the same, nor even the easiest,
It

questions
;

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

143

but we shall endeavour to vary the manner, so that an attentive

may learn how to act in any particular case.
commence with problems leading- to loci of the second order.

method

observer

We

A B (=

296. Given the straight line

AB,

so that

Let

AP

PB^::

AX

be the origin of rectangular co-ordinates,

AM = a?,MP = y, and
x

.*

or (1

) 2/

4-

+y
(i

2
l

without

(a <r)

#2

4-

the axes,

(a

and

a?,

V
?n

: :

v x2

or

MB =a

.\

AP PB

then

a) to find the point

1.

x)

2
2

+y nm
+m y
2

2 m* a

ory(1

to

m)
2

a 2 cr

0,

This equation shows that there are an infinite number of points satisproblem, all situated on the circumference of a

fying- the conditions of the

circle (66).

To draw

this circle

and radius

in

,r

take

9ii

=
1

describe a circle

- m

;,

and with centre C

this is the required locus.

rj.2

If

m=

1,

reverting to the original equation

the equation to a straight line

parallel to

we have x

drawn through the

bisection of

which

is

B, and

Y.

297. If perpendiculars be drawn to two lines given in position from a

point P, and the distance between the feet of the perpendiculars be a constant quantity a, required the locus of P.
Let the intersection of the given lines be the origin of rectangular axes,
a x be the equation to
take one of the lines for the axis of #, and let y

the other; then the equation to the line passing through

perpendicular to the

line

<r

is

y' ~

P OV)?
(.a?

from these two equations the co-ordinates of the point where

and
then

their loci

meet, that is, the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular are readily
f2
#' 2
obtained and then the final equation found, by art. 29, is y

a2

a2 )

a2

(1
-f
v

which belongs

to a circle

whose centre

is at

the intersection

of the lines.

B,
given straight line B C moves between two straight lines,
its extremities B C are constantly on those lines; to find the
curve traced out by any given point P in B C*
298.

A C,

so that

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

144

Let the

AB,

lines

AM =

AC

be the axes of y and

BP =
PC=

^,

MP=y,
and

BAC

let

be a right angle

then

oc 9

a,
6,

AM:BP::MC:'PC,
JP

x:a:i ^^~y^
;.

b*x* r= a 2 6 8

or a 2

2
2/

6s

a?

a 2 y\
a2 6 3

3c

which is the equation to an ellipse whose centre is

and axes 2 r/, 2 b.
If a ladder be placed against a wall, and its foot drawn along the ground
at right angles to the wall, any step will trace out a quarter of an ellipse,
and the middle step will trace out a quadrant of a circle.
If the co-ordinate axes be inclined at an angle 0, we have

AB^:

y,

and

AC

==

Whence a2 y 2

b2

x2

#,

2 a b cos. 6

a?

&2

6 2 == 0,

the equation to an ellipse (76).

It is easy to see that from this problem arises a very simple mechanical
method of describing the ellipse.
If a straight line B C of variable length move between two straight lines
B C is constant, the curve traced out by
C, so that the triangle
B,
a point P which divides B C in a given ratio is an hyperbola.

which

is

299. Given the line

that

drawing

PA

Let

AB (=

A be

The

the origin

equation to

and that
but

oi

tan.

cj

to find

and P B, the angle

PBX.

to

AX,

AP

BP

tan.

is

is

a point P without AB, such

be double of P A B.

P B A may

AY the rectangular axes

= a x, (1)

y =:

cc'

(oc

PB A = -

c)

tan. 2

PAB

=
1

(x

c)

2 a

(2)

s
2
Eliminating a between the equations (1) and (2), we have y s= 3 #
2 e x, hence the locus of P is an hyperbola ; comparing its equation

with the equation

2
# '=

2 a #), we find the axes to be

2c

ana

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

2 c

and the centre

r,

at

where

V3

145

AC= 3
c

By this hyperbola, a circular arc may be trisected ; for if P B be

the arc to be trisected, describe the hyperbola
as above, and let
the curves intersect in P ; then if
be the centre of the circle, the angle

DP

AOP = 2ABP = 4PAB=2POB,

or the arc

BPA.
This problem

Let

Then

tan.

may

is

one-third of

also be thus solved

AM =
-,

PB

and

x,

tan.

MP = y, and angle PA B

6;
2 tan. 6

20

buttan.2

==
(tan.

ey

'

2y
y

On

examination

it

=
will

or y*

a?

c x.

be seen that the above two methods of solution

are identical.

The following problems give loci of the second order.

From the given points A and B, (fig. 1,) two straight lines given in
position are drawn, M R Q is a common ordinate to these lines, and M P
is taken in M R Q a mean proportional to M Q and M R
required the
300.

1.

locus of P.

2.

A common carpenter's square C B

X A Y, so that the point C is always

line AX; required the locus of P.

in

P,

(fig. 2,)

AY,

moves

in the right angle

and the right angle

in the

3. If the base and difference of the angles at the base of a triangle be

given, the locus of the vertex is an equilateral hyperbola.
4. To rind a point P, from which, drawing perpendiculars on two given.
straight lines, the enclosed quadrilateral shall be equal to a given square*

A Q A'

301. Let
join

A Q and

Let

A' Q'

A' the axis major, Q Q r any ordinate,

be an ellipse,
required the locus of their intersection P.

be the origin of rectangular co-ordinates.

C
Then

M = x, M P = y, C N =

the equation to

which

AQis

y zz a x

-\r

x\ and
c

atAisO^ + c;
y = a (x + a),
.\

N Q = y'.

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

146

At

becomes y 1

it

ss?

-ha)

(a/

AQ

to

is

=:

0?'

A'Q'

similarly that to

Also a
Eliminating

a?'

~yf

and

is

y +

a?

and

we

Substituting in (3)

(2)

?2

between (1) and

g/'

(1/

-(a

f_

y'

a? 6*;
(2),

(3)

we have

6 2 a*

=a 6
= a*
3

&-

or
is

a),

obtain the final equation

a*y

which

(* +. c),

y'

4-

a?

Hence the equation

And

y'

/.

y*

the equation to an hyperbola,

whose

2
,

2
Z>

centre

is

C, and transverse

axis 2 a.

The method

of elimination used in this problem is of great use ; the

have the equations to
and A 7 Q'; putting a? and y the same for both equations intimates that
P in one particular case of interand
lV and y are the co-ordinates C
section ; but the elimination of a?' and #' intimates that oc and y are also

AQ

We

principle admits of a clear explanation.

always the co-ordinates of intersection, and therefore that the resulting

equation belongs to the locus of their intersection.
802. To find the locus of the centres of all the circles drawn tangential
to a given line AX, and whose circumferences pass through a given point

Q {a b).
Let S

cc,

'

Then

cs\

M be one of these

y the
f

circles, referred to

co-ordinates of
.

the equation to
(

but passing through

S
r

its

any point on
is

it

T2

(65)

becomes

- yf -f- (a
AX, we have

(b

and, being tangential to

circumference.

its

QM
_ yy + (a/ _ ay-

rectangular axes

centre P,

~~

a>y

r == y$

r\

as,

A y.

DESCARTES* PROBLEM.

A
or

This

It

is

2
a?

(b

- yf + (a ax 2by +

cvf

y\

14?

= 0.

62

the equation to a parabola (78).

may be

put in the form

transfer the origin to the point

and the curve

is

(a?

a)

a,

2 &

2/

~ \ we have

referred to its vertex

E, which

Hence

).

the equation

<r

we

if

= 2 by

the centre of the least

is

circle.
If,

circle,

instead of the circle passing through a given point,

a parabola is again the locus of P.

AB,BC,CD,

touch a given

it

DA

and
(fig. 1, p. 148) be four straight lines
303. Let
given in position, to find the locus of a point P, such, that drawing the
making given angles with
lines
G, and P
the rectangle P G, P H.
and A, we may have the rectangle P E, P F

PE,PF,P
D

Let

be the origin of rectangular axes O X, O Y ; x and y the coP /3, j3', /3" and p nf the cosecants of the angles which the
E, P F, &c, make with A B, B C, &c. Then the equation

ordinates of
lines

to

AB,BC,CD,

A B being y

toBC,
to

DC

to

AD

f
,

zz & x f

u Xf
f

R
we have P E

ii
J

PF =

f
.

^a

ff

x'

= am x +
f

+a

a"

,r

PH=

V"

Vi

>

- "*-& "
Vi + "
2

6"

..
.

V +
by the question

&'

/3"

*.

0(49)

?J

?/

+ b"

b
,

af x

Vl
f

aoc

-6

dx

#2

Vl

V -"'*-*>'"

Vl

"

wa
b

ff";

0/?

ptrpt!

a"

This equation being evidently of two dimensions, the locus of

L2

is

DESCARTES' PROBLEM.

148

conic section, the particular species of which depends on the situation of

the given lines*

Suppose
problem may be expressed much more generally.
number of lines to be given in position, required a
point from which, drawing lines to the given lines, each making a given
angle with them, the rectangle of two lines thus drawn from the given
point may have a given ratio to the square on the third, if there are three
or to the rectangle of the two others, if there are four: or again, if there
are five lines, that the parallelopiped composed of three lines may have a
given ratio to the parallelopiped of the two remaining lines, together with a
This

3, 4, 5 or a greater

composed of the three others, if

or again, if there are seven, that the algebraical product of
four may have a given ratio to the algebraical product of the three others
and a given line, or to the four others, if there are eight, and so on.
third given line, or to the parallelopiped

there are six

This was a problem which very

cians.

Pappus

says, that neither

much perplexed

the ancient geometriEuclid nor Apollonius could give a

He himself knew that when there are only three or four lines
was a conic section, but he could not describe it, much less
could he tell what the curve would be when the number of lines were more
than four. When the number of lines were seven or eight, the ancients
could scarcely enunciate the problem, for there are no figures beyond
solids, and without the aid of algebra, it is impossible to conceive what
solution.

the locus

the product of four lines can mean.

It was this problem which Descartes successfully attacked, and which,
most probably, led him to apply algebra generally to geometry. The
following solution is that given by Descartes, with a few abbreviations

GH

(fig. 2) are the given lines, C the required

F and
D,
B,
making
point from which are drawn the lines C B, C D, C F and C
G.
A, C FE, and C
B ( a?) and B C
given angles C B A, C
(= y) are the principal lines to which all the others will be referred.
Suppose the given lines to meet C B in the points R, S, T, and
B in
and G. Let
c and
d.
the points A,

A
AG =
Then since all the angles of the triangle A B R are known, we have
BR^a.AB^ca; ,\ C R = a x + y and C D = (a x + y)
.'. C S =
also B S = a'. BE = a' (c + x )
y + a! (c + ) and
also B T = a". B G = a
(d
CF =
{y + a' (c + x) }
then
.\ CT^^ + " (d - a?) and CH= j3"-v{ y + " (d }
E

AE =

/3

a?

j3'

'

a?)

so)

DESCARTES' PROBLEM,

CB,

since the rectangle

CPs

149

CD, CH, we

the rectangle

have the

equation

y/3'{y

+ a'(c+

*)}

|3(*

y)

|S"

{y

a" (d

*)

}.

This equation Descartes showed to belong to a conic section which he

He also gave the following numerical example
described.
:

LetEA=:3,AG=5,AB = BR, B S

CD =

CT
= 2CS, CH =|S

4-CR, CP
2

and the rectangle C B, C F t^z the rectangle

method he found the equation to be
y

ocy

*{-

which he showed belonged

art.

we have

(72)

Vl9

the radius =:

304. Let

"^~

AQB

GB = BT,

ABR =

C D, C H.

By

60,

the above

Taking the expressions in

circle.

8 and

the co-ordinates of the centre

and

be a semi-circle of which

AB

is

the diameter,

BR

BR

line

locus of P.

Let

A be the

origin of rectangular axes,

AB^2a, AM ~

A.\

a?,

MP = y,

and

AB

and draw

the axis of*.

QN

parallel to

MP

APsQ. R, we have A M = B N
AM MP AN N.Q;

then since

and
that

is,

::

::

(2

2 a

x)

J (2

.andy=

an

AQk a straight
AP^QR; required the

AB,

straight line perpendicular to

in R; take
and
the circle in

indefinite

meeting

BE

the angle

2y bx

x*

to

=: 4

x) x

(65)

Vg~^

THE

150

The

CISSOID.

following table gives the corresponding values of x and yi

Values of a?

< 2a

Values of y

possible

2 a

> 2a
impos. impos

From (1) the curve passes through the origin, from (2) it bisects the
semi-circular arc
Q B, from (3) there are possible values of y for all
values of x less than 2 a, from (4) there is an infinite ordinate at B, or
B is an asymptote to the curve from these values we thus obtain an
Again, from
to meet the asymptote B R.
infinite arc proceeding from
(5) for any value of x greater than 2 a, y is impossible, or no part of the
curve is found to the right of* the asymptote ; and from (6) no part of the
curve is on the left of A. Also, for every value of x there are two of y
B similar to the
equal and opposite ; hence there is a branch below

one above

it.

Diodes, a mathematician of the sixth century, invented this curve,

ivy," bewhich he called the Cissoid, from a Greek word signifying
He emcause this curve climbs up its asymptote like ivy up a tree.
ployed it in solving the celebrated problem of the insertion of two mean
proportionals between given extremes.
<tr

Before his time, Pappus had reduced the problem to this case
a circle whose centre
Let B C, CE be the two extremes, and
is C and radius C B ; draw an indefinite straight line B E P through S
meeting B E and G E produced,
and then draw the straight line
and also meeting the circle at Q in such a manner that OQ =: O P, then
C O will be the first of the two mean proportionals. But the point P
hence, Diodes invented this curve to
could not be directly found
determine a series of points which will solve the problem for any length

AQB

APOQ

CE: for example, suppose that B C, C E and the cissoid be drawn,

B E meeting the curve in P then since OR=:OA and Q 11 =:
A P we have OQ^OP.
of

join

From

the definition of the curve it can be readily described by points

is only a tentative process at best, and therefore not geometrically correct, Newton invented a very simple instrument for describing
the curve by continued motion

but as this

(fig. 2, p.

let

E F H be

149) be a straight line parallel to B R take A E

a common carpenter's square, the side F E being of
indefinite length, and
AB; move this square so that the longer
leg F E always passing through E, the extremity
of the other slides
along C H, the middle point G of F
traces out the cissoid.

Let C
and

AC

FH =

To

obtain the polar equation to this curve

Let y

r sin.

and x

r cos.

(9;

THE cissoid.

151

Substitute these values in the equation y* =-

2
r
(sin.

as

(cos. 0)"

<

2a

rcos.0

whence r

2 a

sin.

tan

Ex. If a perpendicular be drawn from the vertex of a parabola to a tangent, the locus of their intersection is the cissoid.
305. If

be a point in the diameter

any ordinate, join

Q, and draw

CP

AB

of the circle

parallel to

B Q,

and M Q
M Q in P*

AQB,

meeting

required. the locus of P.

Lei

thenBM

AM

o? ?

A'B

a,

AC

b;

MQ

::

CM

a?)

/.

Hence

MP,

*J

ax

(b

a?)

the following table of values

a? :i (b

at)

y,

gYalues of

<

oc

Values of y

it

CO

pos.

imp.

imp

JFrom (I) and (2) the curve passes through A and C ; from (3) the ordifrom (4) there are two arcs
nate at B is an asymptote to the curve
between A and C, also two between C and B ; from (5) and (6) no part
of the curve extends to the right of B or the left of A.
;

If h

= 0,

the oval between

and C disappears, and the curve

is

the

cissoid of Diodes.

If b is negative, or the point C on the left of A, the curve consists of

two branches proceeding from A to the asymptote through B, and the
point C, though not on the curve, yet essentially belongs to it. This in-

The theory of such points will

sulated point is called a conjugate point.
fully explained in the treatise on the Differential Calculus.

be

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS,

252

Ex.
P of the parabola, always
point Q is taken in the ordinate
equidistant from P, and from the vertex of the parabola; required the
locus of Q.

to

306.
Q
P, so that

Let

is

an ordinate

MP MQ

ABX

and

: I

AQ

to the semicircle

AB AM
:

B, and

MQ

is

produced

to find the locus of P.

AY be the rectangular

axes.

M=
MP =
A

x,
?/,

m_ic
Then

MP: MQ

::

or

y x

A'B

=s

AM,

2 a x

2a

fj

x2

2 a x

**

zz

Values of y

2 a

or,

x\

2 a

x
;

00

2 a

%/

2 a

Values of x

: :

<

2a

pos.

>2a

neg.

imp.

imp.

From (1) we have the ordinate at the origin infinite, and therefore an
asymptote to the curve ; from (2) the curve cuts the axis at B from (3)
the curve extends between A and B ; from (4) no part of the curve is
beyond B ; from (5) no part is to the left of A.
This curve is called the Witch, and is the invention of an Italian lady,
Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Bologna, A.D, 1748.
307. In the circle the square on the ordinate is equal to the rectangle
under the segments of the diameter required the form of the curve on
which the curve upon the ordinate is equal to the parallelopiped, of which
the base is the square on one segment, and the altitude is the other segment, or 2/ 3
x 2 (2 a
a?).
;

Let

be the origin Y,

AX,

Athe rectangular

axes,

and

AB

=:2fl,

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.
Let a
and B

= 2 ,
< 2 a, y

y ==

153

hence the curve passes through

but when x is
2 a, y increases
negatively to infinity, since the third root of a negative quantity is negative and possible.
Again, y is positive for all negative values of x 9 and
increases to oo ; also for each value of a?, there is only one real value
oi'y, the other two roots of an equation y*
1 s= 0, being always im-

or

for

a?

.*.

is

positive

>

possible.

Expanding

the equation
s

A Y take AC^

line

3
g/

2 a

the equation to the asymptote

.*.

In

we have

produced

is

^3

-,

and

in

is

AX

take

a?

2a
+
(195).
o

AEs 3

-, join

E,

this

an asymptote to the curve,

Ex. Find the locus of the equation, y Q

rr 2 # #3

a?

a3

and of the equation

308.

To

trace the curve

whose equation

is

a y 2 ss

<r*

-f wi

2
a?

n x + >.

Case (1). Suppose the roots of this equation to be real and unequal,
and to be represented by the letters a, b, and c, of which a is less than b
and b less than c, then the equation is of the form

y= v/{(^=^-)(-6)(*S

Values of x

Values of y

imp.

<* ><&
imp.

pos.

>b<c
imp.

)}.

10

>c

00

pos.

00

imp.

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

154

Abe

Let
axes

AB

the origin, AX,

Y, the
sr a,
C s= b, and

A D

From (2) (5) and (7) the curve

from (3)
passes through B, C, and
;
and (6) no part of the curve is found
from
between
and B, or C and
;

two branches between B

and C from (8) and (9) the curve proceeds from D to co and from (10)
no part of the curve is on the left of A.
If the roots had been negative, the curve would have the same form,
but would be rather differently situated with regard to the origin.
(4) there are

Case

(2). If

or

the

same

two roots be equal, the equation

a)

as above,

posing the points

V T

and

y =s (ce-c)

in the former case the figure is nearly

when

'

is

coincide
the points C and
to coincide, or the oval to

in the latter,

sup-

become a conjugate

point.

Case (3). If two of the roots be impossible, we, have only the
shaped part of the curve from J).

a y 2 =s

If the three roots be equal, the equation is

consists of two branches proceeding*
from B with their convexity towards the axis. This
curve is called the semi-cubical parabola ; its equa-

Case (4).

The

figure

the

tion

is

that

(a?

bell-

ay.

now

most simple when the origin is at the vertex

a, when a y 2 z=z
putting co instead of x

is,

oc\

This curve is remarkable as being the first curve

which was rectified, that is, the length of any portion
of it was shown to be equal to a number of the com-

mon

rectilinear unit.
2

a?
x 4- n oc
309. The equation a y
-f
jh can be traced exactly
the accompanying figure applies to the case when
as in the last article
If two of them be equal,
the three roots are positive, real, and unequal.
one of the semi-ovals disappears; if three are equal, both disappear : in
2
3
a) , or a2 y
x 8 if
this case the equation is of the form a y zz (pc
:

the origin be transferred

parabola,

to

the curve

is

then called the cubical

A hFisITCTi)
F
310. If the equation be a
is an asymptote, and there

oc ij

is

#3

+m

oc

oc

a branch in the angle

p, the axis of y
the rest

YAo?;

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.
of the curve

from

to

like that in the

is

come

to

Ay

<*}<*

Values of x

Values of y

CD

lower branch

last figure, supposing' the

as the asymptote, the

take the case where

We shall

vary.

155

form
_

will vary as the roots

ffi

= ^T-

<a

>a

GO

r~

CO

GO

4*

-f oo

is an asymptote; from (2) the curve cuts the axis at B

from (3, 4, 5) it is below the axis of x from A to B, and
above from Bto oo; from (6) and (7) we have the branch F C Y.
This curve enables us
This curve is called the trident, from its form.
to point out the difference between what are called parabolic and hyperbolic branches of a curve B y and C Y are hyperbolic, because they admit
but B E and C F are parabolic,
of a straight line Y y for the asymptote
because they admit of a parabolic asymptote, represented by the dotted

From
(A B

(1)

Ay

a)

curve

FAE,

whose equation

is

(196).

y
^

B
~~ a
0.
cc
Ex. Find the locus of the equation or y
2
3
2
3
n
#
-?
be

x y -f
+ x + p the form ofB
If the equation
-f"
y
4
the curve will depend on the nature of the roots of the equation a? + mx

a
-^0;

4-

-]-

case.

+p

$*

-fc

there will be no difficulty in any particular

Generally the equation to the asymptotes

axis of y is an asymptote.

is

tzz

and the

311. If the terms a? and

m of are

wanting, the equation

is

(x

J m)

THE CONCHOID.

156

x y

a*y

4-

*=l

Jr
p.

n x

{a 4

a/

+ 4w

p x

!
'2

a?

If the denominator of this expression had been constant, the equation

would have belonged to an ellipse, hyperbola, or parabola, according as n
was negative, positive or nothing hence if such constant quantity be
replaced by the variable quantity 2 a?, the conic section becomes " hyperbolized" by having an infinite branch proceeding to the axis of y as an
asymptote.
1

For the nine

Enum. Lin.
From the

figures corresponding to the values of

see

p}

Newton,

Tert. Ord.

last article it appears that all curves of the third order have
branches ; and this must necessarily be the case, for every equation
of an odd degree has at least one real root, so that there is always one
real value of y corresponding to any real value of x,

infinite

The conchoid of Nicomedes.

Let X x (fig, 1) be an indefinite straight line,
which draw the straight line A C B perpendicular
312.

number of

straight lines

B, then the locus of

If in

conchoid

EA
;

AE P, A E P
is

E P

we take

&c.

a given point, from

to

take

a?,

EP

and also any

always equal to

the conchoid.

= EP

the locus of P'

is

called the inferior

both conchoids form but one curve, that

is,

both are expressed

by the same equation.

C B is called the modulus, and

Let

AC ^
C B

/.

...

the base or rule

M=
M P = y,

a,
b,

at,

or
:.

==

X#

EP:PM: AP: AN,

then

We

/r

f^ +
8
a?

*J

y* (a
2

(6

y::

if)

-\-

(a

+ yf

y)*

&

(a

y)\

s !l^

have three cases according as b

is

>

#,

= #, or <

a.

y,

THE CONCHOID.
Case

1. 6

>

a.

Values of y

a?

<b >b

pos.

CD

Values of

-m

imp.

<~ a > - < <z,

pos.

pos.

From (1)
x Is an asymptote; from (2) the curve passes through B;
from (3) and (4) the curve extends from the asymptote upwards to B and
Again from (5) and (6) the curve
no higher; hence the branch B P P /;
if C
b ; from (7) there is a branch A X
passes through A and
and from (8) the curve exists
extending from A to the asymptote
the double value of x gives the same results along C#.
between A and
;
a in the table of values put b = a, and omit (8) thus
Case 2. h
the figure will be the same as the preceding, with the exception of the
oval AP'D, which vanishes by the coincidence of A and D.
a ; in the table of values put b for a in (7), and for (8)
Case 3. b
G
if?/is> b oo is impossible;" the upper part of the curve
write
is not altered, but the point D falls between A and C ; from (8) no part
but from (5) A is a point not on the
of the curve is between D and A
In this case the
curve, but belonging to it, and called a conjugate point.
lower curve is similar to the upper one.
The generation of the conchoid gives a good idea of the nature of an
asymptote, for the line E P must always be equal to C B, and this condition manifestly brings the curve continually nearer to C X, as at P'7 so
that the curve, though never actually coinciding with C X, approaches
nearer to it than by any finite distance.
This curve was invented by Nicomedes, a Greek geometrician, who
He called it the Conchoid, from a Greek
flourished about 200 years B.C.
.

D=

,*

<

'

signifying "a shell;" it was employed by him in solving the

problems of the duplication of the cube, and the trisection of an angle.
To show how the curve may be applied to the latter problem, let B C A
draw
F meeting the circle in E,
(fig. 2) be the angle to be trisected
and the diameter produced in F, and so that the part E F equal the radius
C A, then it is directly seen that the arc D E is one-third of B A.
Now it is not possible by the common geometry, that is, with the
shall
straight line and circle alone, to draw the line A E F, so that
be equal to C A (the tentative process, though easy, being never considered
geometrically correct), and for a long time the ancient geometricians
would not hear of any other mathematical instruments than the ruler and
compasses hence the problem was quite insuperable finding at last that
this was the case, they began to invent some curves to assist in the solution of this and other problems: of these curves, the most celebrated is
It may be thus applied to the present
the conchoid of Nicomedes.
Let A be the pole of the inferior conchoid, B F the asymptote
problem.
or base, and A C the modulus, the intersection of the curve with the circle
The superior conchoid may also be
evidently gives the required point E.
used for the same purpose.

word

AE

EF

THE CONCHOID.

158

Unless the curve could be described by continued motion, the solution

would be incomplete. Nicomedes therefore invented the following" simple.
machine for describing it. Let a? X be a straight ruler with a groove cut

there
at
;
is another ruler fixed at right angles to x
it ; C
in
;
fixed pin, which is inserted in the groove of a third ruler
;
is a fixed pin at E, which is inserted into the groove of x
any given length ; then, by the constrained motion of the ruler
in

A EP

a pencil at

would

will trace

is

AP

X PE is
PEA,
fixed in E A

out a conchoid, and another pencil

,

trace out the inferior curve.

This curve was formerly used by architects ; the contour of the shaft of
a column being the portion B P P" of a conchoid.

The

polar equation to the conchoid

Let

(fig. 1,

is

page 156) be the pole,

.*.

y+ a

tzz

r cos. 0,

thus found

AP = PAB =
= r sin.
and
a?

0.

Substituting these values in the equation, and reducing,

polar equation r
a sec.
6.

0;

r,

we

arrive at the

The polar equation may, however, be

the definition of the curve.
have

much more

from

easily obtained

We

r-APsAE-f EP-AC

CAE+CB~a

sec.

sec.

6.

313. The following method of obtaining the equation to the conchoid

will be found applicable to many similar problems.
Let any number of lines,
E P, fig. 1, be drawn cutting C in different points E, &c. ; from each of these points E as centre, and with
radius 6 describe a circle cutting the line
E P in P and P' ; the locus
of the point P is the conchoid.
Let A be the origin of the rectangular co-ordinates.

AB

the axis of y, and

AX

C X in the figure.
A E P be y ^ ax,

parallel to

Let the general equation to the line

determinate

where a

is

in

THE LEMMISCATA.
Then

The
radius

y'

= #,

and

=r

are the equations to the point

equation to the circle which has the point

for its centre

and

6, is

or

And

oc

159

(y

(y

a) 8

f +

O
(

oc'f

= h\

a;

=- 6 2 ,

eliminating a between this equation, and that to the line

final equation to the curve,

A E P,

we

have the

)+U\

(3,_
or (y

j^2

a) 2

_L

=6,

y j

qjQ,

~~

2
.

=/

(a?), the
be a curve whose equation is y
In general if the line C
are found by eliminating x and ?/ from the
co-ordinates of the point
/' (a), and
(pc)\ hence we find a?
equations y zz a a?, and yzi
cr: a
(), and the equation to the circle is

{y

And

- af> ()} +

-/'()} 2

{*

the general equation to the curve

s
.

is

{-Mf)M-/<f)} =*
,

perpendicular is drawn torn the centre of an hyperbola

314.
tangent, find the locus of their intersection.

The equation

to the tangent is

a*

The equation

to

yy _
'

&aa?a?'=:

the perpendicular on

it

a*

(1)

b*.

from the centre

^-7''

is

(2)

In order to get the equation to their intersection, we must eliminate

these two equations and that to the hyperbola from (1)

x and y from
f

upon a

and (2) we

find

cfix

oc*

Substituting in the equation a 2 y h

0*
which

is

2
"I-

2/

y* *

62
a

&2
3/

~
a?'

a
2

y
y*

=&

-^

an equation of the fourth degree,

>

2
,

we have

THE LEMNISCATA.

160

We
when

shall only investigate the figure in the case when b

the hyperbola is equilateral, in which case the equation

:.

?/

= ^{ -

and y

(2 a?

ea )

+ ~)

(*

here y

is

s
tf

\/2

If the sign of the interior root be negative,

shall only

*4

-f

x*

+y)
2

0,

-}.

impossible

is

a, that is

is (a?

hence

we

examine the equation

impossible, if x*

if

a?*

-f-

is

>

a2 x 2

4 > 2 a

2
<2?

is

4'

2
cT

~4

4-

if# 4
if

hence we have the following table

is

> +

Values of x

a <a >

Values of y

pos.

imp.

from (2) it passes through A and

(1) the curve passes through C
from (3) it has two branches from C to A and from C to A' ; from
(4) it does not extend beyond A and A'.
We may judge yet more nearly of the form of these ovals, for the tangent at the vertex of the hyperbola being perpendicular to the axis, the
oval will cut the axis at A at a right angle ; and again at C in an angle
of 45, because the tangent nearly coinciding with the asymptote, the
perpendicular on it makes an angle of 45 with the axis ultimately.
This curve was invented by James Bernouilli; it is called the Lemniscata, and forms one of a series of curves corresponding to different values

From

A'

of

b.

To

find the polar equation to the lemniscata,

Let y

r sin. 0, and x

z=i

r cos. 6

2
hence the equation (a? 2 + # 2 ) 2
a2 (x 2
y*) becomes r
a2 cos. 2 6.
Any curve that is of the form of this figure is called a lemniscata.
315. In the following example the curve maybe easily traced by points.
Let a circle be described with centre C and any radius C Q
draw the

ordinate

Q M,

and

QC

in

take

QP=tQM;

the locus of

is

a lem-

niscata.

Again,

C M,

if

in

MQ

the locus of II

MR =

we
is

take
a third proportional to
another lemniscata whose equation is
4
a?

~~

a 2 x -f a2 y 2

0.

MQ

and

&

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

The equation a2 (y - af
(j? - a)
curve referred to a different origin.

(2 a

a?

belongs to the same

a2

Ex. Trace the locus of the equation y*

161

4*

<#

a?

C Q,
Q an ordinate to the
a tangent to a circle
and
taken a mean proportional between
Q
required the locus of P.

AM,
AM

316.
abscissa

U)

1, is

fig-.

MP

AM

is

1?

,//

''

-?

A\

\1'
\

*N.

Let
let

AM

=:

and

x,

M P ==

y, be the rectangular co-ordinates of P,

the radius of the circle

then the squai^e

To

M Q,

find

we have

or y*

onMPr:

y'T

2 b y -f ^

(*

MQ = 6 V&
M P or = V {6

C.

Since
of x

<

fr

6,

zz

b,

is<

a?

a?

7/

and y =z v
r

0,

b,

-"

V& 2

a?

^ 2 }

there are four values of ?/ to each positive value

b, fig. 1, the
B
to x negative ; hence if
perpendicular to
B is a limit to the curve, and when
5

CBC

and no value of y

straight line

M Q.

=A

*')*

0, since #'

AM,

the rectangle

the equation to the circle

(y

and

6,

is equal to the extreme ordinate of the

tangent B C.
and x == 6, we have four values of y, which give the

the ordinate to the curve

circle, that is, to the

Between x
0,
two dotted ovals of fig.

To make

the question

a chord of the

(1).

more general we

shall

suppose the line

AB

to

be

and

circle, figs. (2) (3) (4),

Then if 6 and a are the co-ordinates to the centre of the

the origin, the equation to the curve will be

y-
and we have four

cases depending

have four curves of

and generation.

(1).-

Case

(2).

a and

Case

(3).

Case

(4),

b negative,

ax

x*} 9

on the values of

hence we
same character

and a

different forms,, vet partaking of the

Case

{bxx*J b +
2

,J

circle,

0, fig. (]) already discussed.

b positive, fig. (2).

AE ^

-f

a%

0, fig. (3).

fig.
'

{ -

(4), the equation is

h

xV

"+lTa

*~~~
2

}.

b\

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

162

< 2 a;
< A E.

There are two values of y for oo positive, and

for x negative, and
V # 2 -f b 2 a, that is,

<

The gradual

transition of

one curve

to

another

same problem should produce such very

requires some explanation.
In

fig-.

(1)

but four values

apparent, but that the

is

different curves as (2)

and (4)

and P' are determined by mean proportionals between

M and M Q, and also between A M and M Q Moreover P may be in

Q M produced as well as in M Q, thus we have the double oval,
(1.) On
the
of A the abscissas A M will be negative, and the ordinates M Q
A

fig.

left

hence no possible mean proportional can exist, or no part of the

curve can be on the left of A.
In fig. (2) A
and
and
Q determine the points P and P' ; but
Q' give only an imaginary locus.
Fig. (3) requires no comment.
In fig. (4) the reasoning on fig. (2) will explain the positive side of A;
on the left of
the abscissa and both ordinates are negative
therefore
two mean proportionals can be found, or four points in the curve for each
positive

AM

abscissa.

Such curves may be invented at pleasure, by taking the parabola or

other curves for the base instead of the circle.
To find the locus of the equation y*
a co y 2 a oc s =.
117. To find a point P ; 5 such that drawing straight Hues to two given
points S and I~I, we may have the rectangle S P,
P constant.
Join the points S and H, and bisect S II in C ; let C be the origin of
rectangular axes, S
z~ 2
cc,
P == y and let the rectangle
\

fi

Then

since S

b.

M^

{y
or (y

J
r

hence

Let a be

-f

{y

Let

0,

less

B'*

than

2
a;

{a

a\ we have
- %y} = a* b%

-f

#s -f a2

H M=^

} {y~

2 a

0,

(I)

and

-f-

"a

xy

+
= +J

and

-f &\

Let y ^s

Then from
points

a
(a

2
a?

or,

1.

^CMr M

SP HP, =

+
2

a?)

(y

-2

x)^a2

2
,

- 4 a = a b*
+
- (a2 + ) + a V^+T^}.
x zz ^ a {a b)
(1).
a2 } 2

a?

{
e

oc

db

Va

(b

a)

(2).

5.

we have

the points

A and A

p
7

and from (2) we have the

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.
Also by comparing the values oft/
(2)
/J

we

shall find that

2 a (2 a

figure

6)

MP

in the original

greater than

is

C B

163

equation and in equation

cc is greater than

as long as

thus the form of the curve must be like that of the

APBA'B' A.

As b increases, the oval becomes flatter at the top, and takes the form of
the outer curves,
Let a

2.

6,

then

the dotted curve passing through C ; also

2 2==
2 a 9 (# 2 $ 2 ) the locus is in this
2/ )

we have

since the equation becomes (a?2 4case the lemniseata of Bernouilli.

3.

Let a be greater than

6.

Then from (1) we have two values of a?, and from (2) an impossible
value of y hence the curve must consist of the two small oval figures
round S and H.
As h decreases, the little ovals decrease ; and when 5 zz 0, we have the
;

S and H themselves for the locus.

These curves are called the ovals of Cassini, that celebrated astronomer
having imagined that the path of a planet was a curve like the exterior

points

one in the above figure.

The equation (y
figure like that in case
2

b^y* -f a%

oc\

found in

art.

(123), gives a

1,

318. There are some cases in which it is useful to introduce a third

3
3
1
0,
x* y
2 y -f x
variable; for example, if the equation be y*
equation of three or four dimensions, in
it requires the solution of an

order to find corresponding values of x and y

assume

to avoid this difficulty,

= uy,

oc

:.

y"

or,

,\

y
u

+u"y + 2y*--u*y*=:
i

+ 2 - u = 0,
-2
u* - 2

-, and x = u. r.
u + 1
+1

u y

=u

from these equations we can find a

x and ?/.

-.

2
1

0,

w,

= ~
=
= -

series

of corresponding values for

-Z-,

TO"

rs

14

1 i
li

ft

1*
X
'2

14
2

4
&c.

a
=
=
=

5.?

1 1

2 6

-?-

74

I
2

3 if

&c

14 -H
&e.

M2

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

164

= 0,

Let
zz 0, hence the curve passes through A,
along the axis of y take values equal to those in
the table for y ; and from the points thus determined draw lines equal to
the corresponding values in the table for x (these are the dotted lines in
the figure) ; by this method we obtain a number of points in the curve
sufficient to determine its course.
This example is taken from the " Analyse des Lignes Courbes, by
G.Cramer. Geneva. 1750," a work which will be found extremely useful in the study of algebraical curves.
Also when y

AX, A Y

319.

be the axes

To

cc
;

trace the curve

whose equation

is

aa?y 2

-f

x5

0.

Let x be very small .% x & being exceedingly small may be omitted,

2
which is the
and the equation becomes y b =n 5 a cc 2 y 2 or if
5 a a?
and if y be very
equation to a semi-cubical parabola PAP' fig. (1.)
hence
small, we have x* r= 5 a 2/2 which gives the parabola Q A Q'
near the origin the curve assumes the forms of the two parabolic branches.
Again when x is infinitely great, x1 may be neglected in comparison with
5
'x and the equation becomes y
x hence for x posix 5 ,\ y =r
tive, we have an infinite branch in the angle XAy, and for os negative an
infinite branch in the angle Y A x.
To find the asymptote

b
y sr

^5

5 a x 2 y*,
r

y^ -*^l

oe

i\

ay'

5^

l5

<2a"

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS.

ss

a?

-f-

(F +

a"

=:~a?-f-a+2-s-K
Xd

- ,

a5

&e.

"

when

&c.

165

os

a; this being" drawn

Therefore the equation to the asymptote is y -J- x
and the branches AP', AQ' produced towards it, we have nearly a correct idea of the curve.
5
2
If the equation be ?/ 5 - 5 a x 2 y -j- #
0, the curve will be traced
in the same manner, fig. (2).
2
6
*2?
If the equation be y a2 x2 ?/
0, we have fig. (3) ;
6
%
2

will give fig. (4).

xQ t=
a? x y
And the equation y
4
<2
.= 0.
4 a2 x y
Ex. Find the locus of the equation y
For the above method of tracing curves of this species, see a treatise
on the Differential Calculus, by Professor Miller. Cambridge, 1832.
320. B C is a straight line of given length (2 6), having its extremities
always in the circumferences of two equal circles, to find the locus of the
middle point P of the line B C.
Let the line joining the centres O, O of the circles be the axis of -x, and
let the origin of rectangular axes be at A, the bisecting point of O 0\

4,

Let x y be the co-ordinates of B.

f

x y

".....

XT

A O = AO =
r

the equation to
to

is

if

is

- y')"

also (y

From
y'

and

these five equations

a;';

+
+

f2

C.

P.

a,

(x

- af =

O'

+
-

(x

we must

c2

-c
x f = 4 6
2Y-y +
2 X = x +
a

)*

(1)

(2)

(3)
y'

(4)

a?'

(5)

eliminate the four quantities y, x,

from (1) and (2)

y'

a;

_ y) y +

-2a

2
a?'

(a?

4- a')

= 0,

2.<z X =
(6),
Y
ara/=
#'* + ^ + *'
4
2
+ 4 X"
2
+
+
?/
+
y
f
- 2y#' 2a?a?' = 4 6
from (3)
+ y n + x* +
- 4 a (.r-a/)~ 4 c 4 a
from (1) and (2) 2^ + 2 y' + 2 x* + 2
=:
(Y*
4
4
(x
a')
i X f & + a - c ),
substitution
a
/. by

or

(a;

from (4) and (5)

a?')

X~

a?'

2/

a?'

ALGEBRAIC CURVES,

160

or

(a?

- x)
1

Y
+ X + m*
1LJ^-Z^l,
2

s=

if

tf

9
fe

c\

Cb

and from (6)

2/

y'

r rt

{2

(*

,m

a')}

Substituting these values of

\* a
or 4 a*

a?

-T

X s=
y
f

cv

/n
(^2

-Y +
2

Iy 2+ {

we have

+ X + m X + (J!^^)\x^ + Y =4 h* Y
X + + mf
= 0.
Y - X (X + Y + ) + (X + Y )
2a
2

4 (Y

a2 X - 6 2

S=4 *'

.-.

+m

~_-^~~J

~~ y' in (3) 5

and y

X*

This equation, being of the sixth dimension, and the highest terms
being both positive, the curve must be limited in every direction when
also when
0, we have
is very small, there are four values of
;
0; hence the curve is a species of double oval, or lemniscata.
If the circles be unequal, and P be any point in the line B C, the curve
will be of the same nature, but the investigation is much longer.

Y-

X=

beautiful contrivance of Watt to reduce a circular to a rectimotion is well known to every one. Suppose the point B to be the
extremity of an engine-beam, moveable about its centre O. this beam is

The very

linear

required to moved a piston-rod always in the same vertical position .it is

plain that this motion cannot be obtained by fixing the piston-rod to B, or
Suppose now, a beam O' C, called the radius-rod,
to any point in
B.
to move about a centre 0' and join the extremities B, C, by a bar B C ;
the extremity of the piston-rod is fixed to the middle of the beam B C, and
its motion, according to the above demonstration, is in a portion of the
curve, such as the dark part of the lemniscate in the first figure, and
;

consequently the rod itself continues much more in the same vertical line
The comparative lengths of the rods necesif attached to B.
sary to render the motion as nearly vertical as possible are stated in most
works on the steam-engine, and in the Mechanics* Magazine. For a
more complete but very different method of finding the equation to the
above curve, see u Prony, Hydraulique."
321.
have no space for the discussion of any higher algebraic
curves, if it were necessary
but in fact we have not the means : it must

than

We

ALGEBRAIC CURVES.

167

have been already seen that many of the preceding curves have not been
drawn with mathematical exactness for unless we took the trouble of
tracing them by points, we could not easily determine their curvature we
;

to the consideration of the general equation of the

shall therefore pass

nth dimension, and then proceed to the intersection of algebraic curves*.

322. The general equation of the nth degree with all its terms com9

plete, is

(a

ce

h)

n~ l

h a*'*

+ dx +

n~ %

+
+.....+&a? + =

(ex*

e)

+ /\vn + gx

~l

0;

contains all the possible combinations of x and y, so that the sum of

the exponents in no one term exceeds n.
(?i
The number of terms is 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . .
1), or is the
sum of an arithmetic progression, whose first term and common difference
therefore the sum of this
is unity, and the number of terms is
it

series is

(?i

-f

2) --- (n
-

n+1;

4- 1)

The number of independent

y

constants

"

is

(dividing by the co-efficient of

in the equation, that is,

number of terms

necessary) one less than the

if

'

2
323.

An

algebraic curve of the

nth degree may pass through as many

n (7i + 3)
,

given points as
for giving to
72>

( Tl

-'"

it

has arbitrary constants,

that. is,

through

x and y their values at each one of the given points 3

points,,

we have

-_^___L_

by which the values of the constants may

different equations,

be determined.

For example,

* We must refer our readers to our treatise on the Differential Calculus for information
on the curvature of lines. It must not, however, be imagined that algebraic geometry is
incapable of exhibiting the form of curves; the following method of determining the
curvature is an instance to the contrary.
Let y u ?/ 2 and y\ be three consecutive ordinates, at equal distances from each other;
then drawing a corresponding figure, it will be seen that the curve is concave or convex
,

> or < ~~- as an example,

convex,
y = % then the curve
1

to the axis, according as wq is

take the cubical para-

<

is
if 2 x 3 is
(x 1) 8
whose equation is a"
3
-j- I)
is ]> 2 x 3 -f 6 x, which it is, and therefore the curve is convex.
~]~ (x
The
distances at which the ordinates are drawn from each other must depend on the con~
3

bola,

stants in the equation.

Again, to determine the angle at which a curve cuts the axis of cc, transfer the
origin to that point; then the tangent to the curve at that point and the curve itself
make the same angle with the axis ; but the value of the tangent of the angle which

the tangent to the curve makes with the axis

value whatever

for example, let a

oo

the curve coincides with the axis at the origin.

y%
2 ct >
3 -'-=
x2 (2 a-- x) at we have--

?y

rs

-5

= -

y
then -j

is

o
=

= =r

which may be any

when x

=2

Again, take the example in

= x =
'

hence the curve cuts the axis of

00

and at

therefore

307

art.

B we have ^^y

in both, cases at an angle of 90

ALGEBRAIC CURVES.

168

The
of y\

general equation to the conic sections, dividing by the co-efficient

Is
2

bxy~j~cx q -\-dy-\~ cr-f/^2

-{-

and

in which there are five co-efficients,

through

given points

five

and y we

separately for x

0?

therefore a conic section

may

pass

substituting the co-ordinates of the given points

obtain five equations from which the constants

can be determined, and thence we have the particular curve required it

2
4 c is negative,
will be an ellipse, hyperbola, or parabola, according as h
;

positive, or nothing.

(79.)
elimination is long, but the trouble may be much lessened by
assuming one of the given points for the origin, and two lines drawn from
the origin to other two given points for the axes.
For example, if it be required to pass a conic section through four
let
given points
join B C and DE, and let them meet in
;

The

324.

BCDE,

AB

AD

be the axis of y and

the axis of

a?,

Y
Let

AC=y n AB^y
AD- A E = x
x,

Assume

bxy

-f

we have

dy

ex* -f

-f-

for

be

the equation to

2/

and
.%

Similarly for

= 0, e

-f-

yf

dy

{y x -f y & ),

+/=

-f ex

y*

(x t

-f-

0;

/=

+ fz=.

0;

and/= y y
x\), and/
2.

equating the values of/, we have

^-

2/

y y2

x*

ay

c r=

x
Substituting and dividing by

ex,

-f-

x.

we have

-f-

7y 2

an equation involving only one unknown

,2?.
f

-j~

T2

co-efficient b.

There are some restrictions depending on the situation of the given

points ;^ thus no more than two can be in the same straight line, or else
the conic section degenerates into two straight lines.

The

given points are the same as five conditions expressed analysufficient if the curve is to be a parabola ; for b*
4 c
== 0, is equivalent to one.
If the curve has a centre, whose position is
given, three other conditions suffice, because we may assume the equation
2
to be
cr a
6 j?y
0.
If the position of two conjugate
#
diameters be given, only two more conditions are requisite.
Newton, in his Universal Arithmetic, gives excellent methods for describing, by continued motion, a conic section passing through
five given
five

tically

points.

four are

+/=

ALGEBRAIC CURVES.

169

325. If it be required to pass a curve, whose species is not given,

through a number of given points, we may with advantage assume the
equation to be of the form
3
y zn a -{- bx + c x 2 -f d x + &c.
,

and therefore easier

elimination of the constants is more
such curves are called parabolic (the
equation than in any other
three first terms giving the common parabola) and consist of a series of
For the eliminasinuosities, such as in (309), which are easily traced.

The

regular,

in this

Lagrange, or Lardner's Algebraic Geometry,

tion of the constants, see

art.

617.

326. We saw in article (79) that the general equation of the second
order sometimes gave straight lines for the loci; such will be the case whenever any equation is reducible into rational factors of the first degree
so that we must not always conclude that an equation of the ?ith
If the equation be reorder has a curve of the 7Z th order for its locus.
ducible into factors of lower degrees, there will be a series of lines corresponding to those factors ; thus if an equation of the 4th degree be composed of one factor of two degrees, and two factors of the 1st degree,
the loci are a conic section and two straight lines ; and hence a general
equation of any order embraces under it all curves of inferior orders: if
any of the factors be impossible, their loci are either points, or imaginary.
If the sum of the indices of x and y be the same in every term, the loci
are either straight lines or points ; for an equation of this species will have
the form
n

+ ay n - x+ by^x3
x

+ Za? n ^0

+(*)"-<*)"+'=*
let

the roots of this equation be

/3,

y,

&c, then

the equation will be

5-)(*-0(*-)-=*
each factor of which being r= 0, its corresponding locus is evidently a
straight line ; if the roots of the equation be impossible, the corresponding loci are points.

Ex.

2xy

sec.

i.iwhose equations
H

lines

are *
y

therefore the lines pass

x2

The

0.
1

through the

sin.

cos.

locus consists of two straight

tan.

origin,

Am
45

\
and are

-f-

a2 \

and

inclined to the axis of

cc

at angles of 45

327. Since the general equation includes all equations below it, the
properties of the curve of n dimensions will generally be true for the lower
orders, and also for certain combinations of the lower orders ; thus, a
property of a line of the third degree will be generally true for a conic
section, or for a figure consisting of a conic section and a straight line,
Moreover the lower orders of curves have
or for three straight lines.
generally some analogy to the higher curves, and hence the properties of
inferior orders often lead to the discovery of those of the superior.
328. From the application of the theory of equations to curves, an
immense number of curious theorems arise, which may be seen in the

ALGEBRAIC CURVES,
works of Waring; and Maclaurin
the most important.
If two straight lines, AX,

we have

only room for two or three of

AY

n dimensions, in the
I*QR,&c., STU, &c, so
P, A Q, A R, &c. = y y iy

cut a curve of
points

that

y3

T,
S,
&c. respectively, and
z l9 r2 x3 &c. respecU, &c.

then

tively,

to

parallel

always have

AX

if

and

y2

yQ

&c.

move

we

themselves,

shall
&\

#a

x3 &c, in a constant ratio.

Let the equation to the curve be referred to the origin A 5 and to axes
AX, AY, by means of the transformation of co-ordinates, and suppose
the equation to be
-1
n
n
-+ dx"' 1
hx + I
0.
. cx
y + (ax + 6) y" +
.

Lety=
a?

c^

The

roots of (1) are

The

roots of (2) are

*

y*yz

71

A P, A Q, A li,
&c.
^
2/3

&c.

A ^

/.

r3

(1)

(2)

&c.
o?2

hx

A S AT AU

+ = 0.
= 0.
fcy +

B-1

+
+
+ 6 y"- +
do;

&c.

a? a

#x

:i

&c,

o%.

y s y8 &c.
.

1.

Now

the transformation of the axes, parallel to themselves,, never alters

n
n
the co-efficients of y and x ; hence the above ratio is constant for any
and Y
parallel position of
Article 293 is an example of this theorem.

AX

329. A diameter was defined in (76) to be a straight line, bisecting a

system of parallel chords; more generally it is a line, such that if any
one of its parallel chords be drawn, meeting the curve in various points,
the sum of the ordinates on one side shall equal the sum on the other
R Q -f II' Q
&c.
P' Q
&c and the
thus, in the figure, if P Q
same be true for all lines parallel to P R, then B Q is a diameter.
To find the equation to the diameter B Q let the equation to the curve,
referred to A X and a parallel to P Q, &c.
n
e) y -*+, &c.
y*
(ax+ b) y~ Y (ex* -h dx
0,

M Q ^ u,

and P
by substitution we have
fn

-f-

(a x

= y\

Let

;.

zz

+ u,

+ b + n u) y ~ + {c x? -f d x + e + n 771
+ n.- 5 -M}"'- +,&c.=0
fn

ax

THE INTERSECTION OE CURVES*

By

171

the definition the sum of the values of y must equal nothing, and thai;
is the co-efficient of the second term in the last equation with its
sign changed,
.\ a x
b 4* n u =2 0,
f

sum

ms ~

or

and

this is the

Again*,

b
ax +

B Q.

equation to the diameter

Ly the same reasoning, the equation

c x*

-\-

dx +

-\-

\u

ax

b 4~

u?sz0
r
2

is that to a conic section drawn so that the sum of the products of the
values of y, taken two and two together, shall equal nothing.
might proceed on with the co-efficient of the fourth term.
These curves are sometimes called curvilinear diameters.

We

330. The method of finding the centre, if any, of a curve, is given in

(81) ; the operation is too long to apply it to a general equation of high
dimensions, and therefore we shall take an example among the lines of the
third order as fully illustrating the subject.
b x% 4- c x 4- d, under which
Let the equation be x y 2 4- ey =: ax 3
form are comprehended most of the curves of the third order.
on
m, y =z y 4- n; the transformed equation is
Let x

^ +

if 4-

(ji

2 n x y -j 3a 2

my

-f (2
b

nm

e)

ax

m c) x 4- m
cm ~* d = 0;

?i

4-

2,

- (3

en

am
3

b) z*

bm

may have a centre, the 2nd, 3rd, 6th, and last

.*. n
0,
;
0, 6=0, rf sn' 0,
or constant term must each =:
so that the corresponding curve has a centre, which is the origin, only
when the co-efficients b and d are wanting.
in order that the curve

CHAPTER

m=

XIII,

ON THE INTERSECTION OF ALGEBRAIC CURVES.

331.

The

intersection of a straight line with a line of the 71th order is

found by eliminating y from the two equations hence the resulting equation in terms of x will be of the nth order, and therefore may have
n real roots thus there may be n intersections there may be less,
since some of the roots of the resulting equation may be equal to one
;

another, or

some impossible.

Generally speaking, a curve of n dimensions may be cut by a straight

line drawn in some direction in n points but the curve, in its most general
form, must be taken ; otherwise certain points as conjugate and multiple
;

THE INTERSECTION OF CURVES,

points,, must be considered as evanescent ovals- or evanescent branches of

the curve, and thus a line passing through such points is equivalent to

two or more
332.

The

intersections.

intersections of

two

not

less, for

intersection: for example,

a as

2 a b

if

but this

we

mn

intersections

X zr

is
is

y from

eliminate

^s=2

x 2 and

hence, apparently, there

abscissa

the real roots of the equation

all

y% == 2

and nth orders are

hence the resulting equation may

lines of the with

found also by eliminating y from both

be of the mnth. order, or there may be

b)

(a?

there are often

will give points

of

the equations

we

find

= J 2 ah;

a?

always an intersection corresponding, to the

not the case

for then

>

2
y =r 2 a

( *]

2ab 6),
%

impossible, if b is
2 a, which is evident on drawing
y
the two curves ; hence after the abscissa is found, we must examine the
corresponding ordinates in each curve ; if they are not real, there can be

and

therefore

is

no intersection corresponding to such abscissa.

If we have the two equations y 2 -f 2 jo
0, y*

%
10 a?
-J- 4 x
4 and
the elimination y gives the abscissas of intersection cc
the second of which alone determines a point of intersection,

- 16
x =:

= 0,

1,

333. In finding the intersections of lines, we often fall upon a final

equation of an order higher than the second, or arrive at an equation
whose roots are of a form not readily constructed ; to avoid this difficulty
a method is often used which consists in drawing a line which shall pass
through all the required points of intersection, and thus determine their
situation,

=/

(V) * (1), and y zz

(a?) (2), be the equations to two lines,
Let y
then at the point of intersection they have the same ordinates and abscissas;
the co-ordinates of the point of intersection, we have
and
or calling
(X) ; hence /(X)
=/(X) and
simultaneously
(X), from
and Y might be obtained, and their values constructed
which equation

But

Y=

Y =/

since

(X)

we have by
or by

addition

multiplication

(3)

(4)

or generally

Y = (X)
2Y =/(X) + 0(X)
Y = / (X)
(X)

and

= F {/(X), 0(X)}

(5)

(6)

.(7)

implying any function arising from the addition, subtraction, multipli-

and (4).
any one of these equations gives a true relation between the coand Y of the point of intersection of (1) and (2); but by
ordinates
supposing X and Y to vary, it will give a relation between a series of
that is,
points, of which the required point of intersection is certainly one
drawing the locus of (5) or (6) or (7), it must pass through the required
point of intersection of (1) and (2).
It is manifest that if one of the equations (5), (6), or (7), be a circle
cation, &c. of (3)

Now

(cc), <p (V), serve to denote different functions of oc, that

The symbols F (#),
indicate expressions into which the same quantity os enters, but combined in different ways with given quantities. But
(#),
(?/), indicate similar formulae for both
2
a? , then
2 a x
x and y ; thus, if / (V)
(y) z=z 2 a y
y\ or 2 b y * y'K

is,

'

THE INTERSECTION OF CURVES,

173

or straight line, it will be much easier to draw this circle or straight line
than to find the intersection by means of elimination.
Also we may often find the intersection of (1) and (2), when one of
them is a given curve, by drawing the locus of the other, and this method
is the simplest when that other is a straight line.
We shall give a few examples to illustrate the subject.
334. From a given point Q without an ellipse, to draw a tangent
to

it.

Let the co-ordinates of Q be

and n, and let X and Y be the
co-ordinates of the point P, where

the

meets

required tangent

the

curve.

Then by (111) the equation

P is
yY + b*xX a*

to

the tangent through

a2

and since
have

this

bq,

passes through

Q we

a*nY + b*mXzza*l*
and

d Y + &X
2

(1)

a h\

(2)

X and

From (1) and (2) we might, by elimination, find

structed values would be the co-ordinates

CM,

Y, and

MP

their conof the required

point.

Now

not the equation to any straight line, but only gives the
and Y to vary, it
but if we suppose
and
C
will give the relation between a series of points, of which P is certainly
one
and therefore, if the line whose equation is (1) be drawn, it must
pass through P, and consequently, with the ellipse (2), will completely fix
the situation of P.
relation

(1)

is

between

MP;

To draw
Let

in

X=

Cy

duced
hence

The

take

the line (1),

Y= n

CBr=

Let

and in

Cx

Y=

take

/.

CA

a
X= m

join

BA

BA

pro-

the locus of (1), and it cuts the ellipse in two points P and P ;
be joined, they are the tangents required.
and Q
same method may be employed in drawing tangents to the para-

is

if

QP

bola and hyperbola.

d y -f e x
ex2
To take the more general case, let a y 2
(1)
be the equation to the curves of the second order referred to axes parallel
to conjugate diameters.
Then the equation to a tangent at a point x y' is

a yy

xx

(y

y')

+-

(x -f x

0,

^
m

THE INTERSECTION OF CURVES.

(2ay

or

Let

+d)

(2 c x

e)

tangent pass through a point

this

+ d) n + {2cx

(2ay'

dy'

-f

n,

+ ex =
f

+e) m + dy +

(2).

then (2) becomes

1

ea?'

(3),

(^)
(2 a n + d) 2/' + (2 c m + e ) d + ^ ^ + e m
Now let x and ^'in (4) be considered variable, and construct the straight
line, which is the locus of (4)
this with the curve itself, determines the
position of the secant line which joins the two points on the curve, whence
tangents are drawn to the point ran,
335. Again, suppose the secant line (4) to pass through a given point
m n' ; Then the equation (4) becomes
(5),
(2 an-\r d) n 4- (2 c m + e) m -f d n -f e m
and of course the point on n 9 whence tangents were originally drawn,
must have a particular position corresponding to each secant line passing
through m' n' if therefore we make m and n variable in (5) we shall
or,

mn
m + dn +

have the equation to the locus of the point

(2 a

m and

where

d)

w!

-f (2 c

e)

s=

are the variable co-ordinates.

?z

if from any point secants be

the following theorem
second order, and from the two points where each
of these secants intersect the curve, tangents be drawn meeting each other,
the locus of all such points of concourse is a straight line.

Hence we have

drawn

336.

to a line of the

To draw

a normal to a parabola from a point

(a, &,)

not on

the curve.

= m

be the
and
4
x, be the equation to the curve, and let:
co-ordinates of the required point, then the equation to the tangent at the

Let y 2

point

XY,

is

by (232)

and therefore that

since

it

at

XY

jj^~*-~"~

is

yand

normal

to the

-S7S<
passes through {a b)

Y:
or,

XY

A
""""-.

we have

\e

is

{a ~~ X),

2m) Y
Y = 4mX
(a

~~

m 6 = 0,

(1)

also,

'- *""'-.-,

(2)

8 m" 0^0 (3), an

The elimination of X gives Y 3 - 4 m (a 2 m) Y
equation whose roots would give the three required ordinates.
To avoid this equation we shall construct the locus of (1), which is the
equation to an equilateral hyperbola.
The axis of x is one asymptote
a
(198), and the other is parallel to the axis of y and at a distance A C
2m from A the equation to the hyperbola referred to its centre C and
asymptotes isXY
2m6; moreover the hyperbola cuts the axis of y in

the point

D, where

curve in the figure)

AD =

may be

constructed,

11%

hence this hyperbola (the dotted

THE INTERSECTION OF CURVES,

175

We

have drawn the figure, so that there shall be only one intersection
of the curves, and hence only one normal is drawn from Q.
If the curves
touched, as at E, there would be two normals ; and if the hyperbola cut
the parabola in the lower branch, there would be three normals drawn
from Q. These cases correspond respectively to the equation (3), having
one real root; three real roots of which two are equal ; and, lastly, three
real

and unequal

roots.

337. We must particularly observe that, in the construction of loci, those

are to be selected which admit of the easiest description, and of all curves
the circle is to be preferred ; hence, in the present case, we must look
carefully to see if

is

it

possible,

obtain the equation to the circle

/equired normal points.

by any combination of (1) and (2), to

;
for by 333 this will pass through the

Multiply (1) by Y, then

2 m) V* 2m&Y = 0,
X 4 m X (a 2 m) 4 m X 2 m b Y r=
X - (a - 2 m X~ -|- Y =

XY 2

or,

.\

which

is

by addition

Y 4 m'X = 0,

from (2)

Y + X - (a +
2

2m) X -

-|-

the equation io a circle, the co-ordinates of

+ m and

-j

and whose radius

is

0,

and
>\

(a

"*"

"7T

"*"

Y=

whose centre

TSf

are

Although

this circle passes through the vertex of the parabola, yet that point is not
one of the required intersections, but merely arises from the multiplication

of(l)byY.
If the parabola and circle be drawn, the latter in various situations
according to the position of Q, we shall see ? as before, that there will be
such practice will be found very useful.
one, two or three intersections
The problem of drawing a normal to an ellipse is of the same nature,
only in this case there may be four intersections.
338. The intersection of curves has been employed in the last articles
to avoid the resolution of equations resulting from elimination, but the
principle may be extended, so as to render curves generally subservient to
the solution of equations ; for as two equations combined produce one
whose roots give the intersection of their loci, so that one may in its turn
:

be separated into two, whose loci can be drawn, and their intersection will
determine the roots of the one.
This method, known by the name of " the construction of equations,"
was much used by mathematicians before the present methods of approximation were invented ; it is even now useful to a certain extent, and
therefore we proceed to explain it.
2
Let there be two equations : y
a (I), y
& (2)i by
#8
x

+ ~

elimination

we

find

^ 00+

a?

esO

(3),

THE CONSTRUCTION OF EQUATIONS.

175

We

already know that the roots of (3) are the abscissas to the points of
intersection of the loci (1) (2) ; but, conversely, it is manifest that the
roots of (3) can be determined by drawing the loci of (1) and (2), and
measuring" the abscissas of intersection.

Hence
it

if it

be required to exhibit geometrically the roots of (3),

be decomposed into the two equations (1) and (2), and

let

let

CPQB

EPQof

be the locus of (1), and the circle

(2), having the same origin and axes draw the
and A
are
I\ NQ, then A
ordinates
:

the roots of (3).

The method consists in parting any given

equation into two others, and then drawing the
loci of those two ; and as it is obvious that
there are a great many equations which, when

may produce the given

construct a great many loci, whose intersections will
give the required roots thus, in the above case, the equation (3) may be
combined together,

equation, so

we may

resolved into the two a?

= ay>

and

ay a % +

a"

0,

and

the

corresponding parabola and straight line being drawn, their intersections

will give the roots of (3).

In general the roots of an equation can be found by the intersection of

any two species of curves whose indices, multiplied together, are equal to
the index of the equation: thus, a straight line and a curve of the third
order will give the solution of an equation of the third order ; and any
sections, except two circles, will give the roots of an equation
of
the fourth order.
339. As equations of the third and fourth order are of frequent recurrence in mathematical researches, we proceed to the solution of the complete equation of the fourth order,

two conic

y*+py +
3

qy*

+ ry + s

0.

Here the circle and parabola, as curves of easy description, ouo-ht to be

chosen, and assuming the equation to the parabola a slight artifice
will
give us that to the circle

Let y

# =

(I);

THE CONSTRUCTION OF EQUATIONS.

4

2/

but
\

4
2/

.+

f + -j f = ^
+

p2/

by subtraction Iq

92/2

o?

y*

or from (1),

^+

or

and from

(1), if

-<r

locus of (1)

2/

ry

%
oc

^ _ V +

o,

=:

ry

0,

+ s = 0;
+s_

#
l

A E Q, the origin

the parabola

is

ry

+|-- LSfjy+^g-

Ay' + ^+fr+Tf
The

2/

!__

177

0)

0,

-^a? + * =
being* at

(2).

E BE= f

J,

and the co-ordinates rectangular. The locus of (2) is the circle QPR; the
co-ordinates E D, D C of the centre, and the radius are readily determined from (2). The roots of the equation are drawn as if two,
3
were negative. If the circle
Q N were positive, and other two RS,
touch the parabola, two roots are equal the eases of three or four equal

FM

TU
;

roots can only be discussed by the principles of osculation, but as two roots
are sufficient to depress the equation to one of the second order, we need
If there be only two intersections, two
not here consider those cases.
roots are

impossible

and

there be no

if

impossible.
340. In practice the operation

is

intersection,

all

four roots are

shortened by first taking away the second

to construct the roots of the equation

term of the equation; for example,

+ 8x + 23^-f
3

z*

Let x

=y

2,

and

~tf + 4y

Let
.\

3/

==

by substitution x

by addition y
or,

(y

2)

-f2

a?

32?

16

the reduced equation

(3)

= 0.

(1).

is

-4 = 0.

(2).

# + 4 4^=0,
?/

2
~J~

{x

y
I)

2x

=9

t=i

0,

(4).

Let P
Q be the parabola (3), whose parameter is unity, the co-ordinates of the centre C of the circle (4) are
z=i 1, and B C
2, the
radius
Describing this circle, the ordinates
3.
and
are

=
the possible roots of (2)
and Q N ~ 2 hence

AB

BP

measuring these values we shall find

the possible roots of (2) are 1 and
therefore those of (1) are 1 and 4.
;

QN
=

PB

2,

1,

and

'

341.

The

construction of equations of the third order

is

involved in that

THE CONSTRUCTION OF EQUATIONS.

178

Take away the second term, if necessary, multiply the

by y, and then proceed precisely as in the last

of the fourth order.

resulting- equation

The

Y=

always pass through the vertex of the parabola, but

0, introduced by multiplication, and
y
This
has therefore nothing- to do with the roots of the given equation.
circumstance of the circle passing through the vertex of the parabola, is
article.

circle will

this intersection gives the root

singularly convenient, as

entirely saves the

it

radius to decimal places, which

Ex.

6a

x3

1.

;.

?/

.'.

y*

.\

or 3 (y

a2

~~

13

y-

or,

Let

13 y a

x
13a?-

12 y +
-

6)2

a?

(a;

12

= 0,
12 y

y + 2;

Let x

0.

0.

= y
12
0,
- 12 = 0,

_ 6)

trouble of calculating the

often necessary in the preceding cases.

is

(1)

a?

== 72

(2).

4, 1 and 3

6,-1
-5 = 0. There isone possible root nearly =

The three roots of y, as given by the figure, are

hence the values of x are
and
1.
Ex.

2.

4 af

+ 6y

Ex.

3.

4# 8

3y

+l=

0.

There never can be any difficulty in constructing the loci of these equahaving once drawn a parabola, whose parameter is unity, with
tolerable exactness, it will serve for the construction of any number of
^

tions

such equations.
As another example, we take the following question.
342. To find two mean proportionals between two given lines a and

Let y and x be the required

then

yiiy

a?,

y: xv.xi

b,

y*

a 2 a? 8

lines
.%

a2

Let

PAQ be

will give

The

^a x

(I),

X* by

:.

b y,

but by addition of (1) and (2),

or,

2
?/

(2),

a2

-f

jr

or y

ax

(^- TJ + ^J:=_-

z=z

0,

(3).

the parabola (1), then the intersection of the circle

M P and A M, the two mean proportionals required.

other roots of the equation

cfibzzO are impossible,

b.

;;

THE CONSTRUCTION OF EQUATIONS,

179

This problem was one of those so much celebrated by the ancient maMenechme, of the school of Plato, was the first who gave
a solution of it his method being particularly ingenious, as well as being*
the first instance known of the application of geometrical loci to plain
problems, is well worth insertion.
With a parameter a, draw the parabola
(fig 2), and on
perpendicular to
describe the parabola
with parameter b.
Then the rectangle a, A
or a9
P is equal to the square on V
thematicians.

PAQ
PAR

AX

AY
M

M
N
M P and N P are in continued proportion.
Again, the rectangle
AN or M P equal to the square on N P
e
, .

<2,

.*.

hence we have

MP, N P,
at the

is

6,

6,

and b are
9

in continued proportion

same time the two proportions

a:MP::MP:NPandMP:NP::NP:6;
are in continued proportion.
a, M P, N P, and
5,

,\

Menechme

depending on the intersection of

also gave a second solution

a parabola and hyperbola.

343. To find a cube which shall be doable of a given cube.
Let a be a side of the given cube, then the equation to be solved
z

y ^z 2 a
2

Let

2/

or y*

is

2 a y^O,
3

2 ay

=
a
x
(2)
y
(2) being drawn, the ordinate P M of their intersection

ax(l),
/.

a2 2

.%

by addition,

The

-2fl8 p0,

~~ 2

or,

==:

-a?

a y f x 2

loci of (I) and

the side of the required cube.
This problem, like the former, occupied the attention of the early geometricians ; they soon discovered that its solution is involved in the preceding one ; for if 6
2 a> the resulting equations are the same.
times greater
In this manner a cube may be found which shall be
than a given cube.
344. We may thus find any number of mean proportionals between

is

two given quantities a and b.

For if y be the first of the mean proportionals, they

will

form the

fol-

lowing progression

Let there be four mean proportionals, then the sixth term of the pro5

gression being b

y
we have -

6,

or y

a4

b s= 0.

a x, and then draw the

Describe the parabola whose equation is g/ 2
The last curve consists of an
0.
a b
locus of the equation y x
x, and therefore the
X,
hyperbolic branch in each of the angles
ordinate corresponding to the real root is readily found.
345. Newton constructed equations by means of the conchoid of Nicomedes he justly observes that those curves are to be preferred whose,

2,

YA

YA

mechanical description is the easiest ; and he adds, that of all curves,

See
the conchoid next to the circle is, in this respect, the most simple.
the instrument in (312).
The following is one of the many examples
given in the Universal Arithmetic.

N2

THE CONSTRUCTION OF EQUATIONS.

180

Let the equation be x s

K A,

straight line

KB = n
and radius

and

KC

BA

bisect

in

= 0,
In

draw a

KA

take

with centre k

describe a circle, in which inscribe

CX- T

tween the

lines

equal to

7/.

the straight line

EY

Q %

of any length

join

AX

and

A, so

that,

XY

is

employed

AXE

be the pole,

such that

EY = CA.

and be-

produced, inscribe

X,

when produced,

point K.
geometrical proof follows to
is
equation for the length of
root of the equation.

The conchoid

show
3
a?

from

that,

q x -f r

to insert the line

and

it

passes

through

this construction,

= 0,

so that

XY

EY between CX and

CA

the

the
is

C A.

modulus; then the

common description of the curve determines the point Y on the line CXY,
Let

the base,

the

346. With regard to the higher equations, there is not much advantage
in constructions, since it is extremely difficult to draw the curves with
The method, however, is so far useful as enabling
sufficient exactness.
us to detect the number of impossible roots in any equation, as we can
generally trace the curves with sufficient accuracy to determine the number of intersections, though not the exact points of intersection.

Ex. y 5

Lety=*.

3y

+1

a
y a 3 y

/.

0.

(1),

0, (2)

=
1

or

PAQ,

the locus of (1) is a parabola

that of (2) is a curve of the third
and there are three intersections ; and, therefore, three possible
roots, two positive, and one negative.
order,

347. There

is some uncertainty in the employment of curves in finding

stated in (332), that real roots may correspond to imaginary
intersections; so, on the contrary, imaginary intersections, or what is the

roots

we

same, the absence of intersections, does not always prove the absence of
example, if to prove the equation a?*
15a? + 14
we^ assume y 2
a 8 (1), and therefore x if
14
15 a?
(2), the
loci of (1) and (2) will not intersect, but yet two roots are possible.
The
error was in choosing a curve (1), which proceeds only in the positive
direction, when from the form of the equation it is apparent that there
are negative roots.
Taking the circle and common parabola for the loci,
real roots; for

+
+

(340), we shall find the roots to be

Hence, in
1 and
2.
general, to ascertain real roots it will be advisable to try more than two
curves,
as in

THE LOGARITHMIC CURVE.

CHAPTER

XIV.

TRANSCENDENTAL CURVES,
848. It was slated in art. (23), that those equations which cannot be
put into a finite and rational algebraical form with respect to the variables, are called Transcendental of this nature are the equations y -n sin. a?
and y =r a*. In Chapter XII. we have obtained the equations to curves,
generally from some distinct Geometrical property of those curves ; but
there are many curves whose equations thus obtained cannot be expressed
that is, the equation resulting from
in the ordinary language of algebra
the description or generation of the curve is dependent upon Trigonometrical or Logarithmical quantities ; these curves, from the nature of their
equations, are called Transcendental.
We shall here investigate the equations and the forms of the most
celebrated of these curves, and mention a few of the remarkable properties belonging to them, although they can be only fully investigated by
;

the higher calculus.

349. In this class will be found some curves, as the Cardioide, whose
equations may be expressed in finite algebraic terms ; but these examples
are only particular cases of a species of curves decidedly Transcendental,
and which cannot be separated from the rest without injury to the general

arrangement.

Some of the Transcendental class have been called Mechanical curves,

because they can be described by the continued motion of a point; but
this

name as a distinction is erroneous, for it is very probable that

may be thus described by a proper adjustment of machinery.

all

curves

THE LOGARITHMIC CURVE.

AM

is the logarithm
350. The curve Q B P, of which the abscissa
P, is called the Logarithmic curve.
of the corresponding ordinate

M=

Let
x,
P =r y^ then x ~- log. y, that
the system of logarithms, y
cf.

X
is,

if:

a be

the base of

== a 9
1
x increases

To examine the course of the curve we find

as x increases from
to go, y increases from
to oo, y decreases from 1 to 0.
In
take
the curve proceeding from B to the right of

AY

when x
1 to

od

=
;

0,

as

A B = the linear unit, then

A B, recedes from the axis

THE LOGARITHMIC CURVE,

182

of x, and on the left continually approaches that axis, which is therefore

an asymptote.
This curve was invented by James Gregory ; Huyghens discovered that
in T,
T is constant and equal to the
if P T be a tangent meeting*

AX

of the system of logarithms. Also that the whole area

\log.a
extending infinitely towards x is finite, and equal to twice the
triangle P
T, and that the solid described by the revolution of the
same area about
x is equal to 1-J times the cones by the revolution of
about
PT
a?.
That such areas and solids are finite is curious, but not unintelligible
to those who are accustomed to the summation of decreasing infinite

modulus

MPQ

series.

If the equation be y =r a"**, the curve is the same, but placed in the
opposite direction with regard to the axis of?/.
351. The equation to the curve called the Catenary, formed by suspending a chain, or string, between two points B and C, is

y~i(e +
where
and

e-')

AM=

AD=

a?,

MP=y,

1.

This equation cannot be obtained by the ordinary algebraical analysis*

but it is evident that the curve may be traced from this equation, by adding together the ordinates of two logarithmic curves corresponding to the
equations y ^=z e" undy ^=l c~~ x
.

_i

352. Trace the locus of the equation

rz a*.

To

353.
/.

less

I ;

than

curve whose

equation is y
of.
Let $ ==
and between x =s and x =: 1, we have
also x increases from 1 to co, y increases to infinity

trace
let

(Fig. 1.)

the

==: 1

/.

==i

THE CURVE OF SINES,

hence if A B
corresponding

C
1 (fig. 2,) and
to positive values of x.

Let x be negative

*.

y s=

x)

1,

183

we have

~m

the branch

now

if

we

BPQ

take for x

three consecutive values, as 2, 2-J-, 3, it is evident that y will be positive,

impossible, or negative ; hence the curve must consist of a series of isox.
lated points above and below the axis
For further information on this subject see a very interesting memoir

M.
in the fifteenth volume of the " Annales des Math."
such discontinuous branches by the name " Branches Fonctuees ;" and he also shows, that in the common logarithmic curve there
must be a similar branch below the axis of w, corresponding to fractional
values of x with even denominators,

by M. Vincent,
Vincent

calls

THE CURVE OF SINES

The curve

354.

APEC

of which the ordinates

sines of the corresponding abscissas

M,

AB

is

MP,BE are
called the

the

Curve of

Sines.

Let

AM =

x,

MP

^s y, then the equation

is

sin

a?,

y
I

r sin.

7r

Values of

ir

A B =

7T

AGs

St? r

IT

Values of y

Take

ttt,

it

ADs2?rr;

then from (!) the

BEs

r, the curve passes through

course, because between (1) and
(2) y increases, and between (2) and (3) y decreases ; the curve cuts the
r, and
axis again in C ; from C, y increases negatively until it equals

curve cuts the axis at

E, and

A; from

(2), if

this is the highest point of

its

C F

equal and
the values of y recur, and the curve consimilar to the first.
Beyond
tinues the same course ad infinitum; also since sin, ( w) s= > sin. $
there is a similar branch to the left of A.

then decreases to 0, so that we have a second branch

THE QUADRATRIX.
This curve

may be supposed

arcs into a straight line

x,
sines of these circular arcs.

to arise

from the development of

circular

drawn corresponding

ordinates being

to the

In a similar manner the curve of cosines, of versed sines, of tan&c, may readily be investigated.
If the ordinates of the curve of sines be increased or diminished in a
given ratio, the resulting curve (y
sin. x) is the curve formed by the
simple vibration of a musical chord hence this curve is called the Har:'.
7'
.v
monic Curve. \
355. The accompanying figure belongs
to the curve whose equation is y zz
x tan. a;. Such curves are useful in finding
the roots of an equation as x tan. x
a;
for, supposing the curve to be described, in
A Y take A B =: a, and from B draw a
gents,

~m
:

,,

'

>

:.

..'

.';

AX

;
then the ordinates
corresponding to the points of intersection
of this straight line with the curve are the
values of y, that is, of x tan. x.

line parallel to

THE QUADRATRIX.

w-X

356. Let

be the centre of a circle

A QBD

let

the ordinate

MR

move uniformly from A to B C, and in the same time let the radius C Q,
turning round C, move from C A to C B
then the intersection P of C Q
and

RM

Let

traces out a curve called the Quadratrix.

be the origin,

Then

AM

A M = #, MP = y, AC=r,
A C :: A Q A B,

When
from

to r,

(r

0,

Ctan.

7T

TV'

x) tan. -

y ss

ACQ^e,

it

rO

ButM P =

angle

,\

6>,

which

is

the equation to the curve.

the curve passes through

as

x increases

increases, because the tangent increases faster than the

THE QUADRATRIX.
angle

when x

= r

the Differential Calculus

C,

y 77-9

2 ^

is

value of which found by

the real

hence

if

185

CE

2 t
,

7T

the curve passes

7T

through E as x increases beyond r the tangent diminishes but is nega/. y is positive and diminishes until it finally
tive, and so is r x
2r
A ; when x is greater than 2 r the tanbecomes 0, when x
when x
3 r, the
gent is positive, therefore y is negative and increases
cd
this gives an asymptote through F.
As x
tangent -r co ; .\ ?/ rincreases beyond 3 r the tangent decreases but is negative ; hence y is
5 r, y ss 00, and between
4 r 9 y ==: 0, when ^
positive ; when x
# ==: 4 r and 5 r, 2/ is negative therefore we have the branch between
the asymptotes at F and H, and proceeding onwards we should find a
The part of the curve to the left of A is
series of branches like the last.
;

the

same

as that to the right of

D.

This curve was invented most probably by a Greek mathematician of

his object was to trithe name of Hippias, a cotemporary of Socrates
sect an angle, or generally to divide an angle into any number of equal
parts, and this would be done if the curve could be accurately drawn ;
draw the quadratrix and the ordinate
thus to trisect an angle
in the points
and O, draw the ordi nates
P, trisect the line A
;

ACQ,

NS,
>

7T

Then from

to the quadratrix.
n

the equation

s=r

we

2 r

ACQ.

C S and C T trisect the angle

This curve was afterwards employed by Dinostratus to find the area
supposing the point
or quadrature of the circle, and hence its name
E to be determined by mechanical description we have the value of ir
shall see that

o-iven

by the equation

CE

2 r
s=.

and therefore the

ratio of the

cir-

to the diameter of the circle would be known.

There is another quadratrix, that of Tschirnhausen, which is generated
parallel respectively to A C and
by drawing two lines through Q and
B C, and finding the locus of their intersection its equation will be

cumference

v
* =r

r cos.

\2
(j

r sin. v t= r sin.

2r

-.

THE CYCLOID.
357. If a

circle

EPF

be made to

roll in

a given plane upon a straight

at
the point in the circumference which was in contact with
the commencement of the motion, will, in a revolution of the circle, describe
D, which is called the cycloid.
a curve B P
This is the curve which a nail in the rim of a carriage-wheel describes
hence the
In the air during the motion of the carriage on a level road

line

BCD,

venerating circle

EPF

is

called the wheel.

The curve

derives

its

name

is

called

from two Greek words signifying " circle formed/

The line B D which the circle passes over in one revolution
the base of the cycloid

if

AQC

be the position of the generating

circle in

THE CYCLOID,

186

C the axis of the

the middle of its course,
is called the vertex and
is equal to
The description of the curve shows that the line B
curve.
the circumference of the circle, and that B C is equal to half that circumbe the position of the generating circle,
Hence also if
ference.
and P the generating point, then every point in the circular arc
having coincided with B F, we have the line B F e= the arc P F, and

EPF

FC

the arc

PF

EPorAQ;

II

Draw
Let

PNQM parallel

A be the

A C the
Let

to the base

B D.

origin of rectangular axes,

axis of

and

a?,

the centre of the circle

AMs^AOsa,

AQC

MP = y, angle A O Q^O;
then by the similarity of position of the two

circles,

we have

PN = QM, andPQ =sNM;

;.MP = PQ + QM = NM + QM=FC + QMaarcAQ + QM
that

is,

y ^ a Q -f a sin.
x ss a a cos.

The equation between y and

so

6 zz a (0 4- sin. 0)

is

== a vers.

(1)
(2)

found by eliminating

between (1)

and (2)

JO a
n. x
rr

a
=

cos.

and y =s a 6

~j~

sin.

&

sin.

'a

/J 2

/.

cos.

a/

ax

But we can obtain an equation between x and y from (1) alone

from the equation,
arc AQ-f QM,

MP ^

For

arc

AQ -

a circular arc whose radius

is

a <a circular arc whose radius

'

a vers.
a

-x
l

f.yzza

vers.

+^o-^

a and versed sine

is

that is

cc

unity and vers. sin.

THE CYCLOID.
If the origin is at

B,

x ss a

We

It

a?

sin.

and
)

187

RP-^/, the
u...

c-/i

/:/

equations are
-#

cos.

not stop to discuss these equations^ as the mechanical descrip

lion of the curve sufficiently indicates its form.
The cycloid, if not first imagined by Galileo, was first examined by
him ; and it is remarkable for having" occupied the attention of the most
eminent mathematicians of the seventeenth century.
Of the many properties of this curve the most curious are that the
whole area is three times that of the generating circle, that the arc
P is
double of the chord of
Q, and that the tangent at P is parallel to the
same chord. Also that if the figure be inverted, a body will fall from any
in the same time ; and if a
point P on the curve to the lowest point
body falls from one point to another point, not in the same vertical line, its
path of quickest descent is not the straight line joining the two points,
but the arc of a cycloid, the concavity or hollow side being placed
shall

upwards*
358. Given the base of a cycloid to trace the curve.

B7

7 6-3 4.

>' J>

Let the base B D be divided into twenty-two equal parts, and let them
be numbered from B and D towards the middle point C ; from C draw the
and on A C describe
perpendicular line C A equal to 7 of these parts
;

a circle A Q C. Along the circumference mark oif the same number of

equal parts, either by measurement or by applying the line B C to the
circle C A.
In the figure the point Q is .supposed to coincide with the

end of the

fifth division

from the top.

equal to the length C 5 measured on the

base, if P Q be drawn parallel to the base, and equal to the remainder of
the base, that is, to B 5 or
Q, it is evident that P is a point in the
cycloid, and thus any number of points may be found.
The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is generally

Then

the arc

C Q being

taken as in

this case to

be as 22

to 7.

359. Instead of the point P being on the circumference of the circle,

it may be anywhere in the plane of that circle, either within or without
the circumference. In the former case the curve is called the prolate
cycloid or trochoid, (fig. 1,) in the latter case the curtate or shortened
cycloid, (fig. 2.)

THE CYCLOm.

188

&

K^

a)

/^ -fr ^V
[u
T

j\

"^V

"

v..
-^"C
\

"

^^.^

M.

ARC

rolls, O the centre

B is the base on which the generating circle
of the generating circle, P the describing point when that circle is at F*
Draw
parallel to the base.

PNQM

A be the origin of rectangular axes,

A M = M P = y, A O = a, K O = m a, angle A OR 9, then
MP=MN + PN = MN + QM = FC + QM = arcAR+QM
M
and A M = A O +
/. y = a
-f ma sin.
Let

a?,

'

and

oc

t^.

the prolate, curtate, or common cycloid,

or equal to, unity.
of the curve be the origin of co-ordinates in figs. (1)

These are the equations

according as ni

is

If the vertex

and

we have

(2,)

= arcAR +

to

less -than, greater than,

KO =

QM

/.

and

zz

A O = ma

ma9
x

m vers.

The curve whose equations

companion

#.

a,-vers;

a
are

-j-

+
e=

sin.

*J2

6,

also

MP^FC

+ QM

ax

and x

vers.

is

called the

to the cycloid.

360. The class of cycloids may be much extended by supposing the

base on which the circle rolls to be no longer a straight line, but itself
a curve
thus let the base be a circle, and let another circle roll on the
circumference of the former ; then a point either within or without the
:

THE EPICYCLOID.

189

circumference of the rolling circle will describe a curve called the epitrochoid; but if the describing point is on the circumference, it is called the
epicycloid.

If the revolving* circle roll on the inner or concave side of the base> the
curve described by a point within or without the revolving circle is called
the hypotrochoid ; and when the point is on the circumference it is called
the hypocycloid.

To

find the equation to the epitrochoid.

be the centre of its base E D, and B the centre of the revolving

in one of its positions C A
the straight line passing through
the centres of both circles at the commencement of the motion ; that is,
when the generating point P is nearest to C or at A.

Let

circle

DF

C A be the axis of #,
MP = y
CM =
C D = a, D B = b,

Let

a?,

BP =
Draw

BN

every point in

angle

m6,

angle

ACB^O

to EM.
Then, since
D F has coincided with the base A D, we have DF = at and

parallel

to

MP,

PQ

and

'

parallel

DBF=y;

also angle

FBQ

aO

'= angle

FBD-

7T

~ b
Now CM = CN + NMrrCB cos. BCN+.PB

= (a

And

MP-BN-BQ
=

(a

and y e= (a

or x

'

.2

angle

b) cos. 6

sin.

'a

+ mb sin.

= (a + i) sin. B - m b cos.

+r

6) cos.

- mo

o) sin. 9

mb sin.

cos.

PBQ
+

(i)
,

QBD


THE EPICYCLOID.

190

The

m b in

equations to the epicycloid are found by putting b for

(a

b)

and y

zz.

{a

b) sin.

;,

a
~~ b cos.

cos.

(1.)

(2)

6 sin. -.6

equations to the hypotrochoid maybe obtained in the same manner

as the system (1), or more simply by putting- b for b in the equations (1.)

The

.*.

,xr (a

6) cos.

m6

cos.

- mb

sin.

0_+

b
'

(3)

and y zz (a

The
and

b) sin. 6

-7

6 for both 5

equations to the hypocycloid are found by putting

m b in

system
,\

(1.)

(a

6) cos.

6 cos.

(4)

and y

{a

t=i

6)

sin.

b sin.

We have comprehended all the systems in (1), but each of them might
be obtained from their respective figures.
361. The elimination of the trigonometrical quantities is possible, and
gives finite algebraic equations whenever a and b are in the proportion
For then

of two integral numbers.

cos. 0, cos.

0, sin.

be expressed by trigonometrical formulas, in terms of cos.

where

is

common

-f~

submultiple of 6 and

may be expressed

#5

<j>

&c M can

and

sin.

and then

cos.

(j>

<j> 9

and

x and y. Also since the resulting

the curve does not make an infinite series of
convolutions, but the wheel or revolving circle, after a certain number of
revolutions, is found, having the generating point exactly in the same
position as at first, and thence describing the same curve line over again,

sin.

equation in

xy

For example,

in terms of

is finite,

let

,\.

6 3 the equations to the epicycloid

t=L

irr

a (2
a (2

a (2 cos.

and y zn 2 a

From

sin.

sin.

(1

cos. 2
sin.

become

0),

2 0)

2 (cos, 0) 2 -f 1)

cos. 0).

of these equations we find cos. 0, and then from the

have sin. 0, adding the values of (cos. 0) 2 and (sin. 0) 2 together

the

second we

cos. 6

first

and reducing, we have

+
+

(y~

x2

3 d)

12

4 &4

x\
2

4 a2 { (00 - a) 2
0.
y*}
This curve, from its heart-like shape, is called the cardioide.
be the origin ; that is, for x put x
Let
a in the last algebraical
equation, and then by transformation into polar co-ordinates, the equation
to the cardioide becomes
or

{a?

2/

a2 } 2

THE INVOLUTE OF THE CIRCLE,

r

362 If 6

2 a (1

cos. 0).

- the equations (4) to the hypocycloid

and y :=

191

become

cos. 6
;

A C E

and the hypocycloid has degenerated into the diameter of the circle
In the same case the equations to the hypotrochoid become
a?

(1
(1

Wl ) cos. 6

-f-

m)

sin.

which by the elimination of

give the equation
are a (1 4- m) and a (I rri).

to

an

ellipse,

whose axes

363. If a thread coinciding with a circular axis be unwound from the

extremity of the thread will trace out a curve called the involute
of the circle.

circle, the

Thus suppose a thread fixed round the circle ABC D; then if it be

unwound from A, the extremity in the hand will trace out the curve

APQRS;

BP,DQ,C

the lines
R,
S, which are particular positions
of the thread, are also tangents to the circle, and each of them is equal to
the length of the corresponding circular arc measured from A.

The curve makes an infinite number of revolutions, the successive

branches being separated by a distance equal to the circumference of the
circle.

To

find the equation to the involute.

CAs^CPsr, and angle ACP^O; then from the triangle

" B C P, we have BC^PC
P C B, or angle PCB =
Let

cos.

cos.

BP = BA
or

V (r 2

a9 )

f cos.

-A

cos.

1
=..a[ cos.-

~+
-i a
*
-

ON

192

SPIRALS.

involute of the circle is usefully employed in toothed wheels ; for

waste of power in passing from one tooth to another when
they are of this form than in any other case.

The

there

is less

In the figures (2) and (3) we have examples of two equal wheels
and by turning- one wheel the other wheel
which have each two teeth
will be kept in motion by means of the continual contact of the teeth.
The dotted line of contact is, by the property of the
involute, a common tangent to the two wheels ; this
;

dotted line is the constant line of contact, and the

force is the same in every part of a revolution.
Fig. (3) is another example ; and by making the
teeth smaller and more numerous we shall have
toothed wheels always in contact, and therefore giving
no jar or shake to the machinery.
Again, in raising a piston or hammer, the involute
of the circle is the best form for the teeth of the
turning- wheel, as the force acts on the piston entirely
in a vertical direction.

SPIRALS.

193

ON SPIRALS.
864. There is one class of transcendental curves which are called
from their peculiar twisting form. They were invented by the
ancient geometricians, and were much used in architectural ornaments.
Of these curves, the most important as well as the most simple, is the
spiral invented by the celebrated Archimedes.
This spiral is thus generated Let a straight line S P of indefinite
length move uniformly round a fixed point S, and from a fixed line S X,
and let a point P move uniformly also along the line S P, starting from S, at
the same time that the line S P commences its motion from S X, then the
spirals,

\a

-"~

-""""^

^^

^<;

\ *o~~'

X
^ \

N.

/
/
/
/

a/

/*

s
i

V
\

~"^'^

/ /

/,

B,
...^

-._.

. *****

SPQRA,

commencing at S,
point will evidently trace out a curve line
and gradually extending further from S. When the line S P has made
one revolution, P will have got to a certain point A, and S P still continuing to turn as before, we shall have the curve proceeding on regularly
through a series of turnings, and extending further from S.
To examine the form and properties of this curve, we must express this
method of generation by means of an equation between polar co-ordinates.

LetSPthen since the increase of r

SP

: :

/.

angle
r

r,

SA = 6,ASP =

and 6

is

uniform,

ASP:

= --2< =

0;

we have

four right angles

a By

if

: :

2 tt

=
2tt

appears that when S P has made two revolutions

again at a
:= 4-7T, we have r =: 2 6, or the curve cuts the axis S
or
and similarly after 3, 4, n revolutions it meets the axis
distance 2 S
Archimedes discovered that the
S
at distances 3
4, n times S A.
is equal to one-third of the area of the circle described with
area S P Q

From

this equation

it

RA

centre S and radius S A.

365. The spiral of Archimedes is sometimes used for the volutes of the
capitals of columns, and in that case the following description by points
is useful.

SMRALfc.

194

Let a circle A B C D,
and draw the diameter

fig.

BD

into four equal parts,

2 S A, and
1

in

(2), be described
at right angles to

and

in

take S

on the diameter

CA

SPs~
1

take

3
R := S A;

CSA^

divide the radius

S A,

in

take

then from the equation

by subdividing the radius

and the angles in each quadrant we may obtain other points as in
the figure.
In order to compl&te the raised part in the volute, another
spiral commences from S B.
366. The spiral of Archimedes is one of a class of spirals comprehended
to the curve these points belong to the spiral

in the general equation r

cases where

Let

:=

ft

-~

Let S be the

SP

aB

r es

SX

pole,

aO n

Of

this class

we

shall

consider the

the axis from which the angle

is

measured,

r.

Vvnen

0, r

co

as

increases, r decreases very rapidly at first

and more uniformly afterwards; as Q may go on increasing ad infinitum

r also may go on diminishing ad infinitum without
ever actually becoming
nothing
hence we have an infinite series of convolutions round S
Describe a circular arc PQ with centre S and radius S P, then P Q
r0
a ; and since this value of a is the same for all positions of P,
we must have
P'Q' = the straight line S C at an infinite distance, and therefore the curve must
approach to an asvmptote drawn
through C parallel to S X.
This curve is called the reciprocal spiral from the form of its equation,
:

PQ

since the variables are inversely as each

other, or the hyperbolic spiral,
from the similarity of the equation to that of the hyperbola referred to its

asymptotes
367, Let

(pc

2
A?

r=z

the lituus or trumpet,

asymptote S

it

).

is

aO

described

makes an

as

or r 2 #

a2

This cure 9 called

proceeding from the

;
of convolutions round S,

in the figure

infinite series

SPIRALS.

195

S68, If in the equation rO zz a, we always deduct the constant quanwe have the equation (r ' b) z=i a\ this curve commences its
course like the reciprocal spiral ; but as 6 increases we have r
6 approximating to nothing, or r approximating to b ; hence the spiral, after
an infinite number of convolutions, approaches to an asymptotic circle,
whose centre is S, and radius b,

tity, 6,

369. Trace the spiral w hose equation is

ar
r* z=i b \ this curve
*J
has an infinite number of small revolutions round the pole, and gradually extends outwards to meet an asymptotic circle whose radius is a.
2
2
commences its
370. The spiral whose equation is (r a) z=z b
course from a point in the circumference of the circle whose radius is a,
and extends outwards round S in an infinite series of convolutions. This
curve is formed by twisting the axis of the common parabola round the
circumference of a circle, the curve line of the parabola forming the
r

spiral.

The curve whose

equation is r
a is called the logarithmic
logarithm of the radius vector is proportiona.1 to the angle 6L
oo we find that there are an.
Examining all the values of from to
This curve is also called.
irr&nite series of convolutions round the pole S.
the equiangular spiral, for it is found by the principles of the higher
analysis that this curve cuts the radius vector in a constant angle.
Descartes, who first imagined this curve, found also that the whole
length of the curve from any point P to the pole was proportional to the
radius vector at P.
372. It will often happen that the algebraical equation of a curve is
much more complicated than the polar equation; the conchoid art. 312
is an example.
In these cases it is advisable to transform the equation,
from algebraical to polar co-ordinates, and then trace the curve from the
polar equation.
A
2 )'2
2~a ccy, there would be
For example, if the equation be (a?
2/
much difficulty in ascertaining the form of the curve from this equation ;
r sin.
and y
r cos,
but let os
(61)

371.

spiral, for the

/.

es

2ar

or r =s a

sin.

cos.

sin. 0,

6,

Let A be the origin of polar co-ordinates A X the axis whence 6 is

measured ; with centre A. and radius a describe a circle BCD. Then
sss
for
we have r cs 0* as increases from to 45, r increases from,
;

'

SPIRALS,

196

hence the branch

PB. Again, as 6 increases from 45 to 90,
diminishes from 1 to
,\ r diminishes, and we trace the branch
As 6 increases from 90 to 180, sin. 2 increases and decreases
By following
as before ; hence the similar oval in the second quadrant.
from 180 to 360, we shall have the ovals in the third and fourth quadrant :
and since the sine of an arc advances similarly in each quadrant of the
to

sin.

20

BQA.

we have the four ovals similar and equal.

In this case we have paid no regard to the algebraical sign of r we
have considered
to vary from
to 360, which method we prefer to that
of giving
all values from
to 180, and then making the sign of r to vary.
If the equation had been (a? -f- y*) 2 == 2a?ccy,we should have found
two equal and similar ovals in the first and third quadrant.
sin. 0) is the same kind of
The locus of the equation r === a (cos. 6
and A C.
figure differently situated with respect to the lines
The equation to the lemniscata r 2 =z a2 cos. 2 art. (314), may be
circle,

AX

similarly traced.

373. In many indeterminate problems we shall find that polar co-ordinates may be very usefully employed. For example,
Let the corner of the page of a book be turned

over into the position B C P, and in such a manner that the triangle B C P be constant, to find
the locus of P.

AP
ABC ~

Let
area

PBE

PAC^O,

r,

are equal,

angle
and
then since the triangles
;

we have

AE =

let

the

ABE,

and

the

angle

AE B

AE^AC

a right angle

AE = AB
or r = a' sin.
and

= AB

cos,

Hence

the

locus

cos.

sin.
is

an oval

APBQ

as in the last

figure.

If a point

be taken

distance from the focus

S P of a parabola so that its

equal to the perpendicular from the focus on the

in the radius vector

is

tangent, the locus of the point

is

the curve whose equation isr

=;.

a sec


197

PART

II.

APPLICATION OF ALGEBRA TO SOLID GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTION.
374. In the preceding part of this Treatise lines and points have always
been considered as situated in one plane, and have been referred to two
Now we may readily imagine a
lines called axes situated in that plane.
curve line, the parts of which are not situated in one plane ; also, if we
consider a surface, as that of a sphere, for example, we observe immediately that all the points in such a surface cannot be in the same plane
hence the method of considering figures which has been hitherto adopted
cannot be applied to such cases, and therefore we must have recourse to
;

some more general method

for investigating the properties of figures.

We

begin by showing
375.
be determined.

how

the position of a point in space

may

It

m:

/
X

Let three planes ZAX, Z A Y, and

A Y, be drawn perpendicular
be the interand let the three straight lines AX, AY,
sections of these planes, and A the common point of concourse.
From any point P in space draw the lines PQ, PR, and PS respectively perpendicular to the planes
A Y, ZAX, and Z A Y ; then the
position of the point P is completely determined when these three perpendicular lines are known.
Complete the rectangular parallelopiped A P, then P Q, P R, and P S
are respectively equal to A O, A N, and A M.
These three lines A M, A N, and A O, or more commonly their equals
and Q P, are called the co-ordinates of P, and are denoted by
the letters x, y, and z respectively.
to each other,

AM,MQ,
The

point

is

called the origin.

AZ

PROJECTIONS,

198

The

line

AX

is

called the axis of

y and the line A Z

The plane X A Y

is

is

the line

a?,

called the axis of

AY

called the axis of

is

z.

called the plane of xy, the plane

AY

Z A X is called

the

and the plane Z

is called the plane of zy*.
From P we have drawn three perpendicular lines, PQ, PR, and PS,
on the three co-ordinate planes. The three points, Q, R, and S are called
the projections of the point P on the planes of xy #, and zy respecplane of z

x,

tively.

The method of

projections

tion of surfaces, that

on the subject so

far

is

so useful in the investigation and descripprincipal theorems

we proceed to give a few of the

as may be required in this work.

PROJECTIONS,
376. If several points be situated in a straight line, their projections on
any one of the co-ordinate planes are also in a straight line.
For they are all comprised in the plane passing through the given
straight line, and drawn perpendicular to the co-ordinate plane ; and as
the intersection of any two planes is a straight line, the projections of the
points must be, all in one straight line.
This plane, which contains all the perpendiculars drawn from different
points of the straight line, is called the projecting plane ; and its intersection with the co-ordinate plane

is

called the projection of the straight

line,

To

377.

find the length of the projection of a straight line

upon a

plane.

AB

Let,

AB

be the

line

jection of

PQR;

produce

draw A A and B B perpendicular to the

and B'. Join A' B' ; then A' B' is the pro;

AB.

* This system of co-ordinate planes may be

represented by the sides and floor of a room,
the corner being the origin of the axes, the
is then represented by the floor of
plane
the room, and the two remaining planes by the
two adjacent sides of the room.

XY

on the plane

to be projected

meet this plane in

plane, and meeting it in
to

PROJECTIONS.

AB

Since
the angle

199

and A' B^ are in the same plane, they

will

meet

in P.

B P B'

Let

or the angle of the inclination of

B to the plane ss
and in the projecting plane
B' draw
parallel to A' B', then

AE

A'B'sAEsABcos.BAEsABcos.0
The same proof

will apply to the projection of a straight line upon

another straight line, both being in the same plane.
378. To find the length of the projection of a straight line upon another
straight line not in the same plane.

<<

I?

[\

"

B'

J?N

be the line to be projected ; C D the line upon which it is to be

From A and B draw lines A A7 and B B' perpendicular to
C D, then A' B' is the projection of A B.
and P Q perpendicular to C D.
Through A and B draw planes
These planes contain the perpendicular lines A A' and B B'.
From A draw A E perpendicular to the plane P Q, and therefore equal
having a right
and parallel to A' B' ; join B E then the triangle
cos. B A E and angle B A E
angle at E, we have
is equal to the angle
of inclination between A B and G B hence

Let

AB

projected.

MN

ABE

A'B'sAE^AB
A'B'^AB

cos.

Also any line equal and parallel to A B has an equal projection A' B'
D 3 and the projection of B on any line parallel to C is of the same
length as A' B'.
379. The projection of the diagonal of a parallelogram on any straight
line is equal to the sum of the projections of the two sides upon the same

on C

straight line.

Let

ABCD

be a parallelogram,

AZ

inclined to the plane of the parallelogram.

diculars

AZ

or

any straight line through A

From C and B draw perpen-

C E and B F upon A Z, then A E is

A E - A C cos, C A Z and AF is
$

the projection of

AC

the projection of

AB

upon
upon

THE POINT,

200

AZ
AD

A F = A B cos. B A Z. Also F E is
A Z or F E ~ BC cos. D A Z
and AE = AF + FE;

or

the projection of

BC

or

upon

hence the projection of

380.
plane

To

AC s

the

sum

A B and B C.
any plane figure on a given

of projections of

find the projection of the area of

EDGH,
A.

' g

c^l

^^vm\

ir^

\
A B C be a triangle inclined to the given plane E D G H at an angle
A E, CD, perpendicular to the intersection E D of these planes
the triangle ABC and its projection GKH have equal bases A B

Let
;

draw

then

G H,
.*.

but unequal altitudes

area

AB C

GKH

F,

: :

KM

kM

CF

: :

D F DM::

cos. o

or area GKH = ABC cos.

and

this

being true for any triangle,

is

true for

any polygon, and

therefore

ultimately for any plane area.

CHAPTER

II.

THE POINT AND STRAIGHT LINK

We have already explained how the position of a point in space
determined by drawing perpendicular lines from it upon three fixed
If, then, on measuring the lengths
planes called the co-ordinate planes.
381.

is

of these three perpendicular lines or co-ordinates of

A N~6,

and

0==c, we have the

position of a point

completely de-

termined by the three equations x^=.a>

y^=.b

2~c

and

and as these are

suf-

they are called

the equations to the point P.
This point may also be defined as
in Art. (25) by the equation
ficient for that object,

[x-a)

(y-6)

(*-c) 2 =0,

since the only values that render this

expression real are oc~a

2=e.

y = h, and

P we

find

A M~-a

THE POINT.
382.

mined
thus
or

201

The

algebraical signs of the co-ordinates x, y, and z 9 are deteras in Plane Geometry, by the directions of the co-ordinate lines:
is positive or negative according as it is drawn from
along
Z

AO

A z,

according as it is above or below the plane of x y and so

on for the other lines hence we have the following values of co-ordinates
for a point in each of the eight compartments into which space is divided
by the co-ordinate planes.
that

is,

+ +y+
+ y +
on

z a point

<r

xy+z

oc-\-y
A

a?

co

AYZ

XAYz
XAyz

xAyZ
.

+x yz
x - y

XAyZ

XAYZ

+x+y-z
*>-

situated in the angle

Ay z
AYz

may

be situated in one of the co-ordinate planes, in

to that plane must ==:
thus,
;
if the point be in the plane of x y, its distance z from this plane must s= 0:
hence the equations to the point in the plane of x y are
383.

point also

which case the co-ordinate perpendicular

ay.

If the point be in the plane of

x=

And

if

Also,

(y

- by + 2

0.

the equations are

z,

= 0, z =5 c

?/

the point be in the plane of y z

&,

2^0

I/ b,

"= a,

x
or (x

if

= 0, =
3/

6,

2 =s c.

its distance from the planes

such a point are

the point be on the axis of a?,

z sr 0, therefore the equations to

x
and so on

t==t

for points situated

a,

= 0,

s =s

xy and

on the other axes.

384. The points Q, R, and S, in the last figure, are the projections of the
point P on the co-ordinate planes ; on referring each of these points to the
axes in its own plane, we have

The equations

to

~ a, y = b
a, z ~ c
s=
2 = c

on x y are x
on x z are x =s

S on

z/

^ are

3/

6,

Hence we see that the projections of the point P on two of the co-ordinate planes being known, the projection, on the third plane is necessarily
parallel to AZ,
and
are given, draw S
given: thus, if S and
of

NQ
is

and
known.

MQ

respectively parallel to

385. To find the distance

nates A.

Let
and

A X, A Y,

and

RM

also

APof

A Z be the

AX

and

and the position

a point from the origin of co-ordi-

rectangular axes

PQ^3, the co-ordinates of P,

A Y,

AM = ^,MQ-^

THE POINT.

202

2
I

...

/ ^^ 7
p

/^

M
X

a
A P si the

The square on

square cm

AQ

or d? 2

386. Let

and

or,

+ y* +"3

2
a?

PQ

2
.

A P makes

ft y, be the angles which

with the axis of

a?,

y,

3, respectively;

= AM = AP cos P A M = d cos
2/sMQsAN = APcos.PAN^ <ieos,/3
* =PQ = APsin. PAQ = dcos. 7
=2
+ + = d (cos. ) + d* (cos. ^) 4- d

then

/.

riP

<x

cg

tf

a8

2/

/. (cos.

387. Again d

388.

To

o?

a)

+y

a?

(cos. /3)

~j~

2/

cos>

/3

-j-

yd

~ COSo

1.

cos.

/3

(cos. y)

+ = x d cos. a
s

cos,

fl

(cos.

y)

+ z d cos. y

"/ 8

between two

find the distance

be respectively x y

points, let the co-ordinates of the points

and

square on

~h the

Al M Q + the square on P Q

ss the squares on

and x y x
x

P
z x;

then the distance between these points is

the diagonal of a parallelepiped, the three
contiguous sides of which are the differences of the parallel co-ordinates

by the

hence 3

we have

last article

cP=(*-aO'+(y-yi) +
8

fi

(*-*i)
y z and

If d l and d2 be the distances of the points cc Y Y x

a? 2 2/2 z z respectively
from the origin, the above expression may be put in the form
d* =2

d?

+ d - 2 {x

oc 2

+y

ya

+ z,

z a ).

THE STRAIGHT LINE,

A straight line may be considered as the intersection of two planes,

389o

known if the
may be determined by the

situation of these planes is

projecting planes, and the
situation of these last is fixed by their intersections with the co-ordinate
planes, that is, by the projections of the line upon the co-ordinate planes
hence, the position of a straight line is geometrically fixed by knowing its
projections
and it is also algebraically determined by the equations to
those projections taken conjointly. Taking the axis of z as the axis of
abscissas the equation to the projection on the plane # z is of the form

and therefore

known

its

hence

position will be

it

THE STRAIGHT LINE,

so

is

+ (31)
= /3# +

=2 a %

and the equation

203

to the projection

on the plane of yz

6.

As these two equations fix the position of the straight line in space,
they are, taken together, called the equations to a straight line.
be a portion of the
390. To illustrate this subject we shall let

PQ

straight line, 11

projection on

And

let

equation to

its

on

projection

^2,TU

its

projection on

z,

VW

its

xy
:=:

TU

+ a,

be the equation to

R S,

and

yzz$% +6,

be the

f*

JL

i,

Q in the projecting plane P Q R S has the same values of

and
S
and x that its projection S has, that is, the co-ordinates A
and
Q hence there is the same relation between
are the same as N
them in each case ; and therefore, the equation x z=i & z -\~ a expresses not
only the relation between the x and z of all the points in R S, but also of
then any point
z

S.
the points in the plane P Q
Similarly the equation y t=i (3 z -f h not only relates toTU 9 but also to
all the points in the plane
Therefore 3 the system of the two equations exists for all the points
in the straight line P Q 3 the intersection of the two projecting planes, and
all

TUQP.

for this line only

hence., the equations to the straight line

The

PQ

are

= a z + a"

fiz

Jr &.

elimination of % between these two equations gives

(x

(y
1

a) ts

b)

<x

h =e

(x a}
ot

AM

MW

of the
and
the relation between the co-ordinates
projection
of any point Q in the line P Q ; and therefore, this last equaon the plane xy.
tion is that to the projection
b % a is the distance
and yzs(3z
391. in the equations #== a*

andthis

is

VW

THE STRAIGHT

204

of the origin from the intersection of

b

LINE,

R S with AX,

or

sAR;

similarly

= AL.
Let

tan.

a?

/. 'z

== A O
a

.\

AK

==

O, but

AK

=AO

AOKs

A O tan. Z O R .\ a is tangent of the angle which R S

A Z, and similarly is tangent of the angle which UT makes

makes with
with

/3

A Z.

392. The straight line will assume various positions according to the
however, it would be of very little use
algebraical signs of #, b, a and /3
to go through all the cases arising from these changes of sign, especially
as they offer nothing of consequence, and no one case presents any diffi:

We

culty.

shall only consider the cases

where the absolute value of a

and /3 is changed.
Let a =z and

6,

Z> :== 0, then x =: a z and y

flz, and the two projections
pass through the origin, and therefore the line itself passes through the

origin

the equation to the third projection

y ==

x,

an

is

then x
a z and y
Let
(3 z + 6, the projection on x z passing
perpenthrough the origin, the line itself must pass through the axis
a z + a, y
dicular to x z: similarly, if b =z 0, the equations x
j3 z
belong to a line passing through the axis of x and if the equations are
this
7j =z ax, y zz /3 z -- b, the straight line passes through the axis of z
last case may be represented by supposing (in the last figure)
V to
pass through A, then the equation to V Wis of the form y := a #, and
is y
the equation to
b ; now, if two planes be drawn, one
pz
perpendicular to y s, and the other through V
through T
perpendicular
to xy, both planes pass through the point O, and therefore the line itself
must pass through O.

AY

OTU

,\ *x
a z -f a, y
b, the line is in a plane parallel
from it by the quantity b. If the last figure be adapted
to this case we should have U T perpendicular to A Y, and therefore P Q
equal and parallel to R S situated in the plane
perpendicular
to xy.
.*.
Let a
xz2a y^zfiz*\*b the line is in a plane parallel to

393. Let/3

to x z

and

distant

WNUQ

to

z.

Similarly z

c,

^z a!x

a! belong to a line in a plane parallel to

xy

394.
straight line may also be situated in one of the co-ordinate
planes as in the plane of y z for example, the equations to such a line are
If the line be in the plane of xz the equations are
0.
b, x
/3 z
y
x
a z
and if the line be in the plane of xy the equations
a, y =z
;

=
=

+
+

become y

od

'

cb

0.

395. If the straight line be perpendicular to one of the co-ordinate

planes, as x y for example ; a and /3 must each equal 0, and therefore the
equations to this line are

a,

s=

6, 2

=s

Similarly the equations to a line perpendicular to

#z

are

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LINES.

and the equations to a

line perpendicular to

x
396.
planes

To

find

=h

-q-

>

205

z are

the point where a straight line meets the co-ordinate

Let x zz <x z + a and y =: /3 2

meets the plane of xy we have

-j-

& be the equations to the line

2^0

,\

a are the equations

a,

x=l

when

it

:= b are the equations

to the required point.

Similarly z

t=i

-^-,

a?

=: -*

p
where the

line

&

-rr

to the point

meets the plane of x

z9

and

z =:

&a

/?
,

?/

==

-4-5

are the equations to the point where the line pierces the plane of z y.
397. There are four constant quantities in the general equations to a
straight line, and if they are all given, the position of the line is completely

determined ; for we have only to give to one of the variables as z a value

z\ and we have

x zn a
or,

a;'

and

+ flsaz'+fl^a/ and y =
3/'

are also

j3

necessarily determined

(see the last figure,) and drawing

M W (= y

W =

/3

+ & #'

AM =
A Y, and lastly,

hence, taking
parallel to

a?',

^', the point Q thus determined

a perpendicular
drawing from
Q
and similarly, any number of points in the line are
belongs to the line
Again,
determined, or the position of the line is completely ascertained.
the straight line may be subject to certain conditions, as passing through
a given point, or being parallel to a given line; or, in other words, conditions may be given which will enable us to determine the quantities a, (3,
a and 6, supposing them first to be unknown ; in this manner arises a
series of Problems on straight lines similar to those already worked for
straight Hues situated in one plane (40, 50).
;

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LINES.

398.
point

To

find the equations to a straight line passing through a given

Let the co-ordinates of the given point be x lt y x and z u and let the
a z -\- a, y z=. fi z -\- h>
equations to the straight line he x
Now since this line passes through the given point, the projections of
hence the
the line must also pass through the projections of the point
a zx
a,
projection x zz a z -\- a passing through x l and z l we have x L

= a (z z{)
(z
and similarly y y =
.\

a?

a?!

/3

z{)

a and /3 being indeterminate,

hence these are the equations required
there may be an infinite number of straight lines passing through the
:

given point.
If the given point be in the plane of x y,

Xx

we have

= a z\

yi P

%\

zx

0,

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT

306

on the

If the given point be

And

the equation

we have

axis of x,

oc

a z

t=z

LINES,

2^0 and y

ss

0*

would assume various other forms according

to the

position of the given point.

To

399.

points,

find the equations to a straight line passing" through

2/1

and x 2 y 2

Zi

z2

Since the line passes through the point x x y x

And

since

XX

a (z

T=2

z x its

equations are

2 X)

the line also passes through x 2 y2 .% 2

become

x2

ol\

zz.

y*yi

hence the equations to the required

two given

a (z 2
(g a

(3

the

last

equations

^)

Zj)

line are

Xo

Zq

~~

"2

a?.

(2

*)

Z\

%\

assume many various forms dependent on the

If the first point be in the plane
position of the given point, for example
of y 2, and the second in the axis of #, we have x x ^0; y 2 ==: 0, z 2 :~

These equations

will

yi

-7- (

If the second point be the origin,

.\

Xx

*0-

we have x2 y2

(2

2j) =

Zl

z 2 each ss 0,

0?!

%i

hence the equations to a point passing through the origin are

x =:

And

*i

2,

a
and
ty

yi
~

may be also obtained by considering that the prothrough the origin, and therefore their equations are of the
a z> y sr j3 z, and the first passing through x x z t we have

these equations

jections pass

form x
cf

400,
line.

=s

and

To

similarly

find the equation to a straight line parallel to a given straight


PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LINKS,

207

Since the lines are parallel their projecting" planes on any one of the coordinate planes are also parallel, and therefore the projections themselves
parallel ; hence, if the equations to the given line are

x rz a

a>

xzl j3

&

the equations to the required line are

J If the

^ a z Hh

a\ y

+[b

(3

r
.

straight line pass also through a given point x\ y l 2^

its

equations

are

To

^ = a

(2

2 X)

2/

>

=s=

3^i

/5

2i)

two given straight lmes

Two straight lines situated in one plane must meet in general, but this
is not necessarily the case if the Tines be situated anywhere in space,
hence there must be a particular relation among the constant quantities in
the equation in order that the lines may meet ; to fiild this relation, let
the equations to the lines be
401.

find the intersection of

x ss a z

~ o! z

a\

co

~f-

d\

6j

yzzPz +

b']

= 0z +

For the point of intersection the projected values of

the same in all the equations ; hence
a

Jc a

+
,

*
and

9
r

#,

y and z must be

= da - aaj

and A

+6=

/3

y 5

and

&'

<~f-

-a
~/3'

7r,

/J

-.'
or,

And

(a'

a)

this is the relation

(^

)3)

which must

/3"

(6'

(a ?

b)

a).

amongst the constants

exist

in order

that the two lines may meet.

Having thus determined the necessary relation among the constants, the
co-ordinates of intersection are given by the equations
a!

f>

v^

or

jgz-^

+
x^ a% +asa
a
a!

~~ h

b'

" ~f^w

- ~^-z^~
a a a! a
___^
f

a!

'

402. To find the angles which a straight line (7) makes with the eo-or
dinate axes ; and thence with the co-ordinate planes :
Let the equations to the given line be

x
y

=
=

a %
/3

-j-

2 -f- *

5!

the equations to the parallel line through the origin are

x^ #z,y~
also let r be the distance of

origin

any point

/3

s;

(#, #,

in this last line

from the

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT

208

/.

z*~

or,

+a

But
of

LINES.

+e

-f y*

cc

+/3

ly, and Zs being the angles which either line makes with the axes
y and z respectively, we have from the second line

/a?,

x,

ix

cos.

=1

COS. /

Also

(cos.

/<.r)

+ +

Vl
(cos. /?/)

+a +p

Ji

/3

(cos. lz)

equation connecting- the three angles which any straight

line makes with the rectangular axes.
Since the system is rectangular, the angle which a line makes with any
axis is the complement of the angle which it makes with the plane perhence the angles which a line makes with the copendicular to that axis
ordinate planes are given.

and

this is the

403. To find the cosine, sine, and tangent of the angle between two
given straight lines.
Let the equations to the two straight lines be

x zz a

a\

y^pz+b]

t=s

a! z

y-fi'z

These two lines may meet, or they may not

mutual inclination is the same as that of
hence
to them and passing through the origin
find the angle between the lines represented by

their

~
= Pz)V>

x
y
Let r

the distance of a point x

7\ t=z

zz,

x,

y
y

+ af\
+ b']meet ; but in either case
two straight lines parallel
the problem

is

reduced

to

the equations

= /3'zj< 2)

z in (1) from the origin,

x

z x in (2)

the distance between these points,

6 zn the angle between the given lines,

then d 2

~r +r
%

2 rr x cos.

+ (y yi ) + (2 - z,y (388)
= x* + + z + + y* + z? 2 (xx + yy + z z )
r + r*>~2(xx +yy + z z )
r= x x + y y -f- z z
:. r r cos.
Now 3?^ -f yy + zz ~aZo!z + fizftz + zz ^(a<x + fip + l)zz
And rr = ^(j> +
+ z ) ^(a^ + y* + Zl )
= Z z' ^(a* + /3* + iy ('* + 0'a + l).
t= (x

x,y
2

7/

j"i

2/

.^eos.^^HiiiL

PROBLEMS ON STRAIGHT LINES.

~ VC^T^ + i)
- g'j3)
/ { (gff

Hence sm.

And

sin.

tan.

(*

i)

P*

V(

1)

,s/{(*/y -'/3)

z=i

P*

+ ( - ') +

___^^
+ +

=>

V('
a

7-

ad

cos. e

Q6

+ 0'

209

+ (-')
+
-^

4-/3/6'+

06-/3')*}

1.

value of the cosine of the angle between two straight lines may
be expressed in terms of the angles which the two straight lines
and l x make with the co-ordinate axes.

The

also
/

For
and
.%

cos.

zz cos.

r cos. x,
y=r
~ r^cos.
2^ = r
e = + ^^ +

os

cos.

2X

/ : 2/,

r cos.

trz i\

cos.

z9
/1

2,

cos. /

a?

y cos. I y -\- cos.

we must have sin.

cos. /

404. If the lines are parallel,

(a

.-.

cos. ly,

Z x a?,

a?i

13'

- '

/3) -f.

_ ') +
8

(/3

"

cos.

z=l

/3')

/ x ,

0.

= 0,
=

/3',
', /3
an equation which cannot be satisfied unless by supposing #
and afi r z=l '/3, the first two of these conditions are the same as those
already shown to determine the parallelism of two lines (400), and the
third condition is only a necessary consequence of the other two, and
therefore implies nothing further.
405. If the lines are perpendicular to each other, v^e must have cos. zz 0.

aa'

.\

/3/3'-+ 1

0.

;
y cos. l Y y -f- cos. / z cos. l x z
Now, one line in space is considered as perpendicular to a second straight
line, whenever it is in a plane perpendicular to this second line ; hence
an infinite number of lines can be drawn perpendicular to a given line;
and this appears from the above equation, for there are four constants
involved in the equation to the perpendicular line, and only one equation
between them.
406. If the lines also meet, we have then the additional equation,

or, cos. /

cos.

/j

-j- cos, /

'(401),
a)
j3= (&' - b) ('
number of straight lines can be drawn, meeting the given line at right angles, for an infinite number of planes can be
drawn perpendicular to the given line, and in each plane an infinite number
(a?

a)

However, even yet an

/J'

infinite

of straight lines can be drawn* passing through the given line.

407. To find the equation to a straight line passing through a given
point #i?/iZi, and meeting a given line (1) at right angles.
Let the equations to the lines be,

hence the two equations of condition

ofa'

(a

a)

(/3

or since a!
iSh

-V

zx

-a)

(/3

rrz

00'
/3')

are,

^ a' 2

jS')

=O

~~ (&'
1?

Ga -

(3)

-&)(-

and
0'

6'

=r

?/ x

a ')

b) (a

jj % Y

') =:

(4).

THE PLANE,

310

The

elimination of &!

and

ft

{(x^a)
(2/i - 6)
a'

from

(3)

and (4) give the equations

+ gl }]3 - ( yi - b) (1 + )
+ (*f- ) - C + 32 ) *i
+ gi> - (*i - ct) (1 + ffi)^
H- 0*1 - ) - ( +
) i
2

/3

-. {(^i &)

/3

(yi -- &)

/^'

These values of

a! and /3' substituted in (2) give the final equation to the

straight line, passing through a given point, and meeting a given straight
line at right angles.

In particular cases other methods may be adopted, for example, to find

the equations to a straight line passing through the axis of y at right
angles to that axis
here x\ =r

and

zl

0, therefore the equations to the line are

X == a

but because the line is perpendicular to the axis of y we have /3

Qt
hence the required equations are x
az, y ==: y u By assuming the axes
of co-ordinates to be conveniently situated, this and many other problems
may be worked in a shorter manner. This will be shown hereafter.

CHAPTER

III.

THE PLANE.
408.

A.

Plane may be supposed

to

be generated by the motion of a

straight line about another straight line perpendicular to it,

a portion of a plane,
the axes, B C
Let be the origin,

AX, AY,

AZ

AO

the perpendicular from the origin upon this plane, P any point in
this plane ; then, according to the above definition, we suppose the plane
O, the angle
to be formed by the revolution of a line like O P round

A O P being
To
Let
and

a right angle.

find the equation to the plane.

x, y, z,
let

be the co-ordinates of P, and

the fixed distance

vX

AO

ess

d.

o?i,

y v z i} those of

THE PLANE,
Then

the square -on

or 9 x*

if

z*

AP- the square on

d +
d? +
2

t==

:.

2 (xx\

409. Let

And

it is

8
a?

^2/i 4- ^ i)

or

<#

m,

=r

under

this

y ?/i

=
m

4-

Xi 4-

- xy

(x

2/

~d

4-

A.

(y

211

O +

^ Je square on

yiY

+ .r; 4 ^ 4- 2

=2d

d
d2

OP

- sO 8

(2
2

~2 xx ~2yy -~2zz
i

>

z 2X

?z,

and

~=zp. then the above equation becomes

a?

ny

4*

-\~

i.

form that we shall generally consider the equation to

the plane.
2

d
d

Let

a,

2.

e^ b and

ss c5 then the equation to the plane

is

5. 4. L. + JL
i
c
a
b
And this is perhaps the most intelligible form in which the equation to
the plane can be put, the constants a, b and c being equal to AB, AC
and A D the respective distances of the origin from the intersection of the
plane with the co-ordinate axes this is found by putting y and z both ss
x
hence
=1, orABsa, and similarly for the other lines.
;

410. Let the word "plane" be 'represented by the letter P9 and let
A O or d makes with the co-ordinate axes be represented by d x ; d y ; d z and let the angles which the plane makes with
the same axes be denoted by Pa?; P#; Pz; then 9 since
is a
right angle, and
is the angle which the plane makes with
X,
the angles which

AOB

ABO

we have
cos. d x ~ a sin. P x
= b cos. dy = b sin. P y
c sin. P z
d = c cos. d z

d~z a
d

z=z

may be put

therefore the last equation to the plane

or

cos.

<#

sin.

d x ^r y

a?

4*

2/

cos.

dy

4* z cos.

sin.

Py

4- 2

sin.

Pz

in either of the forms

= d.

represent the angle which the plane makes with the

is equal to the angle of
z, then since angle
cos. P 3 2/2, hence the
inclination of the plane to y z 9 we have cos. dec
equation of the plane becomes

LetP,yz

411.

co-ordinate plane

OAB.

d.
x cos. P, y z 4 2/ cos. P 3 x z 4- z cos. P 3 x y
2
2
(cos. df s) a
412. Since by (386) (cos. cLi) 4~ (cos.dy)

we have

(cos.

y z) 2 4-

(cos.

P zf -f (cos. P yY = 1 *
a?

a?

* If
be the area of a plane?, the projections of this area on the co-ordinate planes are
(A cos.
cos. V,yz\ hence (A cos. P, x yf
cos. P, x z ;
cos. P, a? y ;
represented by
2
2
2
by
(cos. P, y zf}
(cos. P, a? *)
(A cos. P, y zf
p, x xf
{ (cos. P, xyf
(412). This theorem, referring to the numerical values of the projected areas, is of use
in finding the area of a plane between the three co-ordinate planes. Thus, if the equation

to a plane be

aba

JL 4- JL 4. JL zz

4
=A

A
=A

1,

we have by

the last figure the area

ABC^-j-,*

area

and area A B D = ?; hence the area B G D = ^Ji(J+^?T^)

ADC^^,
2
2
ah c
_,
of the pyramid ACDb s -y = ~-q""
volume
by the above theorem. The
ctb

THE PLANE.

212.

To

413.
which a plane makes with the co-ordinate
planes in terms of the co-efficients of the equation to the plane.
Let the equation to the plane be
find the angles

mx + ny + pz =

1.

Now

the equation to a plane expressed in terms of the angles which

makes with the co-ordinate planes is given by (411.)

x cos. P, y

-}-

xz

cos. P,

hence equating" co-efficients, we have

cos. T?,yz
_ cos. P, x

m +
2

and

cos.

?i

and d

+^ +p
2

~ pd

The equation

nd( =:
V?ft

414.

d^

v^

xy

xy

cos. P,

eZ

P,^^md^

Cos. P,

P, x y =r

+p

Cos. P, a??

z cos.

it

+^

4-p 2

p
==.

Vm + w +
2

plane

to the

will

"

>

assume various forms according

to the various positions of the plane.

therefore, putting
Let the plane pass through the origin, then d rr
Q in the equation, art. (408), we have the equation to the plane passbut as the equation to the plane has been
ing through the origin
obtained on the supposition of d being finite, it becomes necessary to give
an independent proof for this particular case.
Let A O (= d) be the length of a perpendicular from the plane to a
;

dm-

given point O ; whose co-ordinates are x u y l} z x

x, y,
co-ordinates of any point P in the plane, then
O -f- the square
the square
the square on
;

or (x

A
onOP =
x y + (y y y + (* - zj = d -f
2 (x x + y y + z z + d?
/.
or x Xx + y y + z %i = 0.
l

==:

x* -f y*

+*

z,

as before, the

onA'P;
a
.

d\

Pv

;,>0

So that the equation to the plane in this case

equation without the constant term.

is

the

same

as the original

415. Let the plane be parallel to any of the co-ordinate, planes, as x

for example, then a.zz go

and&=r

oo

therefore the equation

.+ t~ +*

PROBLEMS ON THE PLANE,

s
z

1 becomes

a?

+ 0w +

= 1;
z

.V z

e,

213

--and y ss

t=t

--;

of these three equations the first signifies that every point in the plane is
equidistant from the plane x y, and the other two signify that for this
single value of z, every possible value of x and y will give points in the
plane.
The two latter equations are generally omitted ; and we say that
for a plane parallel to

x z

parallel to

it

oo

the equation

and

is

is

to.

a co-ordinate plane, as x

a>

similarly for the plane

for a plane parallel to

z the equation

=h
The equations

x r=

=z

-;

or,

more simply,

for example^ are

is

% c= 0.

C 5 where the plane intersects the

416. The lines B C, B D, and
The equations to
co-ordinate planes, are called the traces of the plane.
these traces are found, from the equation to the plane, by giving to x, y,
or z the particular values which they have when the plane intersects the
co-ordinate planes.
1 ; then for
Let the equation to the plane be
x -f n y
p%
the intersection B C we have the equations

z=i

0,

mx

y
# ss

Q,

mx

0,

ny

z=,

ny

-f

BD

Similarly the equations to the traces

z=t

\.

and

-\-

are respectively

z ^= I

+ p z ss

1.

PROBLEMS ON THE PLANE.

417.

To

find the equation to a plane parallel to a given plane*

Let the given plane be

and the required plane be

Then
be

m x + n y -f- p z = 1,
m -f w'y 7/ ^
7

<r

I.

-f-

on the co-ordinate planes must

the planes being parallel, their traces

parallel

now

mx

m =

, .

p
Hence

on x z are

their traces

-f

irJ

I)

z=

-- or
pf

w! x

~{-

,
M
similarly
*

p p
j-

p' z =z

1
.

p\

w-

the required equation becomes

p x /
-f

or

4-

?i

2/

-f p' s

?>

13

-^r

one indeterminate constant

an infinite number of planes, can be drawn
parallel to a given plane, which is also geometrically evident.
Three conditions are apparently given, since the three traces of one plane are parallel to the three traces of the other plane
but if the traces on two of the
.co-ordinate planes be parallel, the traces on the third co-ordinate plane
In

.//,

this case the resulting equation contains

and therefore shows

that

ii i
are necessarily parallel

-r
r
for if

m =m

r,

n
nT

and-

t=

P'

vve

x
have

~
n

PROBLEMS ON THE PLANE.

214

mx +

or

'

n y

== 1 parallel to m!

oo

nf yr

Thus, in

1,

reality,

only two conditions are given to determine the three constants,

418. To find the equation to a plane parallel to a given plane, and
passing through a given point oc 19 y l9 # x
.

Let

+n y
f

-j-

be the required plane 9

then since the plane passes through x x y x z l we have

mf x x + n y x
1
p *i

m'

.\

(a?

fli)

Also

^p
or

419.

To

Let

mx

t=

and

- ^) +

(x

p' (y

n (y

n y
x
y

-\-

p z
n

V' (*

(z ~~

*i)

^) =: Q

he the equation to the plane,

^he equations to the line

then, since the co-ordinates of the point of intersection are

have

and plane.

find the intersection of a straight line

Jr

*i)

^i)

yx)

ts

i3

jp

(x

^)

- 2/0 + #'

(y

ft'

p
,\

common, we

a z

-j-

a)

-\-

z + 6) + p g s
ma w 5

(/S

1,

ma
+
a nb a + n 6 a +p a
'_

= a*+ &
and
ma
p
( * m
a
+ mab +p&
4" & ~
y =
-{-

p'

rc fi

a?

-f-

?i (j

-4-

/3

ft

/3

Thus

732

-f- 71 /J -f- jp

the required point of intersection

is

found.

420,

To

find the conditions that the straight line

or coincide.
If they are parallel, the values of
.'.

i -)

If they coincide, the values of

each s=

a?,

a?,

y,

j3

and plane be

and z must be

+ j)

y and
9

=
z

parallel

infinite

0.

must be indeterminate, or

--*.

.\

m + ^+P='9 and
7l

?ft

&

tz

&

and these are the two conditions for coincidence, the numerators of x and
by combining the last two equations.
y being both given =2
Hence, to find the equation to a plane coinciding with a given straight
line, we have the two conditions

m a + nh = 1,
m& + n +p =
/3

whence, by elimination,

we have

+ ^ & -&
,

0/3

Of +
" a
S~ m
~fi
fi5

PROBLEMS ON THE PLANE.

therefore the equation to the plane

+ pb)x ~

(fi

+p

(a

a)

is

+p

215

(a Q

-~ b

z zz a

ot)

(Z

ot 9

where p remains indeterminate.

To

421.

find the equation to a plane coinciding' with

two given

lines.

ma?-\r?iy*frpzzzl.

a)
bj

~j~

y^fiz +

ma

-f

(1)

m +

ma'

+ ^&'^l

(2)

mot'

' z

z+b \
f

we have

the plane coinciding with the given lines,

p^/3

w/3+jpc=:0

(3)

+ pzzO

(4)

nfi'

(1) and (2) we have m and ?i, and these values being substituted
(3) and (4), give two values of p, hence we have the equation of con-

From
in

dition

03'

This equation
of t=i

plane
plane
(h>

and

oc

/5'

(a

/3)

/3),

may be drawn

a!)

(a'

) (6 -6')

0.

which case
or if they meet ; hence in either of these cases a
coinciding with the two lines ; the equation to this
either if the lines are parallel (in

is verified

found, from the values of m, n^ and p, to be

is

~b)x~-{af ~a)y +

{(af

a)

(3

(b

- b)

a}z=zab' -

b.

422. If it be required to find the equation to a plane which coincides

with one given straight line, and is parallel to another given straight line,
we have the three equations

^> for coincidence with one line.

mw + wpn + ^-Oj
m ' -f w -f for parallelism with the other
.

'

|3'

]?

and from these three equations we may determine m,

ti,

and p, and then

substitute these values in the general equation to the plane

423.

To

find the intersection of two given planes.

Let the equations

two planes be

to the

mx+

7i y
n y
f

m! x

-f

-f p'

1
1.

the elimination of z we obtain an equation between x and y, which

belongs to the projection of the intersection or" the planes on x y,

By

hence

(m p

mf p) x

is the projection on x

(n

p
f

n! p)

p' p

of the required intersection.

Similarly

(m

nf

m'

w)

(p

ft'

n) z

nf

the equation to the projection on x z a

But the equations to the projections of a line on two co-ordinate planes
are called the equations to the line itself; hence the above two equations

is

are the required equations to the intersection.

The

third projection is given

rately

(n mf
424.

To

nf

rri)

by the other two, or

(p

it

mp) % ^
f

find the intersection of three planes,

may be found
m!

-*

?n,

sepa-

PROBLEMS ON THE PLANE.

216

Let the

and second, found as

intersection of the first

in the last article^

be expressed by the equations

and

a z

zp

pz +

of the

let the intersection

~f-

b,

and third planes be denoted by the

first

equations

Then, finding the

oi

cr:

(5

Z -f ol
z -h b

r
.

two lines from their four equations,

corresponding to the point of intersec-

intersection of these

the values of x, y, and z,

and therefore to the point of intersection of the three

we have

tion of the two lines,

planes.

In this manner we may

number of planes meeting-

find the relation among" the co-efficients of

in

any

one point.

425. To find the relation among the coefficients of the equations to four
planes so that they may meet in the same straight line.
Let the equations be

4-

z 8

a?

+
+

m
Then

the

and second plane

first

The

first

and

n y
n y
x

w8

2/

rt

first

and fourth

(5

ft s

+
+

tz.

oto

1
1
1

whose equations are

&

c< 2

/3

#i
6i

z 4- ^2

in order that these intersections

==.

=
=

in the line

Now,

=
=

intersect in a line

x =r
the

third intersect in the line

3/

And

+p z
+p z
+ p, z
+ i^8 -

==

A = ft

ail
ci\

coincide,

we must have

2 '; and

6 == o x

6 2.

And the values of a, /3, a and 6 are given in terms of m, n, p, &c, by

article (423), hence the relation among the co-efficients is found.
The same relation exists among the co-efficients of any number o
planes meeting in one point.
426. To find the relation among the co-efficients of a straight line andplane, so that they may be perpendicular to one another.
Let (X y 1 2 X ) be the point in which the plane and line meet, then the
equation to the plane is

m (x
And

~~

#0+

n (y-yj + p (z *i)

(1)

the equations to the line are

xzz a z + a\ / 9 n
y = Pz-bb\^ }
let the equations to a line perpendicular to (2) and passing through
the point (a,
y zj in (2) be

Also

PROBLEMS ON THE PLANE,

00

But

cd (z

Zi)l

fO\

one another, we have the

0,

+ ]3j3'+l=:0

a'

,\

them

cosine of the angle between

Now,

lines are perpendicular to

two

since these

O?!

217

(402)

combined with that

to the last line (3), will give the

relation among the co-ordinates of #, y, and z, so that the point to which
they refer is always in a locus perpendicular to the first given line ; hence
this equation

substituting for ol

locus of

and

jS',

the equation to the plane which

this equation

(4)

zl

or a (j?--^)

and as

we have

the lines perpendicular to (2), this equation

all

(y

fi

is

the

is

2/0+

*i =

(4)

must coincide with (2) we have, by equating the

."co-efficients,.

azz

and p zz -,

and these are the conditions required.

427. Hence,
cular to

be given* the equation to the plane perpendi-

if the line

it is

cca

Or
it

if

fiy

+ zzz

~~.

the plane be given, the equations to the straight line perpendicular to

are

zz

>

+ L

a,

V
y

zz

From

of these equations to the plane and perpendicular

appears that the trace of the plane is perpendicular to the

the form

straight line,

it

upon

projection of the line

the

same co-ordinate

plane.

428. If the plane pass through a given point x x y x z l9 and be perpendib) its equation is
a, y
cular to a given straight line, (x =: a z
fi z

O -.#0 +p(y-yi) + zz

=z 0.

429. If the straight line pass through a given point, and be perpendiny pz
1) its equations are
cular to a given plane (in a;

OD

430.

To

#!

+
m

(Z

Zt) 9

find the length of a perpendicular from a given point

on a given

plane.

Let

cc x

z Y be the co-ordinates of the given point,

Jr
the equation to the given plane.

mx-\-ny

pz~\
,

was shown in Art. 413, that if d be the perpendicular distance of the

origin from a plane, whose equation is
It

PROBLEMS ON THE PLANE.

218

+ ny

moo

-f-

pz

we have d

a/

m + n +p
2

2
.

Now, the equation to the plane 5 parallel to the given plane,

through the given point, is

+ w (y - y ) +
+
+ p#
or ______ = l

(a?

a\)

distance

(418).

?i ,v

m^!

Hence the

*i) =

mo?

and passing

4-

^2/i+P^i

d of the origin from

,

ax

Jr

o?x

plane

this

n y, 4p*i

~pzzz:
Vm + + /

.-r>

...

?t

the disianoe of the given point from the given plane

c? x
d
distance between the two planes, that is 3

But

^ m x 4 n Vi + p
Vm

"

-f"

?L

"^ >

evidently the

%i

is

431. To find the distance of a point from a straight line.

Let the equations to the given line be # = a a + 0, 3/ == /3 2 -i- 6, then the
equation to the plane passing through the given point <, y %, and perpendicular to the given line, is
l

a
Eliminating
line,

we

a?,

?/,

(a?

and

*i)

+ (y

*! = 0.

&) +*

by means of the above equations to the straight

find

*^
l

or, if this fraction

=M
~
M

^+'/J 8

we have

These are the co-ordinates of the intersection of the given line, with the perpendicular plane passing through the given point; and the required perpendicular line (P) is the distance of the given point from this intersection.

Hence P 2

==

fo
/

- xf +

(ft

- yf 4

MV

(^ -

z)

MV

MY

which, after expansion and reduction, becomes

^fa-ay + lft-.by + z?-^*.

432. If the given point be the origin,
/.

P3

a8

b*

we have

a\

- ^-_LJ_1 + a +
8

/3*

483. To find the angle 6 between two given planes.

Let the equations to the planes be

mx +
m

ny + pzzzl

% Jr n y
x

4 pi ssl

(I)
(2).

z l9

each equal

PROBLEMS ON THE PLANE.

210

Then, if from the origin we draw perpendiculars on each of these planes,

the angle between these perpendiculars is equal to the angle between the
planes : let the equations to the two lines be

In order that (3)

(3)
yzzP'ziWy = /3 2 J
may be perpendicular to (1), we must have

=s

/3

B5

P
Then

the angle between the two lines

'
cos>

/*)

/3/3'+l

7i

-f

may

-|-

also

&

434. This value of cos.

means of Art. (413.)
cos.

^L,

(403)l

mmi+n n i-+-^.^
PPi

0=
Vm

or cos.

is

= v(i-+*+Eo? fl +

cos.

/.

g= JUL.
Pi
Px
found from the expression

(426), and similarly '

^mi+n? + A

a
-

be expressed in another form by

= cos. P, x cos. P', -f- cos. P, 2/ cos. P', y + cos. P, s cos. P', z.
$=cos. P, yz cos. P',^-f-cos.P, ccz cos. P', <# + cos. P, xy cos. P', xy*
.3?

43b. If the planes be perpendicular to each other,

.%

Hence,

if

m m + nn + pp
x

+ Uiy

mi x

we have

cos.

0=0,

0.

bema + ny+pzzz

the equation to any plane

tion to the plane perpendicular to

?=z

I,

the equa-

it is

m -i
+

nn.

m,

2 ss 1,

where two constants remain indeterminate,

0=1;

and putting there436. If the planes be parallels we have cos.

equal to unity, we shall arrive at the results,

fore the expression for cos.

_^Wli

971

71

Tli

>i

|?!

when two planes are parallel.

between a straight line and a plane.

the same as already obtained

437.

To

find the angle

This angle is the angle which the line makes with its projection on the
and therefore, drawing a perpendicular from any point in the line
to the plane, is the complement of the angle which this perpendicular

plane

makes with the given line.

Let the equations to the plane and the

line

be

mx + ny+pzzzl
s +
a.z + a,y =
oc ==!

/3

b$

then the equations to the perpendicular from any point x 1 y z x in the line
;l

to the plane are

(z

zj, y

cos. (is

0) es sin. 0=;

wi

V"

a 8 +'

(429)

P
.%

(z &i)

P + p P

-fl

+w +p
/3

j3

Vw

4-

n*'+ p*

OBLIQUE AXES.

220

CHAPTER IV
THE POINT, STRAIGHT

PLANE REFERRED TO

LINE, ANT)

OBLIQUE AXES.
438. If the co-ordinate axes are not rectangular but inclined to each
The equaother at any given angles, they are then called oblique axes.
tions to the point, Art. (3S1.) remain exactly the same as before, but the
quantities a, 6, and c, are no longer the representatives of lines drawn
perpendicular to the co-ordinate planes, but of lines respectively, parallel
to the oblique axes.

To

439.

find the distance of a point from the origin referred to oblique

axes.

AX, A Y, A

Let

ordinates of P,

then the

on

sq.

draw

AQ

AP=the

Now, Q
and

Z, be the oblique axes

perpendicular on
P

cos,

PQ

ZAQ

be the co-

ycos.

YAZ

the rectangle A Q, Q N = z (x cos. XZ-j-y cos. Y Z)

+ y + 2-xy cos. Y X,
also the square on A Q =
2

d*

x, y, z,

cos.

a?

.\ -

let

produced,

on

t^.x cos..XA.Z
,\

AQ

AQ and PQ-}- twice the rectangle AQ,QN,

P Q N =: z cosl-Z A Q
A M cos. MAZ + M Q cos. Y A Z (379)

sqs.

=z

and

440.

To

-f %f

z2

2 x y cos.

XY-+2j?5

cos.

XZ

when

find the distance between two points

-f 2

z cos.

Z.

the axes are oblique

Let x y'z be the co-ordinates 'of one point,

and Xi y z 1
the other point,
.
then the distance between these points is the diagonal of "a parallelopiped, of
hence,
which the sides are the differences of parallel co-ordinates (388)
.

&-

(a?.- x,y

-f 2 (x

441.
nates.

To

+(y- yd* +

xd

(z

z x ) cos.

(*

-z y.+

XZ+

(7/

2 (x

x\) (y

) (2.

zd

yd

cos.

cos.

XY

Z.

find the equation to a straight lire referred to oblique co-ordistraight line must be considered to be the intersection of two

The

planes formed by drawing straight lines through the several points of the
given straight line parallel respectively to the planes of xz, y z ; the traces
o these planes on the co-ordinate planes are of the same form as for rect-

OBLIQUE AXES.
angular axes

that

is,

the equation to the traces, and therefore to the line

of the for

itself are

321

x= az +
y=zPz-Jr

cl

but the values of a and (j are not the tangents of any angles, but the ratio
of the sines of the angles which each trace makes with the axes in its
plane (51).

The

a and

quantities

remain the same as when the straight

line is

and since the equations are of the

same form as before, those problems which do not affect the inclination of
lines will remain the same as before.

referred to rectangular

co-ordinates,

44:2. To find the angle between two straight lines referred to oblique
co-ordinates we shall follow the plan adopted in Art. 402.
Let the equations to the parallel lines through the origin be

= a 2)

a?

,,v

~ a! z\

/Ci .

let ?*be the distance of a point xyz in (1) from the origin 3 and r the
distance of a point x l y l 2 X in (2) from the origin.

And

Then

if

d be the distance between these

points,

we have

= r + r _2rr' cos.
= (x - x,y + (y - y y + (s -zj* + 2, (x ~~ ^) (y - ^) cos. X Y
+ 2(a? - a?0 (* - 2 ) cos, XZ+2(y- #0 (2 - 2,) .cos, Y Z,
= ^+^-2
+ ##! + 22O
*-2{(r y + a?y )cos.XY+(,r 2+2 2 )cos. XZ+ (yi% + y zjcos. YZ}
= xx +
r ?\ cos.
2 2
+{(^i2/ + <3?^i)cos.XY +(^2 +#20 cos. XZ + (2/i2 4- 2/2^ cos. YZ}
2

cl

(a? .!

.*.

?/ t/ x

-f-

+ 1+ (a jS+a-jS ) cos. X Y + (* + cQcgs._X Z+QS +

1

+
+j3 + 2a/Jcos.XY + 2 a cos. XZ + ^cosTYZ} </{l + '*
V{
a H-/3

443.

We

/3)

/3

sl

To

cos.YZ

+/3"&c.}

find the equation to a plane referred to oblique axes.

consider a plane as the locus of all the straight lines which can be
to a given straight line, and passing through a given

drawn perpendicular

point in that given straight line.

Let the equations to the given line be

==:

a 2

~f-

^z'/jz

Also the equations to the straight line passing through a point x lr y u % l9

in the above line, are

>

x t zz a f (2' z
2/1

=P

i)

these two last lines being perpendicular to each other, we have the
hence by the last article
90, ov cos.
;
between them
angle

But

a a'+p /3 +l
(^iS+: 80cos.XY+(^|-)cos.XZ+03H-/J) cos.YZ=0
and eliminating a and $'
/

OBLIQUE AXEB>
_
jr

^ __ +
3

( LZJ5
V * ^
L

^\
J

cos

h +

1 -f

x Z + (V^J
+
\z - %

/3

and

this equation,

which

(.3?

/3

the locus of

is

cos.

-f

Y Z)

all

cos.

ot

(/3 -f-

cos.

=0

2^)

AY

YZ-0

cos,

or, ( -f
cos. X Y + cos. XZ)
YZ)(y-y ) + (1+ acos.XZ +

")

jS

XY

4- cos.

the straight lines meeting* the

given straight line at a given point and at right angles,

is

called the equa-

tion to the plane.

444. To find the conditions that a straight line be perpendicular to a

given plane ;
The method is the same as that in article 426.
The equation to a plane passing through a point x l y L z l in the given
line is

mOBut

a?0

+ n {y

y,)

+p

(z ~~ % x )

0,

the equations to the given line being

the equation to the plane perpendicular to

last article

hence, equating co-efficients

it is

given at the end of the

we have

P cos. XY + cos. XZ,

= + a cos. X Y + cos. Y Z,
= + a cos. XZ + cos. Y Z.

m^a+
7i

p
From
a and

/3

445.

these equations
in

To

/3

we have

the values of

rn, n,

or the values of

terms of m, n % p.
find the angle

between a plane and straight

line.

Let the given equations be

m x-\- ny + pz ^
y=zfiz

And

let

+ bi

(1)

the equations to a straight line perpendicular to the given plane

be
cc

a' a

^l/ox

where ' and j5 have the values of a and ,6 in the last article.
Also the angle between the lines (2) and (3) is given in article
(442.)., and the angle between the plane and the line (t) being the complement of the angle between the two lines (2) and (3) may be obtained.
f

To find the angle between two planes.

equations to the lines perpendicular to the given planes, and passing through the origin are given by Article (444.) ; and the angle between
these lines, which is the angle between the given planes, is given by
446.

The

Article (442.)

233

CHAPTER

V*

THE TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES,

447.

To

transform an equation referred to an origin

to

an equation

referred to another origin A', the axes in the latter case being parallel to

those in the former

The co-ordinates of the new origin being a, 6 5 and c, it is evident that

a point be referred to this new origin and to the new axes, that each
original ordinate is equivalent to the new ordinate together with the corresponding ordinate to the new origin hence if #, y, z be the original coordinate of a point P, and X, Y, Z the new co-ordinates, we have
if

oo

= a X,
= h + Y,
-fc-

*=c +

Z;

Substituting these values for a?, y and z in the equation to the surface,
and Z. referred to the
the transformed equation between
3
3

X Y

we have
origin

r
.

448. To transform the equation referred to rectangular axes to an

equation referred to oblique axes having the same origin.
z be the original axes,
<#, A y,
'.Let

A
A
A X, A Y, A Z

the

new

axes,

AM=^) AM'=X
M Q = y M' Q' = Y
QP= * Q'P = Z
\

Through the points M', Q^

same thing, perpendicular

the

draw planes parallel to y z, or,^ which

A x and meeting hoc in S T and

to

is

Then
(these planes 'are represented by the dotted lines in the figure).
f
M', M' Q and Q! P
are the respective projections of
S
and T

A S,
on

A #,

also

transformation of co-ordinates.

24

am = as + st + tm;
Y A a 4- Q'Pcos. Z A*
x zz Xcos. X x 4* Y cos. Y -f Z cos. Z
y = X cos. Xy + Y cos. Yy 4- Z cos. Z
*
= X cos. X x + Y cos. Yz+ Z cos. Z *
x ~ m'X + ii Y 4- m Z
Y+n Z
y =i n X +

^AM'cos.XA^
.\

M' Q'

4-

cos.

(378)

a?

a?

?/

'

Or,

where

is

?i l

put for cos.

&c.

<r,

397, the following equation between the angles

We have also, by
which one straight'line, as A X, makes with the axes of a?, y z>
art.

(cos.

Hence

x)

4- (cos.

X y) +
2

Xz)"

(cos.

1,

the following system,

m*

mf
^2

+ n* + p* + h + pf zz
+ ^a + K ~

1
1

2.

449. If the new system be rectangular, we have also the equations in

(405), which signify that the new axes are perpendicular to each
other ; hence the system
art.

mwii +??!

mm

7^ 7?? 2

4-

4" ^1

4"2>Pi':==
n 2 4- p p 2
??2

+ Pi P

3.

>
j

Hence we observe that of the nine cosines involved in the system (I)
three are determined by the system (2), and other three by the system (3) ;
and therefore that there are only three arbitrary angles remaining.
450. In the place of these three systems the following three may also
be used:

X = mx
Y=m x

4-

'4-

Z ^m
?n

n2

4-

p* 4-

2
x

4-

?ft 2

4-

7? 2

JK

4-

a
jp a

ny

5.

1 >
j

4-

p z\

n y -\- p z
?i 2 y~Vp%z\
x

1)
1

4-

W'i

?ii

wz 2

?z a

4-

mP

4-

nP

\-m p l 4- 71^^
4- ^2^2 4- n 2 p a
x

For, multiplying the values of ,r, ^ and z in (1) by m, w and _p respecthen adding the results together, and reducing by means of (ji)
;
??2#-4- ny 4- pz; and repeating this operation
and (3), we have
with the other multipliers
n l p l and rn 2 ?hp2 9 we have the system (4).
Also, since the distance of P from the origin is the same for both systems,
2
2
2
we have a*
4- Y
z
Z 2 ; putting here, for X, and Z,
if
their values in (4), and then equating co-efficients on both sides, we have
the two systems (5) and (6).
Whenever we see the systems (2) and (3), we may replace them
by (5) and (6) ; this may be proved independently of any transformation of co-ordinates, by assuming the quantities mnp, &c. to be connected
tively

X=

=X

as in (1).

451.
effected

The transformation from oblique axes to others oblique, is

by drawing a perpendicular from
in the last figure upon the

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
plane of y z and by projecting

X, Y,

arid

on

we

this perpendicular,

have

shall

and

x,

225

sin.

jr,

z nr:

X sin. X, y z + Y sin, Y, y + Z sin. Z, y

similarly for the other two, x and y,

sin. y,

a?

X sin. X,

z,xyz=:X

2 sin.

sin.

a?

X,

jcy

+ Y sin. Y, 2 + Z sin. Z, ^,
-f Y sin. Y, x y + Z sin. Z,xy.
a?

<r

452. Another useful method of transformation from rectangular axes to

is the following

others also rectangular,

Let the equations

to the axes of

x z= a

and

X,Yand Z

= #! z

be respectively

=a

let

_ __

VI
then by

a 2 +"/?"

art,

(402.)

__

Vl

ft

we have
eos.

Xy tn m ft

substitution,

the

first

a?

VT+~af "W-V

m a,

cos.

Hence by

==

cos.

X ^m
.?

&c.

formulas for transformation in

art.

become

(4-48.)

m X + ! Y 4* w a Z
y =sm(Z'X + ??h ft Y -f wi & 2
* = wiX+ wz Y + w Z.
x =:

???!

And
a.

ce ly

the nine angles in (1)

a2

A A,

are replaced by the six

unknown terms

ft.

Instead of these systems, we may obtain a system involving only five

arbitrary constants by supposing the solid trihedral angle formed by the
about the origin into a new pooriginal co-ordinate planes to turn
sition
such a system has been ably discussed by M. Gergonne in the
iu
Annates de Maths.," tome vii. p. 56.
:

453. It appears throughout

these

articles

that

only three

arbitrary

quantities are absolutely necessary ; and therefore it might be supposed

that formulas for transformation would be obtained involving only three
angles such formulas have been discovered by Euler, and as they are
:

generally useful in various branches of analysis,

we proceed

to their in-

vestigation.

be the intersection of the original plane of xy with the new

A to lie above the plane
and suppose the plane
xy A, which last we may assume to be the plane of the paper.

Let

AC

plane of

XY,

CXY
A

and radius unity, cutting

Let a sphere be described with centre
the axes in the points indicated by their respective letters.

all

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

226

^ 0,

Ca

Let

and

XY

CXsiJ/, and

be called

let

the angle

C x between

the planes

on

9.

(448.) the values of

Then the object is to substitute in formula (1) art.

the cosines in terms of the new variables 0, ^, and 0.

This is effected by means of the elementary theorem in spherical trigonometry for finding one side of a triangle in terms of the other two and
In the triangles C X os and C Y <r, we have
the included angle.
cos.
cos.

oo t=^

cos. 6 sin

Y x = cos. 6 sin. (90 +

sss

X y and

Similarly cos.

cos.

cos.

cos.

Also, supposing Z a? and

have from the triangle Z C a?
cos.

Z^r

cos.

ZCa;

And

cos.

Zz

y, cos.

zz cos. 6

=X

4-

X *,

(90

\L)

cos.

be joined by arcs of the sphere, we

90

sin. #sin,

and

cos.

4* cos.

ZC

cos.

jc

+ cos. 90 cos

sin.

0.

Y % may be

sin. i sin.

(cos.

(cos.

cos.

(cos,

X sin.

cos.

cos.

ip

Z C sin. Cr

sin.

sin.

il/

determined.

cos.

^ cos. 0)

cos.

sin.

sin.

i[f

cos.

0)

sin.0 sin.

sin. tp cos.

Z
es

\p

hence the system (1) becomes

= X (cos.

-f-

sin.

to

sin.

Z
y

sin.

$ sin.

ZC

:=

\j/)

+ cos.
+ cos.

sin.

Y y may be found.

= cos. (90 + 0)
Similarly cos.

\jj

*//

sin.

iff Y

-f" sin.

cos.

cos.

sin.

sin.

0)

0)

cos.

sin.

9 cos.

tp

+ Z cos. 0.

These are the formulas investigated, but in a different manner, by

Laplace, " Mec. C6L" i. p. 58. They will be found in most works on
this subject, but often with some slight alteration in the algebraic signs of
the terms,, arising from the various positions of
Ca

INTERSECTION OP A SURFACE BY A PLANE,

227

THE INTERSECTION OF A SURFACE BY A PLANE.

454. The last system may be advantageously employed in finding- the
nature of the intersection of curve surfaces made by planes. If we propose
to cut a surface, as a cone for example, by a plane, we should eliminate z
from the equations to the surface and plane ; but this gives us the equation to the projection of their intersection on ocy<> not the equation to the
intersection itself; and as the projection will not always suffice to determine the nature of a curve, it is requisite to find the equation to that curve
traced on the cutting plane.

This

may be done by

a transformation of co-ordinates.

C the axis of X,
Y, and the trace
Let the cutting plane be that of
and
the surface will then be referred to new axes X, Y, Z, of which
in the equation thus transBy putting
are in the cutting plane.
formed, we shall have the intersection of the surface with the plane
which is the intersection required.

XY,

Now, as the present object is only to obtain the curve of intersection

we may at first put Z = 0, and then transform the equation.
Let therefore Z =: 0, and the angle C AX or $ = 0, then the last
3

formulas become

x =s
y =2

X cos.
X sin.
Y sin.

+ Y sin.
4- Y cos.

cos.

cos.

6>.

These formulas may be separately investigated, with great ease, without

u Francceur," vol. ii, art. 369, or
deduction from the general case. See
ec
Puissant, Geometrie," art. 1 34.
455. In applying these formulas to a particular case, a little consideration will greatly alleviate the labour of transformation: thus, in manycases, we may suppose the cutting plane to be perpendicular to co z 9
without at all diminishing the generality of the result, but only addC either
ing much to its simplicity ; for in this case the trace
90; hence the
produced, and therefore
or y
coincides with

Ay

ast formulas

become

~ + Y cos.

z^

Y sin. 0.

These formulas may be readily investigated by drawing a figure like the

90 and
and y A produced coincide,
last, but letting A C,
90, and then taking the original formulas (1) in art. 448,

AX

Cs

456. If in the above cases the origin is also changed, we must

duce the quantities a, 6, c into the left side of the above equations.

Q2

iritro

THE SPHERE.

228

CHAPTER

VI.

THE SPHERE AND SURFACES OF REVOLUTION.

curve surface as a sphere being given for discussion, we proceed

457.
as in plane geometry to find its equation from some known property of
the surface ; and generally we arrive at a relation between three unknown quantities at, y, and z, which relation is expressed by the symbol
f(x,

y->

z)

to the surface,

This equation is called the equation

or z =f(ci\ y).
it corresponds to all points of the surface, and to it

and

alone.

458. Conversely, an equation of the form /(a?, y,z)

, where a?, y,
and z represent the co-ordinates of a point, refers to some surface. That
it cannot belong to all the points in a solid may be thus shown.
and /' (#, y, z)
Let there be two equations f(or,y, z)
,
;
giving to cT, y, and z the same values in both these equations, and then
eliminating z, we have the equation to the intersection of the above loci
(x y)
projected on the plane of ocy: this equation is of the form
0,
and therefore it belongs to a line. Similarly the projections of the intersection on the other co-ordinate planes are lines ; but if the projections of
a locus on three different planes are lines, the locus itself must be a line,
Hence the intersection of the two loci of
that is, it cannot be a surface.
being a line, each of these equations
and / (r, y, z)
(a?, y, z) ==

must belong

a surface.
459. Surfaces as well as lines are divided into orders, and for the same
object, to avoid the confusion of ideas and to allow us to unite the important properties of generality and simplicity in our investigations as far
Hence a plane which is the locus of a simple equation
as possible.
between three unknown quantities is called a surface of the first order ;
the locus of an equation of two dimensions between three unknown quanThe length,
tities is called a surface of the second order, and so on.
rather than the difficulty of the mathematical operations, renders this part
Hence we shall omit many of the investigations
of the subject tedious.
which merely require manual labour, and rather dwell upon what we conto

sider the important steps.

A much more serious difficulty arises from the state of the figures we
cannot give complete graphical illustrations of this part of geometry, and
a mind unaccustomed to the conception of solid figures cannot always
comprehend the meaning of the corresponding analytical results. We
have endeavoured to obviate this difficulty as much as possible by descrip:

what the figures intend to represent, and to these descriptions we

the particular attention of our readers, for we are convinced that this
part of geometry is by no means difficult, if attention be paid to the
tions of

beg

form of the body; but without this care it is quite unintelligible.

We commence with the discussion of the Sphere.

THE SPHERE.

229

THE SPHERE.
460. To find the equation to the surface of a sphere.
Let the surface be referred to rectangular axes, and let X, y, z be the
co-ordinates of any point on the surface, and a. b, c the corresponding
Then since the surface is such that the disco-ordinates of the centre.
tance of any point in it from the centre of the sphere is constant or equal
to a line r, called the radius, we have by art. (388.)

(#_)*+
461. This equation will

-r\

s
2
y -Z,) + (~~-c)
assume various forms corresponding

to the

position of the centre.

Let the centre be in the plane

.\

(:c

ay +

ofwy
(y -

Let the centre be on the axis of

x2

/.

-'

r (z

462. Let the centre be the origin

.\

.".

b)

0,
2

r\
and

b =r

c) = r\
a = b = c =

and the equa-

0,

,\

tion is

And

2
2/

?'

2
-

this is the equation to the surface of the sphere

#a

And

most generally used.

equation upon expansion becomes

The general

463.

ax

- 2by-2bz +

hence the sphere corresponding

to

a2

any equation of

this

r 2 == 0.

may be

form

described as for the circle, art. 67.

464. The sections of a surface made by the co-ordinate planes are
called the principal sections of the surface, and the boundaries of the
principal sections are called the traces of the surface on the co-ordinate
planes.

The equation

by putting the ordinate perpen-

to a trace is determined

Thus,
in the general equation.
the plane of the trace rr:
0, and
to find the curve in which the sphere cuts the plane of xy, put 2
then we have the equation to .the points where the plane and sphere meet,
dicular to

which

in this case is
cc

a)

{y

b)

=: r 2

Hence the section on x y is a circle as long as x and y have real valueij

And, similarly, the other traces are circles.
The theorem that the intersection of any plane with a sphere is a circle*
is

best proved geometrically, as in Geometry, b. v. 19.

To find the equation to the tangent plane to a sphere.
Let x y x z x be the co-ordinates of the point on the surface through

465.

which the tangent plane passes, and

let

the equation to the spherical sur-

face be

(x

a)

-f

(y

b)

( z

c)

=r

2
;

then the equation to the plane passing through the point x l

(x

Also, the equations

Oi

Ifi

3i) are

n(y

yd +

to the radius passing

(z

z x ) =r

zL

is

0..

through the points (a b a


THE TANGENT PLANE.

230

=~

^1

(*

*0

>

2/1

=~

O-

-i)

And since every line In the tangent plane, and therefore the plane itself,
perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangence, we have from the
equations to the plane and line

is

Hence

or,

zx

Si

the equation to the tangent plane becomes

(a? t

a)

(a?

a?0

(y l

6) (y

1/1)

(-1

c) ( 3

*0

maybe modified by means of the condition

(*!-) + (yx- &) 2 + fa-cy^r*,
fa a) + (^ '- 5) (^ - 6) + (i - c) <X

t==0

This equation

(^ - a)
Adding this equation, term by
plane, we have
or,

o)

466. If the origin

tangent plane is

is

fa

a)

(a?

(yi

c) i= r

9
.

term, to the above one for the tangent

6) (y

6)

(*i

c) (s

=r

c)

in the centre of the sphere., the equation to the

+ yy + g^^r
1

which equation is at once obtained from that

or, a? # -f yy + 2 2
r2
by putting a? a?',

to the
2/ 2/'*

sphere a?
atl d

2;

2'

respectively.
The line in which the tangent plane

?/

for

a?

+2 =

#,

?/

y,

?" a
j

and

cuts any co-ordinate plane is

and the
found by putting the ordinate perpendicular to that plane
point in which the tangent plane cuts any axis is found by putting the
two variables measured along the other axes each 0.

467. The equation to the spherical

ordinates by (440.)

surface

referred

O - a) + (y 6) + (2 - c) 4-2 {x - a)
0) - c) cos.X Z + 2 (y - 6) (z - c)

(a?

to

oblique

co-

is
2

{y

cos'.

(55

b) cos,

YZ = r

XY +

ON COMMON SURFACES OF REVOLUTION.

A

right cone is formed by the revolution of the hypothenuse of a

468.
right-angled triangle about one of its sides.
Let
C be the side which revolves about B as an axis, so that any
section Q P perpendicular to the axis is a circle.

Let

A X, A Y, A Z

be the rectangular axes to which the cone is rehaving the origin at the vertex of the cone, and the axis of Z
coincident with the axis of the cone.
ferred,

Let

AN= z
NM ^ x

>be the co-ordinates of any point on the surface,

MP=yJ

THE CONE.
Then

N M and M P

the squares on

231

the square on

NP
Z

andNP =

NQ = AN tan. CAB,

therefore the equation to the surface

a*

+f=e

is

%
,

where

e ss tangent of the semiangle of the cone.

469. Let the line A C be a curve, as a parabola, for example, in which
case the surface is called the common paraboloid.

Let the equation to the generating- parabola A

the square on
the squares on

NM,MP

Then

470. Let

Let

AC

be an

x2

.'.

be

ellipse, centre

=p

NQ =

*Jp z
the square on NQ,

z.

and origin

at

B.

BN = 2,NM=:^ and M P =: CB = b and BAsc,

?/,

NM

and
Then the squares on
being an ordinate to the ellipse
have

IP= the square

A QC, whose

NQ-

NQ;

and

NQ

f^^l\
is

(tf ~~ *)

if

or, a* Jr if

on

semiaxes are a and 6 3 we

I- A

and therefore the equation to the surface

a?

QC

NP=

z*

zz

&

Let a and b change places in the equation, we have then for the surface
of revolution round the axis minor the equation
a"

The former
spheroid.

surface

is

gj

<r

called the prolate spheroid, the latter the oblate

THE SPHEROID.

232

471. The equation to the hyperboloid round the transverse axis

a?

And

+ f

- b

^22

a2

we have

putting a for & and h for a,

is

2
2
.

by revolution round

the surface

the conjugate axis.

472. In general the equation to

hended under the form x 2

2

or, z -f- if

f (x)

z=z

-j~ if

AX

if

these surfaces may be comprebe the axis of revolution ;

all

=/(s)

if

AS

be the axis of revolution.

find the curve of intersection of a plane and a surface of revolution.

473. Let the section be made by a plane perpendicular to xz and as
the nature of the curve is the same in whatever part of the cutting plane
we place the origin, we shall let the origin be in the plane % z>
Then the formulas for transformation are

To

os

=c

-j-

Hence by

-J-

cos. 6

y^x

sin. 0.

we

substitution in the equation to a surface,

have the

shall

required curve of intersection.

474. Let the surface be a paraboloid

{a Jr y cos. 6)

;.

or,

(cos. 6)

~j-

-{-x

x -f (2 cos.

=p

(c~{- y sin. 0)

sin.

0) y

a8

since

pc

hence the curve of intersection is a line of the second order.

and a parabola similar
It is an ellipse generally (76) a circle if :=
;

to the generating one, if

90.

z=l

475. Let the surface be the spheroid formed by the revolution of an

ellipse

by

round

its

axis major

substitution this equation

2

y { (cos. 0)

b
4-

becomes

-a

sin 6 )
-

+ ^ + 2V

"
b

i c

sin * ~~

r/ i

cos e }
*

= 0,

is the equation to an ellipse generally, and to a circle when

476. Let the surface be the hyperboloid, whose equation is

This

a2

the sections will be found to depend

less

than

the curve

is

an ellipse

on the value of
if it is

equal to

a
parabola; and
ix

circle if

if tan.

is

greater than

it is

tan.

if tan.

the curve

an hyperbola

and

is

is

lastly,

SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER,

CHAPTER

233

VII.

SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER.

The

477.

a
the

4- b

general equation to surfaces of the second order

c z

number 2 being

In order

4 2fy z 4

some of

prefixed to

to discuss this equation, that

which

tion of the surfaces

means

2d xy

it

2 g x -f 2 A

3/

merely for convenience.

examine the nature and posiwe shall render it more simple by
the terms

is,

represents;,

is

to

of the transformation of co-ordinates.

h%t the origin be

transferred by putting

x rs

x' 4* wz.

y y

^%

4- n, z

4 j?,

substituting these values in the general equation, and then putting the
terms containing the first powers of the variables each ss 0, we have the

equation

ax' 2

hy'*

+ cz'* + 2dz'y

2ex' z' -{-2fy'

z'

A/=

0.

This equation remains the same if we change x\ y\ z\ into ~~x ,y',

z
respectively
thence we conclude that any straight line drawn through the
origin, and intercepted by the surface, will be divided into two equal parts
at the origin
this new origin therefore will be the centre of the surface,
1

attributing to this expression the

same

signification as

we

did in treating

of curves of the second order (81.)

478. The values of m, w, and p, are to be determined from the three

equations

4-

dn

~f e

4-

= 0,
0,

4"

"

p4g

4 dm -\-f-p
c p -f g m 4 f n
b

co-efficient of

^?

a?',

y\

<?'

Eliminate j5 from the first and second of these equations, and also from
the first and third, then from the two resulting equations eliminate n, and
we shall arrive at an equation of the first order involving m, whence we
have the value of wi, and therefore of n and p.

The denominator

of the values of m, n and

abc

+ 2def ap

p is
-~be*-~cd2

and p are infinite, or the surhence, if this quantity

0, the values of
face has no centre when there is this relation among the co-efficients of the
original equation.
This circumstance corresponds to the case of the parabola in lines of the second order (81.)
f

To destroy the co-efficients of the terms involving x y\ x /, and

we must have recourse to another transformation of co-ordinates,

479.
?/V,

SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER.

234

Taking the formulas

y'

&

in

(452) we have

= ma x n + #h a y" + m
~ mfi x" + ft y m
mx'
+ ?w
+m y
i

-1-

???!

^2 *"

ft

tf

~t=L

/;

s"

Substituting in the general equation, and then putting the co-efficients of

f
ff
z \ and y g", each =r 0, we have the three equations

x" y" 9 x"

(acc

(a

+ dfi + e) + (d + 6/8+/) A + e + //3 + c

+ d0 + e)a + (da+ 6/3+/)ft + e ^ +- //3 + c=r0,
+ dp + e)oc + (d a + 6 ft +/) ft + e + /ft + c =2 0.

^V

<* x

(aa

a?"*"

now

.3/"/'

transformation can always be

effected, that is, to determine the possibility of the values of the six unknown quantities in the last three equations.
rf
480. The equations to the new axis of y are x t=t a x z,y =2 ft z (452.);
hence, by substitution, the first of the above three equations becomes

Our

(acc

object

is

to ascertain if this

+ dfi + e)x+

(doc

+ bfi+f)y+

(eoc+ffi

c)

z~

0,

which is the equation to a plane passing through the origin.

Now the co-ordinates of every point in this plane satisfy the condition
f
that the co-efficient of x' y n == 0, that is, give the necessary relation
between a x and ft hence, if the new axis of y !f be drawn in this plane the
Thus, the direction of the axis of x !l being
condition is still satisfied.
quite arbitrary, that of y ,! is determined to be in the particular plane given
above and the term x lf y f is gone.
Again, by a similar elimination of a 2 and ft from the co-efficient ofa?" 2",
and from the equations of z ,f {x =: a 2 2, y
ft 2), we have, from the
hence, if the axis of
similarity of the equations, the same plane as before
tf
z be also drawn in this plane, the term x" z' will disappear.
Also, cc% and ft being thus obtained, the relation between #i and ft may
ff
r/
be found from the co-efficient of y z -t=z 0.
Thus, fixing upon any position of the axis of x'\ that is-, giving any
values to a and ft we have determined a plane passing through the origin,
in which plane any two straight lines whatever drawn from the origin may
be the axes of y' and z", and one of them as z n being so drawn, a 2 and ft
are given, and then the relation between cx and ft is determined from the
co -efficient of x' y 1 z=l 0.
But since the relation between these quantities a and ft, and not the
quantities themselves, is given by the last equation, it appears that there
are an infinite number of systems to which, if the axes be transferred, the
products of the variables may be destroyed.
481. Let the new axes be rectangular.
In this case the axis of a?' must be perpendicular to the plane of y ff x \
or the line whose equations are x zz az> y
/3 z is perpendicular to the
plane
;

'

'

(aa
/.

aa

+ dfi + e)x + (da+bfi+f)y+(etx+ffi + c)

+ d/3 + = a +//3 + c) a (426)
e

(e

d+&/3+/=(e+/0+O0
Substituting in the first of these equations the value of a obtained from
the second^ we have the following equation for j3 :

SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER.

235

{(a-b)fe + (f*~e*)d}P

+ { (a - 6) (c - 6) e + (2 d ~/ - e ) e +
+ { ( c -a) (c - 6) d + (2 c - d d +
+ {(-c)/<*+(/ - d*)e}^0.
2

(2

c~

(2 6

a
a

- 6)/d

c)/c

/3

/3

This equation of the third degree has at least one real value for /3, and
n
real value of <x\ thus the position of the axis of oc is found, and
n
also the position of the perpendicular plane in which y" and z are situ-

hence a
ated.

r,

Again, we might find a plane a?" z ,f perpendicular to y 9 and such that

n
ff
the terms in a?" y , y' z should disappear, and the necessary conditions
will, as appears from the similarity of the equations, lead to the same
equation of the third degree in /3 t , and the same is true for the axis of z".
1

Hence the three roots of the above equation of the third degree are the
three real values of /3, /3j and j3 2
These three quantities give the three corresponding values of a, a t
and #2> an d since there are only one value of each quantity, it appears
.

that there is only one system of rectangular axes to which the curve surface can be referred so as not to contain the products of the variables.
For further information on this subject, see C Annales Math.'' ii. p. 144.
1

By

482.
centre

is

the last transformation, the equation

when

the locus has a

reduced to the form

a l x"*
or,

bl

y"*+ c^'a+^cs

L^-fM^ + N^sl

by substitution and the suppression of accents, which are no longer necessary.

The order of transformation might have been inverted, by first destroying the products of the variables exactly in every respect as in the
last article, and then the resulting equation must be deprived of three
terms by a simple change of the origin ; the result, after both transformations, is

2
<2/

4-

M y* + N & -f

on

=r.

0.

483. The central equation involves three distinct cases, which depend
on the signs of the quantities L, M, and N.
(1) They may be all positive.
(2) Two may be positive, and the third negative.
(3) One may be positive, and the other two negative.

They cannot be

all

Substituting for L,

where a

is

>

and

negative.

M
>

-~~

a*

and N, the constants

c,

the three cases are

a2

^
+

b*

fl

_ . _

a?"

respectively,

c2

~tf

~~

The readiest way of obtaining the form of these surfaces is by sections

either in planes parallel to the co-ordinate planes, or on the co-ordinate
remark again, that in the latter case they are called the prinplanes.

We

cipal sections or traces.

2U

THE ELLIPSOID,

THE ELLIPSOID,
OB"

if

a?

484.

For

the trace on x

<r

s r= 0,

?/.

2,

?/

.*.

-|-

*,

X. rr:

The

ellipses.

.".

the section parallel to #

?/ is

<3f

0?

first

s^c; when

1^

00"

=m

a?

Therefore the principal sections are

Let

0,

?r

if
^

2/

is

"?

is

^-

T)l}

1 --

n"
^~
c

~?

I.

z*

'

of these equations is an ellipse from m, or z zz.

to
==: c the curve becomes a point, and when 2 is greater than c
imaginary, therefore the surface is limited in the direction of z.
z

the ellipse is
Similarly it may be proved, that the other sections are ellipses, and the
From the circumstance of
surface is limited in the directions of J? and y.
this surface being thus limited in every direction, and also from the above
sections being" all ellipses, this surface is called the ellipsoid.
The diameters 2 a, 2 b, 2 c of the principal sections are called the diameters of the ellipsoid, and their extremities are the vertices of the surface.
If b =r &, the equation

becomes--f-

~1

1>

which

is

the equa-

by revolution round the axis of z.

co-efficients are equal, we have spheroids round the
c, the surface becomes a sphere.
b
and if a

tion to a spheroid

If any other two

= ~

other axes ;
485. To render the conception of this surface clear
representing the eighth part of an ellipsoid.

we

subjoin a figure

/wjnSsmssaBSsssEffiSSiss-^

* This equation belongs to the projection on oc y, but since the plane of x j> is parallel
m,the projection is exactly the same in form as the curve of section itself*

to that of * =;

THE HYPERBOLOIDa

AB

and the

The

is

part of the ellipse on x y

AD

x z

BD...

yz

QPR parallel to x y

section

may

surface

237

also an ellipse.

is

be conceived to be generated by a variable ellipse

A B moving- upwards parallel to itself with its centre

N Q R be one position of this variable ellipse; and let
C N = z,
CA=fl,
NR=
C

NM^j,
MP = y,
Then from

ellipses

x
Therefore
equal

D =

c,

xx

XL

DQB

and

we have

and ^L.

^_. == l,

we have

+ _L-l

ij

&-*

NQisy,

= -

Let

QPR we have
2, + t-i

%+
3

J,

the ellipse

Also from the

CB =

C Z.

in

a;

-f

and multiplying the

~r
2

- =

equation by

or its

a2

first

c*

2/

THE HYPERBOLOJD.
436. Case

The

2.

~f

4-

principal sections are

on x J
ii,

b2

'

cir

(1)

is

on x

z,

on y

z,

(1)

x
~
4" =
a

^
e

(JO

'

(3U

whose axes are 2 a and 2 6 (2) and

same imaginary conjugate axis 2c J~ZZ~J

the equation to an ellipse

(3) are hyperbolas with the

if

-2

is less than , or ^/ less than b 9 2

Giving to 2, 3/, and a? the values 772,

c,r

section parallel to

xy

an

ellipse, to

is

imaginary.

and p 9 respectively, we have the

and x z hyperbolas.

??,

487. The accompanying figure represents a portion of the eighth part

of this surface.
the hyperbola on on z. and
B is the ellipse on x y,
B Q is the other hyperbola on y ?;. This surface may also be conceived

AR

THE HYPERBOLOID,

238
to be generated

centre in

C Z.

CAB

by a variable ellipse
moving parallel
Let
Q R be one position of this variable

7'

Then from

the ellipse

P Q R, we

Also from the hyperbolas

AR

-j- -5=
1

therefore ~4-

~~~,

and

it

le

have

and
5

'

to itself with
ellipse

and

B Q we

have

-=

Vi

],

&

and multiplying the

first

1 -f

equation by

or

its

equal

we have
6

This surface is called the hyperboloid of one sheet because it forms one
continuous surface or sheet.
b the surface becomes the common hyperboloid of revolution
If a
round the conjugate axis.
488. Through the origin draw a line, whose equations &vex=zaz 9 y=;(3z 9

and substituting

in the

equation

b*

J="

]*

<?

-"--

zz

1,

we have

=1

8
2
2
2
a ft 9 '
// c + a c /3
meets the surface as long as the denominator of the frac2
2
2
2
3
real and finite j let 6 2 c a2 + a2 c j?S s= a 6 , then the line only
'

tion is

a2

hence

this line

fl

THE HYPERBOLOID.

239

<at an infinite distance, or is an asymptote to the surface.

equation gives the relation between a and /3, when the corresponding line is an asymptote ; and if for ot and /3 we substitute their gene-

meets the surface

The

last

ral values

and

we

obtain an equation between a\ y,

z,

whose locus

asymptotes to the surface, because the co-ordinates of

have the required relation above.

will consist of all the

any point

in

it

The equation

to this surface is

x2

+
&

a2
r

or,

a*

We
an

2
2/

f _

If ~

a2

2
.

z2
m

'

show (art. 514.) that this is the equation to a cone

the origin, and whose base, or section parallel to the axis,

shall hereafter

whose vertex
is

is

ellipse.

489. Case 3.

=
The

principal sections are

on

osy.

(1)

IF
z2

on y

z,

is

(2)

=2-1

(3).

c2

b*

(1)

i.

an hyperbola whose axes are 2 a and 2 b

bola whose axes are 2 a and 2 c V"^1T;

3)

is

*J

(2)

is

an hyper-

imaginary, therefore the

z never meets the surface.

sections parallel to the co-ordinate planes, those parallel to xy
z are hyperbolas, and that parallel to y z is an ellipse, whose equa-

plane of y

Of the
and x
tion is

y* jl

hence

il
2

this ellipse is imaginary, if p or

^L _

is

less

a; therefore, two
a from the centre, no

than

planes are drawn parallel to y z, and at distances

part of the surface can be between these planes.

if

THE PARABOLOID.

240

EAF

the hyperbolic section on x y, and

an elliptic section parallel to y z. There
is an equal and opposite sheet with its vertex at A' ; hence the surface is
called the hyperboloid of two sheets.
490. The equation to the surface is deduced from the figure ; let

In the figure

QAR that on x z
x,

represents

EQFR

is

M N = y, N P = z QM = z M F = y,
;

Then from

l9

_ ?1 _

y
6
2

n
j

~~

a2

s^2

?y

~~

have

EAF and QAR we have

Also from the hyperbolas

therefore

Q P F 11 we

the elliptic section

AMz

zz --> an(l multiplying the

first

equation by

z^

y^'

or

its

equal

we have

^2

/^

a*

/2

2/

a2

X2

a
491.

'

ill
6s

,g

55 0,

is

the equation to the conical asymptote;

b*

in case (2) and (3) we have the conical asymptote by omitting

the constant term in the equations.

hence both

ON SURFACES WHICH HAVE NO CENTRE.

492. In this case the general equation can be deprived of the products
of the variables, as in (479) ; it will then be of the form

ax

by*

-\-

In order to deprive

But
tities

co-efficients

cz s

+ 2gx + 2hy +

2'iz

+ k^zO.

equation of three more terms,

=m+

.\axf2 + bij f2 + cz ,i + 2

Let the

this

y = n +

x',

y\

= p ~f

let

zf9

(am + g)x' + 2(b?i + h)y + 2(cp + i)

f

of x\ y and

z'

z'

+ VzzO

g",

^
9

no centre, the values of some, or all the quanmust be infinite therefore, either one, two, or three of the
a, b, c, must : 0.
Thus the original transformation which
equation of the terms xy, x z, and yz, has of itself destroyed

since this class has

m,

w,

2>>

co-efficients

deprived the

one or two of the

in art. 92.

Now,

co-efficients of
all

the equation to a plane

vanishes, or

9
a?

2
,

or z"

this

three co-efficients cannot

when a and

corresponds to the ease

then we fall upon

0, for

hence we have only two cases

both vanish.

left,

when a

493. Let a =^ 0, then, as we have three quantities, m, n and p to deterr

hence
mine, we may let k' ==
as well as the co-efficients of y and z'
the equation is reduced to the form
;

THE PARABOLOID.

+ cz

by *
f

or

...

/2

2/

2g7

+ 2gx

h2

241

^=.0.

/_

_c

^g-.

/a-.^.

This equation has two varieties depending upon the signs of the quan-*

2g
6

tities

A
and

-.

2g

494. Case 1. Let the signs of y f2 and *' 2 be both alike and positive, (if
they were negative we should change the sign of x' to reduce the equation
to the

same form) substituting -r

for

pressing the accents on

of the form
V* jl z *

an d-

2g

for

~ Z~
2*'

'

and SU P~

and # as no longer necessary, the equation

a?, 2/

;r~

is

For the

principal sections we have

on xy, y 2
*
I x
(1)
on x z, z a zn /#'
(2)
on 2/2, l'y*
/* a
(3)
(1) and (2) are parabolas extending on

the side of a? positive ; (3)

which is the origin itself.

For

is

a point,

the sections parallel to

xy,

put*=jv

x z, put y

2/ ,

put

(2?

(1)

v
2

n*

ft,

= m,
'

W'

(2)

in

(3)

and

(2) are parabolas, equal to those of the principal sections respecequation differing by a constant term, implies that the origin
differently situated with regard to the curve)
(3) is an ellipse.

(1)

tively, (the
is

495. In the figure

AQ

and xy, and the surface

is

AR

are parts of the parabolas on x z

described by the motion of the parabola AQ,

and

PRN

moving along the parabola AR. Let

be one position of the generating parabola, and let A
x,
^, and draw R O parallel to
then from the parabola
or
;
R P we have
parallel to

itself, its

vertex

M^

NP =

MN=y,

MN

AY

**

= V RN = (AM - A O) = l'(x ~-| \

/'

This surface

is called the elliptic paraboloid,

entire sheet, like the paraboloid of revolution.

496. Case 2. Let the signs of y' 2 and z

"

and

is

composed of one

be different,

THE PARABOLOID,

242

= x.
the principal sections we have
Ix
on xy, y 1
(1)
Z'o?
on xz, z*
(2)
on yz,iy~ I z*~
(3)
(1) and (2) are parabolas, the first corresponding to x positive, and the second
to x negative (3) belongs to two straight

For

through the origin.

lines

The

xy and x%

sections in planes parallel to

y z are hyperbolas,

are parabolas,

and those

parallel to

AR

AQ

Is that on xy; and the suris the parabola on x z, and

described by the motion of the parabola
Q parallel to itself, its
Let
one position of
vertex moving along the parabola AR.
and
~ x>
the generating parabola, and let
y, and
then from the parabola
parallel to
draw
Q we have
;

497.

face

is

AM

MN

= ?RNt=/'

(AO
L.
I

This surface

is

RPNbe
NP=^,
MN =

'AM)

"=

= /'(i-.^

*'

called the hyperbolic paraboloid.

to the elliptic and hyperbolic paraboloids may be

deduced from those of the ellipsoid and hyperboloid of one sheet, as the
equation to the parabola was deduced from that to the ellipse (228) bysupposing the centre to be infinitely distant.
Let the origin be transferred to a vertex of the surface, by putting x a
for x then the equation to the ellipsoid and hyperboloid is

498.

The equations

(fl-a)',

y*

* .,

and m! be the distances of the vertex from the foci

on x y and x z ;
2
2
.% 6 s=s & (a
mf e= 2 a m ma

Let

and
therefore,

by

cs =2

2 #m'

m'

or the sections

s
;

substitution, the equation

a?

a?

a
becomes

or

2x

a ** 2

a?

+ 2 amy

4 =
62

m*

2am

~+ 2m-

a
or

JL
2

-J-

__

a?

= 0, when a

0,

a
is infinite.

2 m'

And hence results obtained for the ellipsoid and hyperboloid will he
rue for the paraboloids, after making the above substitutions.

THE PARABOLOID,

We

stated in article 492, that both

499.
case the equation will be

a and

243
b

might vanish

in this

And

by the transformation in art. 492, we cannot destroy the co-efficients

of x and y 9 but we may destroy that of z, and also the constant term k ;
hence the transformed equation is reduced to the form

c 2
or 2 2

4-

-f

Vy

2gos+ 2hyz=>-0\
if

2g

s=

I,

and

2h
\l\

500. There are two cases depending on the signs of I and V 9 which
be both positive, or one positive and the other negative.
Case 1. I and V both positive.

may
The

section

on %y
on a?
on y %

is

Ix

is

z2

1=^

y
Ix

=?-

(1)
(2)
is z
(3)
B ; (2) is a para(1) is a straight line
bola
Q ; (3) is also a parabola, not in
the sections on the planes
the figure
2

I'

=%

above are similar in each

is formed by the motion
of the parabola A Q parallel to itself, its

parallel to the

case.

The

surface

AR

;
vertex describing the straight line
letRPNbe one position of the generating

parabola

let

;',
-

A M=, M N=y, NP = z,
then * c= I

R N r=

l(

yy + x

l'y

is a cylinder with a parabolic base,

the surfaces of the second order,

Since this surface

classed

among

Case 2, If the signs of I and l f be different, the

same 9 but situated in a different manner.

CHAPTER

loo.

it is

not usually

surface will be the

VIII.

CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL SURFACES;

501. Our notion of surfaces will be very much enlarged, if we take
into consideration the general character of classes of surfaces, defining
them by their peculiar method of generation, and then expressing that
definition in a general algebraical form.
For example, we have been

accustomed, in common geometry, to consider a cylinder as a surface

generated by a straight line, which is carried round the circumference of a
given circle, and always parallel to a given straight line*
(Geomu b* v

CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL SURFACES.

UA
def. 1.)

But

it is

evident that

if

the base be not a circle, but any other

we shall have a surface partaking of

curve, as a parabola, for instance,

the essential cylindrical character, and which, with others of the same
kind, come under a more extended definition; and similarly for conical and

many

other surfaces.

Having seized upon

by which the

lines

this general character,

method of generation,

compelled to move, the next step

are

is to

or law

express

this fact in algebraical language; that is, to obtain an -equation between

co-ordinates x, y, and z, of any point on the surface, which equation shall
belong to the class of surfaces in the first instance, and then can be adapted
to

any particular surface

in that class.

THE PLANE.
502. In order to prepare the reader for this subject, we shall take a
simple case
to find the surface generated by the motion of a straight
line, parallel to itself, and constrained to pass through a given straight
:

line.

AX

Let
S AY,
given straight line
plane of y %) be

AZ

be rectangular axes, and let the equations to the

(supposed for the sake of simplicity to be in the

B C

Y + pZ =

Also,

let

the equations to the generating line

Q, in any one of

its

posi-

tionsj be
co

a\

P* +

hi

e= a z

y '=

Now,

a and (d are the tangents of the angles which the projections of P Q

make with the axes
and A
respectively ; and in the motion of P Q

AX

parallel to itself, the projections also remain parallel to themselves

respectively ; and hence a and /3 are always constant,
and therefore are known
or given quantities.
But a and b being the .co-ordinates of the point
line P Q meets the plane of jc
y, they change with every change
of position of/P Q; and therefore, being variable, must
not appear in the
final equation to the surface.
Now, these variable quantities, a and 6, can
be expressed in terms of the other variable qualities x,y,
z; and hence
w.e can thus estimate them from the two a-ive.n systems
above.
At the point P, where P Q meets B C, we have, by comparison of
(1)
j

where the

and

>

(2),

ON CYLINDRICAL SURFACES,

Y=
But

the system (1)

stitution in (1),

is

y ss

true for

4.

845

Z;

any values of X, Y,

therefore,

by sub-

we have

a and b together, or expressing the

which the variable quantities a and b have to each other, or the
that is,
relation which any quantities equal- to a and b have to each other
substituting for a and b the quantities x
2, and y ~~ fi siVorn (2), we
shall have the relation between the quantities #,#? and 2, which is called
the equation to a surface.
and

this is the equation connecting*

relation

n - (x

4-

?i (?/

/3

) '

_ w_ + p # +

'

/3

oy 9

i.

rc3/4-ps

1,

which is. the equation to a plane and this is the most general method of
determining the equation to a plane ; for it can be thus found for any
system of co-ordinate axes, and it is determined from the most obvious
character of the plane.
We now proceed to the discussion of surfaces formed by the motion of a
straight line constrained to move after some given law or condition.
;

ON CYLINDRICAL SURFACES.
Definition.
A cylindrical surface generated by a

503.

is

which moves

parallel to itself in space,

and

straight line,

describes, with its extremity,

a,

given curve.

The
curve

To

straight line

is

which moves

is

called the Generatrix;

and the

givey*

called the Directrix.

find the equation to the surface,

Let the equation

to the generatrix, in

any one of

its

positions,

be

+a
y~(3z + b

x =r a z
:

Now, the generatrix, in its movement, always moving parallel to itself;

the quantities a and /3 remain the same for every position of the generatrix ; but the quantities a and b, which are, the co-ordinates of the point
where the generatrix meets the plane of x 7/, are constant for the same
position of the generatrix, but vary when the generatrix passes from one
position to another.
Thus, when any point on the surface changes its
position without quitting the generatrix, a and b are both constant ; and
when the point moves from one position of
a and b are both variable; hence these two

the generatrix to another?

quantities, being constant

together, and variable together, must be dependent on each other in some

way or another; which general dependence is expressed by saying that one

of them

is

a function of the other

ON CYLINDRICAL SURFACES.
a

putting for h and

or,

f (a)

we have

their values as above,

y
which

.'.

/3

(x

<

oc

#),

the general equation to cylindrical surfaces.

will depend upon the nature of the
504. The form of the function
is

<j)

directrix in

any particular ease*

JLet the equations to the directrix

be

(X, Y, Z,)

/(X,Y,Z,)

=
=

01
0J

as the generatrix must in all its positions meet the directrix, the
equations to this curve and to the generatrix must exist simultaneously
for the points of intersection ; thus having four equations we may eliminate #, y, z and arrive at an equation between , 6, and constant quanti
ties, which will determine the form of the function f
/3<s, we
Substituting in this equation for a and h their values oo a 3,

Then

liave the actual equation to the particular cylinder required.

C, in the plane of
505. Ex. L Let the directrix be the circle
:

and let

cc x

B Q

oc

y,

and y be the co-ordinates

x

of its centre ; then the equations to

the directrix are

(X

a?',)*

+ (T

*)

=0
Let BD QR,CE

""}<1)

be various

whose

positions of the generatrix

general equation

is

x = a z

'

I rQ v

to express that the generatrix meets

the circle as at

Y/

the equations (1) and (2) must exist together

y+

hence the form of the function

we have

substituting these values in (1),

=
= a
y = 6

Z=
X=
Y=

.\

(b

yo*

'-

()

determined.
Substituting in (3) the values of a and b from (3),
(a?

(j>

a?!)

is

(y

/3

we have
8

gh)

=r

This is the equation to an oblique cyiinder3 with circular base? situated in

the plane of x y.
506. Let the centre of the circle be at the origin?
,\

And

if

xx

z)

and y Y es

r*
j6 z)
(y
the origin be at the extremity of a diameter parallel to the axis of
2
a s) a
(a?
(y * fi z) zz 2 r (cc a z)
..

(a?

a?,

507. Let the axis of the cylinder be parallel to the axis of #j then and /5

ON CYLINDRICAL SURFACES,

247

each
0, since they are the tangents of the angles which the projection
of the generatrix on x z and y z make with A Z ;
2
...
(^-^) 2 (2/^2/i)
1
2
and if the axis coincide with A Z, x
y == r\ z =s ;

-^;

in these cases the cylinder is called a right cylinder and its equation is the
same as that of the directrix.
If the directrix be a circle on x z, the equation to the right cylinder will be
a?

== r\

**

508. Let the directrix be a parabola on x y, vertex at the origin, and

Bjis coincident with the axis of x.
Then the equations to the directrix and generatrix are

Z
we have

therefore at the points of junction

Z =

a?

t=2

s:

we have

then by substituting in (1)

'
# #)
(y ^ fi #)
p (#
which is the equation to an oblique parabolic cylinder, whose base is on xy*
509. Let the directrix be a parabola on x %, axis A X, and vertex at A;
and let the generatrix be parallel to the plane x y.

The equations

are

%*

XI

=:

p
Y^Oj
Then

^L

+ > = \

=6'

the equation to the surface

o
*

is
;

+ p #.

See

article (499)*,

ON CONICAL SURFACES,
A conical surface generated by the movement

510. Definition.
straight line,

is
of a
which passes constantly through a given point, and also

describes a given curve.

The given point is called the centre of the surface, the straight line which
moves is called the generatrix, and the given curve is called the directrix.
Let a, b, c y be the co-ordinates of the centre then the equations to the
;

generatrix are

x
y

a=
-h =

a (z
(*

c)
c).

Now

when a point on the surface changes its position without quitting

the generatrix, the quantities a, /3 are constant, but when the point passes
from one generatrix to another, they are both variable; hence being constant together, and variable together, they are functions of one another
.*.
(a), or substituting their equals,
/3 =:

to conical surfaces.

<j>

y
-^

-7

(x

s=

<j>

a \

,.

which

is

the general equation


ON CONICAL SURFACES.

248

The form

511.

of the function

depend upon the nature of the

will

<

directrix in any particular case.

By

combining the equations

arrive at

which

/3,

directrix

we may,

as

and thus
determine the form of

in a particular case,

z,

y,

a?,

an equation between a and

the function

and

to the generatrix

for cylindrical surfaces, eliminate

will

<j>.

Substituting in this equation for a and

their values

and

-
z

we

obtain the actual equation to the particular conical surface.

512. Ex. Let the directrix be a circle B Q C in the plane of
The equations to this directrix are

(X -

a^ +

And

the equations to the generatrix

point

Q E

E, or

passing through the

(&, &, c), are

gs

~~

a {z

b ==

(*

To express
circle,

y.

- yOV= ^l

(Y

a?

cl

(2)

c]

that the generatrix meets the

must

(1) and (2)

the equations

coexist.
93

z
X

=s z z=z
== OS is

=s y =; 6

-/3

henee by substitution in (1) we have

{a

Putting for a and

^;

/3

a?i)

their values

- ca;
c

(6

ytf == r

(3)

from (2) and reducing

cy

+
*

2/i

This is the equation to an oblique cone with a circular base situated

plane of x y.

Let the centre of the

,\

(a z

circle

be

at the origin /

cxY +

(b z

C2/)

w l ^.

s= r 2

in the

and y l zz o;

c)

= #, and

circle,

we have

513. Let the axis of the cone be parallel to the axis of z

7/ 1? and the general equation becomes

.*.

5 =r

\z~cj~\z-~cj
In

this

Also,

c2

case the cone is called a right cone.

if in this case the origin beat the centre of the

~o and b =

o,

*2

+ t .= J

(*

c) 2

514. Directrix an ellipse on x y, whose centre is the origin, and the centre
then the equation to the cone is
;

of the cone in the axis of z

a?

,
.

il
2T

ON CONICAL SURFACES,
or putting z% for

z~c

that

is,

measuring from the centre of the cone

a2
In

249

""

b*

simple case, the equation to the surface

is easily found by the

Taking the figure in that article, and supposing
every section, like P Q, to be an ellipse, whose axes x and y are always
proportional to the axes a and h of an ellipse whose centre is in A Z, and
at a distance c from A, we have the equation to P Q

this

method

in article (468).

- + -^1=1
2
r
"I

but y l es

n,
til

'

a x

ly

and x l ss

515. Let the directrix be a parabola parallel to oc y, and vertex in the

The equations to the directrix and generatrix are

axis of z.

Y =
2

p .XI

Z ^cZ
at the points of junction

y.-

&

a?

=aO= j8(-

we have

== z

df

X = a7=sfl5

+ a(d

Y~2/=6 +
hence the

final

equation

c)l

<0J

c)

(tf~c)

is

{+^->N{.+^-:-'>}
~

b ^z c 2=: o,
516. Let the vertex or centre of the cone be at the origin .\ a
and the equation to a cone whose directrix is { y 2 = jp #, z = d } and
whose vertex is at the origin, is
d y 2 ~ <p x z.
517. The following method of finding the equation to a right cone whose
is at the origin, is sometimes useful.
Let the length of the axis of the cone be k and suppose this axis to
pass through the origin, and be perpendicular to a given plane or base
whose equation therefore will be of the form

vertex

ax-\-Py-\-yz~k
where
of

j?,

y,

/$,

y are the co-sines of the angles which k makes with the axis

ands

(410).

a;, y, and z to be the co-ordinates of a point on the circumference of this base, and let 6 be the angle which the generatrix of the
cone makes with its axis, then by the property of the right-angle triangle
we have the equation

Also suppose

Hence by equating
( 9 -f

= J (^ + f

the values of
fi

-f

y zf

4- * 2 ) cos.

k we have the equation,

=:

{&

.+'

-j- z>)

(cos. 0)

ON CONOIDAL SURFACES,

250

And
the

this is the

same

equation to any point in the surface, since &, /3, y remain

and passing through any point

for a plane parallel to the base

(x y z) of the surface.
If the axis of the cone coincides with the axis of z we have a zz ft zzi o
and y
(a*
1
y*
z2
z*) (cos. Of
518. To find the curve of intersection of a plane and an oblique cone,
we may suppose the catting plane to pass through the origin of co-ordinates without detracting from the generality of the result.
Substituting
for x, y, z, in the equation, their values in 455, we readily find that the

sections are lines of the second order

and

their varieties.

ON CONOIDAL SURFACES.
A

519. Definition.
conoidal surface is generated by the movement of a
constantly parallel to a plane, one extremity of the line
moving along a given straight line, the other describing a given curve.
shall commence with a simple case,
Let the axis of z be one
directrix, and let the generatrix be parallel to the plane of x y : then the
straight line

We

equations to the generatrix in any one position are

a x

=6

Now it is

evident that when a point moves on the surface without quitting

the generatrix, and b are both constant, but when it passes from one
position of the generatrix to another a and b are both variable ; hence these
quantities, being constant together and variable together, are functions. of

one another,
.%

b ss

(J)

(a) or substituting their values.

=($
which
520.

is

the general equation to all conoidal surfaces,

will depend upon the nature of the
of the function

The form

(j)

second directrix.
By combining the equations to the generatrix and this directrix, we
may, as before, eliminate # 9 y? z^ and arrive at an equation between b and a
9

we'must then substitute the values of b and

and we

a, their general values z

and

shall obtain the equation to the particular conoidal surface.

521. Let the second directrix be a circle parallel to y z and the centre
y

in the axis of #, therefore the equations to this directrix are

z +
'

l=:\v

Then where this directrix meets

generatrix we have

Z=

X
Y;

the

ON CONOXDAL SURFACES,
Hence

the required equation

251

is

z* 4- a?

V=

r\

This surface partaking of the form and generation of both the cone and
the wedge, was called the cono-cuneus by Wallis, who investigated many
of its properties,
If the axis of a? be one directrix, and the other be a circle parallel to oo z 3

and the generatrix be

parallel to

#,

a%

let

the equation

is

z*

522. Let the axis of z be one directrix, any straight line the other,
the generatrix move parallel to oc y.

Then

and

the equations to the second directrix are

Xs
Y

Z +m
vZ + n

ft

zz

Also the equations to the generatrix being

the points of junction

Y=

es v b 4-

v& +

v
v b 4-

n
lib

y ss a

a?,

6,

we have

at

n
n

+m

2/

v%x*iJL%y'-\-noc-"my~o<,

or

523. Let the axis of s be one directrix, and let the second directrix
be the thread of a screw whose axis is coincident with the axis of z.
The thread of a screw, or the curve called the helix, is formed by a
thread wrapped round the surface of a right cylinder, so as always to make
the same angle with the axis; or if the base of a right-angled triangle
coincide with the base of the cylinder, and the triangle be wrapped round
P,
the cylinder, the hypothenuse will form the helix
To find the equations to the helix,
Let the centre of the cylindrical base be the origin of rectangular axes,
a.
z and the radius of the cylinder
ir,
Then P Q bears a constant ratio
to
Q ; namely, that of the altitude
to the base of the describing triangle

CM = MQsy,PQ =

hPQ=cAQ

and A Q is a circular
is y and radius a

arc

whose

~l
.

z =2 e

or z =
also

a sm.

+ y^

oo

cos.

zs a %

sine

ON CONOIDAL SURFACES.

252

And these are the equations to the projections of the helix.

To return to the problem, which is to find the surface

described by a
be parallel to the base of the cylinder,
that it passes through the axis, and that it follows the course of the helix.
The equations to the directrix (if c be the interval between two threads)

line subject to the conditions that

it

are
sin.

t=s

V z=

the equations to the generatrix being

z

+ if

x*

And

-iV

z =2 e

ir
V <&

y s^

x> z

v.

2/

/,,

bzz

sin.

'-"

hence the equation to the surface

This surface

is

sin.

J1+

a2

=.

the under side of

we have

is

=s e a

_ +

2
2/

many

#*

-f

+
.

spiral staircases*

straight line passes through two straight lines whose equations

524.
b; and oc
a l9 z =: /^ ; and also through a given
a, y
are x
curve z e= /(;*/) in the plane of z y ; to find the equation to the surface
traced out by the straight line.
The three directrices are

Y^
And

let

b )

Z-b,]

X=

ld]

the equations to the generatrix be

2/

and consequently y

Then

a?

/3

>> if

w;

since this line meets the three given lines,

we have

the following

equations
/3

We must now eliminate

a, &,

w,

71

or

from these equations, and that to the

generatrix.

By
y

subtraction

we have

'(#);
ft

6 2=

in

namft _
~~
a

Hence

<x

<#

qo
.,

(y fiz) fi (x ccz)

flr

]h

/.

_ .ay poo _ ^

'

the final equation

ojx
;_

'

of

a (z

is
g.

_ y/

a:

gy\

oc

tti

t-

/3

<M ~ %

a?_

&~J^#V
a;

ON CONOIDAL SURFACES.

253

The

following problem is easily solved in the same manner.

to a surface "formed by a straight line moving
parallel to the plane of x z, and having its extremities in two given curves
z as f (2/) on z y, and x
(y) on x y.

525.

To

find the equation

The equation

<j>

is

r-r =

ttt-t

1..

0(y)
f(y)
kind some care

526. In questions of this

is requisite in selecting the
position of the axes and co-ordinate planes, so that the equations, both

may

those given and those to be found,

present themselves in the simthe surface formed by the motion of

a straight line constantly passing through three other given straight lines;
Take three lines parallel to the given lines for the axes of co-ordinates ;
then the equations to the three directrices are

For example,

plest form.

to find

X-a \

Xisflj

Z-

Y-bJ
and the equations

Y^b

Z ^c

3 j

to the generating line in

t=:

and consequently y

Then

cj

clz -f ,

-j*

c,

any position are

fi

where

-\~

b,

since this line meets each of three given lines,

equations

We must now
the generatrix
bx

we have

the following

bi=

y ~

a a

#2

ca -f

b3

/3

c s -J- b.

eliminate #, 6, a, /3 from these three equations and that to

by subtraction we have

0*

ai)

hence, eliminating a and

/3,

cc

a2

'

we have

(z

ca )

y~~b 3

fi

(z

a,) (y

6 3) (2

c3 )

the required equation

= (# a 2 ) (y - '6) (z - c8 )
which is of the second order, since the term x y z disappears.
Hymers's Anal. Geom. p. 23, Cambridge, 1830.
(a?

c 2)

CHAPTER

See

IX.

ON CURVES OP DOUBLE CURVATURE.

Definition. A curve of double curvature is one whose

generating
527.
point is perpetually changing not only the direction of its motion, as hi
plane curves, but also the plane in which it moves.
If a circle be described on a flat sheet of paper, it is a plane curve ;
lei the sheet of paper be rolled into a cylindrical form, then the circle has
two curvatures, that which it originally had, and that which it has acquired

by the flexion of the paper, hence in this situation it is called a curve of

double curvature.
528. Curves of double curvature arise from the intersection of two
surfaces; for example, place one foot of a pair of compasses on a -cylindrical surface, let the other in revolving constantly touch the surface, it will
'describe a curve of double curvature, which, though not a circle, has yet all

ON CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE.

254

The
points at equal distances from the fixed foot of the compasses.
is then part of a spherical surface, whose radius is equal to the distance
between the feet of the compasses, and consequently is the intersection of
its

curve

this sphere with the cylinder.

529,

The

equations to the two surfaces taken together are the equations

and consequently are the equations to the curve of

to their intersection,

double curvature.

By the separate elimination of the variables in the two equations, we

obtain the respective projections of the curve upon the co-ordinate planes.
Two of these are sufficient to define the curve of double curvature ; for we
may pass two cylinders through two projections of the curve, at right
angles to each other, and to the co-ordinate planes, the intersection of these
This is analogous to the consideration of
cylinders is the required curve
a straight line, being the intersection of two planes.
We proceed to examine curves of double curvature arising from the
B

intersections of surfaces.

530. Let the curve arise from the intersection of a sphere and right
cylinder; the origin of co-ordinates being at the centre of the sphere 3 the
axis of the cylinder in the plane

os

z and parallel to the axis of

%,

Let the distance between the centres of the sphere and cylinder sr e,
is u? 2 -f y 2 + %* ss 2 and the equation

then the equation to the sphere

to the cylinder is

(ps

c) 2

b\ (507.)

ON CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE.

eliminating y 9 z*

eliminating

Fiom

z2

oc,

a2

_r-

-f- c

a2

(1) the projection of the curve on #

whose vertex

is

C, where

AC^

5!

b2

6 2 -~ c2
is

q2 _l c 2

255
(1),

q:2c^ -^
2

a portion of a parabola

&2

(2).

BC

ABs Va"+c*^6*.
_____

and

& c

From (2) the projection on y z consists of two ovals, whose positions are
determined by the two extreme values of z,

AD=

^a

~~ (6 ^~c)*

AE = ^a 2

(6

c)

2
.

cylinder

r\

and

the ovals approach nearer to each other, as

tf
6, that is, when
in fig*. (1) when c
the sphere but just encloses the cylinder

A\
vy

As
moves

is,

further from A,

AE

the

as

c increases, that

decreases,

AEsO, and the ovals meet,

which gradually approaches

fig.

fig.

As

(2).

(4)

and

Q
X
U
we
when c

c increases,
lastly,

Q
U
)

^(J

obtain fig. (3),

s= a vanishes

entirely.

[Different values, as

c,

, &c, may be

given to

trace the projections : they offer no difficulty,

investigation, as the complete examination of
tates the comprehension of all others.

531. Ex. 2.

A right

b>

and we may then

but we recommend their

one example greatly facili-

cone and a paraboloid of revolution have their

vertices coincident, the axis of the cone being perpendicular to the axis of

the paraboloid*

The

equation to the cone

boloid,

(I

(157).

e 2)

z2

===

%% which

oo

is

(469)

is
;

s
y*^ c2 z% (468) and that to the para+ V x ~~
hence the projection on oc % is

55

an hyperbola, whose

axes?

are

V
p and --__.

ON CURVES OP DOUBLE CURVATURE.

256

Again, x*
e2 (p x
?/
hence the projection on x y is

p and

2/

an

.*.

ellipse,

(1 4-

e )

if

whose vertex

e
is

p
A and axes

a?

a?

(103).

Vi +

2
2
2
2
2
e2
equation to the projection on y z is (y*
*)
-f-p 2/
^ ^ 5
Lemniscata, and becomes the Lemniscata of Beriiouilli, when e ~ 1, that is, when the cone is right-angled (314).
532. To find the curve of intersection of two surfaces, we have eliminated the variables separately, and thus obtained the equations to the
projections on the co-ordinate planes; conversely, by combining these last
equations either by addition or multiplication, &c, so as to have an equation between the three variables, we may obtain the surface on which the
curve of double curvature may be described. This surface does not at all
define the curve of double curvature ; since an infinite number of curves
may be traced on this individual surface, to all of which the general equa-

The

this is the ecpiation to a

tion to the surface belongs.

above combination are often interesting. For ex

Let the curve be the intersection of a parabolic cylinder on .x y^
with a circular cylinder on x z\ the origin being the vertex of the parabola,
and the centre of the circle being in the axis of the parabola, which is also

The

ample

results of the

the axis of x.

Let y 2

2 p x be the equation to the

parabola
P on x y,
2
(x a) 2
22 =r r . . . circle on xz9
Combining these equations by addition,
2
2
2
(x
a) *
2 p x
y -f z zz r ,
2
2
2
or (x
a
r
z
p) -f- y*

/f2
Which

ap.

AGr

the equation to a sphere

whose centre is at a distance

+p,
along A X. Now, p is the subnormal C G to the point
P of the parabola, P C being the ordinate at C (242) ; hence all the points
of the curve of double curvature are on the surface of a sphere whose
centre is at the extremity of the subnormal of a point in the parabola,
the ordinate of which point passes through the centre of the given circle.
533. The intersections of surfaces are not always curves of double curvature, but often they are plane curves.
We proceed, then, to show how
plane curves may be detected, and their equations determined.
Whenever we obtain a straight line for a projection, the curve cannot be
one of double curvature.
Ex. Let the curve be the intersection of two parabolic cylinders, whose
is

measured from

equations are

Eliminating $,
line

'

we have by

=a

x*

s= a z

by

x\

hence the projection on y z is a straight

and as no projection of a curve of double curvature can be a straight
z,

follows that the curve of intersection is a plane curve.

534. Again, If we can so combine the equations to the projections as to
produce the general equation to a plane, the curve, which is necessarily

line, it

traced on that plane,

is itself

a plane curve.

For example

let the

curve

ON CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE.

arise

25?

from the intersection of two parabolic cylinders^ whose equations are

b

2
y sr x

In the second equation, substituting a z

b

a z

-f*

c #.

for x~,

-{-

we

obtain

c x;

which equation belonging to a plane, the curve is a plane curve.

535. There is another and more general method of detecting plane curves.
From the two equations to the surfaces eliminate one of the variables,
as z, for example, we obtain an equation F {x, ?/) =: 0.
Now, if the curve be plane, it may arise from the intersection of either
x -J-' n y -f- p
of the surfaces with a plane whose equation is z =:
eliminate z between this equation to the plane and that to one of the surfaces, the result is/ (j?, i/)
0, which must be identical with F (x, y)
therefore, comparing F (x, y)
0, with /(#, y)
0, we may obtain
various equations to determine??!, ?z,, and _p; which values of m, n and p
must satisfy all the equations in which these quantities appear ; if not, the
curve is one of double curvature.
For example take the intersection of a sphere and cylinder, art. 530.

The equation

Sphere

to the

is

x* -j-

Cylinder

(x

Plane

-c) 2

= ?n x

a2

+y =
2

-j-

n y

-\-

we have /(a?, y) =
+2 mp x -\- 2 npy

(1)

(2)

(3)

"Eliminating between (1) and (3),

2

(ra -fl)

a?

(n

-\-\) if

+2 mnxy

+ p -a =
2

(4)

Comparing (2) and (4), we have m = 0, w = from the co-efficients of

2
destroys the coefficient of x in (4) ;
and y 2 but the condition of m t=i
a;
and thereby shows that (4) cannot be made identical with (2). The curve
;

therefore a curve of double curvature.

=n
62
then
But let the equation to the cylinder be x 2 -f- y~
render (4) and (2) identical; therefore the curve is a plane
and n =n

is

curve, situated in a plane, whose equation

also, from geometrical considerations.

^o

536.

find the curve represented

is

z ==

a2

b2

this

is clear,

by the equations

+c =
+ =1,
*
y
b

1.

These equations, taken separately, belong to two right hyperbolic cyone with the base in x z, and the other in y z. (209, Ex. 3.)
;

linders

is

the hyperbola

centre being at

bola on

z,

A TU

its

Hence

on x
is

z,

its

the hyper-

centre being at R.

x = y
a

Also,

or

= b

x.

the projection of the intersecabove cylinders on x y is a

tion of the

straight line

Q, and therefore the

curve is a plane curve, situated in

the plane
perpendicular to x y.

ZOQ,

ON CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE,

258

537. As we cannot have a very clear notion of the curve itself, merely from
the idea of the two hyperbolic cylinders, we shall find the equation to the
that is, in its own plane.
curve in the plane
=: #,
O
z.
Let P be any point in the curve
Q =r y, P Q
Then, in order to find the relation between O Q (= ?/,) and Q P (= z),

ZOQ;

we

in

The equation toOQis y

zz

shall express

and

terms of O Q, and substitute in the given

equations.

O
tT

OQ

cos. 0,

Hence the equation

and

tan. 6 (if

ON = O Q
:

sin. 0.

+
%

becomes

os

tan. 0),

c
zz.

-J

cos.

sili.

lf

and the equation

becomes

=: & sin. 3 these two equations are the

same, and either of them belongs to the required curve ; hence the
curve is an hyperbola, whose equation referred to its centre is
Since b

tan. 0, or b cos.

uz=z

~ -be

535.

To

(209)

sm.

describe a curve of double curvature by points

Let /(#, y) =-0, and$ (x

be two of

,^^

-.

cos. B

its

z)

0,

projections.

Upon x y trace the curve

whose equation is / (x, y)

APQR,
=

0.

Pof y ;
M, we obtain a corresponding value
of <r, as
obtain a corresponding value of %. From P
also
we
can
(p
draw P S perpendicular to x y, and equal to this value of z\ then S is a
By repeating this process we may obtain any number
point in the curve.
of points S T U, &c, in the curve.
For any value

from

(x, z)

0,

It is evident, that if any value given to x or y renders z imaginary, no

part of the curve can be constructed corresponding to such values of a? oxy>
Also, that if .* be negative, P S must be drawn below the plane x y.

Let the curve arise from the intersection of a parabolic

539. Ex. 1.
cylinder on x y, and a circular cylinder on y z, the axes perpendicular to
each other ; and the vertex of the parabola together with the centre of the
circle at the origin

of co-ordinates

ON CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE.

Let y 2

a x be the equation

y*

z*

.*.

Let

To

AB^c, A

j?

we have

trace the curve,

If

circle

a * =r a2
a,

is

let

the ordinate

a (a

.*.

2/

and

increases,

D',

B,
x.

r= a.

the three equations on the co-ordinate planes,

y = dt V # #
~ 0, 0, and s = a, the curve

creases,

a parabola on x

and

DA

to the parabola

a*

259

diminishes

oc)

passes through

as x in-

When a; r= a, =r a, and z ==: 0, therefore the curve decreases in altitude

B down to meet the parabola in D. This gives the dotted branch BD.
?/

from

If x is greater than
beyond D.

a, z is

imaginary therefore the curve does not extend

;

= \/

a (a~x) there is another ordinate corresponding

of x between o and a hence there is another branch, equal
and opposite to B
This is represented by
but below the plane x y.

But

since z

to every value

DB'.
Again, since when y is negative, the values of z do not change, there
another arc, B D' B', represented by the double dotted line, which

B D

exactly similar to

is
is

B'.

Therefore, the curve is composed of four parts, B D,

B', B D', and
B', equal to one another, and described upon the surface of the parabolic cylinder, whose base is
These branches form altogether a
D'.
figure something like that of an ellipse, of which the plane is bent to coin-

D'

DA

cide with the cylinder.

540. Ex.

2.

Let the

circle,

whose equation

is

x2

-J-

^=

a2 be the
,

projection of the curve of double curvature on x y ; and the curve, of which

2
the equation is a 2 y % ss a 2 z 2
y z\ be the projection on y 3, to trace

the curve.

S 2

ON CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE.

260

2
then
be the circle on x y whose equation is x* + y =: a
B'
2
2
2
2
2

on x z is
equation
ct\z
the equation on y 2 being a 2/
# the
2
2
1
rr a4 ft #*.
cc z

Let

B C

a?

i
V
= i \/^

ay

or sr

fl

and y

, 2 =

~~

r.
#2

C L through C
an asymptote to the curve. As x increases, y decreases, and z decreases,
o,
o, z
a, y
therefore the curve approaches the plane of a? y. Ifx
therefore the curve passes through B.
If a? is greater than #, y and z are
each impossible, therefore no part of the curve is beyond B for any value
of y there are two of z, therefore for the values of y in the quadrant A C B,
If # r= 0, y

infinity, therefore the vertical line

is

LB,B
RB,B

L/.
two equal and opposite branches,
K', for the quadrant
Similarly there are two other eq ual branches,
and as the same values of y and z recur for x negative, there are

there are

BAC;

four other branches equal

and opposite

to those already

drawn, which

correspond to the semicircle C

C , and which proceed from B'.
These two examples are taken from Clairaut's Treatise on Curves of
Double Curvature ; a work containing numerous examples and many
excellent remarks

on

this subject,

Printed by

W. Clowes,

>uke Street, Lambeth*

USEFUL BOOKS ON THIS BRANCH OF SCIENCE.

Agnesi.
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Elements of Analytical Geometry.

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Norwich Right Hon. Lord SufWolverhampton
iield.
J.
Pearson,
Esq.
Rich. Bacon, Esq.
Oxford Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S., Worcester Dr. Corbet, M.D.
Dr. Hastings, M.D.
Professor of Chemistry.
C. H. Ilebb, Esq.
Rev. Professor Powell.
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Esq.
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Treasurer.

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ERRATA,

Page

7, line 1, read

Let

CD
40..

read

2,

. .

=4/2 +

/V^3

40.,

. . .

3, for

.12, for

110.... 24,
11

for

read

read

g/

eread

.... 17. for tan.

*2

2
?/

c.

-,

tan. r=

read tan.

tan.

&=

-~.

read -.

.18, for conjugate read semi-conjugate.

123
1.53, in

AD

-.2

12, .. .20, for?-

114.

then

-7.

2
1

last figure let

unit,

V
W
24 read 25.

40.. ..17, for

48..

In the

1.

each be equal to the linear

30, for x>

+ m S = P, read ^-ffflrSP.

the table, column

7, insert c.

190, line 5 from bottom, for 3

209, line 10, read cos.

cos.

read 3 a 2

hx

-\-

cos.

/#

cos.

221, line 27, read cos.

=r -

A ^.

217, line 13, for (2) read (1).

r ri

224, line 10, for 397 read 402.

247, line 3,

and
249, line

1,

if

for r

(a?

<n) 2 + O - yO = ^
2

the axis coincide with

c read ,

and

A Z,

x2

for c read z

-f^ = ?
c.

V^

$3

A B, BC,

Vs7

and

ERRATA IN THE FIGURES.

Art. 352.

#= -

Art. 353

letter

= #*
B

See the figure in the same page just above the

should be at the point where the upper curve meets

j
\

= # tan. x

(
Art. 363.

The

Y.

Art. 355 y

involute of the circle

Art,

353

the