Principles and Performance of

Solar Energy Thermal Systems

(A Web Course)

V.V.Satyamurty

_______________________________________________________________________
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Principles and Performance of

Solar Energy Thermal Systems: A Web Course

________________________________________________

V.V.SATYAMURTY
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Kharagpur 721302, INDIA

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Preface
Attention of scientists and engineers all over the world has been drawn to develop alternative
energy technologies, since the oil crisis in 1973. See, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_oil_crisis. Attempts
have been many, efforts have been plenty, resulting in some success stories and some not so successful.
Adapting the successful routes, viable and reliable systems and their wide spread implementation are
evolving. See, http://www.seia.org/research-resources/major-solar-projects-list
Considerable effort in research, development and field testing of solar energy systems has been put
in. Many methodologies and rational (against rule of thumb) principles have evolved over the past three
decades for designing and operating the solar energy systems. Continual updating of knowledge in
emerging technologies is imperative. In retrospect, some of the lacunae that have been identified world over
can be summarized as following. While reasonable design strategies, methodologies, and even software
packages {e.g., TRNSYS, see at http://www.trnsys.com/} are available, widespread implementation and
knowledgeable evaluation are due. Feed back on the operational difficulties has not been fruitfully
forwarded for second-generation implementation. Perhaps, the initial systems installed had the sole
objective of proving the technology. Also, financing, design, production, installation and monitoring are
often done by different groups or organization and the coordination has been inadequate.
The choice of some what science based approach has been made mainly keeping the students of
undergraduate and postgraduate programs in mind and is prepared at two levels, though, they are
interwoven. For the, not so technical minded, it is informative and presents enough information to
understand the technical jargon, so that a meaningful communication is ensured between the designer,
administrator and the implementers. For the technically oriented, sufficient details are included, with which
detailed calculations can be made to arrive at rational conclusions regarding the application, size,
implementation and economics of the commonly recommended solar energy systems. Some open ended
questions have been included, with the hope, that the serious minded students and researchers address these
issues.
It is RECOMMENDED that the, students, learners, practitioners and design engineers from
manufacturing industries to go through my VIDEO course on SOLAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGY;
these two complement each other.

Kharagpur
Mar., 2014

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V.V.Satyamurty

Acknowledgements
I express my gratitude to,
Prof. J. A. Duffie, of Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA, who
introduced this subject to me.
Prof. W. A. Beckman of Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA who
had been my research advisor when I had been working as a UNESCO fellow. I learnt many approaches
from Prof. Beckman which enabled me to approach difficult problems in the area of solar energy.
Prof. S. A. Klein of Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA, for asking
difficult questions; also for answering them for me many times.
Further,
I must make a particular mention of the authoritative text book Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes
by J. A. Duffie and W. A. Beckman [1], without which I would not have, been able to teach this subject
over thirty times during my career at IIT, Kharagpur, India, and, now ventured into this exercise.
My Contribution essentially lies in noting the difference in the scope and applications for tropical
climates and at lower latitudes, say less than 23o. Partly the credit goes to some of my excellent students (at
undergraduate, Masters and Doctoral levels) who did the calculations, which proved or disproved my
hunches!

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The information used from the web sites is gratefully acknowledged and find recorded along with
REFERENCES, under URLs [59]. These have been listed also as under.
a) http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/how-solarenergy-works.html
b) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepower
c) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_and_arrow
d) http://www.culturequest.us/aboriginal_tools/boomerang.htm
e)
http://www.bp.com/assets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistica
l_energy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/pdf/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_20
12.pdf.
f) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visvesvaraya_Iron_and_Steel_Plant
g) http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/HumanAnimalBond/HumanAnimalBond.htm
h) http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientdailylife/qt/fire_control.htm
i) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AxialTiltObliquity.png
j) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbert_peak_theory
k) http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/srd-sec.pdf
l) http://repository.ias.ac.in/31225/1/31225.pdf
m) http://www.mapsofindia.com/lat_long/#
n) www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/srd-sec.pdf
o)
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather_data3.cfm/region=2_asia_wmo_region_2/c
ountry=IND/cname=India
p) http://www.timegenie.com/latitude_and_longitude/state_coordinates/intn
q) http://www.indiasolar.com/cal-value.htm
r) http://www.eai.in/club/users/dheen/blogs/665
s) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy
t) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_tracker

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Exercises are given in Appendix A2. If you could not solve, send a scanned copy of your attempt; an
answer shall be provided and your solution procedure shall be checked.
vvsmurty@mech.iitkgp.ernet.in,
In addition, a solution manual under preparation with additional problems will be sent on request.

V V Satyamurty

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Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements

Module
1

Energy and Dependence on External Sources (Lecture 1)

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 POWER RATING OF HUMAN BEINGS
1.3 THE NEEDS
1.4 TOOLS, MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE, MACHINES
1.5 DEPENDENCE ON EXTERNAL FUELS
1.6 ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE, NON-CONVENTIONAL) ENERGY
AND THE SOLAR OPTION
1.7 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION: DIFFERENT ROUTES
1.8 SUMMARY

2 Sun, Physical Description, Reactions (Lecture 2)

2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 NATURE OF SUN
2.3 SUMMARY

3 Sun-Earth Geometry (Lecture 3)

3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 SUN - EARTH SIZE, POSITION
3.3 THESOLAR CONSTANT
3.4 EXTRA TERRESTRIAL NORMAL RADIATION
3.5 DIFFERENT A NGLES
3.6 SUMMARY

4 Terminologies (Lecture 4)
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
4.3 SUMMARY

5 Extraterrestrial Radiation (Lecture 5)

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 EXTRA TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION ON DIFFERENT
TIME SCALES
5.3 SUMMARY

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6 Terrestrial Radiation and Components (Lecture 6)

6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 TERRESTRIAL RADIATION COMPONENTS ON DIFFERENT
TIME SCALES
6.2 CLEARNESS INDEX, DIFFERENT TIME SCALES
6.3 DIFFUSE FRACTION
6.4 SUMMARY

7 Radiation Measurements, Estimation and Interrelations (Lecture 7)

7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 SOLAR RADIATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
7.3 ESTIMATION OF SOLAR RADIATION OR DETAILS AND INTERRELATIONS
7.4 SUMMARY

8 Radiation Processing - Short Term (Lecture 8)

8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 SOLAR RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACES, INSTANTANEOUS OR
A SMALL PERIOD OF TIME
8.3 SUMMARY

9 Radiation Processing Long Term (Lecture 9)

9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 THE DAILY TILT FACTOR FOR DIRECT RADIATION AND OTHER COMPONENTS
9.3 ESTIMATION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACES
9.4 SUMMARY

10 Optical Properties Short Term Transmittance - Absorptance Product (Lecture 10)

10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 EFFECTIVE TRANSMITTANCE-ABSORPTANCE PRODUCTSHORT TERM
10.3 CHOICE OF MATERIALS
10.4 SELECTIVE SURFACES
10.5 SUMMARY

11 Optical Properties - Long Term Transmittance - Absorptance Product (Lecture 11)

11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 DAILY AND MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY TRANSMITTANCE ABSORPTANCE PRODUCT
11.3 SUMMARY

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12 Liquid Based Solar Flat Plate Collectors (Lectures 12, 13, 14 and 15))
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.2 FORMAL EXPRESSION FOR USEFUL ENERGY GAIN AND DIFFERENT FACTORS
ASSOCIATED
12.3 THE ASSUMPTIONS
12.4 THERMAL NETWORKCOLLECTOR
12.5 OVERALL HEAT LOSS COEFFICIENT
12.6 ESTIMATION OF OVERALL HEAT LOSS COEFFICIENT
12.7 CORRELATION FOR TOP LOSS COEFFICIENT, Ut
12.8 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN TUBES AND
THE COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY FACTOR
12.9 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE FLOW DIRECTION
12.10 HEAT REMOVAL FACTOR AND THE FLOW FACTOR
12.11 MEAN FLUID AND PLATE TEMPERATURE
12.12 COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY AND COLLECTOR PARAMETERS
12.13 TESTING PROCEDURE AND DETERMINATION OF COLLECTOR
PARAMETERS
12.14 SUMMARY

13 Heat Capacity Effects in Flat Plate Collectors (Lecture 16)

13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 UNSTEADY PERFORMANCE
13.3 HEAT CAPACITY OF A COLLECTOR AND ITS IMPORTANCE
13.4 SUMMARY

14 Air Based Solar Flat Plate Collectors (Lectures 17 and 18)

14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.2 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A CONVENTIONAL AIR HEATER
14.3 HEAT TRANSFER AND PERSSURE DROP IN A PARALLEL PLATE DUCTS
14.4 ANOTHER AIR HEATER DESIGN
14.5 SUMMARY

15 Alternate Configurations for Flat Plate Collectors (Lectures 19 and 20)

19.1 INTRODUCTION
19.2 ALTERNATE CONFIGURATIONS
19.3 SOME MORE GEOMETRIES
19.4 SUMMARY

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16 Concentrating Collectors (Lectures 21, 22, 23 and 24)

16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.2 MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION RATIO
16.3 DIFFERENT TRACKNIG MODES AND THE TILT FACTORS Rb AND

16.4 THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS

16.5 COMPOUND PARABOLIC COLLECTOR
16.6 SUMMARY

17 Manufacturing Strategies (Lecture 25)

17.1 INTRODUCTION
17.2 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
17.3 METHODOLOGIES TO BE ADAPTED
17.4 SUMMARY

18 Solar Energy System Concepts and Design (Lecture 26)

23.1 INTRODUCTION
23.2 PERFORMANCE INDEX
23.3 SUMMARY

19 System Performance Simulations (Lecture 27)

19.1 INTRODUCTION
19.2 SIMULATION COMPONENT MODELS
19.3 SIMULATION PROGRAMS TRNSYS Etc.
19.4 SUMMARY

20 System Performance Design Methods (Lectures 28, 29, 30 and 31)

20.1 INTRODUCTION
20.2 PHILOSOPHY OF THE CORRELATIONS
20.3 f - CHART METHOD
20.4

, f

-CHART METHOD

20.5 MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY UTILIZABILITY

20.6 ANNUAL MODELS
20.7 SUMMARY

21 Economic Analysis (Lecture 32)

21.1 INTRODUCTION
21.2 ENERGY VIABILITY
21.3 ECONOMIC VIABILITY
21.3 LIFE CYCLE SAVINGS; THE P1, P2 METHOD
21.4 SUMMARY

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Rb

22 Applications of Active Solar Energy Systems at Low Temperatures (Lecture 33)

22.1 INTRODUCTION
22.2 SOLAR HOT-AIR SYSTEMS FOR DRYING FISH
22.3 ACTIVE SOLAR AIR DRYING SYSTEMS
22.4 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
22.5 SUMMARY

23 Other Applications (Lecture 34)

23.1 INTRODUCTION
23.2 LOW TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS WITH WORK OUTPUT OR EQUIVALENT
23.3 METALLURGICAL FURNACES
23.4 POWER GWNERATION
23.5 SUMMARY

24 Passive Systems (Lecture 35)

24.1 INTRODUCTION
24.2 SOLAR PONDS
24.3 SOLAR DESALINATION
24.4 SOLAR COOKER
24.5 GREEN HOUSES
24.6 SUMMARY
25 Passive Architecture, Overhangs and Wing Walls

(Lectures 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 40)

25.1 INTRODUCTION
25.2 SOME PASSIVE ARCHITECTURE STRUCTURES
25.3 INDIRECT COOLING, OVERHANGS AND WING WALLS
25.4 UN-UTILIZABILITY
25.5 OVERHANGS AND SHADING FACTOR
25.6 INSTANTANEOUS SHADING FACTOR
25.7 SHADING PLANE CONCEPT AND THE SHADING FACTORS
25.8 SOLAR RADIATION RECEIVED PER UNIT AREA OF THE WINDOW
25.9 SUMMARY

APPENDICES
A1 Exercises
A2 References

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Principles and Performance of Solar Energy Thermal Systems: A Web Course by

V.V.Satyamurty

________________________________________________________________
MODULE 1
Energy and Need for Dependence on External Sources

Lecture No: 1

________________________________________________________________
In this Module 1, Lecture No. 1 deals with
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 POWER RATING OF HUMAN BEINGS
1.3 THE NEEDS
1.4 TOOLS, MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE, MACHINES
1.5 DEPENDENCE ON EXTERNAL FUELS
1.6 ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE, NON-CONVENTIONAL) ENERGY AND THE SOLAR OPTION
1.7 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION: DIFFERENT ROUTES
1.8 SUMMARY

Lecture 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Attention of scientists and engineers all over the world has been drawn to develop alternative
energy technologies, since the oil crisis in 1973. The commonly referred oil crisis is more of a crisis of
prices; in addition to, of course,
a) quick dwindling of fossil fuel reserves and
b) increase in demand at an alarming rate.
Realization of these two aspects led scientists and engineers look for alternatives. Many options have
been found and examined. Prominent among the options are as following.
a) Solar thermal
b) Solar photovoltaic
c) Wind energy
d) Geothermal
e) Tidal and wave energies.
Among these, solar energy is relatively more uniformly available. Also according to one estimate,
the energy that reaches the Earth from 20 days of sunshine is equal to the energy stored in all of
Earths reserves of fossil fuels like, coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
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See,

http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/how-solar-energy-

works.html [a].
In additions to the fuels (commonly referred to as fossil fuels) referred above, two prominent,
existing and fairly widely used, energy sources are the hydro-electric and the nuclear. though the potential
of hydro-electric route is enormous, may not be available at a chosen location in addition to the other
problems of huge land getting submerged and relocation of the people and other life forms in the area.
Similarly, nuclear energy (particularly the breeder reactors) option holds a promise, though mired by safety
issues and spread of pollutants.

In this course on solar thermal energy, we shall not devote our attention to examining the
merits and demerits of all possible future energy sources.
Before we examine the solar option in detail, it is worthwhile to examine if there is any intrinsic
reason for dependence on external energy resources to meet the needs of human beings, viz., food, shelter
and clothing. Of course, the provision to fulfill the needs of other live forms also has to be made.
1.2 POWER RATING OF HUMAN BEINGS
Typical power rating of human being (an athlete in 100 m sprint) is 1200 W = 1.7 h.p. This is
almost the peak power the human being can produce for a few seconds. Typically, an average human being
can sustain working for a longer duration at about 300-500W. A quick estimate of the energy required to
produce or make available the material needs (food, shelter and clothing) of a human being exceeds the
energy he can provide for himself to meet his requirements. This imbalance perhaps led to the
dependence on external energy sources. The problem is compounded by increasing population.
A person of mass m (kg) runs up a height h (m) in time t (sec), then power {(mgh)/t} Watts. A
person of mass 55 kg runs up a height of 7 m in 2 sec., the power rating corresponds to (55x9.8x7)/2 = 1717
W. Horse Power = 1717/747 = 2.17 hp. The maximum horsepower developed by a human being over a few
seconds time can be measured by timing a volunteer

Exercise: The student can do this by actual timing of the volunteer to climb say, 20 steps, 20 cm
high each, running up the stairs in the lecture hall OR the stairs leading to the lecture hall !

A
health
y
person

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develops

up

to

two

hp,

hp

746

W,

for

short

duration.

Also,

see,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepower [b]
1.3 THE NEEDS
It has already been mentioned that the man needs food, shelter and clothing for survival and in order to
increase comfort and convenience level additional requirements (add-ons) to the above three have come to
be widely used. E.g., heating or cooling the shelter, faster vehicles to commute from one place to another,
warm clothing, processed food for ready use, nutritious, less volume food etc. The reader can easily identify
among these examples those that fall under convenience or comfort/ luxury category.

1.4 TOOLS, MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE, MACHINES

One of the earliest discoveries by the man was fire. He started using the fire in a controlled manner. Fire
served a wide variety of purposes. Lighting, cooking, and the heat treatment (in present day terminology)
of stone tools and making burnt clay objects. Fire is used to even provide comfort when the climate is cold.
In order that the intended tasks are carried out conveniently, the man invented tools that aid
application of force at the intended point or target. The tools ranged from stones, sharp, pointed or of
suitable shape to the present day tools including weapons of mass destruction. Also simultaneously, taking
mechanical advantage has come to vogue, e.g., lifting water or heavy weights. Man, made pointed
weapons of wood, bone, and ivory to defend himself. Spear (made by sharpening the heavy end of wooden
poles), bow and arrow, and boomerang.
See,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_and_arrow [c]
http://www.culturequest.us/aboriginal_tools/boomerang.htm [d]
Human population started increasing considerably with the advent of controlled use of fire, learning
of making tools, and use of animal power. Thus, the mans needs and the desire to be more comfortable led
to employing animal power for agriculture, transport etc. which in turn led to dependence on external
sources for energy started to grow.

1.5 DEPENDENCE ON EXTERNAL FUELS

With increase in population at an increasing rate and limited natural resources (to meet the food, shelter
and clothing), dependence on a finite land to meet the needs, a variety of innovations have been made. All
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these were energy intensive. From power tilling to mechanized farms and post harvest operations, storage
and transport in agriculture sector and similar operations on animal stock became heavily dependent on
energy produced from external sources. The main sources have been coal and oil. Considerable support
followed from hydro electric power and in more recent times from nuclear power. The fossil fuels reserves
are finite and last a relatively short time at the present rate of consumption. Latest Statistical Review of
World Energy (June, 2012) is available at bp.com/statisticalreview.
URL:
http://www.bp.com/assets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_e
nergy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/pdf/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2012.pdf
[e]. As per this report, the oil consumption for India from 2001 to 2011 has been, 107.0 111.3 113.1 120.2
119.7 120.4 133.4 144.1 153.7 157.2 172.3, million tonnes respectively. Oil Prices per barrel varied
approximately from $10 (1974) to $110 (2011), most of the time monotonically. It may be noted that the
price in 1974 is splurge in the price due to the oil crisis.
Note, the units of measure of oil used frequently, in books/ technical journals by different authors.
For ease of understanding,

1 Barrel oil =158.98 liters = 42 US Gallons

1 Barrel oil of crude oil

= 5.8x107 BTU
= 7.12 x 109 J

Realization that the existing reserves of fossil fuels do not last long and the increase in prices led
the scientists and engineers to look for alternatives, re-evaluate the technologically available solutions for
economic viability in view of the change in prices. It has become necessary to reexamine various options
since some of the fossil fuels (e.g., coal) not only provide the energy needed for the endothermic reactions,
but also participate in the chemical reaction, e.g., reduction of iron ore to iron in a blast furnace. Such
Technologies are many, require long period to find an alternative that does not call for use of fossil fuel
reserves. The example is given to emphasize, that reduction in dependence on fossil fuels for energy
generation prolongs the availability of the fuels for technologies involved in making say, iron and steel.
Thus it is established that concentrated effort be made to develop technologies that reduce the dependence
on fossil fuels.
In order that the energy availability is not limited and also the use of fossil fuels is put on a
decreasing trend, one path is to make the processes and machines more efficient, and reduce the losses of
energy. This aspect may broadly be termed as energy conservation, which also involves energy
management, waste heat recovery etc.

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The student may appreciate the efforts made in this direction resulting in two wheelers giving now
100 km/l of petrol from about 40 km/l in the 1980s. Similarly many house hold appliances are given star
rating depending on the energy used by the machine for a given task. Practically, incandescent lamps are
getting replaced by compact fluorescent and sodium vapor lamps for lighting. The efforts also have resulted
in better insulation materials. There are many, methods and devices for energy conservation. Energy
conservation, itself is a broad area.

ALTERNATE (RENEWABLE, NON-CONVENTIONAL) ENERGY AND THE

SOLAR OPTION
The terminology commonly heard, alternate energy sources, renewable energy sources, or non-conventional
energy sources is somewhat misleading and certainly confusing. Strictly speaking, what is conventional
today might have been non-conventional a hundred years back. Similarly, the alternate energy source leads
to the question, alternate, to what? Renewable energy source gives the impression, that the source is
perennial. Even, solar energy (and hence its manifestations) lasts a finite time, no matter how long this
finite time is! Though we use these terms synonymously, we should understand the implication and
distinction which is, many times, missed by the readers, speakers, as well as listeners.
Commonly talked about alternate energy sources are, solar energy, wind energy, bio-mass, wave
and tidal energy, and geothermal sources etc. Among these, solar energy appears to be the most promising.
The justification comes from the following considerations.
(i)

Nearly perennial

(ii)

Well distributed over the world (we may say, there is no bias for developed, developing
or underdeveloped countries), predictable (though one may not be able to predict the
solar radiation, say, on August 27th , 2012 at a location during 9.30 AM to 11.30 AM,
one can work with likely averages for design purposes). By these features, one can guess
the limitations of the other sources.

(iii)

For example, wind energy, a manifestation of the solar, is about only 2% of the solar
energy and is restricted to certain high wind velocity zones for harnessing. Of course, we
do note, wind energy is a high grade energy source.

(iv)

Wave and tidal energy are restricted by location as well as low efficiency.

(v)

Similarly, geothermal energy is not uniformly distributed and is limited like fossil fuels.

Given that a promising (with already some proven success) option is the solar energy, we attempt to
study the principles, applications and methods to predict the performance of the solar energy systems. We
note at this stage that a solar energy system performance though depends on the solar collector
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performance, also highly depends on the system configuration. This is where this course as presented here
has a broader scope, than many books that are available with the notable exception of Duffie and Beckman
[1].
Thus, solar energy is virtually an inexhaustible source. It is a clean energy source and does not
pollute the atmosphere like the fossil fuels. Given the perennial nature of solar energy, this resource is
envisaged to play a prominent role in meeting our energy requirements.
1.7 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION: DIFFERENT ROUTES
Solar energy can be utilized to produce thermal energy or mechanical form of energy which eventually can
be used to produce electricity; convenient for transmission and distribution. The technological routes
involve production of thermal energy and subsequent conversion to mechanical and electrical forms of
energy. Another option is the photovoltaic conversion, with which this course does not deal. The reader
should be aware of the natural route, Viz., the photosynthesis which is utilized by the plants; that produce
the wood, from which, the charcoal, producer gas, as needed. It is amazing to note that a blast furnace was
run at Bhadravati, through wood-charcoal obtained from surrounding plantation. Bhadravati is located in
present day Karnataka. It was started as the Mysore Iron Works on Jan. 18th 1923 by Sir M Visweswarayya.
See, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visvesvaraya_Iron_and_Steel_Plant [f]

1.8 SUMMARY

Dwindling of fossil fuel reserves and increase in demand at an alarming rate led scientists and
engineers look for alternatives.

According to one estimate, the energy that reaches the Earth from 20 days of sunshine is equal to
the energy stored in all of Earths reserves of fossil fuels like, coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

It is worthwhile to examine if there is any intrinsic reason for dependence on external energy
resources to meet the needs of human beings, food, shelter and clothing.

Typical power rating of human being (an athlete in 100 m sprint) is 1200 W = 1.7 h.p, s almost
the peak power the human being can produce for a few seconds. 1 hp = 746 W. A quick estimate
of the energy required to produce or make available the material needs (food, shelter and
clothing) of a human being exceeds the energy he can provide for himself to meet his

17 | P a g e

requirements. This imbalance perhaps led to the dependence on external energy sources. The
problem is compounded by increasing population.

Fire served a wide variety of purposes. Lighting, cooking, and the heat treatment (in present day
terminology) of stone tools and making burnt clay objects. Fire is used to even provide comfort
when the climate is cold.

Utilizing or exploring mechanical advantage has come to vogue,

The mans needs and the desire to be more comfortable led to employing animal power for
agriculture, transport etc. Thus, eventually, the dependence on external sources for energy started
to grow.

1 Barrel oil =158.98 lit = 42 US Gallons,

1 Barrel oil of crude oil = 5.8x107 BTU = 7.12 x 109 J

It is amazing to note that a blast furnace was run at Bhadravati, in present day Karnataka using
wood charcoal. It was started as the Mysore Iron Works on Jan. 18th 1923 by Sir M Visweswarayya.
Thus, the energy crisis, limitation of the man, invention of tools and dependence on external fuels

has been established. Along with conservation of energy, alternate sources need be explored. The
distinction between alternate, renewable, non-conventional energy sources has been noted. Solar energy
appears to be a promising option. This course deals with the solar thermal energy generation and utilization.

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