TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM

www.globaledu.com.vn

Conjunctions

1. Introduction

 Conjunctions (liên từ) are words that join other words or clauses together.

 God made the country and man made the town.

 He was poor but he was honest.

 She must weep or she will die.

 John and Mary got married.

 Conjunctions not only join clauses together; they also show how the meanings of the two clauses are
related.

 I decided to consult a doctor because I was not feeling well. (cause)

 He is slow but he is sure. (contrast)

 Ann wrote the letters and Peter posted them. (addition)

 Either take it or leave it. (alternative)

 He is very wealthy, yet very unhappy. (contrast)

1
 A conjunction and its clause can sometimes stand alone. This happens, for example, in answers.

 When are you going to start? When I am ready.

 Why are you crying? Because John beat me.

 Afterthoughts may also begin with conjunctions.

 Ok, I did it. – But I didn’t mean it.

Note: Writers and speakers may also separate clauses for emphasis.

2. Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms:

 Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although

 Compound (often ending with as or that)

for example: provided that, as long as, in order that

 Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)

for example: so...that

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
3. Classification

Conjunctions can be divided into two broad classes

 Coordinating conjunctions

 Subordinating conjunctions

3.1. Coordinating conjunctions

3.1.1. In troduction

A coordinating conjunction (liên từ kết hợp) joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent
clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins
are similar in importance and structure.

 I like tea and coffee.

 Ram likes tea, but Anthony likes coffee.

 Birds fly and fish swim.

Words for repeated ideas can often be left out in the second of two coordinate clauses.

 She smokes and drinks. (= … and she drinks.)

 She is clever but careless. (… but she is careless.) 2

Note: There's an easy way to remember coordinating conjunctions by remembering their initials spell

F A N B O Y S

For And Nor But Or Yet So

3.1.2. Kinds of coordinating conjunctions

 Conjunctions expressing addition

Some conjunctions merely add one statement to another.

 He got up and slowly walked away.

 He came into the room and locked the door.

Conjunctions which merely add one statement to another are called cumulative or copulative conjunctions.

 Conjunctions expressing opposition or contrast.

Some conjunctions express opposition (sự đối lập) or contrast (sự tương phản) between two statements.

 He is ill but he is cheerful.

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
 He is the fastest runner but he came last.

 He is very wealthy, yet very unhappy.

Conjunctions which express opposition or contrast between two statements are called adversative
conjunctions.

 Conjunctions expressing alternative

Some conjunctions present two alternatives sometimes indicating a choice between them.

 You can have tea or coffee.

 He is either a fool or a rogue.

Conjunctions which present two alternatives, sometimes indicating a choice between them, are called
disjunctive or alternative conjunctions.

 Conjunctions expressing inference

Some conjunctions express something inferred from another statement or fact.

 He must be asleep, for there is no light in his room.

 Nobody came; for I heard no knocking.

Conjunctions which express an inference (suy ra, kết luận) are called illative conjunctions. 3

3.1.3. Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma should be
placed before the conjunction.

Examples:

words: cookies and milk.

phrases: at the beach or by the lakeside.

subordinate clauses: what you say and what you do.

A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses creates a series and
requires commas between the elements.

Examples:

words: peanuts, cookies and milk.

phrases: in the mountain, at the beach or by the lakeside.

subordinate clauses: what you think, what you say and what you do.

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and requires a
comma before the coordinating conjunction

Examples:

Tom ate all the peanuts, so Phil ate the cookies.

I don’t care for the beach, but I enjoy a good vacation in the mountains.

3.2. Subordinating Conjunctions

3.2.1. Introduction

A subordinating conjunction (liên từ phụ thuộc) joins a subordinate clause (mệnh đề phụ) and a main
(principal) clause (mệnh đề chính). The subordinate clause can be a noun clause or an adverb clause. Note
that a subordinating conjunction is not used to connect an adjective clause to another clause.

Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, because, when, where, while, before, though, although, if,
that, till, until, unless, than, as, since, as if, so, so that etc.

 As he was not there I left a message with his mother.

 Answer the first question before you proceed further.

 I have not seen him since he was a boy.

4
 I must go now as I have some work to do.

 I think that he is trustworthy.

A subordinating conjunction together with its following clause acts like a part of the other clause.

Example 1:

 I will phone you when I arrive.

 I will phone you tomorrow.

The clause when I arrive is similar to tomorrow – it acts like an adverb in the clause I will phone you...

Example 2:

 He told me that he loved me.

 He told me a story.

The clause that he loved me is similar to a story – it acts like the object in the clause He told me …

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
3.2.2. Position of subordinate clauses

Adverbial subordinating conjunctions and their clauses can go either at the beginning or end of sentences
(depending on what is to be emphasized).

 You will pass if you work hard.

 If you work hard, you will pass.

 As he was not ready, we went without him.

 We went without him as he was not ready.

 When I am late, my father takes me to school.

 My father takes me to school when I am late.

 He works hard though he is weak.

 Though he is weak, he works hard.

Note that when a subordinate clause begins a sentence it is more often separated by a comma.

3.2.3. Kinds of subordinating conjunctions.

 Subordinating conjunctions expressing time

5
 The train had left before we reached the station. (Principal clause – The train had left, subordinate
clause – before we reached the station.)

 Wait here till I come back. (Principal clause – Wait here, subordinate clause – till I come back.)

 We left for our homes after the program had ended. (Principal clause – We left for our homes,
subordinate clause – after the program had ended)

 I have not seen since he left this city. (Principal clause – I have not seen him, subordinate clause –
since he left this city)

 Subordinating conjunctions of place

 I shall go wherever I want to.

 Subordinating conjunctions of purpose

 We eat that we may live.

 Play games in order that your health may improve.

 Study hard lest you should fail.

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
 Subordinating conjunctions of reason

 Since he was not there I left a message with his mother. (Principal clause – I left a message with his
mother, subordinate clause – since was not ready)

 He was promoted because he was efficient.

 As he was not ready we left without him.

 Subordinating conjunctions of result or consequence (kết quả)

 He was so weak that he could hardly walk.

 She ate so much that she fell ill.

 It was so hot that we couldn’t go out.

 Subordinating conjunction of condition (điều kiện)

 I will go abroad if I get a good job.

 He won’t help you unless you ask him.

 It looks as if it might rain.

 Subordinating conjunctions of concession or contrast.

6
 I will not forgive him even if he apologizes.

 Although he works hard he doesn’t earn much.

 Subordinating conjunctions of comparison

 He is taller than I am.

 I am as healthy as you are.

3.2.4. Leaving words out

Words for repeated ideas cannot normally be left out in subordinating clauses. However, after if, when, while,
until, unless and although, a pronoun subject and the verb be can often be dropped.

 We will wait if necessary. (= … if it is necessary.)

 When in Rome, do as Romans do. (= When you are in Rome, …)

3.3. Correlative conjunctions

Conjunctions which are always used in pairs are called correlative conjunctions. Note that most correlative
conjunctions are of the coordinating type.

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
Examples are: either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also…, not…but, though…yet, both…and,
so…that etc.

 Either …or: hoặc …. hoặc ……

 He is either a fool or a madman.(Anh ta hoặc là kẻ ngốc hoặc là kẻ điên)

 Either you or he will have to go. (Hoặc bạn hoặc anh ấy sẽ phải đi)

 Either you will leave this house or I will call the police. (Hoặc anh rời khỏi ngôi nhà này hoặc tôi sẽ gọi
cho cảnh sát)

We use either…or to talk about a choice between two possibilities (and sometimes more than two).

 If you want ice-cream you can have either chocolate, vanilla or strawberry. (Nếu bạn muốn ăn kem, bạn
có thể chọn hoặc kem sô cô la, hoặc kem vani, hoặc kem dâu tây)

 Neither … nor: không … cũng không

 The film was neither boring nor exciting. (Bộ phim không chán mà cũng không hay)

 You can have neither tea nor coffee. (Anh có thể uống không những ta)

 I neither smoke nor drink. (Tôi không hút thuốc cũng không uống rượu)

 Neither Ann nor Mary came. (Không Ann hay Mary đến cả)
7
We use neither … nor to join two negative ideas. It is the opposite of both…and. Sometimes more than two
ideas are connected by neither…nor.

 He neither smiled, spoke, nor looked at me.

 Not only…but also: không những …. mà còn ….

 They not only looted the shop, but also set fire to it.

 Not only John, but Peter also got a prize. (Không chỉ John mà cả Peter cũng nhận được phần thưởng)

 He visited not only France but also Germany. (Anh ấy không những đến Pháp mà còn đến cả Đức.)

 She not only plays the piano, but also the violin. (Cô ấy không những chơi đàn piano mà còn chơi
viôlông.)

Also is often omitted.

 He was not only brave but prudent. (Anh ấy không chỉ can đảm mà còn khôn khéo.)

Note that in informal English not only…but also is not very common; other structures are generally preferred.

 She doesn’t only play the piano. She plays the violin too.

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
 Not…but: không phải … mà là ….

 He did not stop the car but drove on. (Anh ấy không phải dừng xe lại mà tiếp tục lái.)

 It is not the best but reasonably good. (Đó không phải là cái tốt nhất mà là cái khá được thôi.)

 Whether…or: dù …. hay, hoặc …. hoặc

 I don’t know whether I should stay or leave. (Tôi không biết nên ở lại hay ra đi nữa.)

 Whether he comes or not makes no difference. (Anh ấy dù đến hay không cũng không khác biệt.)

 Both…and: cả …. đều ….., vừa …. vừa….

 The directors wanted both to win and to receive recognition for their work. (Nhà sản xuất muốn cả chiến
thắng và nhận được sự thừa nhận cho công việc của họ.)

 Both John and Peter spoke at the meeting. (Cả John và Peter đều phát biểu tại buổi họp.)

 As/so…as: …. như …..

 He is not as/so bad as many think. (Anh ấy không xấu như mọi người nghĩ đâu)

 She is not as/so successful as her sister. (Cô ấy không thành công như chị gái của cô ấy)

 So… that: quá…. đến nỗi …..

8
 The task is so difficult that one man alone can’t do it. (Công việc quá khó đến nỗi mà một người không
thể làm một mình được.)

 The officer was so inefficient that he had to be sacked. (Văn phòng làm việc không hiệu qủa đến nỗi phải
đóng cửa.)

 Such…that: quá…. đến nỗi …..

 I have such regard for him that I will do anything to please him. (Tôi quý anh ấy đến nỗi tôi sẽ làm bất cứ
điều gì để làm anh ấy vui.)

 He bought such a lot of books that he didn't know where to put them. (Anh ấy mua quá nhiều sách đến
nỗi mà anh ẫy không biết để chúng ở đâu nữa.)

4. Common errors with conjunctions

A conjunction is merely a connecting word. It has no other function in the sentence. In most languages of
European origin, clauses are joined together by conjunctions in similar ways. However, students who speak
non-European-type languages often experience some problems in using English conjunctions correctly.

4.1. One conjunction for two clauses

One conjunction is enough to join two clauses.

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
 Although he is poor, he is honest.

 He is poor but he is honest. (NOT Although he is poor, but he is honest.)

 Because I liked him, I tried to help him.

 I liked him so I tried to help him. (NOT Because I liked him, so I tried to help him.)

4.2. Correct use of some conjunctions

4.2.1. As

We use it before a clause, and before an expression beginning with a preposition.

 He did as he was told. (Anh ấy làm như đã được dặn.)

 He fought as a tiger does. (Anh ấy chiến đấu như hổ.)

 Nobody knows her as I do. (Không ai hiểu cô ấy như tôi.)

In informal English like is often used as a conjunction instead of as. This is very common in American English.
It is not generally considered correct in a formal style.

 Nobody knows her like I do.

Note: ‘As’ in the sense of ‘though’

9
 Though he was young, he fought valiantly.

 Young as he was, he fought valiantly.

 Though the elephant was strong, it could not face the swift leopard.

 Strong as the elephant was, it could not face the swift leopard.

4.2.2. So as

This structure is used to talk about purpose (mục đích).

 We went early so as to get a good seat. (Chúng tôi đến sớm để mà có chỗ ngồi tốt.)

 He climbed up a tree so as to get a good view of the procession. (Anh ấy đã trèo lên cây để mà có chỗ
quan sát tốt cuộc diễu hành.)

4.2.3. Such as

We use such as with a noun to introduce examples.

 My doctor told me to avoid fatty foods such as bacon or hamburgers. (Bác sĩ khuyên tôi nên tránh đồ ăn
giàu chất béo như thịt lợn hun khói hay hamburger.)

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
4.2.4. Unless

Unless means if not, so it will be superfluous to introduce another not into the following clause.

 Unless you give the keys of the safe, you will be shot. (Nếu ông không đưa khóa két an toàn, ông sẽ bị
bắn.)

OR If you do not give the keys of the safe, you will be shot.

(NOT Unless you do not give the keys of the safe, you will be shot.)

4.2.5. Lest

Lest means that… not, and, therefore, it will be wrong to add another not in the following clause. Moreover, it
should be noted that the only auxiliary verb that can be used after lest is should.

 Take care lest you fall. (NOT Take care lest you do not fall.) (Hãy cẩn thận để khỏi bị ngã.)

 Book your tickets early lest you should miss this chance. (Hãy đặt vé sớm để không bị lỡ cơ hội.)

4.2.6. Than, as and that

Than is used after comparative adjectives and adverbs. As and that are not used after comparatives.

 She is taller than me. (NOT She is taller as me.) (NOT She is taller that me.)

 She has got a bigger house than I have. 10

4.2.7. As…as…

As is used in comparisons of equality’. Than and that are not used in this way.

 My hands were as cold as ice.

 Your eyes are the same colour as mine.

5. Phrase conjunctions

Some conjunctions are made up of two or more words.

 He looks as if he were on the brink of a breakdown.

 It looks as though it is going to rain.

 As soon as I finish this book, I will start another.

 We started early so that we might not miss the show.

6. Relative pronouns as conjunctions

Relative pronouns (who, which and that) join clauses like conjunctions.

Sponsored by:
 TOEIC Grammar GLOBAL EDUCATION VIETNAM
www.globaledu.com.vn
 I saw a beggar who was deaf and dumb.

In the above sentence who stands for the beggar – hence it is a pronoun. It also connects the two sentences I
saw a beggar and He was deaf and dumb – hence it is a conjunction.

A relative pronoun is the subject or object of the verb that comes after it. So we do not need another subject or
object.

 Trust no man who does not love his country. (NOT Trust no man who he does not …)

 The snake which we could not kill crept into a hole. (NOT The snake which we could not kill it crept …)

Note: Difference between conjunctions and relative pronouns

Both conjunctions and relative pronouns can be used to join two clauses. There are, nevertheless, some
differences.

 A relative pronoun is basically a pronoun. It is used instead of a noun. It also joins two clauses:

Example 1:

 Read the sentences given below:

This is the book that she gave me.

 Here the relative pronoun that is used instead of the noun book. It also joins the two clauses into one. This
11
will become clear when you split the sentence into two.

 This is the book. She gave me the book. (= This is the book that she gave me.)

Example 2:

 This is the boy who got the first prize.

 Here the relative pronoun who stands for the noun boy. It also joins the two clauses into one.

 This is the boy. The boy got the first prize. (= This is the boy who got the first prize.)

 A conjunction merely joins two clauses. It doesn’t qualify any other word in the sentence.

 Man is known for his valor and woman is known for her vanity.

 Here the conjunction and merely joins the two clauses into a large sentence.

Sponsored by: