Chapter 5

Interpretation of SFRA

Chapter 5
Interpretation of SFRA
5.1 Introduction
The Sweep frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) is an emerging method for
investigation of transformer mechanical integrity after through fault in the system and
its relocation. There are cases found, where SFRA has been a key tool in the decision
making either to scrap, rewind or reenergize a transformer after an incident. Based on
the practical experience with SFRA analysis, the frequency range from 10Hz to
2MHz is sufficient for the analysis and can be divided into three frequency band.
These frequency bands are governed separately by the inductive effect of core, self
and mutual inductance of the winding, series and shunt capacitance of the overall
winding structures and the lead/tap connections.
Interpretation of SFRA responses is crucial in order to assess the integrity of
transformer windings. In order to achieve the correct interpretation of SFRA response,
the effect of various circuit parameters of transformer winding on SFRA plot is
studied in detail and discussed one of the major factors that influenced the SFRA
responses, the winding structure itself in low, medium and high frequency range. [4]

5.2 Modeling of Transformer Winding for Interpretation of SFRA

5.2.1 Basic Circuit of Transformer
SFRA normally measures the frequency response of a transformer from 10Hz to
2MHz. Circuit modeling thus needs to accurately represent the behavior of a
transformer across this wide range of frequency. But, no such universal circuit model
exists that can represent a transformer accurately over this entire range. Hence,
modeling techniques for SFRA have been developed in several frequency regions,
depending on the modeling accuracy required and the dominant components in each
frequency region. The different type of circuit model in each frequency band, which is
considered for the SFRA analysis are described below.

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5.2.2 Low frequency model

The equivalent circuit of transformer winding at low frequency from 10 Hz. to 1000
Hz. is shown in Fig. 5.1

Fig. 5.1 Equivalent circuit of Transformer winding at Low frequency

The dominant features of low frequency plots are the first minima at low frequency
normally below 1000 Hz in all windings. This is the general feature of any winding
and is due to the fact that at the lowest frequencies windings behave as simple
inductances. This result in increasing attenuation of a transmitted signal with
frequency, until a frequency is reached when core capacitance start to become
significant and allow a recovery in transmitted voltage. The low frequency minimum
is determined by self inductance of winding, inductance and capacitance of core. The
position of minimum will vary somewhat depending on the remnant magnetism of
relevant core flux circuits, which is prominent in this case due to different magnetic
state of the winding. In low frequencies, a transformer winding behaves as an
inductive element, and the SFRA response follows a increasing negative magnitude
trend across the frequency range with a linear slope and this may not be exact linear
also due to core non-linearity with frequencies. As the inductance is increased, the
magnitude is increased. Power transformers with higher voltage and larger power
rating usually have larger negative response magnitudes. Effectively there are two
parts of inductance affecting the SFRA response the core magnetizing inductance and
the self inductance of the windings. Each affects the response in different frequency
ranges. The leakage inductance affects the SFRA response in lower frequencies of no
more than 100 Hz while the core magnetizing inductance influences the SFRA
response at high frequencies up to 1 kHz.

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Interpretation of SFRA

The magnetizing inductance of the core, Lm which decides the magnitude of Xm in

Fig. 5.1 is influenced by the winding number of turns, N and the reluctance, R which
is given by
Lm = N2

(5.1)

R
The magnetic path of the middle phase is different compared to the magnetic path of
the outer phases due to the symmetrical core construction of transformer in case of
middle phase and it is also affecting SFRA. This magnetic reluctance, R is analogous
to the resistance in the electrical circuit and thereby is influenced by the length of the
magnetic path, l and the area of the cross section of the core, A.
The inductance is divided in two groups self and mutual inductance of the winding as
shown in Fig. 5.2

Fig. 5.2 Winding self and mutual inductance

Because of such a coarse representation of the windings, localized winding movement
will not be reflected in this low frequency region unless the winding moves
significantly. The SFRA measurement in the low frequency region are primarily used
to detect problems related to the transformer core and major winding faults like
shorted turn, open circuit and high impedance fault in the early developing stage. [4]

5.2.3 Medium frequency model

The equivalent circuit of transformer winding at medium frequency from 1 kHz to
1000 kHz is shown in Fig. 5.3

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Interpretation of SFRA

Figure 5.3: n-stages lumped ladder network

In medium frequency range, as the frequency increases, the effect of core will become
less significant as the flux penetration depth in the core is frequency - dependent and
it is worst effected by DC voltage creating the core saturation problem after the DC
test like resistance measurement. Hence, in medium frequency range around 10 kHz,
core will behave as an earth plate. The winding structure, especially the winding
under test, becomes dominant factor of the frequency responses.
Therefore, it is necessary to use the multiple LC element equivalent network to model
the winding accurately in medium frequency range. However, in transformer winding,
the basic components are combined together and the transformer winding structure
becomes more complex than a simple LC element.
To represent a winding accurately in the medium frequency range, a detailed RLC
ladder network of the winding is required. Each winding is divided into cells. The cell
is represented as lumped - element unit, which consists of a series capacitance (Cs)
and a self inductance (L). The capacitive coupling between the cells and the tank wall
(Cg) for the outer winding cell and for the inner winding cell the shunt capacitance
are included between the cell and the core. This transformer model is considered to be
detailed enough to provide reasonably accurate SFRA results in the frequency range
governed by the main winding structure , which is normally from about 10 kHz to 500
kHz.

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Interpretation of SFRA

A uniformly structured winding can be represented by an n-stage ladder network, as

shown in Figure 5.3. The winding total leakage inductance L, the winding total series
capacitance Cs and the total shunt capacitance Cg are evenly distributed between the
n stages. The effect of dielectric losses or resistances connected either in series with
the inductance or connected in parallel with the capacitance on the SFRA response, is
to attenuate the sharpness of the resonances and the anti-resonances. The effect on the
sharpness of resonance of series RLC circuit due to change in the resistance is shown
in Fig. 5.4 and Fig. 5.5

Fig. 5.4 Series resonance of the RLC circuit having low R value

Fig. 5.5 Series resonance of the RLC circuit having high R value

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Interpretation of SFRA

The combination of winding inductance and winding series capacitance results in

parallel LC circuit and will produce parallel anti-resonance, consequently, blocking
the signal at that particular frequency. Also, the simplest representation of LC in
series is a T connection where the shunt capacitance is connected in the middle of
the two halves of the winding inductance. The SFRA response of winding inductance
and shunt capacitance in the LC network shows a series resonance, amplifying the
signal at that particular frequency. In summary, the basic features of SFRA response
can be shown in Fig. 5.6

Fig. 5.6 Series and Parallel resonance of the winding

However, in transformer winding, these basic components are combined together and
the transformer winding structure becomes complex.
The general solution for voltage and current at any point x on the network shown in
Fig. 5.3 can be represented by Equation (5.2)

(5.2)

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Interpretation of SFRA

Where,

A and B are constants, x is the number of stages along the winding, starting from the
injecting end, Z is the characteristic impedance and is the propagation constant of
the winding.
SFRA response oscillate between capacitive and inductive and when multiple local
resonances are produced at the frequencies as

(5.3)
In terms of the structure of single windings, these can be categorized into windings
with either high- or low- series capacitance in proportion to the shunt capacitance.
Correspondingly, the SFRA responses of transformer windings of high series
capacitance exhibited the increasing trend of magnitude in the frequency range
between 10 kHz and 500 kHz while the windings of low series capacitance displayed
the steady magnitude trend with the resonances and anti-resonances (camel humps)
features in the frequency range between 10 kHz and 2MHz.
Fig. 5.7 illustrates the effect of having high or low series capacitance, Cs in the 8stage lumped network obtained from simulation. With low Cs, the response begins
with flat magnitude trend and resonances at intervals of frequencies determined by
Equation (5.3) and then followed by a decreasing inductive trend. In Fig. 5.7, it is
illustrated that as Cs is increased, some of the resonances diminish and the antiresonance appears at lower frequency.

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Interpretation of SFRA

Fig. 5.7 FRA response from 8-stage of lumped ladder network (L=800H) with
extreme cases of (a) Cs=0, Cg=480pF and (b) Cg=0, CsLOW=190pF, CsHIGH=3000
pF
The extreme cases of the 8-stage lumped network with negligible Cs or Cg are shown
in Figure 5.7. Fig. 5.7(a) depicts the features of winding with low Cs such as the
continuous disc while Fig. 5.7(b) depicts the features of winding with high Cs or
negligible Cg in comparison to Cs such as the interleaved winding.
Using the knowledge gained from the experimental studies during this research and
theoretical back-up, this factor is shown to dominate the SFRA responses of power
transformers in certain frequency ranges. In terms of the structure of single windings,
these can be categorized into windings with either high- or low- series capacitance in
proportion to the shunt capacitance. Correspondingly, the SFRA responses of
transformer windings of high series capacitance exhibited the increasing trend of
magnitude in the frequency range between 20kHz and 500kHz while the windings of
low series capacitance displayed the steady magnitude trend with the resonances and
anti-resonances (camel humps) features in the frequency range between 20kHz and
2MHz. [4]

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5.2.4 High frequency model

In high frequencies, a transformer winding behaves as a capacitive element, and
power transformers having both higher voltage and larger power rating usually have
smaller negative response magnitudes in high frequency range as the capacitance is
high. At very high frequencies, the network can be represented as a capacitive ladder
network as shown in Fig. 5.8

Fig. 5.8 n-stage capacitive ladder network at high frequencies

The general solution of this equivalent circuit can be represented by Equation (5.4).

(5.4)
Where,

To be accurate in higher frequencies, a transformer winding would need to be

represented in more detail. A distributed parameter model using Multiple
Transmission line theory is then needed. This modeling technique treats each turn of
the winding as one transmission line. The parameters of the winding are calculated as
distributed capacitance per unit length and the high frequency signal travels through
the winding as transverse electromagnetic waves.
This method of detailed winding modeling ensures sufficient accuracy for the higher
frequency range, where effects such as the arrangement of tapping lead connections
are regarded as significant. However, representing all of the phase windings down to
the details of individual turns will result in a massive matrix size. This modeling
technique is only suitable to model a part of winding or the lead connections, whilst
the rest of the transformer is modeled simply as a ladder network. [4]

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5.3 Basics of FRA Interpretation

5.3.1 Expected Resonance Frequency Range vs. Transformer Size and Winding
Type
Due to the typical range for natural frequencies, the interpretation methodology
should be adjusted according to the expected damage appearance. For investigating
winding displacements, FRA measurement and interpretation should then focus on the
natural frequency range of the respective windings.
For power transformer windings, there are various technical concepts. Even for
similar rated power, rated voltage and type of application, there could be very
different solutions. Details of technical solutions are defined by established design
concepts of manufacturers as well as technical boundaries in manufacturing and
transportation restrictions. Therefore, it is quite difficult to summarize general rules
for FRA patterns and the corresponding winding characteristics.
Natural frequencies are mainly defined by the absolute geometry of winding
assemblies. Based on the typical frequencies of large power transformers, smaller
transformers show similar frequency characteristics at systematically higher
frequencies.
Table 5.1 shows the expected resonance frequency range for windings of large power
transformer (above 100 MVA/limb) of different rated voltage. Table 5.2 shows
typical frequency ranges for windings of medium-power transformers (below 30
MVA/limb).
It is also to be noted that these tables represent calculation examples of the natural
resonance frequencies of separate windings. The interactions between components in
a real transformer could show different frequency characteristics. [15]

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Table 5.1 Frequency range for natural frequencies of large transformer windings. [15]

Table 5.2 Frequency range for natural frequencies of medium transformer windings.
[15]

5.3.2 Typical FRA Responses

It is observed that although the detailed form of a frequency response depends on the
winding design used, usually the basic overall form of the response is surprisingly
similar for the same type of winding, even for significantly different winding
arrangements, and therefore is presumably determined by some essential
distinguishing property of the type of winding involved rather than by the details of its
construction. The method of interconnection used, e.g. LV delta connection, also
results in very characteristic forms.
In view of the above, it is useful to be able to recognize typical features when
interpreting responses. In the following, typical responses for various winding types
are described:
HV windings of transmission and generator transformers (core-form)
LV windings of generator transformers and double-wound network
transformers (core -form)

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Shell-form transformers
Although specific examples are used to illustrate the typical responses, it is expected
that the general features described will be relevant to a wide range of transformers,
provided the windings involved are of an essentially similar type. [15]

5.3.2.1 HV windings of large power transformers

The essential features of the HV windings of large power transformers are that they
have large HV bushings, invariably have a large number of turns and for the highest
voltages are usually specially designed to spread out the distribution of highfrequency impulses away from the line end terminals, usually by employing measures
to increase the series capacitance.
Typical HV responses exhibited by the series (HV to LV) windings of six threephase autotransformers (400/275 kV) with delta-connected tertiary windings are
shown in Fig. 5.9. Note that, although all six transformers are of the same type, they
feature a wide range of designs, built at various dates between 1967 and 2003 with
very different winding arrangements (multi-layer or inter-leaved disc): Despite the
large variation in age and design, there is a remarkable degree of similarity in the
general form of the responses.

Fig.5.9 HV winding response of large autotransformers

All show the usual open-circuit low-frequency (up to 2 kHz) response exhibited by all
transformer windings an initially increasing attenuation with frequency (20 dB per

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Interpretation of SFRA

decade) due to the basic core-influenced inductance of the winding becoming much
larger than the input impedance of the measuring equipment until the first minimum
(or two minima if an outer phase of a three phase transformer is involved), followed
by a voltage recovery to the first maximum, presumably due to the effects of series
capacitance becoming significant.
For measurements across the series or common windings of auto-transformers, there
is a characteristic second maximum in the intermediate frequency range (2 to 20 kHz),
which is known to be dependent on the shunt capacitance of the winding and affected
by bulk movement of the winding or bushing capacitances, among other factors. It is
not known for certain what causes this feature, but the most likely explanation is some
resonance between series and common windings.
In the high-frequency range (20 kHz to 2 MHz), all these transformers exhibit
essentially the same response: a generally rising response (roughly 20dB per decade),
starting from about 50 dB at around 20 kHz, until a maximum at or slightly above 0
dB, which invariably occurs at about 1 MHz Within this high-frequency range, there
may be evidence of ripples (part-winding resonances) superimposed on the overall
generic rising trend, more marked for some transformers than others.
Since essentially very similar responses have been obtained from very different
winding arrangements (multi-layer and interleaved disc), it would appear that the
general form of the response is determined by some basic global property of such
arrangements, probably high-series capacitance, rather than the detailed geometry.
Although the HV responses shown in Fig. 5.9 are entirely typical, they are also
somewhat ideal: not all auto-transformers exhibit such smooth responses.
The LV (common) windings of auto-transformers tend to show the same basic
response as in Fig. 5.10, particularly if they are also of a layer construction, but can
also show very marked resonances, particularly if plain disc windings are used.
HV winding responses of three generator transformers from different manufacturers
are shown in Fig. 5.10. The characteristics of the transformers are:

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Interpretation of SFRA

TA 430/23.5 kV, 800 MVA, single-phase unit

TB 300/23 kV, 735 MVA, three-phase unit
TC 290/16 kV, 190 MVA, three-phase unit
Up to 20 kHz, the response of these three differ because of different core and LV
winding arrangement : a single-phase core (A), a three-phase core with separate LV
phases (B) and a three-phase core with LV phases connected in delta (C).
Above 20 kHz, the responses of all three exhibit the same general form as those for
transmission
transformer series windings.

Fig. 5.10 HV winding responses of large generator transformers

To conclude, the typical response for an HV winding is considered to be essentially
that shown in Fig. 5.9 and Fig. 5.10, although there may be more evidence of
resonances in the high frequency region, depending on the detailed winding
arrangement used. [15]

5.3.2.2 LV windings of large power transformers

The essential features of the LV windings of large power transformers are that they
have relatively small LV bushings and invariably have a relatively small number of
turns. LV windings are usually the innermost windings, and may be connected in star

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or delta arrangement. For the low-voltage/high-current LV windings of generator

transformers, relatively large conductors are used and therefore tend to be of a
particularly simple winding arrangement, often a simple spiral winding, although
sometimes with two (go and return) layers.
The simplest type of LV response is that shown in Fig. 5.11: this is obtained for large
generator transformers with single layer LV windings where the LV phases are
brought out separately to six LV bushings, the LV delta connection being made
externally by connecting together the relevant pairs of bushings (a2-c1, b2-a1 and c2b1 for the usual YNd1 vector grouping).
At low frequencies, there is the usual first core-related minimum at around 400 Hz,
although with significantly less attenuation than for HV windings, followed by a
maximum at about 8 kHz, with an intermediate maximum and minimum if the
transformer is three-phase rather than single phase.

Fig. 5.11 Generator transformer LV winding responses (3 phases of a transformer)

The characteristic high-frequency LV response is a sequence of four or five U
shaped resonances in the 2-MHz band starting with a first maximum at around 200
kHz, sometimes with occasional notches, as shown in Fig. 5.12 for three different
transformers from different manufacturers. This type of response is what is expected
from simple standing-wave resonances in a single-layer coil.

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Fig. 5. 12 Generator transformer LV winding responses (3 different transformers)

Some generator transformers have responses with significant resonances in the 200kHz band, as shown in Fig. 5.13. This is believed to be the characteristic form for LV
windings wound in a dual-layer arrangement.

Fig. 5.13 Generator transformer LV winding responses (dual-layer arrangement)

The result of connecting the three LV phase windings in delta is shown in Fig. 5.14,
which compares LV responses measured on the same 600-MVA three-phase
generator transformer. The two main effects of the delta connection are to remove the
intermediate resonance in the low frequency range and to produce a characteristic
dip just below about 100 kHz but, somewhat surprisingly; there are also significant
modifications to the responses at higher frequencies.
The response shown for a delta-connected generator transformer LV winding is also
typical of responses measured on tertiary windings, which is not totally unexpected,
as the latter would usually be wound as a single spiral.

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Fig. 5.14 Comparison of LV responses with separated and delta-connected windings

The LV windings of many double-wound transmission and distribution transformers
with a star delta vector grouping also usually have very similar responses, as shown in
Fig. 5.15 and Fig. 5.16, for a range of voltages (400/66 kV to 132/33 kV),
manufacturers and ages.
In the intermediate frequency range, the response is essentially that observed for LV
windings connected in a delta arrangement. In the higher frequency range, the typical
response is a series of multiple resonances with a characteristic M shape, as shown
in Fig. 5.16, probably because they will inevitably have a similar simple disc-type
winding arrangement. [15]

Fig.5.15 Double-wound transmission transformer LV response.

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Fig. 5.16 Double-wound transmission transformer LV responses.

5.3.2.3 Shell-form transformer winding responses

A selection of transformers from one manufacturer has been chosen to investigate
typical shell form FRA responses:
23-8324 Single-phase transformer, 75 MVA, HV 400/ 3 kV, LV 15 kV
23-8325 Single-phase autotransformer, 125 MVA, HV 400/ 3 kV, LV 230/ 3 kV,
TV 13.8 kV
23-8330 Single-phase autotransformer, 125 MVA, HV 400/ 3 kV, LV 230/ 3 kV,
TV 34.5 kV
24-6895 Single-phase transformer, 75 MVA, HV 230/ 3 kV, LV 16 kV
24-7218 Three-phase autotransformer, 125 MVA, HV 230 kV, LV 115 kV, TV
13.8 kV, Wye-Wye- Delta
95-3002 Single-phase transformer, 511 MVA, HV 525/ 3 kV, LV 15 kV
95-3005 Three-phase transformer, 865 MVA, HV 345 kV, LV 24.8 kV, WyeDelta

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The HV winding responses fall mainly into two distinctly different types of typical
responses, as illustrated in Fig. 5.17
Family A

Family B

Fig. 5.17 Shell-form transformer end-to-end HV winding responses

Whereas the first type of response appears to be no different to the typical HV
responses for core form designs described previously, the second type appears very
different, particularly in the intermediate frequency band (220 kHz), with the
apparent absence of the usual first low frequency minima and maxima. In fact, this
second type of low frequency response is not unique to shell form transformers, being
occasionally seen for some core form units, e.g. delta connected HV windings. It is
believed that this alternative form of low frequency response arises for windings with
high inductance/low series capacitance, so that the first minima and maxima can no
longer be distinguished.
The LV and tertiary responses of shell-form transformers are similar to those of coreform transformers, as demonstrated in Fig. 5.18.

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Fig. 5.18 Shell-form transformer end-to-end LV and tertiary winding responses

Fig. 5.19 illustrates the effect of shorting the LV winding when performing a HV endto-end test. In addition to the expected variation of the first low-frequency resonance
associated with the core, there are other variations, including new resonances up to
about 1 MHz [15].

Fig. 5.19 Shell-form transformer HV end-to-end open and short-circuit tests

5.3.2.4 Frequency Range for Interpretation

FRA testing and interpretation is affected by different physical boundaries. The total
signal measurement accuracy is usually limited by the test device (specifications) and
the test concept.

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Due to the large dimensions of some power transformers, there are special
requirements on the geometry of the test set-up to reach the transformer terminals.
Test set-ups including long signal cables and extension leads may be sensitive to
electromagnetic interference and could cause repeatability problems. A large test setup geometry can also show significant interactions with the transformer windings in a
typical FRA interpretation range. Additionally, residual magnetization of the core
may also affect the FRA results at low frequency (up to about 5 kHz). Following these
reasons, it is appropriate to define specific interpretation ranges based on the
requirements for the test set-up.
Fig. 5.20 shows the FRA interpretation range considering limitations due to test set-up
geometry and uncertain residual flux conditions. The classification is based on the
rated voltage, since this factor correlates well with the length of the bushing and,
consequently, the length of the test leads. It should be noted that the recommendations
shown in the figure should not be considered as clear-cut limits but as a general guide
intended only to show the general link between the relevant parameters. In general,
for FRA interpretation it is recommended to keep a definite gap between the
interpretation range and the range possibly affected by the test conditions. [15]

Fig.5. 20 Typical FRA interpretation range

Fault can be interpreted from SFRA plot from given zones of frequency. These
frequency bands indicate type and location of faults in transformer [39] as shown in
Fig. 5.21 and as mentioned in Table 5.3.

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Fig. 5.21 Frequency bands for various types of faults (Courtesy: Doble Engineering)
[39]
Table 5.3 Frequency bands corresponding to different faults [39]
<2 kHz

Core deformation, open circuits, shorted turns and

residual magnetism

2 kHz to 20 kHz

Bulk winding movement relative to each other,

Clamping structure

20 kHz to 400 kHz

Deformation within main and tap winding

400 kHz to 2 MHz

Movement of tap winding leads, Axial shift of

winding

5.3.2.5 General Guidelines for accurate fault detection in SFRA

The bands overlap and are not well defined, the band limits are not strictly set
and vary both with manufacturer and transformer MVA and voltage.

Hard and fast rules are difficult to generate as there are so many designs and
manufacturers.

If DC testing was performed the core must be demagnetized before SFRA

measurements

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Measurements must be made at the tap position such that full winding take
under test.

Results vary between units depending on size and type of unit

Results vary with magnetization & grounding

Results vary with tap changer positions

Results vary with oil level [39]

By comparing future traces with baseline traces, the following can be noted.

In general, the traces will change shape and be distorted in the low
frequency range (under 5,000 Hz) if there is a core problem.

The traces will be distorted and change shape in higher frequencies

(above 10,000 Hz) if there is a winding problem.

Changes of less than 3 decibels (dB) compared to baseline traces are

normal and within tolerances.

From 5 Hz to 2 kilohertz (kHz), changes of + or 3 dB (or more) can

indicate shorted turns, open circuit, residual magnetism, or core
movement.

From 50 Hz to 20 kHz +/- 3 dB (or more), change from baseline can

indicate bulk movement of windings relative to each other.

From 500 Hz to 2 MHz, changes of +/- 3 dB (or more) can indicate

deformation within a winding.

From 25 Hz to 10 MHz, changes of +/- 3 dB (or more) can indicate

problems with winding leads and/or test leads placement.

Note that there is a great deal of overlap in frequencies, which can mean more than
one diagnosis. [23]

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5.4

Interpretation of SFRA

Interpretation Methodology

FRA is a comparative method for assessing the condition of power transformers. To

evaluate the FRA results, actual data are compared with reference data either by direct
visual inspection of the curves or by using processed FRA data.
There are three approaches for generating reference data:
Previous fingerprint measurements on the same unit;
Measurements on identical (twin) transformers;
Measurements on separately tested limbs or phases (Phase to Phase
Comparison)

5.4.1 Evaluation by Fingerprint Results

The fingerprint test data set is potentially the most reliable reference information for
evaluating FRA tests. Assuming a high repeatability of the test technique, it is
possible to obtain almost identical FRA results. An example would be two scans
collected from the same winding, such as H1-H3, on different test dates.
Data is collected before and after transformer relocation is expected to overlay well.
Any variance is such comparisons indicate a problem. One exception is caused by the
magnetic circuit and the state of the remnant magnetism occurs at low frequencies and
should be overlooked. Magnetization and temperature change can cause the beginning
of the trace to be slightly offset in certain cases. Fig. 5.22 illustrates a before and after
relocation response of a set of high-voltage windings. The results were not only
obtained on different test dates, but also were obtained with different test sets. Phase
to phase variations exist, but there are no differences before and after relocation.

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Fig. 5.22 Comparison to Baseline

It should be noted that the LTC and DETC position influences the results. If the test
results are obtained in different tap positions, expect variation. Fig. 5.23 shows two
traces collected in different tap positions; the difference is small, but noticeable at
frequencies greater than 500 kHz. The DETC was moved from position 3 to 5. [9]

Fig. 5.23 Different DETC Positions (3 & 5)

5.4.2 Comparison of Twin and Sister Transformers

Fingerprint results are not always available for FRA evaluation of FRA results.
Sometimes, customer orders include several transformers of identical specification so
that finally transformers of identical design are operated within one power grid.
Identically designed and identically assembled transformers (twins) typically show
almost identical FRA curves. Slight deviations between twin transformers are
generated exclusively by manufacturing tolerances and/or core magnetization effects
(Fig. 5.24). [15]

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Fig. 5.24 FRA of real twin units

(single-phase autotransformers, 370 MVA, HV 700/ 3 kV, LV 300/ 3 kV)
Sister unit results are also expected to compare well. Our database of sister units
shows very little difference between matched scans. All tests on sister units were
conducted with the LTC and DETC in the same position. If the results are
magnified small offsets can be noticed, but for the most part they are similar. Fig.
5.25 demonstrates the similarities of sister units. Each plot consists of two highvoltage winding traces and two low-voltage winding traces. [9]

Fig. 5.25 Comparison of Sister Units

The applicability of FRA interpretation based on a sister unit comparison therefore
has to be validated. It is quite difficult to discern real twin transformers from sister
units. Some parameters for identifying twin units are given by:

Manufacturer

Factory of production

Original customer/technical specifications

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No refurbishments or repairs

Same year of production or +/-1 year for large units

Re-order not later than 5 years after reference order

Unit is part of a series order (follow-up of ID numbers)

For multi-unit projects with new design: tested transformer is not first, second
or third unit.

The more indications are positive, the more certain is similarity of core-and-coil
assembly. [15]

5.4.3 Phase to Phase Comparison

Many times for old transformers when reference signature is not available the first
step is to compare the signatures of phases of the transformer. It means comparing the
signatures of phase U with phase V and phase W. It is assumed that for majority of
cases there would be good matching between phase U and phase W as they are
symmetrical being on extreme limbs.
Whereas phase V (Center phase) would not be matching with the other two phases
particularly in the region 10Hz to 2kHz as the magnetic path for the center phase is
different. In phase to phase comparison, the signatures obtained after short circuiting
other winding of the transformer on the same limb, compares well as the effect of core
is eliminated. Typical examples are given in

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Fig. 5.26 and Fig. 5.27 below.


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Fig. 5.26 Three Phase SFRA comparison for open circuit plot of normal transformer

Fig. 5.27 Three Phase SFRA comparison of Short circuit plot for normal transformer

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Open circuit responses measured after fault for the HV windings at highest tap are
shown in Fig. 5.26. The dominant features of these plots are the first minima at low
frequency near 200Hz. The position of minimum will vary somewhat depending on
the remnant magnetism of relevant core flux circuits. As there is no deviation in
SFRA plot after the fault among the three phases in Fig. 5.26, it gives indication of no
sign of any winding movement.
Winding having higher impedance will attenuate the signal more at beginning of the
plot. This is evident from the in general observation of the plot where starting dB
level of LV winding at 10Hz frequency is (around 40dB) always lower than the dB
level of HV winding at 10 Hz. (around 60dB).
Short circuit SFRA responses measured for the HV windings at highest tap is shown
in Fig. 5.27. The dominant features of these plots are that it starts from very low dB
due to shorting of the LV (2U 2V 2W). In this case, the low frequency minimum
is not determined by low frequency open circuit inductance of winding which involve
the core also. Hence it purely represents the status of winding, i.e. indication of fault
like Open circuit, Short circuit fault etc.
Short circuit virtually eliminates the effect of magnetic core due to opposite flux of
short circuit current and lowest impedance path of the shorted winding compared to
core as explained in

Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.2. The response in band 10Hz to 2 kHz

matches well for all 3 windings U, V, and W which is clear in Fig. 5.27.
Comparison of Open and Short circuit responses measured for the same winding at
any specific tap position reveals that low frequency open circuit inductance of
winding involve the core which is clear from the first minima at open circuit plot.
This first minima is absent in short circuit plot due to shorting of LV winding and
after 10 kHz frequency both the response are identical as indicated in Fig. 5.28. At
higher frequencies a more complicated form of response is seen which is unique to the
detailed arrangement of winding involved. This represents the fingerprint or signature
of winding design involved. At these frequencies, winding inductance is dominated

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by leakage fluxes local to the winding conductors, and remnant magnetism of the core
has no influence.

Fig. 5.28 Open circuit and Short circuit SFRA plot comparison of same winding for
normal transformer
However it is not necessary that the good matching that is shown in Fig. 5.26 and Fig.
5.27 would be found always. Phase comparisons are the most difficult and are open to
subjective analysis. It overlays with reasonable similarity and can deviate in high
frequency region.
The center phase, especially in core type transformers, exhibits the most deviation
when comparing all three phases. Different flux paths seen by each phase contribute
to the observed differences. The affects of the core saturation and magnetic state of
the core are expected at the lower frequencies.
The actual windings of a three phase transformer are almost identical, but the
connection scheme between phases is very different. As an example, the phases of a
wye winding are all at different distances from the neutral and also LTC connections
fall into the same category. Thus, since the windings are not equilaterally spaced, the
varying lead length entering and leaving the windings, influence the individual
transfer function of each winding. This would generally be found in two winding
three phase transformers. [4]

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5.5 Examples of FRA Interpretation

This section presents examples of FRA measurements and interpretation in the
following
conditions:
Hoop buckling of inner LV winding
Shorted core laminations
Effect of the oil (measurements with and without oil)
Effect of shorted turns
Effect of core residual magnetization

5.5.1 Hoop Buckling of LV Winding

Fig. 5.29 illustrates the LV winding responses of two identical single-phase generator
transformers (from a bank of single-phase units). The LV buckling (Fig. 5.30) of
phase B is clearly detected by comparing the FRA measurement with phase C. Note
that shorted turns and phase to earth fault were found on the phase-A LV winding, so
no FRA reference measurement on this phase was available for comparison. [15]

Fig. 5.29 FRA responses showing a hoop buckling failure of inner LV winding of
phase B

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Fig. 5.30 Buckling of inner LV winding

5.5.2 Shorted Core Laminations

The measurements were performed on a three-phase transformer rated 250 MVA, 212
kV / 110 kV / 10.5 kV, before and after the repair of the core is shown in Fig. 5.31.
The first core-related resonance is clearly modified by the fault: the shorted
laminations caused a decrease in the core magnetizing inductance (increase in
resonance frequency) and an increase in the eddy currents in the core (increased
damping). The core fault is shown in Fig. 5.32 [15].

Fig. 5.31 FRA responses with shorted core laminations (before and after repair)

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Fig. 5.32 Shorted core laminations.

5.5.3 Effect of the Oil

Fig. 5.33 shows the responses of the series (HV) phase-A winding of a 400-MVA
three-phase autotransformer, rated 230/120 kV, with and without oil. As expected, the
higher permittivity of the oil increases the capacitance, which in turn reduces the
resonance frequencies (whole curve is essentially shifted towards lower frequencies
since all the stray capacitances are increased by about the same factor). [15]

Fig. 5.33 Effect of oil on the FRA measurement

5.5.4 Effect of Shorted Turns

Fig. 5.34 shows the FRA responses of the series windings of a 140-MVA
autotransformer (220/69 kV with tertiary winding). The fault was located on phase C
of the tertiary winding. In this condition, the low-frequency measurement on the HV
winding of the same phase was influenced because of the lower inductance due to the

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shorted turns on a winding of the same phase (increased first resonance frequency).
This is analogous to what is observed for the end-to-end short-circuit test. [15]

Fig. 5.34 FRA response with shorted turns in a winding

5.5.5 Effect of Core Residual Magnetization
Core magnetization may affect FRA results due to different residual flux densities in
the transformer core. Generally, this effect has to be considered for FRA
interpretation below about 5 kHz. At higher frequencies, eddy currents prevent
magnetic-field penetration into the individual sheets of the core lamination.
Fig. 5.35 shows FRA results on a transformer before and after a dc winding resistance
test. Residual magnetization leads to lower magnetizing inductance and, hence, an
increase in the frequency of the first main resonance in the FRA curves. For higher
frequencies, FRA results are identical.

Fig. 5.35 Effect of magnetized core on FRA results

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In order to achieve the highest comparability of FRA results below 10 kHz, the
magnetic condition of the transformer should be identical. Either the data below 10
kHz can be disregarded, or the effect of non-identical core magnetization properties
for FRA results can be minimized by one of the following methods [15]:

Perform end-to-end short-circuit test.

Perform inductive inter-winding test.

5.6 Conclusion
There is a learning curve associated with interpretation of SFRA traces. The traces
need to be interpreted with experience, with reference to baseline results where
possible, with reference to manufacturer specific variations and with reference to
phase comparisons.
Where baseline data is available, traces may be interpreted to look for degrees of
difference. The main problem with this method is that small variations in one part for
an SFRA trace may be more meaningful than larger variations in another part of the
trace.
Baseline results may not always be available for a particular transformer. Here
reference may be made to sister units or to transformers from the same manufacturer.
Individual manufacturers may have variations that are specific to their transformers;
or to compare the signatures of phases of the transformer. Phase comparisons are the
most difficult and are open to subjective analysis. It overlays with reasonable
similarity and can deviate in high frequency region.
When interpreting a trace, it is important to make use of all the information present
to look at the whole picture. Small variations or displacements across a large
frequency range may be much more important than a large variation in one part of the
frequency range.

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In analyzing traces, lower frequencies tend to relate to larger objects; higher

frequencies relate to smaller objects. In terms of size there is a general rule of thumb
that, while reviewing a trace from left to right, from 20 Hz to 2 MHz, this corresponds
to the core, clamping structure and yoke, main windings, tap leads and connecting
leads. The actual position of resonances in the trace depends on the size of the
transformer; lower MVA transformers tend to have their resonance shifted more to the
higher frequencies. However, there are always exceptions to this rule of thumb and
individual traces should be inspected on their merits.

88