Innovation in Togo - Cleaning The Area of Ketao

MASTERTHESIS
PLANNINGOFWASTEMANAGEMENTIN
KETAO,TOGO
Submittedby:MaklaweEssonanaweEdjabou
Supervisedby:JacobMller&ThomasHjlundChristensen
Date:October20,2010
Preface
This thesis was submitted to the Department of Environmental Engineering at the Technical
University of Denmark as a requirement for attaining the degree of Master of Science in
Environmental Engineering. Data for the thesis was collected during field work carried out in
Ktao, Togo in January and July-August 2010. The thesis was supervised by Jacob Mller
and Thomas Christensen, and accounts for 30 ECTS credit points.
In addition to the English abstract, an abstract is also made in French, since French is
the main language spoken in Togo as well as in the neighboring countries where this
project could be relevant.
Kongens Lyngby, October 2010
Maklawe Essonanawe Edjabou, s081470
Acknowledgements
This project was made possible by funding from DTU Environment, The Department of
Environmental Engineering. I owe a great gratitude to my supervisors, senior researcher
Jacob Mller and Professor Thomas Hjlund Christensen.
I will also like to thank Jrn Rasmussen and all the helpers in Togo for their hard work and
contribution. Finally, I will like to thank my spouse Louise Dyhr Edjabou and her parents for
their continuous support.
ii
Abstract
Ktao is a city of approximately 20,000 citizens in the North-Eastern part of Togo in West
Africa. The city has no waste management system. Consequently, solid waste is burned,
thrown in the street or dumped around the city. This situation endangers public health and
damages the environment as well as the esthetic appearance of the town. Furthermore, the
city holds a big market every Wednesday, which attracts approx. 50,000 people from
outside the city. Hosting this market is increasing the amount of waste in the city
considerably. Therefore, a waste management plan is needed in Ktao and this is the topic
of this thesis.
Fundamental for a proper waste management plan is information about the waste quantity,
type and composition. This data was at the start of the project unavailable for Ktao.
Therefore, two waste characterization projects were conducted in Ktao in January and
July-August 2010 representing the dry and the rainy season.
The results from the field work showed that the waste generation rate for household waste
was 0.22 and 0.42 kg/pers/day in January and in July-August respectively. The moisture
content was estimated to 4 % for January and between 33 and 63 % for July-August. The
average bulk density was 700 kg/m3. The total waste of the city was predominantly soil and
dust (combined) characterized as other (45 %), vegetable and putrescible (33 %) and
plastic (10 %). The waste generated in Ktao is estimated to 2,646 tons in the year 2010
and a total of 107,500 tons for the period 2010 to 2030.
Based on waste data from the waste characterization projects and with regard to socioeconomic conditions, the proposed waste management plan includes: waste collection
using mainly handcarts, composting of vegetables and putrescible, recycling of the plastic
and the construction of a controlled dumpsite.
To assess the environmental potential impact of the waste management plan, a number of
scenarios were assessed using the LCA model EASEWASTE. The results indicated that
the waste management consisting of composting, recycling and controlled dump is the
preferred option while the current waste situation is the least attractive scenario. The results
reveal that when comparing the current waste situation to the best scenario, the global
warning potential is lowered from 724 to 804 tons CO2-eq per year. Similarly,
improvements were found for photochemichal ozone formation (reduce from 521 to 93 kg
C2H4-eq per year) and stratospheric ozone depletion (from 5 to 1 kg CFC11-eq per year).
It is recommended that Ktao implements a waste management plan including waste
collection using door to door method, a small size composting and recycling plant, and a
controlled dumpsite. A public awareness program should be continuously conducted.
Finally, a waste collection fee should be introduced to support the cost of the waste
management plan.
iii
Rsum
Ktao est une ville au Nord-est du Togo en Afrique de lOuest, et compte 20.000 habitants,
o aucun plan de gestion des ordures mnagres nexiste. Les dpotoirs anarchiques
poussent partout dans la ville. Cette situation nuit gravement la sant publique, dtriore
lenvironnement et la beaut de la ville de Ktao. Les problmes lis aux ordures sont
accentus par la prsence du march qui sanime tous les mercredis et reoit plus de
50.000 revendeurs, acheteurs et visiteurs. Pour ces raisons, un plan de gestion des ordures
mnagres est ncessaire pour la ville de Ktao. Cest dans cette perspective que sinscrit
le thme de notre mmoire. Par ailleurs, llment fondamental pour la conception du plan
est les donnes chiffres sur les dchets, qui malheureusement ne sont pas disponible
pour la ville de Ktao. Pour y remdier, deux tudes de terrain auprs des mnages,
institutions et commerce ont t ralises en janvier et en juillet-aot 2010 Ktao.
Daprs les rsultats des travaux de terrain, la production moyenne des ordures est de 0,22
kg/habitant/jour en janvier et 0,42 en juillet-aot. De mme, le taux dhumidit des ordures
est de 4 % en janvier contre 33 63 % en juillet-aot. La masse volumique moyenne des
ordures est de 700kg/m3. Le sol (45 %) reprsentent la plus importante proportion des
ordures mnagres suivi des vgtaux et putrescible (33 %) et enfin les plastiques (10 %).
La quantit total dordure produit en 2010 est estime a 2.646 tons et a 107.500tons pour la
priode allant de 2010 2030.
Il est suggr un plan de gestion des ordures qui est constitu de la collecte des ordures en
utilisant principalement les charrettes, le compostage, le recyclage et enfin la construction
dune dcharge contrle.
La mthode de lanalyse du cycle de vie (ACV) EASEWASTE a t utilise pour
lvaluation environnemental du plan de gestion des ordures mnagres Ktao. Les
rsultats indiquent que les impacts gnrs par la situation actuelle des ordures mnagres
Ktao est trs nfastes pour lenvironnement. Par contre lexcution dun plan de gestion
qui comporte le compostage, le recyclage et la construction dune dcharge final (scenario
5) donne un bilan trs favorable. La situation actuelle des ordures produit 724 tonnes CO2eq par an alors que la ralis du plan de gestion permet dviter lmission de 804 tonnes
CO2-eq par an. De mme, en comparant les deux scenarios, limpact potentiel de la
formation dozone photochimique est rduite de 521 93 kg C2H4-eq par an de mme que
la dgradation de la couche dozone (5 1 kg CFC11-eq par an).
En fin, il est recommand lapplication du plan de gestion des ordures compos de la
collecte des ordures, la cration des petites units de compostage et de recyclage ainsi que
la construction dune dcharge contrle. Cependant, la sensibiliser des populations sur
lintrt du plan de gestion des ordures doit tre continuellement organise. Il faut instituer
les frais de collecte des ordures mnagres.
iv
Table of content
1.1.
BACKGROUND............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.2.
PRESENTATIONOFKTAO .......................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
Locationandclimate................................................................................................................................... 5
SocioeconomicalactivitiesinKtao ........................................................................................................... 7
GeneralinfrastructuresituationinKtao ................................................................................................... 7
AdministrativeorganizationandpoliticalsituationinKtao...................................................................... 8
ThemarketandstationinKtao................................................................................................................. 9
2.1 BACKGROUNDOFWASTECHARACTERIZATIONPROJECT ............................................................................... 11

2.1.1.
2.1.2.
Importanceofthewastecharacterizationprojects .................................................................................. 11
Seasonalvariation..................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 MATERIALANDMETHODS ............................................................................................................................ 12

2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.2.7
2.2.8
Selectionofthesampleforthewastecharacterization............................................................................ 12
Selectionofhouseholds............................................................................................................................. 12
Selectionofcommercialsandinstitutions................................................................................................. 12
Wastecollectionfromhouseholds,shopsandinstitutions ....................................................................... 13
Wastesorting............................................................................................................................................ 14
Wastedryingmethods.............................................................................................................................. 15
Wastebulkdensity.................................................................................................................................... 16
Durationofstudies.................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3 RESULTS ....................................................................................................................................................... 17

2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
Presentationofthewastedata................................................................................................................. 17
ResultofthesurveyconductedinKtao ................................................................................................... 25
Wastesourceseparatingexperiment....................................................................................................... 27
2.4 PROJECTIONOFDATA................................................................................................................................... 28
2.4.1
Estimationoftotalwasteproducedperyear............................................................................................ 28
2.5 DISCUSSIONOFRESULTS............................................................................................................................... 31
3.1 WASTESTORAGEANDCOLLECTION .............................................................................................................. 32
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
Generalconditionsofawastebin............................................................................................................. 32
Householdwastebin................................................................................................................................. 32
Schoolsandotherinstitutionswastebins................................................................................................. 32
Commercialswastebins............................................................................................................................ 32
Streets,stationandmarketwastebins .................................................................................................... 33
Suggestedvolumeofthewastebinforeachwastesource ...................................................................... 33
3.2 WASTECOLLECTION...................................................................................................................................... 34
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
Wastecollectionmethod .......................................................................................................................... 34
Thehouseidentificationsystem................................................................................................................ 34
Wastecollectionandsorting .................................................................................................................... 35
Equipments ............................................................................................................................................... 35
Collectionfrequency.................................................................................................................................. 35
3.2.6
3.2.7
3.2.8
Wastesorting............................................................................................................................................ 36
ConceptualoutlineofthewastemanagementsysteminKtao............................................................... 36
Flowsinthesystem................................................................................................................................... 36
3.3 PUBLICAWARENESSANDPARTICIPATION..................................................................................................... 38
3.3.1
3.3.2
Themainissues ......................................................................................................................................... 38
Educationalprograms............................................................................................................................... 38
3.4 PRESENTATIONOFEXISTINGRECYCLINGINKTAO ....................................................................................... 40

3.5 WASTEPLASTICRECYCLINGINKTAO ........................................................................................................... 42
3.5.1
3.5.2
PotentialofwasteplasticrecyclinginKtao ............................................................................................ 42
Plasticscraprecyclingprocess .................................................................................................................. 42
3.6 COMPOSTING ............................................................................................................................................... 44

3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.6.4
3.6.5
Compostingprocess .................................................................................................................................. 44
Environmentalfactors............................................................................................................................... 44
Technology................................................................................................................................................ 46
Typeofcompostingplant ......................................................................................................................... 47
Constraintsandissues............................................................................................................................... 47
3.7 FINALDISPOSAL............................................................................................................................................ 48
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
3.7.4
3.7.5
3.7.6
3.7.7
Methodofclosingopendumpsite............................................................................................................. 48
Controlleddumps(CD) .............................................................................................................................. 48
Descriptionofwastetypeacceptedinthecontrolleddump..................................................................... 48
Volumeofwastetobesentinthecontrolleddumpsite ........................................................................... 49
Choiceofsiteofthecontrolleddumpsite(CD).......................................................................................... 49
Technicaloperations ................................................................................................................................. 50
Environmentalmeasurements .................................................................................................................. 53
3.8 IMPLEMENTATIONSTRATEGYOFCONTROLLEDDUMPSITE ........................................................................... 57

4.1 LCA............................................................................................................................................................... 58
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
Materialsandmethods............................................................................................................................. 58
Goalandscopedefinition ......................................................................................................................... 59
Wastetechnology ..................................................................................................................................... 59
Wastemanagementscenarios ................................................................................................................. 60
Resultanddiscussion ................................................................................................................................ 61
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................................... 64
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................................... 66
ANNEX................................................................................................................................................................... 71
vi
List of tables
Table 1: Cities around Ktao ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Table 2: List of waste sources of the waste characterization samples.............................................................................. 13
Table 3: Waste bins type used for the waste collection .................................................................................................... 13
Table 4: Materials fractions used in the waste sorting..................................................................................................... 14
Table 5: Total waste collected from each source ............................................................................................................. 17
Table 6: Estimated waste generation rate for commercials and institutions.................................................................... 17
Table 7: Solid waste composition from households, institutions and commercials .......................................................... 18
Table 8: Waste moisture content in Ktao according to season....................................................................................... 25
Table 9: The proposed solution for the solid waste in Ktao ........................................................................................... 26
Table 10: Future projection of total waste generated in Ktao........................................................................................ 28
Table 11: Estimation of the quantity of each waste fraction produced in Ktao by 2030 ................................................ 29
Table 12: Estimation of waste fraction according to their final disposal or process ....................................................... 29
Table 13: Volume of waste bins for each waste source .................................................................................................... 33
Table 14: Estimated household waste collection frequency per week .............................................................................. 35
Table 15: Waste collection frequency for commercials, institutions and market ............................................................. 36
Table 16: Volume of controlled dumpsite for 20 years (2010-2030)................................................................................ 49
Table 17: Parameters to compute the area of controlled dump ....................................................................................... 52
Table 18: Thickness of cover soil and exposure time ....................................................................................................... 52
Table 19: Waste composition adapted in the EASEWASTE ............................................................................................. 58
Table 20: Waste process technology for EASEWASTE LCA model ................................................................................. 60
Table 21: Scenarios and corresponding technologies applied ......................................................................................... 61
List of figures
Figure 1: children playing on the top of waste pile............................................................................................................ 4
Figure 2: Map of Togo showing the study city (Ktao) ...................................................................................................... 5
Figure 3: Average rain fall from 1999 to 2007 (Meteo Pagouda, 2010)............................................................................ 6
Figure 4: Pictures of the market in Ktao .......................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 5: Middle buses, taxi and motorbikes taxi station of Ktao .................................................................................. 10
Figure 6: Nature in dry (a) and rainy (b) season in Ktao............................................................................................... 11
Figure 7: Determination of waste moisture content in January (a) and in July-August (b)............................................. 16
Figure 8: Materials fraction generated the waste stream in Ktao.................................................................................. 19
Figure 9: Materials fractions from waste stream in Ktao............................................................................................... 24
Figure 10: Waste sorting during the field work in Ktao ................................................................................................. 27
Figure 11: Estimated total waste generated in 2010 and their potential treatment ......................................................... 30
Figure 12: Waste bins: a. galvanized drum, b. plastic bucket and c. small plastic waste paper bin................................ 33
Figure 13: Conceptual outline of waste treatment facility ............................................................................................... 36
Figure 14: Flow of the waste management system in Ktao ............................................................................................ 37
Figure 15: Existence waste recycling process in Ktao: .................................................................................................. 41
Figure 16: Hospital waste incineration plant in Ktao .................................................................................................... 41
Figure 17: Chinese covered pile method Source: (Hoornweg et al., 1999) ..................................................................... 46
Figure 18: Recommended final soil cover (UNEP, 2005) ................................................................................................ 53
Figure 19: Grading of surface soil (updated from (UNEP, 2005).................................................................................... 53
Figure 20: Classification of landfill based on season from (Blight et al., 1996).............................................................. 55
Figure 21: Sketch of the controlled dumpsite ................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 22: Draft of waste flow and application time line................................................................................................. 57
Figure 23: Normalized Toxic Impact Potential categories and spoiled groundwater resources for all Scenarios.......... 62
Figure 24: Normalized Non Toxic Potential Impact for all scenarios ............................................................................. 63
vii
List of annex
Annex 1: Waste data-Household waste data for January................................................................................................. 71
Annex 2: waste data-Commercials and institutions waste data for January .................................................................... 72
Annex 3: Waste data-Household waste data for July-August study.................................................................................. 73
Annex 4: waste data -commercials and institutions for July-August ................................................................................ 74
Annex 5: Waste sorting result........................................................................................................................................... 75
Annex 8: Survey questionnaire (Bernstein, 2004) ............................................................................................................ 76
Annex 9: Map-Map of Ktao (Plan of Ktao, city) ........................................................................................................... 78
Annex 10: Map: Map of Ktao using Google raster image .............................................................................................. 79
Annex 11: LCA-Environmental normalized potential impacts reference adapted for Ktao from EDIP 97 .................... 80
Annex 12: LCA-Scenarios and material mass balance..................................................................................................... 81
viii
Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo
Introduction
Togo is a small country of 56,400 km2 in West Africa. It is located between Ghana in the
West and Benin in the East. The population is estimated at 7.1 million and is considered as
one of the worlds poorest countries with a per capita income estimated to US$ 437 (UN,
2010). Mining, subsistence agriculture and re-exporting are the main economic activities.
Coffee, cocoa and cotton are the major cash crops for export. Commerce is also an
important economic activity in Togo (The World Bank, 2010).
Planning of waste management plan is prepared for Ktao, a small city in the north east of
Togo. The market in Ktao is one of the most important markets in Togo.
Waste management in the entire country remains chaotic. In Ktao and elsewhere in Togo,
waste is simply dumped in the streets and elsewhere or burned in open air. The current
waste situation poses undoubtedly both some environmental and public health problems. In
addition, it negatively affects the aesthetic of the towns and constitutes a potential loss of
resources, mainly waste plastics and organic waste fraction, which could be utilized.
Therefore, proper waste management systems are needed to improve public health and the
environmental situation in Togo. In addition a waste management system offers job
opportunities, since it will require labor for waste collection, disposal and transformation
process. With this in mind, the current study aims to design a solid waste management plan
for Ktao. The waste management plan intends to be technically robust, environmentally
sound and adapted to the local realities. For these reasons, two waste characterization
projects were conducted in Ktao in January and July-August 2010, to collect the waste
data.
The thesis is organized as follow: First the objectives of the study are presented, followed
by four chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the background of the project. Chapter 2 presents
the waste characterization projects and presents the waste data used. Chapter 3 describes
in details the waste management plan for Ktao. Finally, chapter 4 is an assessment of the
environmental potential impact of the waste management system by using EASEWASTE,
which is a Life Cycle Assessment model (Baumann & Tillman, 2008).
Objectives
The planning of a waste management system for Ktao aims to achieve the following
objectives:
1.
Conduct a waste characterization for the dry and rainy season in Ktao to determine
the current waste characteristics including waste types, quantities and the composition of
the waste.
2.
Develop a system to handle waste based on the waste characterization data. The
waste management plan should be environmentally sound and adapted to the local
condition. The plan should include (1) an efficient and effective waste collection system, (2)
an adapted waste transportation system, (3) an affordable waste processing, (4) a profitable
materials recovery system and (5) a feasible final disposal considering the local conditions.
Moreover, the plan should include a public awareness program to maintain the community
participation in the waste management system.
3.
Assess the potential environmental impact of the waste management plan.
However, it should be mentioned that the hospital waste and night soil are beyond the
scope of the waste management plan for Ktao.
Chapter 1: Background and presentation of Ktao

1.1.
Background
Ktao is a small city in the North of Togo. There is no waste management system in Ktao
as well as in the majority of cities of Togo. Waste is thrown away in the streets, at the
working place and everywhere. Every day, people sweep their courtyard and rooms two
times. The collected waste is dumped on the roadsides and on the abandon spaces. Often
waste is also burned openly, especially by children, exposing them and their neighborhood
to poisonous materials because waste may contain for example deodorant and insecticide
(used against mosquito and cockroaches in the houses) empty bottles of spray, hard
plastics (PVC) and electronic waste. Consequently, uncontrolled dumpsites sprout in the
city. The current waste situation endangers animal and human health, and hampers the
esthetic appearance of the town.
The waste quantity in the town is increased by the fact that the town holds a big market
every Wednesday, which attracts an estimated 50,000 people from outside the town. The
market generates huge amount of wastes which are disposed of in the market, along its
enclosure and in the streets. In old days, the waste from market was collected and used for
composting by the farmers. In recent times, due to the presence of plastics bags in the
waste stream, the market waste is no longer wanted by the farmers. For this reason,
prefecture authorities remove market waste dumped along the market enclosure and in the
market when waste pile obstructs the traffic flow at the entrances and in the market. The
removed waste is scattered in the streets and squashed by vehicles afterwards. There are
unfortunately needles and sharp items in the waste stream, which can easily lacerate
children and other pedestrians who often do not have good footwear that can protect them
against sharp items.
Many others examples highlight the problems caused by the waste situation in Ktao. The
streets are riddled with animals, ranging from goats and swine to rats and cockroaches that
live between dumpsites and houses. As a result, the animals carry a number of diseases
from dumpsites to the houses, and the domestic animals, especially goats and sheeps are
likely to suffocate when they accidentally eat the plastic bags.
According to the literature, the indiscriminate dumps reduce the esthetic appeal of the town
and the organic component of the waste tends to decompose rapidly, especially in the
tropical region, with the production of unpleasant odor (Diaz et al., 1996). It is also founds
that offensive odors from the dumpsite can cause a deterioration of personal and
community pride, interfere with human relations, discourage capital investment and lower
the socioeconomic status (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).
The population of Ktao is seriously concerned about the waste problem, because they
cleanse their houses and working place every day and like clean and beautiful clothes.
However, the waste problem doesnt represent the first priority of the local authorities as
well as the government. The steadily increased of the population and the rapid expansion of
the city will drastically reduce the available space for dumping. Consequently, the issues
associated with solid waste will become more important and complicated to resolve.
Therefore, it is imperative to develop a waste management plan which can effectively tackle
the waste problem in Ktao. This plan can be disseminated in others cities where it is
possible or inspire the municipalities authorities of other countries in Sub-Sahara Africa.
Figure 1: children playing on the top of waste pile
1.2.
Presentation of Ktao
Togo is divided into five economical regions- Maritime, Plateau, Central, Kara and Savane
(Figure 2). The regions do not have any authority or organization. It is more a geographical
delimitation rather than an institutional structure. The regions are subdivided into 30
prefectures and one commune (Lom). Further, each prefecture is divided into cantons.
Figure 2: Map of Togo showing the study city (Ktao)
1.2.1
Location and climate
The city of Ktao is located in the Northeastern part of Togo near Kara, which is the second
largest city in Togo. Ktao is part of the Kara region and the Ktao canton. Ktao lies
between 938 and 940 latitudes north and between 117 and 120 longitudes east. It is
about 380 m above sea level (Google Maps, 2010). The important cities located in radius
less than 50 km around Ktao are presented Table 1.
Table 1: Cities around Ktao
Cities
Pagouda
Kara
Bafilo
Djougou
Population
13,200
109,287
23,083
208,810
Country
Togo
Togo
Togo
Benin
DistancetoKtao(Km)
14,1
20
43,3
44,2
The climate in Ktao is a tropical, type semiarid. There are two seasons: dry and rainy
seasons. The seasons are very unstable. It is estimated that the dry season is from
November to Mars (five months), whereas the rainy season lasts from April to October
(seven months) (see Figure 3). The dry season is characterized by an extremely low
humidity caused by Harmattan which is a dry and dusty wind coming from the Sahara.
During this period, everything is very dry and the temperature can rise up 50 C. In contrast,
the rainy season is marked by very heavy rain, in average 1337 mm of rain fall per year in
Ktao. The average temperature and air humidity are respectively 28 C and 78% in the
rainy season.
Averagerainfallfrom1999to2007
300
Rain fall (mm)
250
200
150
100
50
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
Maj
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Okt
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 3: Average rain fall from 1999 to 2007 (Meteo Pagouda, 2010).
The average water loss for the North region of Togo was estimated at 1600 mm per year.
Due to clearly gap between the rainy period and the dry period, the highest deficit of water
for the shallow rooted tree was reported from December to April (Faure, 1985).
1.2.2
Socio-economical activities in Ktao
Ktao is a small city with an estimated population of 20,000 inhabitants (ADSA, 2009). The
majority of inhabitants in Ktao operate small private businesses selling a number of
homemade items, such as drinking water packed into small plastic bags and sold for 25
FCFA (approx 0.25 DKK). Most families also have a small spot of land outside the town,
where they grow crops. However, the land is not very fertile and the practices used in the
farming are fairly rudimentary, so the yield is very low. Agricultural products are millet,
sorghum, yams and cassava, peanut, rice, beans, cotton and corns. These agricultural
products are mainly for local consumption. Only cotton is exported. Mangoes, oranges,
lemon, grapefruit and papaya are seasonal fruits grown in Ktao for local consumption. In
addition, fruits such as banana, oranges, avocado, pineapples and melon are imported
since they cannot grow them in Ktao.
But, due to the extreme income inequality that is present in developing countries, the
poorest people in periphery towns such as Ktao can be assumed to be much poorer than
the national estimated per capita income (US $ 437). This can be illustrated by two facts: I)
Half of the population of Togo has less than 1.25 US $ (the international poverty line)
available per day (The World Bank, 2010) and II) the workers employed for the waste
characterization project were paid 1000 FCFA (approx. 10 DKK) per day, which is
considered a good salary.
Due to geographical location and economical activities, many institutions are created in
Ktao. There can be found a gendarmerie office, a post office, a bank (Union Togolaise des
Banks), a veterinary office as well as many microfinance institutions. There are in total 12
schools in Ktao and 45 institutions. The school comprises of primary, middle and high
school. There are public schools as well as private schools.
Beside the institutions, there are some associations and unions such as a nongovernmental organization for agriculture and social development (ADSA), a village
committee for development (CVD), a taxi, mini bus and motorbike-taxi union, a child
protection commission, farmers unions, and unions for parents to school children.
Despite the dominance of Christian and Muslim religions in Ktao, the majority of the
population strongly believes on the power of ancestors and everything related to witchcraft.
Therefore, many taboos are still respected in Ktao. The wide spread taboo associated to
the solid waste is that, it is forbidden to sweep the floor in the night time.
1.2.3
General infrastructure situation in Ktao
In 1990s the government tried by force to reorganize the housing structure of Ktao by
demolishing buildings which disrespected the city planning. This project failed because the
population continues to build houses without consulting the city plan, and the development
of the city is done in a haphazard manner. However, the majority of houses can be
accessed by handcart and rickshaw.
The houses do not have address and there is no data about exact number and identity of
people living in each house. The house dwellers are either owner or tenant and there is no
legislation regarding minimum size required per person per square meter. As a
consequence, more than two persons can share a very small room of less than 15 m2. A
house can contain many families. Therefore, for this study the term household corresponds
to a house where can live one or many families.
The access to clean water remains a serious challenge in Ktao. Very few households are
connected to the piped network. A fairly large portion of the population gets water from
public standposts (25 FCFA ( 0.3 DKK) for 30 liters). The majority of the population gets
water from unprotected (open) dug wells which can be found almost in each house.
There are very few houses with a proper sanitary latrine. As a result, the waste dumpsites
and nature are usually used as open public toilet. Two public toilets are built in the market
and it cost 25 FCFA (0.3 DKK) to use the facility. The sewage system consists of primary
open drains, and wastewater is drained directly in the road behind the house.
There are currently two medical facilities in Ktao. The public hospital clinic built in 1958 by
French colonists and a private clinic owned by Catholic nuns. The public clinic is managed
by registered medical doctor while the private clinic is managed by paramedical staff.
According to the data from public hospital, malaria is the primary cause of mortality in Ktao
(55 %), followed by gastrointestinal and parasitic diseases (8 %) (CMS, 2010). HIV-AID
remains a taboo subject, despite many campaigns to sensitize the population. Therefore,
national data are often cited. The HIV-AID rate in Togo is estimated at 3 % (PNSL-Togo,
2010).
At the moment, there is neither local radio nor a local newspaper in Ktao. The radios
station listened to in Ktao are the second national state radio located in Kara, (Radio
Kara), private FM stations from Bafilo and Badjoud (Benin). Radio France International is
broadcasted in Ktao too. The common television seen in Ktao is the national state
television.
The communication is more by mouth-to-mouth. The churches, mosques, schools, taxi
station and market are the most powerful communication centers in Ktao. A substantial
amount of citizens have a mobile phone. Landline telephones are seldom and mainly
available around the market area. There is no internet access in Ktao.
1.2.4
Administrative organization and political situation in Ktao
The public administration is centralized in Togo, meaning that the majority of decisions are
taken or should be approved by the government. The local authorities have neither
economical resource nor institutional power to manage their community. On the prefecture
level, the working expenses are partly covered by the tax collected from markets in the
cantons. However, the institutions and commercials pay taxes directly to the State who
supports all the public institutions (schools, hospital, post office). As a result, there is not
a direct local authority in Ktao who is in charge for social services such as solid waste
8
management. In Togo, politic is nearly a taboo topic. Ktao is known as a city which always
votes for the ruling party. Therefore, it is not well accepted to openly criticize the political
leaders.
1.2.5
The market and station in Ktao
The market takes place every Wednesdays and receives more than 50,000 visitors (shop
sellers, retailers, customers). The market is a typical place that contains shops and
retailers that sell food, alcohol, and clothes as well as household goods and electronically
devises (see Figure 4). The station is the area in Ktao where middle buses, taxis and
motorbike taxis takes and drop passengers (see Figure 5). It is also the gateway to the
market. The station is very chaotic, full of traffic especially on Wednesdays.
There are only 2 paved roads in Ktao which are relatively in good condition. The rest of the
roads are unpaved and in bad condition. Public transportation doesnt exist, but the middle
buses, taxis and motorbike provide transportation mean to short and long distance.
Figure 4: Pictures of the market in Ktao
Figure 5: Middle buses, taxi and motorbikes taxi station of Ktao
10
Chapter 2: Waste characterization

The waste characterization projects were carried out in January and July-August 2010 in
Ktao. They aimed to determine the types, the quantity and composition of the waste
generated in Ktao. This information is fundamental for planning of waste management.
2.1
Background of waste characterization project
2.1.1.
Importance of the waste characterization projects
It is obvious that there is no waste data in Ktao, because there is no waste management
system. Therefore, a waste characterization project appears to be the first step in planning
of waste management system (Lagerkvist et al., 2008) for many reasons. Firstly, the
effectiveness of the waste planning system substantially depends upon the data used in
planning. Secondly, the waste characterization ensures adequate assessment of the
capacity for waste collection, recycling and disposal (Diaz et al., 1996). Finally, the collected
data constitutes a baseline and enables to understand the current and future characteristics
of the waste generated in Ktao (Wilson et al., 2001). Consequently, it prevents over or
under sizing the facilities which can affect the project cost (Franklin, 2002).
2.1.2.
Seasonal variation
Regarding the difference between the dry and rainy season in Ktao (see Figure 6), it is
likely that the seasonal variation seriously affect the waste stream (Diaz et al., 1996 and
(Lagerkvist et al., 2008). Therefore, the waste characterization should be conducted
throughout different seasons (Wilson et al., 2001). As a result, a waste characterization was
conducted first in January and then in July-August 2010. It is considered that January and
July-August is representative for the dry and the rainy season individually (Figure 3).
Figure 6: Nature in dry (a) and rainy (b) season in Ktao
11
2.2
Material and methods
2.2.1
Selection of the sample for the waste characterization
It was almost the same sample of households, institutions and commercials that was
selected to take part of waste characterization studies conducted in January and in JulyAugust 2010. The same samples were selected in order to assess the impact of seasonal
variation in the waste stream.
2.2.2
Selection of households
The households were selected based on two main conditions. Firstly, the households have
to be representative for the entire town to enable the results to be scaled up to the entire
city. Secondly, due to the limited resources and time, the households needed to be
relatively close to each other to facilitate the waste collection. The houses in the
neighborhood of the waste sorting area were selected. These houses are very mixed
composition of resident ranging from the richest people to the poor and comprised of all
religious and ethnical groups represented in Ktao.
In total, 48 households were selected including 433 and 327 people respectively in January
and in July-August as it is presented Table 2. Possible explanation for the difference in
residents number between the two samples includes the school summer break. During
summer holidays in Togo people travel especially from small cities to big cities in
particularly to Lom. On the other hand, all those who move to Ktao for study reason
return to the village during this period. During both studies, households were distributed into
two collection routes.
2.2.3
Selection of commercials and institutions
The stores were chosen with the primary aim that the selection should be as representative
of the stores in the town. Thus, the selection comprises bars and restaurants, and shops.
There is a slight difference between commercials and institutions selected during both
periods as it is shown in Table 2. It was not possible to include school during the second
waste characterization because July-August corresponds to schools holidays period in
Ktao. In addition, shops, boutiques and restaurants set up directly in the station were
asked to use one of the six waste bins placed in edge of the station. And therefore all of
them were considered as station. It should also stress that hospital waste was disregarded
because it is regarded as hazardous waste and thus, it requires special care. Moreover, the
hospital of Ktao incinerates their waste.
12
Table 2: List of waste sources of the waste characterization samples
Wastesource
Period
Households
Schools
Othersinstitutions
Shops
Barsandrestaurant
Station
Numberofeachwastetype
January
JulyAugust
48
48
2
0
2
2
8
6
8
6
0
1
Numberofpersonpersource
January
JulyAugust
433
342
819
2.2.4
Waste collection from households, shops and institutions
Waste bins used for the waste collection

The waste bins were distributed to each households, commercials and institutions in the
station a days before the collection. Waste bins were placed in the market only in January.
The waste bins types are seen in Table 3.
Table 3: Waste bins type used for the waste collection
Samples
Household
Barsandrestaurants
Shops
Schools
Otherinstitutions
Market
Station
Wastebintype
25litersofplasticdrum
25litersofplasticdrum
Cardboardbox
Cardboardboxforeachclassroom
25litersofplasticdrumforthecourtyard
Plasticsbox
Halfoildrumandirontoholdtreeblowsacks
Halfoildrum
Waste bins made of 25 liters of plastic drum were given to households, bars, restaurants
and schools. It was not expected from shops (general store) and school classrooms to get
any liquid. Thus, a cardboard box was used to store their waste. Likewise, a plastic grill
basket was given to others institutions.
In January, tree large waste bins consisting of 3 blow sacks each were placed in the market
area and 2 waste bins made out of half oil drums was set up in the station. The waste bins
were marked with the word Poubelle, meaning waste bin in French. Unfortunately, 6 of
the sacks were stolen when the waste bins were left in the market with the intention to
collect the waste on Thursday since the market takes place in Wednesday. It should be
underlined that, the waste bins were distributed in the market area with the purpose that,
customers and shopkeepers would use them to dispose their waste. Unfortunately, after the
market, waste was disposed on the floor as usually. It appeared that the waste bins did not
13
affect the waste collections system. Therefore, in July-August, waste bins were not
distributed in the market area. Six waste bins made out of half oil drum and painted in green
were placed only in the station.
Waste collection from households, commercials and institutions

During both studies, waste was collected from households, stores and institutions every
other day. The collection of waste started earlier in the morning by households waste and
then commercials and institutions. The waste from the households was collected first, with
the collectors walking along two paths. There were two teams of two persons each. In the
team, one of the members was responsible for weighting the waste and the other pushed
the handcart which has a volume of 0.3 m3. Each handcart was equipped with 3 big blow
bags. The team of collectors entered the compound of the households. The commercials
and institutions left their waste bin in front of their building. The waste was first loaded in a
small blow sack for weighting and then transferred into the big blow bag placed in the
handcart.
Collection of waste from market

Thursdays were allotted to the market waste collection and sorting. A number of women
were hired to sweep the entire market on Thursday morning because the waste was always
left on the ground in the market area after Wednesday. During both studies the waste was
collected two times (two Thursdays) in the market area. For both periods, it is estimated
that only the half of the market waste was collected the first Thursday. In January, due to a
misunderstanding, sweepers burned a large amount of the waste before the arrival of the
waste collectors whereas in July-August, a heavy rain did not allow women to sweep the
entire market. However, the misunderstanding was cleared up in the January while, in JulyAugust, there was not rain on the second Thursday.
2.2.5
Waste sorting
The waste was sorted in an abandoned building in the outskirts of Ktao. There were four
helpers hired to sort the waste into the ten pre-determined categories shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Materials fractions used in the waste sorting
1.
3.
5.
7.
9.
Wastefractions
2.
Vegetables and putrescible
Ash
4.
Cardboard and paper
6.
Metal
8.
Textile
10.
Plastic
Glass
Plastic
Batteries
Others
The collected waste was sorted the same day to avoid changes in the samples (Dahlen &
Lagerkvist, 2008). The waste was once again weighted upon arrival to the sorting area to
confirm the weighting made by the collectors. The bag was lifted and the waste was spread
14
out in the table. The helpers stood around the table sorted the waste into materials fractions
mentioned in Table 4. First, a magnet was used to check for metal in the waste. Then, large
piece of plastics bags, cardboard and twigs were removed. Later, other larger pieces, such
as textile, and glass were sorted out. Afterwards, smaller pieces remaining were picked as
much as possible until the remaining waste comprised primary of sand, dirt and very small
pieces of leaves. The latter remaining waste was categorized as other.
Each waste fraction was put in a plastic bowl which was assigned for it. The waste from the
bowl was then loaded in a big blow sack when it was full. After the sorting, each fraction
was weighed and then disposed in a hole close to the sorting area.
In January, the waste from households, institutions and commercials were mixed and
sorted together, whereas in July-August, households waste was sorted separately.
2.2.6
Waste drying methods
A sample of the waste was dried to obtain the waste moisture content. In January, the
drying was simply done by spreading the waste on the tarpaulin in the sun for four to five
hours (Figure 7a). The temperature rose up to 50 C in January. It was therefore assumed
to be sufficient to remove the little moisture that was present in the already very dry waste.
However, due to the fact that high water content was expected in July-August a microwave
oven was used to measure the moisture content (Twidwell et al., 2008) as shown in Figure
7b. The choice of this method was guided by the fact that a successful experience
conducted at DTU (Error! Reference source not found.) before the field work, confirmed
that the microwave oven can be used to determine reasonable, quick and relatively
accurate moisture content compared to a conventional oven. In total 9 samples were taken
comprised of 6 mixed waste and 3 vegetable and putrescible waste. The samples of the
mixed waste were taken straight away after the waste was put on the table in the core of
the waste in order to get representative samples of the entire waste collected. The
vegetable and putrescible sample was taken after waste sorting. The samples were put in
the blow sack and the moisture content measurement followed immediately to avoid waste
losing part of their water. Beside the microwave oven, the plastic containers, a kitchen
weighting scale and a glass water were used as a materials to measure the moisture
content.
15
Figure 7: Determination of waste moisture content in January (a) and in July-August (b)
2.2.7
Waste bulk density
The waste bulk density was measured in July-August. Tree samples of mixed waste were
taken, filled up the plastic bowl and weighted. The volume of the plastic bowl was known in
advance as well as the weight of the plastic bowl. Then the bulk density of the waste was
computed.
2.2.8
Duration of studies
For both studies, the data used was collected over 11 days. In January, the study begun on
11th and ended on 22nd. In July-August, the study started on 20th July and ended on 4th
August, meaning a total of 14 days of waste collection and sorting. However, only the waste
data of 11 days is considered for many reasons. Firstly, 30 over 48 houses kept their waste
bin they got during the first waste characterization (January) and they were willing to use
the same waste bin again for survey of July-August. Houses that lost their waste bin were
provided with new. Some of the houses, which at the first visit showed us their waste bin,
claimed during the first waste collection day that, they did not get waste bin and therefore,
they disposed of their waste as usual. Possible explanation for this behavior is that, they (18
houses) will like to get a new waste bin like others. Thus, it was decided to provide the 18
remaining house with new waste bins. Therefore the waste data for the first three days was
disregarded.
16
2.3
Results
The results consist mainly of the waste data collected during the waste characterization
projects and the result of willingness to pay for waste collection survey.
2.3.1
Presentation of the waste data
Total waste collected during the studies

3.7 tons of waste was collected in July-August compared to 2.3 tons in January, during 11
days, like it can be seen in Table 5. The percentage of waste generated from each source
compared to the total waste collected for each study is presented also in Table 5. It should
mentioned that, for the field investigation conducted in January, the station was considered
as part of shops, while in July-August, it was considered as an entity. Moreover, it can be
seen that 61 % of the waste was collected in July-August and 39 % in January.
Table 5: Total waste collected from each source
Wastesource
Totalwastecollected
Periods
Households
Market
School
Institutions
Barandrestaurant
Shops
station
Total
January
1,044
1,090
44
7
82
54
2,320
JulyAugust
1,580
1,484
0
33
46
90
434
3,665
Percentageofeachwaste
sourceforeachstudyperiod
January
JulyAugust
45.0
43.1
47.0
40.5
1.9
0.0
0.3
0.9
3.5
1.3
2.3
2.4
0.0
11.8
100.0
100.0
Waste generation rate

The households waste generation rate was computed to 0.42 and 0.22 kg per person per
day in July-August and January individually. The waste generation rate unit of commercials
and institutions and market is shown in Table 6. It appears that the waste generation rate
had significantly increased from January to July-August, except for bars and restaurants.
The trend pointed out the impact of seasonal variation on waste generation rate.
Table 6: Estimated waste generation rates
Wastesources
Households
School
Institutions
Wastegenerationrate
January
JulyAugust
Unitofthewaste
generationrate
0.22
Kg/person/day
Kg/school/day
2.0
0.3
0.42
0.0
1.5
17
Kg/institution/day
Bars&restaurants
Shops
Station
Market
0.9
0.9
25
989.3
0.7
1.4
39.4
542.2
Kg/bar/day
Kg/shop/day
Kg/station/day
Kg/market/week
Waste density and composition

The density of the solid waste generated in Ktao was within the ranges of 500 - 900 kg/m3
(see section 2.2.7).
The weight of the materials fractions sorted from the waste stream are presented in the
Table 7. Percentages are shown in Figure 8 where H is for household, I for institution and C
for commercials. In January and July August, the material fraction named other was the
predominant waste fraction in households waste stream. The second important household
waste fraction is vegetables and putrescible, followed by plastic. Vegetable and putrescible
was the predominant material fraction from the market waste. It was followed by other
waste fraction and plastic waste as it can be seen in Table 7 and Figure 8.
Table 7: Solid waste composition from households, institutions and commercials
Wastefractions
January
Households,
Market Households
institution&
commercials
Vegetablesandputrescible
380.1
258.1
261
Ash
37
2
15
Papersandcardboard
92.2
88
17.5
Metal
19
8
10.5
Textiles
18
10
14
Glass
5.5
0.1
3
Plastics
140
101
55.7
Batteries
7
0
3.5
Others
760
277.5
377.5
Total
1,458.8
744.7
757.7
18
JulyAugust
Institution&
Market
Commercials
136.5
0
40
11.5
7
3
69.5
0
87.7
355.2
744.5
15
85.5
30.5
32
14
189.7
7.5
915.2
2,033.9
60
H: July-August
C,I: July-August
Market: July-August
HIC:January
Market: January
50
Composition (%)
40
30
20
10
0
Vegetables
and
putrescible
Ash
Papers and
cardboard
Metal
Textils
Glass
Plastics
Batteries
Others
Waste fractions
Figure 8: Materials fraction generated the waste stream in Ktao
The description and pictures of each waste fraction give a better understanding of the waste
stream. The pictures are presented in Figure 9. The number in bracket of each waste
fraction (from 1 to 9) in the description corresponds to the picture in Figure 9. The pictures
are marked a for January and b for July-August.
Paper and cardboard (1)

The papers and cardboard fraction composition was unchanged in January and in JulyAugust. It consisted primarily of cardboard. The cardboard is generated primarily by shops
and wholesalers which are doing a roaring trade. The cardboard consists mainly of
packaging of manufactures goods and products imported from Nigeria and China, such as
cigarettes, batteries, soaps, box of matches, illegal and unauthorized medicine, toothpaste
and so on. Cardboards boxes are often reused many times until they are broken. Therefore
cardboards are dirty and useless from a waste management perspective. The papers were
mainly old notebooks from schools, which are often used to wrap cookies and tisane sold
on the market. Furthermore, there are also mobile phone credit recharge cards and
cigarette butts. However, newspapers, magazines and catalogs, phones books and
directories, and others clean papers are absent in the waste stream in Ktao.
19
Plastics (2)
The waste plastics were mainly the black plastic bags used as shopping bags, and the
white plastic bags for packaging water named pure water. The black plastic bags are very
cheap so that everybody can afford them. The pure water is very popular amongst the
population because it is practical, relatively cheap and advertized as clean and safe water.
The plastic bags used to pack the milk juice produced and traded by Danish company, Fan
Milk, constituted important sources of plastics as well. But the plastic bottles are very
seldom found in the waste stream as they are usually reused. Old plastic bowls and hard
plastics shoes are sold to retailers which export them mainly to Nigeria for recycling
purpose. Overall, the plastics waste found in the waste stream were the light density
polyethylene (LDPE) and or high density polyethylene (HDPE) material.
Ash (3)
The main energy source for cooking in Togo in general is wood and charcoal fire. This
situation is attributed to the fact that electricity and gas are very expensive and the supply is
instable. Therefore, it was obvious to found ash from wood, charcoal and other vegetable
stems in the waste stream in Ktao.
Vegetable and putrescible (4)

In January and in July-August, the vegetable and putrescible waste fraction was composed
of leaves, small branches and stumps from trees, remains cereals crops steams, peelings
of fruits mainly melon, citron and orange. Furthermore, the excrement of animals, birth
feathers and eggshells constituted the vegetable waste fraction, mainly generated by
restaurants. However, an insignificant amount of food leftovers was found in the waste
stream during both studies. Besides, corns husk and corn tidy cob as well as peanut shells
were the primary vegetable and putrescible waste fraction in July-August. The explanation
is that, the fresh corns and peanut are produced only during the rainy season. They are
sold everywhere in the city as snack food during this period of the year.
Textiles (5)
The textiles were mostly the rest of the pieces of cloths from suits and the tailor and old
rags. The rest of the pieces of cloth from the suit and the tailor are reused by the auto
mechanics to clean their hands, because they do not have gloves. Therefore the textiles
disposed are either very dirty or hazardous, because they are stained with the chemicals
contained in the lubricant, oil and grease used by auto mechanics.
Metals (6)
The metal fraction consists of the tomato cans, milk cans and sardine tin or steel cans and
the bottle caps from the beverage. Canned tomatoes and sardines are imported. Other
metal like the remains of bicycles, motorbikes, cars and aluminum were not found in the
waste stream. These remains are sold to retailers who export them to Asia while the
aluminum is transformed locally to produce kitchen equipments. There were also found
blades and needles. The latter material fraction is attributed to well-off citizens who get
20
medical care at home and then disregard needles along with other clinical waste in the
households waste stream.
Glass (7)
The glasses material fraction didnt change from January to July-August. The glasses were
primary broken glasses from the restaurants and bars, the perfume and medicines empty
bottles, as well as broken electric fluorescent lamps. In Togo, the drinking bottles are owned
by the national brewery (Brasserie du Benin). The bars and restaurants return the bottles to
the brewery. The money paid as the deposit is as much as the value of the drink inside de
bottle. However, wine and liqueur bottles which should not be returned back to the
producers were not found in the waste stream. The reason is that the citizen cannot afford
imported expensive drink such as wine and liqueur. Even if some well-off consume these
type of alcohol, the bottles are reused for other purposes. There was also broken glass of
the lamp oil. Many households who cannot afford electricity use an oil lamp to light their
houses during night time.
Batteries (8)
The batteries were old batteries which were used in the torches and radios. The streets are
not lit in Ktao, therefore, the population uses torch in the night when they are going out. In
addition, householders who dont have electricity use batteries for their radio.
Others (9)
The waste fraction called other consisted primary of soil, sand, dust and a mixed of soil
and small pieces of other waste materials fractions especially ash, leaves and stems.
However, soil was more humid in July-August and therefore less dust compared to January.
21
22
23
Figure 9: Materials fractions from waste stream in Ktao
24
Waste moisture content

The significant difference in the moisture content can be attributed to the seasonal variation
and the behavior of people toward waste. It should be noticed that the waste threw on the
ground is directly affected by the weather. It means that, the waste will be wet in the rainy
season due to the rain and high humidity of the air, or dried quickly in the dry season
because of Harmattan wind, before the collection. As a result, the waste moisture content is
extremely low in the dry season and relatively high in the rainy season as it can be seen in
Table 8.
Table 8: Waste moisture content in Ktao according to season
Periodofstudy
January
JulyAugust
2.3.2
Wastemoisturecontent(%)
4
3363
Result of the survey conducted in Ktao
During the waste characterization, a public opinion survey was also completed (see Annex
6). The survey covered many subjects amongst them: (1) the waste issues in Ktao, (2) the
appropriate solution to solve the problem accordingly, (3) willingness to pay for the waste
collection, to estimate affordable amount to pay for the waste collection, (4) accessibility to
electricity and the cost per month and (5) accessibility to water and its cost per month for
each households.
The persons who took part in the survey were selected randomly. For the purpose of the
survey, Ktao was divided into 4 big zones. In each zone, the survey was completed twice
in order to cover a number of persons which should be representative to the entire city. The
survey took place in the houses, at the station and in the market.
In total 87 persons (47 men and 40 women) composed the sample. The persons ranged
from very poor to very rich, from young to the old and from not educated to highly educated.
The questionnaire was written in French but interviewers translated it into local languages
as needed. In this way it was possible to interview people in their local languages in order to
cover all major ethnical groups in Ktao.
Keys results
The result of the survey revealed that only women and children take care of solid waste in
the house. They sweep the rooms, courtyards, dump and burn the collected waste.
11 % had been selling material fraction from their waste such as plastic bottles, hard iron,
old shoes made of hard plastic and ash. The study couldnt determine whether the sellers
live on this activities or it was a supplement to their income.
45 % knew the importance of compost whereas 55 % have no idea.
25
78 % had electricity in their house while only 14 % had a water pipe connection at home.
Nevertheless, 69 % use open dug well for drinking water and 17 % have neither water pipe
connection nor water dug well at home. In average each house pay 7,512 FCFA ( 85 DKK)
per months for electricity bill while those who had water pipe connection pay 4893 FCFA (
56 DKK) per month for water bills. It is important to stress that water bill concerns only
water supply since there is no wastewater treatment plant in Togo.
Problems related to waste in Ktao

Almost 100 % are not satisfied with the current waste situation in Ktao and believe that it
can lead to many health problems in Ktao. The following diseases were mentioned:
malaria, cholera, tetanus and typhoid fever. It was also mentioned that waste can lead to
children getting cut by sharp objects in the waste. Furthermore, it was emphasized that the
waste causes death of domestic animal which accidentally eat plastic bags.
It was stressed that solid waste situation hinder the esthetics of Ktao city, favor the
breeding of mosquito, flies, snakes and scorpion in the city and give rise to other nuisances
such as odor and blowing of plastic bags. In addition, the lack of dumpsite in the close
neighborhood was named as an increasing problem. In addition, flooding and erosions were
also believed by the local residents to be caused by the current waste situation.
Proposed solutions
The population suggested some solutions for better management of the waste in Ktao
(Table 9). The most popular solution is the pit (38 %) followed by a waste collection system
(29 %). Public sensitization was found to be a solution for the waste problem.
Table 9: The proposed solution for the solid waste in Ktao
Solution
Landfill(apitsetuptoreceivewaste)
Providewastebinsandsetupacollectionsystem
Sensitizethepopulationfortheimpactofwastesinthecity
Collectwasteandburnit
Organizepubliccleansingforpublicplaces
Percentage(%)
38
29
21
7
6
Willingness to pay
The purpose of the willingness to pay survey is to estimate willingness of the resident to pay
for the cost associated to the waste management plan (Abdrabo, 2007; Kinnaman, 2009).
The result showed that only 25 % was unwilling to pay for the waste collection. Their main
reasons were that they were poor and they did not have a reliable income source. However,
the affordable waste collection fee in Ktao can be estimated to 91 FCFA ( 1 DKK) per
week. This amount is the average amount computed from the survey and seems
reasonable since at the station (see Figure 5), each retailer pay 200 FCFA ( 2 DKK) per
week for station cleaning and waste collection.
26
2.3.3
Waste source-separating experiment
A source segregating was experimented in July-August. The source segregation schema

was (1) organic matter, (2) plastics and (3) the rest. Plastics bags, plastic drums and plastic
bowl with lid were provided to one of the 10 households selected to segregate their waste at
the source. Unfortunately, the experiment failed for many reasons. It is already mentioned
that in Ktao, people do not use waste bins to dispose of their waste. The waste is collected
after sweeping, meaning that waste is already mixed at the source before collection. As a
result, the quality of materials fractions (organics matter for the composting and plastics)
were very poor. The segregation potential and efficiency were very low, since waste was
already mixed after sweeping.
Figure 10: Waste sorting during the field work in Ktao
27
2.4
Projection of data
The projection of data enables to design adequate capacity for the controlled dump site and
to estimate the potential for recycling and composting. Furthermore, the projection of data
was done according to population growth (Lagerkvist et al., 2008) to cope with all changes
in the planning. In addition the seasonal variation was taken into consideration. For the
projection of data purpose, the duration of dry season in Ktao is estimated at 152 days
whereas the rainy season lasts 213 days. As a result, 22 weeks correspond to the dry
season and 30 weeks to the rainy season. The total schools period per year in Ktao is
estimated to 143 days.
2.4.1
Estimation of total waste produced per year
The total waste produced in 2010 in Ktao is estimated to 2,646 tones. The households
generate 93 % of the total waste per year in Ktao. The waste source characterized as
institution and commercials consists of the waste from schools, other institutions, bar and
restaurants, shops and station. The forecast of the future waste quantity in Ktao is
presented in Table 10. It is important to emphasize that it was assumed a waste growth rate
from each source to 2 % per year and a population growth rate of 4.3 % per year in Ktao.
Table 10: Future projection of total waste generated in Ktao
Wastecategories
Households
Institutionsandcommercials
Market
Total
Estimationofwastegeneratedintons
2010
20112015 20162030
2,458
14,855
85,427
146
768
2,812
42
221
811
2,646
15,844
89,050
20102030
10,2740
3,726
1,074
107,540
It was assumed that the same waste composition will remain over the 20 years. However, it
was found that the quantity of paper, plastic, and non combustible waste increases in
correlation with increase of living standard (Eawag, 2008). These increases may create new
recycling opportunity but will not significantly impact the capacity of the controlled dumpsite
(Cointreau, 1982).
28
Table 11: Estimation of the quantity of each waste fraction produced in Ktao by 2030
Wastefraction
Estimatedquantityofeachwastefraction(tones)
2010 20112015 20152030
20102030
858
5,135
28,798
34,791
39
233
1,313
1,584
137
817
4,571
5,525
37
223
1,255
1,515
38
226
1,271
1,535
15
87
492
594
251
1,503
8,432
10,185
11
65
366
442
1,261
7,556
42,551
51,368
2,646
15,844
89,050
107,540
Composition
(%)
Vegetablesandputrescible
33.52
Ash
1.30
Papersandcardboard
5.77
Metal
1.53
Textiles
1.55
Glass
0.50
Plastics
10.34
Batteries
0.34
Others
45.13
Total
100
Based on the estimated material fraction from the waste stream, it can be seen that three
waste processing methods can be applied in Ktao: (1) recycling of waste plastic, (2)
composting of vegetable and putrescible and (3) a controlled dumped. The quantity of
waste for each processing method is presented in Table 12 and described in detail in
chapter 3 of the thesis.
Table 12: Estimation of waste fraction according to their final disposal or process
Items
Recyclematerials:Plastics
Compostingfraction
Rest
Others
Total
EstimatedofwastefractionsinTones
2010 20112015 20162030
20102030
251
1,503
8,432
10,185
858
5,135
28,798
34,791
276
1,651
9,270
11,196
1,261
7,556
42,551
51,368
2,646
15,844
89,050
107,540
It can be seen in Figure 11 that, in the case where composting and recycling are
implemented, and soil is totally avoided from the waste stream, only 10 % of the waste will
be sent to the controlled dump.
29
Estimated waste quantity for 2010
Plastics
Composting
Rest
Others
9%
49%
32%
10%
Figure 11: Estimated total waste generated in 2010 and their potential treatment
30
2.5
Discussion of results
The household waste generation rate found in Ktao (0.22 to 0.42 kg/capita/day) is close to
the waste generation rate found in other cities in Africa. It was found 0.33 kg/capita/day in
Gaborone in Botswana (Bolaane, 2004), 0.55 to 0.58 kg/capita/day in Abuja in Nigeria
(Solomon & Ubei, 2009) and 0.6 kg/capita/day in Kumasi in Ghana (Asase et al., 2009).
The waste moisture content of 4 % in January is extremely low compared to other findings.
However, the waste moisture content of 33 to 63 %) in July-August is close to the results
from other studies. As an example the moisture content was found to be 55.8 % in Haiti
(Culot & Philippe, 2009), and 58.9 % in Algeria (Addou et al., 2009).
The material fraction characterized as other was found to be the predominant waste
fraction in the waste stream in Ktao. Similar result was found in Makuridi in Nigeria where
dust, sand and ash (combined) represented 21 to 41 % of the household waste (Sha`Ato et
al., 2007). However, the organic waste fraction has according to much literature been
estimated to represents up to 80% of the waste generated in developing countries (Diaz et
al., 1996).
There is no waste management system in Ktao so these data are the baseline for future
studies. Although the population shows a great interest in the project, there are some
uncertainties which should be pointed out. It was not found electronic waste in the waste
stream collected during waste characterization. Meanwhile, there is steady number of
citizen who uses mobile phone, television, radio and other electronics materials. Moreover,
it was not found in the waste stream bulky waste such as old bed which was found in the
dumpsite. Furthermore, the ash in the waste stream is likely to be mixed to other waste
fraction, meaning that the ash content in the waste stream could be affected. However,
considering the strong willingness manifested by the population upon the project, it can be
undoubtedly concluded that, the collection efficiency was very high.
31
Chapter 3 Waste master plan for Ktao

Planning of waste management for Ktao is developed based on the waste data collected
from the waste characterization projects in Ktao. The waste plan deals with waste storage
at the source, collection and transport as well as processing and final disposal.
3.1
Waste storage and collection
First priority for planning waste management system in Ktao is to control waste at the
source by introducing proper waste storage facilities. It ensures efficient and sanitation
management of solid waste (Holmes, 1984).
3.1.1
General conditions of a waste bin
The primary reason explaining the reflex of throwing waste in the street in developing
countries is unavailability of garbage bins or other disposal options in the street (Al-Khatib,
2009). It means that, the supply of waste facilities affects significantly waste disposal choice
(Tadesse et al., 2008). Therefore, the first innovation is to introduce waste bin in Ktao. The
waste bins should fulfill the following conditions. The surface of the metal drum and other
waste bins made out of metal should be painted as the wastes are corrosive and abrasive
especially in the rainy season (Diaz et al., 1996). The waste bins should be water-tight,
durable and have a tight-fitting lid to keep down insect, flies and to avoid scavenging
animals. The design and placement of the waste bins should ease the waste collection,
reduce workers direct contact with waste, and prevent them from being stolen. Thus, the
waste bin can have a notice of the owners name.
3.1.2
Household waste bin
Each household should have a waste bin to dispose of their waste. The waste bin should be
placed in secure place, easy to access by waste workers and not interfere with their
privacy. The household must be persuaded to maintain and clean the waste bin to avoid
developing the suitable breeding conditions for pathogen parasites.
3.1.3
Schools and other institutions waste bins
The schools and other institutions should have two types of waste bins: a waste bins for
classroom or office and waste bin for the courtyard. The cardboard boxes are suitable for
the classrooms and the office. The courtyard waste bin can be metal drums, galvanized
steels or plastic drums. It should comply with the requirements described in section 3.1.1.
3.1.4
Commercials waste bins
Shops, boutiques, bar and restaurants in Ktao should have a waste bin at their working
place. This idea can work only if it is enforced as a law which makes the stalls and shops
which dont have waste bin illegal. This goal can be achieved only by women organization,
trade, taxis and bus union. The waste bin can be a cardboard box, a plastics bin or
whatever which is suitable to keep the esthetics of their business.
32
3.1.5
Streets, station and market waste bins
Galvanized steel is very suitable for the street and market waste bins, but they should not
obstruct the streets and walking roads of the market which are already too small for the
traffic. They should be visible and mark with notice poubelle meaning waste bin in French.
3.1.6
Suggested volume of the waste bin for each waste source
The following size of waste bins for each waste type is suggested (see Table 13). Figure 12
shows examples of waste bins that can be used in Ktao.
Table 13: Volume of waste bins for each waste source
Volume(L)
Wastesources
Households
Minimum
30
20
10
20
30
100
100
Institutionscourtyard
Officeandclassroom
Shops
Barsandrestaurant
Station
Market
Maximum
70
50
15
50
70
200
200
Figure 12: Waste bins: a. galvanized drum, b. plastic bucket and c. small plastic waste paper bin
33
3.2
Waste collection
The waste collection should cover the entire city and the service level has to be the same
for all. The collection has to be subject of fees to ensure sustainability of the waste
management system.
3.2.1
Waste collection method
The door to door method is an efficient and suitable waste collection method for in Ktao. It
is a tangible service in the eyes of the citizens, which can deserve a collection fee
(Buenrostro et al., 2001; Rothenberger et al., 2006 and Cofie et al., 2009). This method was
applied successfully during the waste characterization project. It minimizes the risk of waste
scattering and enables control of the waste. It can be asked to residents to bring their waste
bin to the door when the waste collector comes in order to reduce heavy lifting by waste
worker and the collection time. In addition this method will prevent the waste collectors from
walking in and out the premises and allow the privacy of residents to be respected (Holmes,
1984). Collectors have to announce their presence by choosing one of the following
methods: ringing the bell, knocking at the door or whistling.
3.2.2
The house identification system
It was mentioned that houses dont have addresses and are built without consulting the city
plan. This situation could be a handicap for a proper waste collection system. Therefore, a
house identification system is important when a strong and user-friendly waste collection
system should be built. The waste collection system should ensure an optimization of the
waste collection routes. It should also allow the waste collectors to easily identify the
houses, commercials and institutions from which they are assigned to collect the waste.
Moreover, waste collection system should ease the integration of new houses in the routing
system and enable a clear administration of the payments for waste collection.
The waste collection system can be based on a database system described as follow: The
city of Ktao will be divided into zones. Each zone will be given a name and attributed a
unique number. The streets in each zone will have a name and a number consisting of zone
number and street number separated by a comma. Finally, the house identification number
will be structured hierarchically, starting by the zone number, followed by the street number
and the house number along the street. Consequently, the number of the street identifies
the zone while the number of the house identifies the zone and the street where it is
located. The house number should be noted on the entrance door. For e.g. this could be
zone number I, street number I.234 and corresponding house number could be I,234.234.
Zones, streets and houses should be drawn on the city map. Current maps of Ktao (see
Annex 7) are very old and not updated. Therefore, it is suggested to use the Google
satellite image of Ktao which is of good quality and can be accessed for free from Google
maps or Google Earth (see Annex 8).
34
3.2.3
Waste collection and sorting
The waste transport consists of transportation of the waste from the source to either the
final disposal or the waste processing area. Waste transfer station is disregarded for many
reasons: (1) Ktao is a relatively small city. (2) Under tropical climate conditions and
especially in rainy season, the decomposition of organic material occurs rapidly (Diaz et al.,
1996). In order to avoid adverse impacts, the transfer station should be equipped with a
containers or a drum that can be closed. Somebody should be employed in the transfer
station to ensure proper storage of the waste. (3)Transportation of the drum or container
from the transfer station to the final disposal will require vehicle which might be
unaffordable. Alternatively, many controlled dump sites (section 3.7.2) can be set up in the
edge of the town, but they should fulfill the conditions described later in section 3.7.5.
3.2.4
Equipments
The suitable and affordable equipments are handcarts and rickshaws. Handcarts were
successfully used during the waste characterization projects. Handcarts can access all the
houses of Ktao. They are readily available in the local market and can be easily
maintained. In addition, rickshaw can be used as well, since they are widely used in Lom.
3.2.5
Collection frequency
The waste collection frequency is set up with the aim that the waste should be collected
before the waste bin is overwhelmed. The collection frequency for household waste is
shown in Table 14.
Table 14: Estimated household waste collection frequency per week
Items
Number of person per households
Waste generation rate
Density (kg/liter)
Volume per week (liters)
Volume of waste bin (liters)
Collection frequency per week
Rainy season
Maximum Minimum
34
1
0.22
0.22
0.5
0.5
104.72
3.08
70
30
2
1
Average
9
0.22
0.5
27.72
Rainy season
Maximum Minimum
19
1
0.42
0.42
0.5
0.5
111.72
5.88
70
30
2
1
Average
6
0.42
0.5
35.28
It is assumed that large households will receive big waste bins whereas small households
will receive waste bins of minimum capacity. The minimum density is considered to avoid
underestimating of the waste volume. It appears that the optimal collection frequency of
household waste is two times per week. The collection frequency should be respected
especially in the rainy season where waste decomposes readily. However, in the dry
season the waste can be collected every fifth days. Households should call the waste
collection service for their bulky wastes, which should be collected by appointment.
From Table 6 and Table 13, the following waste collection frequency can be suggested
35
Table 15: Waste collection frequency for commercials, institutions and market
Wastetype
Schools
Otherinstitutions
Barsandrestaurant
Shops
Station
Market
3.2.6
Collectionfrequency(timeperweek)
1
2
2
1
2
1(Thursday)
Waste sorting
Waste sorting should be set up in case recycling or/and composting are implemented. It
should be located close to the final disposal site. The waste should be sorted out according
to the materials fraction listed in Table 12.
3.2.7
Conceptual outline of the waste management system in Ktao
Based on the waste characterization data, composting of vegetables and putrescible and
recycling of the waste plastics are the potential waste treatments that can be suggested in
Ktao. The remains of waste fractions will be sent to the controlled dump (see section 3.7).
The conceptual outline of waste treatment facility is presented in Figure 13. The dotted lines
mean that residues of composting and recycling plants that will be sent to the controlled
dumps are very small and can be disregarded.
Figure 13: Conceptual outline of waste treatment facility
3.2.8
Flows in the system
The flows are represented as a percentage corresponding to the waste type from which it is
derived and sent to the particular treatment. Figure 14 shows that 31 to 36 % of the waste
36
can be composted while 10 % of the waste can be recycled. Furthermore, 54 to 59 % of

waste will be dumped.
Wastetypes
Treatment
Composting
Households,institutions&
commercials
Recycling
Market
Controlleddump
Figure 14: Flow of the waste management system in Ktao
37
3.3
Public awareness and participation
The public participation is the key element for a successful waste management system.
Environmental awareness and information especially on health risks associated to the solid
waste should be continuously communicated to all sectors of the population (Zurbrgg,
2002).
Before the beginning of the implementation, it should be made sure that the entire
population gets the same information. This can be done by mouth to mouth method, by
house visit and meetings with all organized groups. The master plan should be presented in
these meetings, and the input and feedback of the citizen should be required and
implemented.
3.3.1
The main issues
The first visible action is setting up waste bins on publics areas and especially, in the
market, station, mosque and churches. The majority of the population in Ktao is very
religious. The presence of waste bins in the praying places will be visible to the majority of
the population and it will be considered as religious correct. It constitutes a very active
sensitization method, since it targets the majority of the population.
In Ktao, elites, wealthy traders, unions leaders and local and religious authorities, and
chief of Ktao are the powerful and respected personalities. But the fact that they are
always busy, instable and have many responsibilities already, it will be wise not to give
them direct responsibility in the waste management system, but rather involvement them in
information campaign and awareness program and maintain good relationship with them.
To gain the trust of the population and reach a high level of participation, population should
have a possibility to complain to waste management authorities. For example a mobile
phone or landline numbers can be made available to public complaints.
The willingness survey conducted in July-August enables to set up charging fees to 100
FCFA (see page 26). The waste collection fees are regarded as the first income of the
waste management system. However, the collection fees can constitute a constraint for
poor people and other vulnerable groups to participate to the waste management system
while their participation is critical for building ownership among all the users of the system
(Bernstein, 2004). Therefore, a month bonus can be given to all houses at the beginning of
the collection. In addition, the possibility to accept payment in for example labor or
agricultural products should be looked into.
3.3.2
Educational programs
An educational program should be introduced in all levels of the society in Ktao and should
target entire society. It is obvious that the key community members manifest a strong
interest by the project, without seeking to understand the aim and utilities. The reason is
that, they are very respectful and always willing to offer hospitality to new initiatives
especially foreign. Therefore, it is very important to involve them in the education program
38
in order to keep them informed about the utility, scope and limitation of the project. This can
avoid any misunderstanding or wrong interpretation of the project.
An introduction of an educational program directly in the school as part of education
program may be the best mean to get schoolchildren and students directly involved in the
management system. This issue should be discussed closely with the school authorities in
the ministry of education. However, hospitals leaders, the local Peace Corps volunteer, key
community members, schools teacher and NGOs should be involved in designing this
program. A competition can be organized every year amongst students and schoolchildren
about the waste management system, water and sanitation.
Furthermore, football game tournament can also be organized to gather people and
sensitize them about the utility of waste management system and the importance of their
participation. In addition there are many video clubs in Ktao which gather predominantly
children and young guys who abandon school. A short film about waste management and
sanitation made by a local theatre group can be advertised before the film. A mass clean
up should be organized to help increase public awareness and collect indiscriminate
dumped waste from streets and around residential areas.
39
3.4
Presentation of existing recycling in Ktao
During the waste characterization, aluminum, construction and demolition waste, and old
tired were not found in the waste stream. Aluminum is transformed by local handcraft to
produce new kitchenware and other useful items. Construction and demolition waste are
completely recycled. They are reused in the new construction and to fill holes in the road.
The shoemakers make shoes, bags and other items out of the old tires. In addition plastic
bottles and unbroken glasses were rarely found in the waste stream. The beer bottles are
returned to the brewery. However, the plastic bottles and other glasses are collected
cleaned and sold in the market. As an example, the plastic bottle are collected, cleaned and
reused as syrup, drinks and juice containers.
It should be stressed that, the waste management plan disregards technologies like
incineration, bio gasification and production of Refuse Derive Fuel (RDF). Their prohibitive
cost and the characteristics of the waste stream make them inappropriate for Ktao
(Brunner & Fellner, 2007).
2
40
Figure 15: Existence waste recycling process in Ktao:
1-aluminum recycling process, 2-Bucket for water made out of galvanized drum, 3-rope
made out of plastic waste, 4-Clean plastic bottle reuse as juice container, 5-Metal collected
to be shipped to China, 6- collected hard plastic shoes to be sent to Nigeria for recycling, 7tomato can for sale in market of Ktao, 8-Bags use to get water from the open wells.
Figure 16: Hospital waste incineration plant in Ktao

41
3.5
Waste plastic recycling in Ktao
3.5.1
Potential of waste plastic recycling in Ktao
The plastic waste is the third most predominant material fraction in the waste stream in
Ktao (Table 7). A small scale recycling plant model can be used. It should have a
minimum capacity of 400 kg/hour (3,504 tons), capable of running 24 hours per day and
seven days per week in order to lower operating cost and ensure the economic viability of
the plant (Giorgio, 2010).
Total waste plastic generated in Ktao is estimated to 251 tons per year. Taking into
consideration the population growth rate and the waste generation rate, it is estimated to
1754 tons of waste plastics from 2010 to 2015 as it is seen in Table 12. It means that from
2010 to 2015, if the waste plastic is collected from the waste stream, it will possible to start
running efficiently the recycling plant in 2015. Moreover, the waste plastic from other cities
located in the radius less than 50 km around Ktao (Table 1) can contribute to secure the
supply of material. As a result, waste plastic recycling will be economical viable project. It
will reduce 10 % of the total municipal waste and extent the lifetime of the controlled
dumpsite. Furthermore, it will create jobs and generate income (Wilson et al., 2001), and
therefore, contribute to poverty alleviation.
3.5.2
Plastic scrap recycling process
Plastic waste supply and price

There are two options to get waste plastic: (1) waste plastic can be sorted manually from
the municipality solid waste. In this case, people will be hired to sort the waste after the
collection. (2) The waste plastic plant can offer to buy the waste plastic from citizens. The
latter option seems more effective for many reasons. First, this method shows satisfactory
result in others cities in Africa (Bayili et al., 2006). Second, due to high rate of
unemployment, this method will egg the population on collecting and sorting waste in order
to sell them to the recycling plant. It will constitute a new source of income for many
households.
The new plastic bag is sold for 110 FCFA /kg ( 1.3 DKK/kg) in the local market. There is
an NGO in Lom which is buying waste plastic bag at 75 FCFA /kg ( 0.9 DKK/kg). Thus,
the price of waste plastic bag should be less or equal to 75 FCFA /kg ( 0.9 DKK/kg).
Recycling process
Due to technology level in Togo in general, mechanically recycling approach, meaning that
the plastic is recycled as polymer, appears to be the best option. The process involves
many steps. It starts by waste plastic cleaning to remove dirt and contaminants. Plastic
washing can be done manually in the same way as people wash their clothes in Ktao. This
plastic washing method is already used in many countries like Egypt, Peru, India, Thailand
(Holmes, 1984). It should be offered to buy only washed plastic bags for many reasons:
42
Firstly, the waste plastic will be bought on weight basis. Therefore, the dirty plastic would
otherwise have a higher weight and cost more. Secondly, it is very expensive to build and
operate a waste plastic washing facility, because it will request a water supply, detergents,
wastewater treatment and discharge.
After washing, plastic is cut into plastic grain (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2008). The plastic
afterwards undergoes grinding and crushing to reduce the plastic size (Aguado & Serrano,
1999). The end product is fed in the extrusion and screening to melt the plastic. A melted
plastic is cut into granulates and cooled in water (Christensen & Fruergaard, 2008). The
end product is packed in specified form and amounts suitable for the sale (ABADI, 2004).
Recycling products
The recycling product should not be used for food container and any direct contact with
food should be avoided due to the recycling method applied. Therefore, the end product
can be sold to the other processor in Lom (capital of Togo) or abroad. It can also be used
to produce small items which can be easily sold in the local market. It is mainly, pipe,
schools bags, shoes, rubber boot, desk chair and tarpaulin. It can produce the plastic bag to
pack compost for commercialization.
In Burkina Faso, a successful and original experience was tested. It consists of using waste
plastic to produce road pavestone (Bayili et al., 2006) whereas, in Mali, the waste plastic is
burned and mixed with sand to produce pavestone (France 24, 2008). These experiences
can be tested also in Ktao.
Constraints to the recycling

Ktao depends to Kara region for electricity supply, which is highly unstable. Blackouts are
recurrent and can last many hours especially during the rainy season. Therefore, a
generator could be considered.
43
3.6
Composting
The wastes composition in Ktao is suitable for composting because of its high percentage
of organic matter (27 to 53 %). It is estimated to 858 tons of organic matter per year. Waste
composting in Ktao presents diverse benefits. Composting will significantly reduce the
volume of waste to be sent to the controlled dumpsite and thereby increases its life time.
Agricultural soils in Ktao are degraded and have a very low yield. Therefore, chemical
fertilizers are applied every year to increase the yield. However, it is demonstrated that the
continual use of the chemical fertilizer, can dramatically destroy the physical property of the
soil, harms the micro flora and change the chemical composition of the soil radically
(Schreur & Van Reuler, 2001). For the agricultural campaign 2009-2010, the price of
chemical fertilizer was set up to 220 FCFA (2.5 DKK) per kilo (Rpublique Togolaise, 2010),
despite the government subsidies. Therefore, the compost can contribute to enhance the
fertility of the soil and reduce the production cost, by minimizing the utilization of chemical
fertilizer.
In addition, it was found that compost extracts can potentially suppress diseases caused by
fungi (Kessler & Helbig, 2001). If further researches confirm the findings, compost can be
used for phytosanitary purpose as well.
3.6.1
Composting process
Composting is a transformation of organic matter under predominantly aerobic condition to

a state that is stable and nuisance-free. The end product is compost which is beneficial to
plant growth (Stentiford & de Bertoldi, 2008). It is a biological process which occurs through
the activities of microorganism, naturally found in soil (Cooperband, 2002).
The general formula which shows the inputs and outputs of the composting process is
presented in equation 1. It gives an overview of the different factors involved in the compost
process.
organic _ matter + O 2 + nutrients bacteria

new _ cells + resis tan t _ organic _ matter
+ CO 2 + H 2 O + NH 3 + SO 42 + .. + heat
Equation 1
(Hoornweg et al., 1999)
3.6.2
Environmental factors
Temperature, pH level, moisture content, aeration, carbon-nitrogen ratio and other nutrients
are factors which should be monitored to ensure a good quality of compost (Mbuligwe et al.,
2002).
44
Temperature and pH level

The recommended temperature at the beginning of the composting process should exceed
55 C at the beginning of the composting (Stentiford & Bertoldi, 2008).
The optimal pH level during the composting is between 6 and 8, but the final end product
should have a pH that ranges between 7 and 7.5 (Mbuligwe et al., 2002).
Moisture content
The moisture dissipates heat (Hoornweg et al., 2000) and provides a working environment
that most of required microorganisms for transporting critical nutrients through their cells
membrane. To ensure that the microorganism will have enough water that is needed
throughout the whole composting process, it is normal to start with a moisture content of 55
to 65% (Stentiford et al., 2008). The measured waste moisture content is 4 % and 33-53 %
respectively in the dry and rainy season. Therefore, the moisture content can be maintained
by sprinkling water on the feed material being composted (Mbuligwe et al., 2002). A study
conducted in Kumassi, suggested that the faecal matter can be successfully combined with
organic matter to produce a high quality of compost and resolve the moisture content issue
(Cofie et al., 2009).
It should be kept in mind that, the moisture content under 12 % is inhibiting and all the
microbial activities cease (Diaz et al., 1996). Moisture content above optimum causes water
to fill the interstitial spaces in the structure and turns the process into anaerobic conditions
and produces odorous gases (Zhao et al., 2008). For these reasons, a roof can be set up in
the composting center to avoid water from rain coming into contact with waste in the
composting plant. Furthermore, the composting should be conducted on concrete or a
strong and resistant plastic bag to control the moisture content.
Nutrition factors
The nutrients plays a key role in the composting process are carbon, nitrogen and sulphur.
The carbon degradation is important for the overall mass loss during composting whereas,
nitrogen and sulphur degradation is important for the nutrient content of the compost and
release of the odor during composting process (Stentiford& Bertoldi, 2008). In addition,
phosphorous and potassium is required for microorganism growth (Hoornweg et al., 2000).
The C/N ratio is the important factor.
C/N ratio
It is obvious that carbon and nitrogen analyses are not feasible for the moment in Ktao.
Therefore the assumption of Diaz et al. (1996) can be applied. It consists of assuming that if
the ratio of green (in color) raw waste (or of food preparation waste, or of fresh manure) to
dry, non-green waste is volumetrically about 1 to 4, the C/N will be within a permissible
range. The optimum ratio C/N can be obtained by combining various organic wastes with a
low C/N waste, in order to balance the ratio C/N. Pilot study conducted in Dar es Salam,
45
Tanzania revealed that the optimum C/N ratio ranges for raw waste is 25-30 (Mbuligwe et
al., 2002).
Particles size and aeration

The size of the particles in the waste stream in Ktao is small and very suitable for the
composting. Thus the size reduction is not needed.
The composting process is an aerobic process and therefore, oxygen supply is a critical
factor. Thus, the compost plant should be set up in the area where the environment enables
better wind ventilation.
3.6.3
Technology
The appropriate composting system in Ktao has to be selected based on its adaptability to
the economical conditions and technical level available in Ktao (Diaz et al., 1996). Thus,
the suitable composting technology in Ktao is the static windrow with passive aeration.
The passive aeration does not require mechanical equipment (Diaz et al., 1996). The best
example of passive aeration which can be implemented easily in Ktao is the Chinese
covered pile method showed in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Chinese covered pile method Source: (Hoornweg et al., 1999)
The Chinese covered pile system used a grid of vertical and horizontal bamboo or timber.
The timber should have a diameter of about 6 to 8 cm. They are placed horizontally on the
top of a mixture of organic waste which is piled to a height of approximately 15 to 20 cm.
The timbers are placed about 1 m apart. These horizontal timbers cross four vertical
timbers or bamboo erected as it is illustrated in the Figure 17. A cover of mud or of clay
mixed with straw is placed on top of the pile to prevent heat and moisture losses. Once the
mud or the clay mixed with straw are dried air ducts are created within the pile by removing
the timber and bamboo (Diaz et al., 1996) and (Hoornweg et al., 1999). This composting
system presents many advantages. It achieves a high and a relatively even distribution of
temperature in the composting mass. However, there is doubt about the effectiveness of the
aeration as there is inadequate lateral movement of air (Diaz et al., 1996). Bamboo is very
rare in Ktao. Thus timber or tree steams of branches can be used instead.
46
The drum composting is another composting technology. It is a system which uses a used
plastic drum for composting. The drum is open and receives a mixture waste. It is intended
for small scale composting especially for households.
3.6.4
Type of composting plant
The community based and small scale composting plants could be suggested, since they
requires low capital investment and uses labor intensive activities (Imam et al., 2008).
Besides that, they appear to be feasible and more realistic for developing countries (EtuahJackson et al., 2001). For instance, farmers who produce vegetables can be trained to set
up a group or an individual composting plant close to their farm. The compost will be
applied directly on their own farm. This method can resolve the market problem which is the
main cause of the composting plants failure in Africa (Cofie et al., 2009). It should be
emphasized that for the period 2009-2010, 30,000 tons of chemical fertilizer was sold in
Togo (Rpublique Togolaise, 2010).
3.6.5
Constraints and issues
The survey found that only 45 % of the population knew about composting, meaning that
they have heard about it or have an idea about how it is done. However, composting was
not suggested as a solution for the waste problem in Ktao (Table 9). These findings
confirmed the conclusion that there is a lack of knowledge associated with the utility, the
preparation and application of compost in general in Togo (Kessler & Helbig, 2001).
Therefore, the population should be introduced and trained to produce compost.
Composting can be introduced as a course in the schools in Ktao.
More importantly, the government subsidizes the chemical fertilizer which appears to be
one of the elections campaign promises made by the current government to the farmers.
This policy to maintain subsidies on chemical fertilizers removes and discourages farmers
interest in composting (Imam et al., 2008).
47
3.7
Final disposal
Controlled dump is considered as the best and feasible solution for the final waste disposal
in Ktao because of economically and technical constraints. It comprises of clay liner which
will be manually compacted, the periodical and final cover. The controlled dumps should be
considered as a stepwise progression alternative, aiming to move forward to state-of-art
sanitary landfill. The controlled dumpsite is well accepted in Ktao because it was classified
as the first solution by the population to solve waste problem in Ktao.
3.7.1
Method of closing open dumpsite
The first important step to ensure a successful implementation of the waste management
plan is to close all the indiscriminate open dumps in Ktao or upgrade them (UNEP, 2005).
Many methods are suggested for closing dumpsites.
Firstly, the dumpsites can be closed by removing waste from the site and sent it to the
controlled dumpsite (ISWA, 2010). The transport of the waste from the dumpsite to the CD
can be supported by the prefectures service or donor funds. The population may contribute
by loading the waste in the truck manually. Secondly, open dumpsite can be upgraded into
a controlled disposal facility if the site complies with controlled dumpsites requirements
described later(UNEP, 2005). However, the local community should be involved at initial
planning to ensure that, the population takes the ownership of the initiative (Bernstein,
2004).
Closing and post-closing activities at the dumpsite are equality important because the final
utilization of the dumpsite is determinant factor to prevent the population resuming to
discard waste in the same sites again. Therefore, after closing dumpsites the sites should
be utilized. As an example, the site can be use as a green or a recreation area for the public
or for construction purpose (UNEP, 2005).
3.7.2
Controlled dumps (CD)
The controlled dump means that the waste will be controlled at the final disposal, which
includes the choice of site, the operational system in the site. As a result, the potential
environmental impact from the waste dumped is likely to be reduced (UNEP, 2005) and
(Diaz et al., 1996) compared to the open dump. Most importantly, upgrading an open
dumpsite into a controlled dumpsite or creating a new controlled dumpsite require little or no
additional investment compare to open dumping site (Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999).
3.7.3
Description of waste type accepted in the controlled dump
It is suggested that for the first five years, the entire waste collected in the city will be sent in
the CD until other new waste processing and transformations systems are implemented in
Ktao. But, a special attention should be given to the following material fractions:
48
Animal carcass
The death animals are generally consumed as meat, but the Muslims do not consume dead
animal due to their religious believe. Death animals which are not consumed are buried.
The death animal may be accepted in CD, but a soil cover should be applied directly after
the death animal is disposed to avoid offensive odors and attraction of dogs and birds.
Hazardous waste
The healthcare waste is hazardous waste (Diaz et al., 1996). It is considered as special
waste because it contains infectious and pathological materials (Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999)
and therefore, it should not be accepted in the CD. The hospital should continue to be
incinerated as it is done.
3.7.4
Volume of waste to be sent in the controlled dumpsite
Based on the waste characterization data, two scenarios are set up: The first scenario
consists of sending the entire waste collected in Ktao to the dumpsite for the first five
years (2010-2015). After this period only the following waste fractions will be send to the
CD: ash, textiles, paper and cardboard, glass, batteries and other. The organic matter will
be composted and the plastic will be recycled. Thus, a minimum volume of controlled
dumpsite is estimated at 49,217.4m3 for the period 2010 to 2030 (see Table 16).
The second scenario estimates the maximum volume of the dumpsite. It is assumed that
the entire waste goes to the landfill, since there is no guarantee that the composting and
recycling process are going to be implemented. The maximum volume of the controlled
dumpsite from 2010 to 2030 is estimated at 75,278m3 (see Table 16).
Table 16: Volume of controlled dumpsite for 20 years (2010-2030)
Items
Mass(tons)
Density
Volume(m3)
Volumetotal(m3)
3.7.5
MinimumVolume
20102015
20162030
18490
51820
0.7
0.7
12,943.1
36,274.2
49,217.4
Maximumvolume
20102030
107,540
0.7
75,278
75,278
Choice of site of the controlled dumpsite (CD)
A soil liner will be applied in the controlled dumpsite. Therefore, the choice of the site
remains the most important parameter to prevent leachate from entering groundwater and
surface water(Christensen et al., 2008).
Conditions
Many criteria had been developed by UNEP (2005) for the choice of the controlled dump
site. The conditions that can be applied in Ktao are:
49
The capacity of the area and it proximity to build-up areas

The capacity of the area is computed and presented in the Table 17. However, it should be
possible to split the CD into small CDs around the city if it is difficult to find a location with
required area.
The minimum distance between the CD facility perimeter and the residential area is
estimated to 250 meters. Moreover, the CD site should not be visible from residential area
at distance less than 1 km.
Hydro-geological condition
The sites should have a slope which is greater than 1 % and less than 20 % to avoid risk of
the tropical storm accumulate on flat sites and erode on steep. Furthermore, to minimize
contamination of surface and ground water, sites characterized by low stream densities will
be chosen (Diaz et al., 1996). Bottom lining will not be used. Therefore, CD should be
located in a clay or silt deposit soils, to contain or inhibit the release of leachate (Rushbrook
& Pugh, 1999). Moreover, the site should be positioned at least 1km downwind of houses
and 50m from surface water source (Rouse et al., 2008).
Mapping and site investigation

The fast way to find the candidate sites is to use the map of Ktao and apply all the criteria
listed above. It can be done with MapInfo or ArcGis softwares. The second step is a site
investigation to confirm whether or not the candidate sites in the map fulfill the condition
described above and develop a conceptual design (Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999). Finally, a
consultation of all the stakeholders such as politicians (parliament members from the area,
chief of Ktao, prefect), unions and associations, key community personalities (see
sections 1.2.2 and 1.2.4) as well as landowner and people living near the candidate sites,
will permit to choose the accurate sites.
3.7.6
Technical operations
Equipments
The city of Ktao cannot afford heavy machinery to operate at the CD. This is the main
reason to use manual operation. Other underlying reasons are the fact that, Ktao is
relatively small city and generate in maximum 15 tons of waste per day, with density of
about 500 kg/m3 to 900 kg/m3, meaning that even waste compacting is not needed
(Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999). The unemployment rate in Ktao is high and the wage cost is
very low. As a result, the manual placement of waste in the CD of Ktao is likely to be
effective, successful and lower in cost (Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999). It should be highlighted
that, the operation activities include placing and spreading of the waste, and soil cover will
be manually undertaken.
50
Waste placement
Many methods will be applied for the waste placement in the CD of Ktao. It is suggested to
excavate in order to form a void where the waste will be disposed. The stockpiled soil may
be used for periodically and top cover (Rouse et al., 2008). If the excavated soil is
insufficient, it can be hauled at the site {Berge et al., 2008). The suitable waste placement is
to build up waste layers vertically to form a rounded and domed site at the end. Each layer
forms series of cells across the landscape. Each cell can receive one to three month of
waste. The cells should be separated by soil cover (Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999).
Design of controlled dumpsite

The following formula is used to compute the volume of selected site (UNEP, 2005 & Diaz
et al., 1996).
LS =
1
{( A * d * b * c ) ((WGR * P ) )}
365
Equation 2
LS = estimated life span of the controlled dumpsite (years), A =area of the disposal site
(m2), b = average compaction rate, c = soil cover to waste ratio, = lose density of the
waste (kg/m3), P = population to be served (persons).
The life span of the CD is set to 20 years (LS = 20). The controlled dumpsite aims to
receive the total waste of the city of Ktao (variable Y in equation below):
Y = 365 WGR P LS
Equation 3
There are two values of Y: a minimum and a maximum according to the scenarios (see
Table 16). There is not compaction. Thus, the average compaction factor (b) is disregarded.
The total area needed is calculated by the following formula:
A=
Y
d c
Equation 4
51
The area estimated (A) does not include the buffer zone and other facilities described for
environmental measurement. (Diaz et al., 1996) estimated that the area (A) represents 50
to 80 % of the total area of the landfill in general. In this case, 80 % is reasonable because
of the high growth of population observed in Ktao. The total area is shown in Table 17.
Table 17: Parameters to compute the area of controlled dump
Parameters
MinValue
Estimatedlifespanofthecontrolleddumpsite(years):
20
LS
Averagedepthofthedisposalsite(m):d
5
Soilcovertowasteratio:c
0.85
3
0.7
Losedensityofthewaste(tons/m ):
Wastequantity(tons):Y
70,311
2
Areaofthedisposalsite(m ):A
78,779
Ratiobetweendisposalareaandtotalarea
0.8
2
Totalarea(m ):AT
29,542
Totalarea(ha)
2.9
Maxvalue References
20
5
0.85
0.7
107,540
120,493
0.8
45,185
4.5
(UNEP,2005)
(UNEP,2005)
(Diazetal.,1996)
Daily cover
The daily cover aims to monitor the infiltration of water into the waste, and thus reduces the
early generation of leachate. It contributes to minimize the amount of litter, dust at the
landfill site (Berge et al., 2008). The daily cover also controls the migration of gas from the
waste (UNEP, 2005). The daily cover application will differ from the dry to the rainy season.
Daily cover is nearly unfeasible in the dry season for many reasons. In the dry season, the
soil is very dry making the manual excavation very hard work. The waste is very dry with a
moisture content of 4 %. Consequently, it can be assumed that there is no microbial activity
taking place in the waste during this period. Therefore, taps, big net, tree branches or
timbers can be used as daily cover to minimize waste blowing by Harmattan wind.
On the contrary, for the rainy season, there are heavy rains with a waste moisture content
of 33 to 63 % (Table 8). For this reason, daily cover with taps, tarpaulins, big strong plastic
or soil cover is needed. The soil cover should be prioritized for daily cover, because it
intercepts and retains rainfall and thereby minimizes excessive leachate production (Berge
et al., 2008).
Table 18: Thickness of cover soil and exposure time
Typeofsoilcover
Intermediate
Final
Minimumthickness
15
60
52
Exposuretime
30to365days
>365days
Top cover
The top cover is part of landfill barrier system which contributes to reduce the environmental
risk associated to landfill (Christensen et al., 2008). It reduces infiltration of water into the
disposal area and gas migration, prevents burrowing of insets and rodent from the refuse,
minimizes the escape of odors and support vegetation (UNEP, 2005). The thickness of
cover soil and exposure time is presented in the Table 18 (Diaz et al., 1996).The top cover
structure is illustrated in Figure 18.
Figure 18: Recommended final soil cover (UNEP, 2005)
The final surface of the fill has to be about 2-4 % to avoid problem and hazard cause by
unstable slope (UNEP, 2005).The grading of surface soil is drawn in Figure 19.
Figure 19: Grading of surface soil (updated from (UNEP, 2005).
3.7.7
Environmental measurements
A range of environmental measurements are required to minimize the environmental impact

and the public health adverse impact from the CD. It also aims to protect workers as well as
people living near the CD. The noise will not be a problem in the CD site since motorized
vehicles will not be used for the waste collection, compaction and operation in the site.
Measurement above and around the landfill site

Wire fences are unaffordable in Ktao. Therefore the CD area should be protected by a
hedgerow with a single gate, through which the access to CD will be controlled. The
hedgerow forms a visual barrier keep the aesthetic of the site and give a good image of the
CD to the populace. The trees should be planted in a row and very closely to form an
animal-proof barrier. These trees should have the advantage of growing rapidly and reach
very high height, which can constitute a significant barrier to blowing litter, particularly light
53
materials (plastics and papers) as well as the dust from the CD site. In addition, ditch can
be dug around the perimeter of CD to enhance effectiveness of access limitation. It can also
be designed in the sense that it intercepts and avoids the rain water accumulating in CD
(Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999).
Pigs, cattle, goat, sheep, dogs and courtyard birds should not be allowed to feed of the CD
because, they can on the one hand spread diseases from the CD to humans and on the
other hand, they can readily die by swallowing plastic bags, cans and others dangerous
wastes (Blight et al., 1996).
A signboard can be set up at the crossroads between the main street and the pathway of
the controlled dumpsite. It should indicate the name of the facility, hours of opening and the
name and telephone number of the person to whom any queries, for example complaints
should be directed (Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999).
Liner, leachate and gas quantity generated

Due to economic and technical constraint the no liner option should be chosen. However,
an estimation of leachate quantities will give a better understanding of the CD impact on the
environment (Blight et al., 1996). The volume of leachate is computed by using the
simplified climatic water balance method (UNEP, 2005).
B= RE
Equation 5
where B = leachate volume, R = volume of precipitation, and E = volume of evaporation

from the controlled dump cover surface in mm water.
The yearly water loss in the north of Togo was estimated at 1600 mm (Faure, 1985) while
the average rain fall from 1999 to 2007 from meteorological centre near Ktao (approx. 9
km) was measured to 1337 mm per year. Therefore updated annum water loss data is
needed.
However, the method developed by Blight et al., (1996) could be applied to determine
whether or not, the leachate collection and underline system is needed. This method is
sketched below.
54
Figure 20: Classification of landfill based on season from (Blight et al., 1996)
Synthetic liners are relatively expensive and it is also very expensive to install synthetic
liner. In addition, it requires a very high quality control of the site preparation, installation,
and protection (Rushbrook & Pugh, 1999). Thus, leachate collection and a synthetic
underlines liner are obviously unaffordable in Ktao, if all costs are going to be paid by the
beneficiaries. Therefore, compacted clay soil liner appears to be the feasible option to
minimize the rate at which the leachate within the CD facility escape into the surrounding
environment (UNEP, 2005).
Facilities and equipments at the controlled dump

A wide range of facilities are needed at the controlled dump site in order to ensure a good
working environment for the workers (Cointreau, 1982). A small office can be set up at the
CD for waste workers. A weighting scale will be needed to measure the weight of waste
disposes of in the controlled dump site. In addition, it will be wise to have a toilet facility for
waste workers.
The waste workers should have suitable equipment to protect themselves against injuries
and other health threats. The safety equipments are: Safety gloves, boots, eyes protection,
and adapted suits. In order to raise public awareness, the CD should be open for visits by
the public. The school pupils should be encouraged to visit the site. All visitors should be
registered in the visit book.
55
Site scavenging
Waste scavenging could be allowed at the dumpsite. Scavengers have to be over 18 years
old. Children and students should be denied the access to the CD. The entrance should be
scheduled to avoid conflicting between waste workers working hours and the scavengers.
Sketch of the controlled dumpsite

Figure 21 draws the sketch of the controlled dump. It is adapted from UNEP (2005).
Figure 21: Sketch of the controlled dumpsite
1-The waste cell, 2-drainage ditch and delimitation of the waste area, 3-hedgerow made out
trees, 4-Entrance of the controlled dump, 5- Workers office and 6- Weighing scale
56
3.8
Implementation strategy of controlled dumpsite
The controlled dump is the first waste disposal facility which should be implemented. It is
intended to receive the entire waste of the town in the first years after the beginning of the
waste management system. The introduction of waste plastic recycling and composting will
reduce the volume of the waste disposed of in the controlled dumpsite. The draft waste flow
along the time is drawn in Figure 22
Figure 22: Draft of waste flow and application time line
Micro and small enterprises (MSE) and committee based organization (CBO) should be the
potential candidates to perform and implement this master plan. Experiences from many
cities in developing countries indicated that, MSE and CBO perform a reliable and
moderately prices service compared to municipal public sector service (Scheinberg, 2001).
However, a good relationship between MSE and CBO and local authorities of Ktao and
prefecture of Binah is needed to get the permission and recognition to undertake the waste
management project.
57
Chapter 4: LCA and final recommendations

4.1
LCA
4.1.1
Materials and methods
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methods is applied to analyze the performance of the waste
management plan (Hauschild & Barlaz, 2008; Baumann & Tillman, 2008) in Ktao by using
the LCA method EASEWASTE. It is a model developed by researchers at the Technical
University of Denmark (Bjrklund et al., 2008), and it is widely used (Zhao et al., 2009;
Kirkeby et al., 2006).
The annual waste composition of Ktao shown in Table 10 is amended with the waste
composition of residual households waste for single-family and multi-family from Denmark,
2001, DK, 2001 taken from EASEWASTE database (see Table 19). It can be seen that the
following materials fractions: vegetable and putrescible, ash, cardboard and papers, metal,
textiles, plastics, glass, plastic, batteries and other from the waste stream in Ktao
correspond respectively to: vegetables food waste, ash, dirty cardboard, other metal,
textiles, non recyclable glass, soft plastics, batteries and soil in DK, 2001. The rest of the
material fractions from DK, 2001 were set to zero.
Table 19: Waste composition adapted in the EASEWASTE
Materialsfractionfrom
Ktaowastestream
Vegetables and putrescible
Ash
Cardboard and paper
Metal
Textiles
Glass
Plastics
Batteries
Others
Total
Correspondingmaterials
fractionsfromDK,2001
Vegetablesfoodwaste
Ash
Dirtycardboard
Othermetal
Textiles
Nonrecyclableglass
Softplastics
Batteries
Soil
Total
Estimatedofmaterials
fraction(%)
33.52
1.30
5.77
1.53
1.55
0.50
10.34
0.34
45.13
100
The lacking data was taken from the default database in EASEWASTE, meaning the waste
chemical composition and the waste technical processes: composting, used-on-land of
organic waste, recycling process and open dump. Finally, the result is calculated as
normalized potential impact using the EDIP 1997 methodology (Bjrklund et al., 2008). The
normalized reference for each impact potential is presented in Annex 9. However, it should
58
be pointed out that the normalized reference of the impact category spoiled groundwater
resources is set to 290 m3 which is assumed to be the volume of spoiled groundwater in
Togo per year. It is based on the assumption that 10 times less groundwater is spoiled in
Togo compared to Denmark where the yearly volume of spoiled groundwater is estimated
to 2900 m3. This is may be true, since in Denmark more than 99 % of the water is drawn
from groundwater and each person uses an average of 42.8 m3 per year in the household
which corresponds to 117 liters a day (DANVA, 2010). On the contrast, only 5 % is
connected to piped water network and 46 % of the population do not have access to
potable water in Togo (UNEP, 2010). In addition, surface water is consumed in many
villages and in the slum area of the cities in Togo.
4.1.2
Goal and scope definition
The objective of the LCA study is to assess the performance of the waste management plan
in Ktao. The waste was taken as input and different waste transformation and processes
were accessed based on different scenarios.
The total waste in Ktao is estimated to 2,646 tons per year. From the total waste
generated, approximately 251 tons can be recycled and 858 tons can be composted. The
rest is sent to the controlled dumpsite as it is shown in Table 12. The processes are
supposed to take place in Ktao. However, due to the default data and technologies used
from the EASEWASTE database, it is important to bring out that: the composting is
assumed to take place in US and applied on the soil located in Denmark. The recycling is
also taking place in Denmark.
It should be highlighted that this LCA study disregards the sensitivity analysis.
4.1.3
Waste technology
The waste transportation is completed by handcart and rickshaw (see section 3.2.1). The
transportation concerns the collection and the transportation from the source to the
treatment and processing facilities. Moreover, the operation at the controlled dumps will be
done manually as well. The composting technology is windrow with passive ventilation
(3.6.3) and the controlled dump site will be operated manually (see section 3.7.6). As a
result, energy is not needed for transportation, the composting process and the operation of
the controlled dumpsite. It is only the recycling plant that requires energy. It should be
emphasized that, there are neither electricity nor heat collection from the waste
management system. The waste technologies applied are shown in Table 20
59
Table 20: Waste process technology for EASEWASTE LCA model
Wastefraction
Composting
Useonland
Soilprofile
Recycling
Controlleddump
EASEWASTE database
BioTreatment:Composting,windrows(Greenwaste),highqualityproduct,
generic,USA
UseonlandComposteddigestateasfertilizeronfarmland(plantfarming),
DK,2005
Composteddigestate,plantfarmingonloamsoil,EastDenmark,2005
Recycling:Plastic(PP)togranulate,DK,2000
Opendump,Householdwaste,100years,generic
4.1.4
Waste management scenarios
This study compares four scenarios, illustrated in Table 21 and drawn in Annex 10.
Scenario 1: All the waste is sent to the open dump. Scenario 1 is the baseline scenario
and it is also considered to be the current waste situation in Ktao. But, it should be
remarked that the waste is not always heaped in a pile in Ktao. The waste is usually
throwing away and it is not collected. As a result, it is likely that part of the waste generated
in the city is dry and will not biodegrade to generate methane. For this reason, the scenario
should be taken with care since it could not be exactly the same current solid waste
situation in Ktao as assumed in the EASEWASTE model. Furthermore, some of the waste
is burned which is not taken into consideration in the EASEWASTE model. However, the
current waste situation in Ktao can only be modeled as the open dump which is the
suitable scenario available in EASEWASTE.
Scenario2: All the waste goes to the controlled dump. The controlled dump has a periodic
and top soil cover. The top cover supports the vegetation. It is already mentioned that the
soil cover reduces infiltration of water in the waste and thereby reduces the quantity of
leachate generated which is already affected by the weather condition in Ktao. Therefore,
the leachate generation is assumed to: 150 mm per year for the first two years, 75 mm per
year for the following 44 years and 45mm per year for the remaining 55 years. Furthermore,
the soil cover enables the methane oxidation to take place in the controlled dump. The
methane oxidation process is deeply affected by the temperature and the optimum
temperature range between 25 and 30 C (Scheutz et al., 2009). As a result the following
methane oxidation efficiency can be assumed: 0 % for the first two years, 37 % for the
following 44 years and 80 % for the last 55 years. These values are reasonable because
37% was found to be the minimum methane oxidation for a landfill which has a topsoil
without gas profiles (Scheutz et al., 2009). The operation activities are completed manually.
In addition, it is assumed the landfill height to 5 m and the waste bulk density to 0.7 t/m3.
Scenario 3: The organic material fraction is composted by using composting, windrows
(Green waste), high quality product, generic, USA. It is assumed that all feedstock is
turned to compost and therefore there is not rejected at the end of the process. The end
product is Composted digestate as fertilizer on farm land which is applied on the plant
60
farming on loam soil, East Denmark, 2005. The composting is transported and spread
manually in the field. The remaining waste is sent to the controlled dump similar to the one
presented in scenario 2.
Scenario 4: The waste plastic is recycled in scenario 4 by using the Plastic (PP) to
granulate, DK 2000 technology. The remaining waste is sent to the controlled dump like in
scenario 2.
Scenario 5: Scenario 5 includes recycling, composting and controlled dump.

Table 21: Scenarios and corresponding technologies applied
Technologiesanddesciptions
Scenarios
Technology
Description
Opendump
indiscriminatedopendum
Controlleddump
Dump:choiceofthesiteandtopcover
Composting
BioTreatment:Composting,windrows(Greenwaste),
highqualityproduct,generic,USA
UseonlandComposteddigestateasfertilizeronfarm
land(plantfarming),DK,2005
Composteddigestate,plantfarmingonloamsoil,East
Denmark,2005
Recycling:Plastic(PP)togranulate,DK,2000
Useonland
Soilprofile
Recycling
4.1.5
Result and discussion
Toxic impact
The stored ecotoxicity in water is the most significant potential impact. It remains nearly the
same for all the scenarios (2,568 PE for the total annual wet waste). The reason is the
significant quantity of the soil content in the waste stream (45 % of the total annual waste)
which contains heavy metal such as copper, lead and cadmium. These metals are released
in the leachate which is not collected, and therefore directly discharged without treatment.
Likewise, the stored ecotoxicity in the soil remains the same for all the scenarios (237 PE
for the total annual wet waste) and represents the second most important toxic potential
impact. Moreover, human toxicity via soil is relatively high for all the scenarios where the
organic matter is dumped (scenario 1, 2 and 3) and it is about 86 PE for total annual wet
waste. It is due to emission of benzene and vinylchloride.
61
900.0
800.0
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Scenario 4
Scenario 5
Scenario 3
700.0
Person Equivalent (PE)
600.0
500.0
400.0
300.0
200.0
100.0
0.0
-100.0
Ecotoxicity in
Soil
Human Toxicity Human Toxicity Human Toxicity

via Air
via Soil
via Water
Spoiled
Groundwater
Resources
Stored
Ecotoxicity in
Soil
Ecotoxicity in
Water, Chronic
Impact potential categories:PE
Figure 23: Normalized Toxic Impact Potential categories and spoiled groundwater resources for
all Scenarios
Non toxic impact category assessment

The result of the EASEWASTE LCA model pointed out that scenario 1 (assimilated to
current waste situation in Ktao) is the worst scenario considering all the impact categories
except nutrient enrichment. Scenario 1 leads to a potential global warming impact of 83.2
PE for the total annual wet waste. On the contrary, scenario 5 (implementation of recycling,
composting and a controlled dump) results in saving on the global warming impact to -92.5
PE for the total annual wet waste corresponding to - 0.8 million kg CO2-equivalent per year
wet total waste. The negative value is due to the fact that the model includes the carbon
sequestration for the controlled dump. The reduction of global warming impact can be
linked to the use of the organic matter for composting which leads to significant cutting of
methane emission. The second largest impact potential is stratospheric ozone depletion
which is attributed to the emission of CFC-11 and CFC-12 (Dichlorodifluoromet) in the air.
Scenario 1, 2 and 3 recorded the highest value of the latter impact (52 PE for the total
annual wet waste). The potential impact of photochemical ozone formation is due to
methane emission in the air from biodegradation of vegetables and putrescible. The
potential impact of photochemical ozone formation is higher for scenarios 1 (21 PE
corresponding to 521 kg C2H4-eq of total wet waste per year), 2 and 4 (13.5 PE) where
composting doesnt take place, compared to scenarios 3 and 5 (3.8 PE corresponding to 93
kg C2H4-eq for total wet waste per year). However, there is significant saving for
acidification impact potential in scenario 5 and scenario 6. The negative value for the
62
acidification impact potential is mainly due to the avoid emission of sulphur dioxide by
recycling waste plastic (see Figure 24).
100
Scenario 1
80
Scenario 2
Scenario 3
Scenario 4
Scenario 5
60
Person Equivalent (PE)
40
20
0
-20
Global Warming
100 Years
Photochemical
Photochemical
Ozone Formation, Ozone Formation,
Low NOx
High NOx
Stratospheric
Ozone Depletion
Nutrient
Enrichment
Acidification
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
Impact potential categories EDIP97: PE
Figure 24: Normalized Non Toxic Potential Impact for all scenarios
Spoiled groundwater
Spoiled groundwater impact potential is one of the impact potential added to EDIP 97 in the
EASEWASTE model. The result of this impact potential category for the case of Ktao
should be taken with caution due to the assumptions made in the modeling, especially the
choice of spoiled groundwater normalized reference for Togo.
63
Conclusion
As a result of the waste characterization projects in January and July-August the
characteristics of the waste generated in Ktao were determined. Soil and dust (combined)
form the most important waste fraction and represents 43 % of the total waste generated.
The remaining important waste fractions are organic matter (37 %) and plastic (12 %). The
humidity in the wet season increased the waste moisture content to 33-63 % compared to 4
% in the dry season, which is extremely low. The total quantity of waste collected was
thereby significantly higher with 3.7 tons in July-August compared to 2.3 tons in January.
The total current annual waste generation is estimated to 2,642 tons, whereas 92 % of the
total waste generated in Ktao is household waste, 1.6 % is market waste and the rest is
waste from institutions and commercials. The total waste generated during the period 2010
to 2030 are estimated to 107,540 tons, based on a projected increase in population as well
as an expected increase in the waste generation rate.
The proposed waste management plan includes an introduction of waste bins in
households, institutions, commercials, in the market and along the streets. The waste will
be collected using the door to door method with handcarts. After collection, the waste can
either be transported to the sorting area or directly to the final disposal area. A static
window with passive aeration technology of composting, and a mechanically recycling
approach appear to be the most feasible waste transformation processes to undertake in
Ktao. A controlled dump is seen as the only affordable final waste disposal facility
considering the local conditions. The indiscriminate dump sites should be closed or
upgraded to the controlled dumpsite. The controlled dump is set to last 20 years. During this
period, the controlled dump site is expected to receive a total volume ranging from 49,217
to 75,278 m3. With a height of 5 meter and an average waste density of 700 kg/m3, a total
area of 2.9 to 4.5 hectare is required.
To achieve active participation and cooperation from the population of Ktao, a number of
public awareness programs should be initiated, especially in the schools.
The environmental assessment of the waste management plan was conducted using the
LCA model EASEWASTE. The result shows that the current waste situation in Ktao is the
worst option out of five scenarios, while the waste management composed of a composting,
a recycling and a controlled dump is the preferred option. The most important non toxic
environmental impacts category is the saved global warming due to the carbon
sequestration and avoided methane emission from the organic waste which is composted.
The photochemical ozone depletion potential is reduced by the recycling of plastic which
reduces the emissions of CFC-11 and CFC-12 (dichlorodifluoromet) in the air. The most
important toxic impact category is human toxicity via soil which is reduced due to the
composting. However, the stored ecotoxicity in soil remains high for the all scenarios. The
spoiled groundwater resource potential is very high especially for the current waste situation
in Ktao. This high impact can be explained by the choice of the normalized reference.
64
Overall, a waste characterization considering the seasonal variation is very important in

order to achieve a successful planning of waste management. Based on the waste
characteristics and the result of the LCA the waste management consisting of composting,
recycling and a controlled dump is recommended. In addition, it is recommended to perform
waste characterization on yearly basis in order to build a waste database which is important
to define new management strategies. The master plan can be disseminated in other cities
in Sub-Saharan Africa, which have the same characteristics as Ktao. The LCA model
EASEWASTE appears to be a useful tool to evaluate the environmental performance of the
waste management system in developing countries. We cannot ignore the poor sanitation
and hygienic situation as well as the problem of water access and electricity issues in
Ktao. Therefore, the waste management system should be supplemented by water and
sanitation projects.
65
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70
Annex
Annex 1: Waste data-Household waste data for January
House
number
Number
persons
of Number of
Days
Children
12-012010
Date and waste quantity collected in kg

14-0116-012010
2010 18-01-2010 20-01-2010
22-012010
11
0,5
3,5
3,5
11
2,5
2,5
2,5
3,5
3,5
11
2,5
2,5
11
2,5
0,5
0,5
0,1
11
11
2,5
5,5
2,5
5,5
13
11
11,5
12
11
15,5
7,5
5,5
11
2,5
5,5
1,5
11
5,5
7,5
2,5
34
30
11
2,5
0,5
2,5
4,5
10
12
11
5,5
2,5
5,5
11
11
2,5
2,5
4,5
12
11
11
5,5
6,5
9,5
5,5
13,5
9,5
13
11
0,5
1,5
0,5
1,5
0,1
14
11
6,5
1,5
15
11
11
6,5
7,5
8,5
4,5
16
20
16
11
9,5
6,5
6,5
17
11
5,5
10
10
18
11
11
13
10,5
11
10
8,5
19
11
1,5
2,5
2,5
20
16
10
11
1,5
7,5
2,5
21
11
22
16
11
6,5
23
11
1,5
2,5
2,5
24
11
25
11
5,5
12
26
11
2,5
7,5
2,5
27
11
4,5
0,5
28
11
0,5
0,5
29
11
0,5
5,5
6,5
3,5
30
10
11
4,5
2,5
3,5
31
11
3,5
4,5
32
14
10
11
1,5
2,5
1,5
33
11
5,5
2,5
8,5
34
10
11
1,5
5,5
35
11
5,5
4,5
5,5
3,5
71
36
12
11
2,5
0,5
37
11
11
1,5
0,5
1,5
1,5
38
11
11
5,6
4,5
5,5
3,5
4,5
4,5
39
11
1,5
1,5
40
14
11
3,5
5,5
41
11
1,5
3,5
2,5
42
13
11
1,5
5,5
4,5
4,5
4,5
43
12
11
0,3
44
10
11
1,5
45
11
4,5
1,5
46
13
11
2,5
1,5
4,5
47
11
2,5
5,5
4,5
3,5
1,5
48
11
3,5
2,5
4,5
5,5
3,5
433
212
115,4
179,5
194,5
186,5
199,2
168,5
Total
Annex 2: waste data-Commercials and institutions waste data for January

Waste sources
Name
Collection date
12-01-2010
14-01-2010
16-01-2010
18-01-2010
1,5
0,5
1,5
3,5
10
10
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,1
0,5
0,5
Baundja
3,5
4,5
3,5
8,5
Bon/coin
10
Gourmet
11
11
1,5
1,5
3,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
Consulat
0,5
0,5
1,5
Carrebou
Bar 6
Restaurants Viande
1,5
1,5
14,5
10,5
1,5
5,5
3,5
5,5
7,5
1,5
1,5
3,5
2,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
31,5
44
38
38
ANAFAT
Caiffeur
Essowotou
Grace
Irene
Le Meridian
Pharmacy
Boutiques and
general store Samex
La providence
Licarme
Ecole Catholique
Insitution
(Schools) Ecole Marche
CIB
Others
insitutions Poste
Total
72
20-01-2010
11
22-01-2010
1,5
44,6
Annex 3: Waste data-Household waste data for July-August study

Number Total
ofhouse per
26Jul 28Jul 30Jul 2Aug 4Aug Total
Min
Standart
Error
Max Average
13
14
12
19
8.5
66.5
8.5
19
13.3
3.8
1.5
22.5
1.5
4.5
2.1
2.5
9.5
1.9
0.9
10
20.5
7.5
1.5
16
15
60.5
1.5
20.5
12.1
7.5
11
6.5
7.5
7.5
28.5
7.5
5.7
2.1
11
4.5
3.5
4.5
21.5
4.3
1.2
15
10.5
7.5
19
48
19
9.6
5.7
19
3.5
1.5
18
1.5
3.6
1.3
15
2.5
8.5
27
2.5
5.4
3.1
10
5.5
24.5
4.9
2.7
11
6.5
7.5
27
7.5
5.4
1.6
12
10
10
7.5
41.5
7.5
10
8.3
1.0
13
14
7.5
13.5
40
13.5
3.3
14
11
3.5
34.5
3.5
6.9
2.9
15
15
19.5
10
10.5
55
19.5
11
5.0
16
5.5
29.5
5.9
1.9
17
1.5
5.5
23
1.5
4.6
2.0
18
6.5
16
39.5
16
7.9
5.0
19
22
4.4
2.1
20
7.5
8.5
10.5
39.5
10.5
7.9
2.0
21
10
11
12.5
9.5
47
12.5
9.4
3.2
22
10
17.5
2.5
11
43
17.5
8.6
6.5
23
2.5
4.5
17
3.4
1.9
24
1.5
4.5
21
1.5
4.2
2.6
25
18
10
20.5
17.5
13
67
20.5
13.4
5.8
26
1.5
4.5
15
1.5
4.5
1.3
27
4.5
3.5
1.5
7.5
22
1.5
7.5
4.4
2.2
28
3.5
7.5
23
7.5
4.6
2.2
29
13
2.5
8.5
26
2.5
8.5
5.2
2.3
30
13
5.5
9.5
31
9.5
6.2
2.9
31
17
33
17
6.6
6.6
32
2.5
12.5
22
12.5
4.4
4.7
33
6.5
11
38.5
11
7.7
2.0
34
3.5
4.5
7.5
23.5
3.5
7.5
4.7
1.6
35
11.5
10
9.5
10
11.5
52.5
9.5
11.5
10.5
0.9
36
6.5
10
7.5
37
10
7.4
2.3
37
3.5
2.5
17
2.5
3.4
0.7
38
10
29
10
5.8
2.4
73
39
13.5
12.5
10
11
10.6
57.6
10
13.5
11.52
1.4
40
5.5
6.5
8.5
33.5
8.5
6.7
1.5
41
2.5
4.5
8.5
28.5
2.5
8.5
5.7
2.5
42
5.5
2.5
5.5
22.5
2.5
5.5
4.5
1.3
43
2.5
2.5
3.5
22.5
2.5
4.5
2.7
44
6.5
8.5
11
9.5
44.5
6.5
11
8.9
1.6
45
5.5
1.5
5.5
21.5
4.3
3.0
46
10
34
10
6.8
2.9
47
2.5
1.5
18
1.5
3.6
1.9
48
13
8.5
11.5
10
11.5
54.5
8.5
13
10.9
1.7
48
342
332.5
272
245.5
359.5
370.1
1579.6
Annex 4: waste data -commercials and institutions for July-August
Type
Commerials
Institution
Providence
Licorne
Carrefour
Gourmet
Viande
Pharmacy
Meridien
SamexTogo
ANAFAT
Boncoind
Essowotout
Station
Poste
CIB
Total
23Jul
26Jul
28Jul
2Aug
6
5.5
5
9
4.5
1.5
2
2.5
11
1
0
3
4
3
2.5
6.5
5
2
1
20
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0.5
3
2
4.5
5
0
0
22
114
38
155.5
2
1
2.5
1.5
1
1
4.5
34.5
18
17.5
48.5
74
4Aug Total
5.5
31
10.5
0
15
4
20
12
40
0
2
0
1
2
0.5
14.5
0
104
433.5
2
7.5
17
25
24.5
143
Annex 5: Waste sorting result
Item
JulyAugust
January
HC&I
M
H,
C&I
T
M
Wastefractions
261
136.5
397.5
744.5
380.1
258.1
Vegetablesand
putrescible
15
0
15
15
37
2
Ash
17.5
40
57.5
85.5
92.2
88
Papersandcardboard
10.5
11.5
22
30.5
19
8
Metal
14
7
21
32
18
10
Textils
3
3
6
14
5.5
0,1
Glass
55.7
69.5
125.2
189.7
140
101
Plastics
3.5
0
3.5
7.5
7
0
Batteries
377.5
87.7
465.2
915.2
760
277.5
Others
757.7
355.2
1,112.9
2,033.9
1,458.8
744.7
Total
Remark: H: Household, C & I: Commercial and institutions; M: market; H,C&I: Total of
households, commercials and institutional waste put together (1+2).
75
Annex 6: Survey questionnaire (Bernstein, 2004)

1
Gender of respondent
1-M____________2-F________________
How long have been resident in Ktao?

a) Less than 1 year
b) 1-3 year
c) More than 3 year
Would you like to answer to our questions?
Age_________________________
Respondent code:
1-Head 2-Spouse
7
8
9
3- child
5-other
How do you discard your waste?

1-Open burn_______
2-Dump
3-other
Who is responsible for the waste in the house (cleaning and disposing of)?
1-spouse 2-children 3-others
Do you sell some of your waste for example plastic bottle, glasses or other?
1-yes
list the items---------------------------------------------------------2-no
What do you consider the most important problem related to the waste situation in Ktao?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10
What will like to propose as solution?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11
Do you know something about compost (have you heard the word compost or did you try to make it
yourself?
1-yes
2-no
Are you willing to pay for the waste collection?
1-Yes, I will pay P10----/day/week/month/year
2-No, I do not want to pay?
Are you willing to pay 300 FCFA each month in order that somebody comes and collect your waste? 1yes
2 no
12
13
14
15
If it is 13-2, what is the reason why you do not want to pay for waste collection?
a) Cant afford to pay?
b) I dont think it is important to get my waste collected?
c) I think the goverment or NGO should pay for the waste collection?
d) other
What is the maximum amount that you would be willing to pay? -------------------
16
Are you sure you can afford topay this amount?

1-yes
2-No
17
How will you pay the collection (where the money will come from)?
18
How many persons live in your house? ---------------------------------------------
19
What is your education level?

0-illiterate 1-Primary school 2-middle high school 3- high school
20
Does your house have electricity? 1-yes
2.No
21
Who pay your household electricity bill?

1-Head (father)
2-spouse (mother) 3 Brother
4-other--
76
4-university
22
What is your households electricity bill last month? -----------------------------------
23
Does you house have a pipe network connection? 1-yes
24
Who pay the household water bill?

1-Head (father)
2-spouse (mother)
25
3 Brother
2 No
4-other--
What is your household water bill last month? ------------------------------------------
77
Annex 7: Map-Map of Ktao (Plan of Ktao, city)
78
Annex 8: Map: Map of Ktao using Google raster image
79
Annex 9: LCA-Environmental normalized potential impacts reference adapted for Ktao from EDIP
97
PotentialImpactCategories
NormalisationReference
StratosphericOzoneDepletion(EDIP97)
1,03E01
NutrientEnrichment(EDIP97)
StandardUnit
KgCFC11eq/person/year
119
KgNO3eq/person/year
EcotoxicityinSoil(EDIP97)
9,64E+04
m3soil/person/year
StoredEcotoxicityinWater(EDIP)
6,09E+10
m3water/person/year
HumanToxicityviaAir(EDIP97)
127
m3air/person/year
HumanToxicityviaWater(EDIP97)
5,00E+04
m3water/person/year
GlobalWarming100Years(EDIP97)
8,70E+03
KgCO2eq/personperyear
PhotochemicalOzoneFormation,LowNOx(EDIP97)
25
kgC2H4eq/person/year
PhotochemicalOzoneFormation,HighNOx(EDIP97)
25
kgC2H4eq/person/year
SpoiledGroundwaterResources
5,80E+04
StoredEcotoxicityinSoil(EDIP)
506
EcotoxicityinWater,Chronic(EDIP97)
m3spoiledwater
m3soil/person/year
3,52E+05
Acidification(EDIP97)
m3water/person/year
74
KgSO2eq/personperyear
LCA, Annex 1: Open dump and controlled dump gas and leachate controlled data
TimeperiodYear(y)
0.7
2
3
Wastedensity(kg/m3)
OpenDump
Gasgenerated(%ofgaspotential)
Gascollected(%ofgaspotential)
Gasoxidizedbythetopcover(%ofuncollected)
Leachategenerated(mm/y)
Leachatecollected(%ofgenerated)
Leachateenteringgroundwater(%ofgenerated)
2y:1%
None
2y:0%
2y:450
None
2y:100%
3y:4%
None
3y:0%
8y:450
None
3y:100%
40y:80%
None
40y:0%
35y:450
None
40y:100%
55y:10%
None
55y:0%
55y:450
None
55y:100%
2y:1%
None
2y:0%
2y:150
None
2y:100%
3y:4%
None
3y:37%
8y:75
None
3y:100%
40y:80%
None
40y:37%
35y:75
None
40y:100%
55y:10%
None
55y:80%
55y:45
None
55y:100%
Controlleddump
Gasgenerated(%ofgaspotential)
Gascollected(%ofgaspotential)
Gasoxidizedbythetopcover(%ofuncollected)
Leachategenerated(mm/y)
Leachatecollected(%ofgenerated)
Leachateenteringgroundwater(%ofgenerated)
80
Annex 10: LCA-Scenarios and material mass balance
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Waste generated in
Ktao Per Year
Waste generated in
Ktao Per Year
2646 tons
2646 tons
Open Dump
Controlled Dump
Scenario 3
Scenario 4
Waste generated in
Ktao Per Year
Waste generated in
Ktao Per Year
2646 tons
2646 tons
Collection and Sorting
Collection and Sorting
262.7 tons
798.9 tons
1,847.6 tons
Recyling
Composting
Controlled dump
2,384 tons
Controlled dump
67 tons
262.7 tons
Use On- Land
S c e n a rio 5
W a s te g e n e ra te d in
K ta o P e r Y e a r
2 6 4 6 to n s
C o lle c tio n a n d S o rtin g
7 9 8 .9 to n s
C o m p o s tin g
2 6 2 .7 to n s
R e c y lin g
6 7 to n s
U se O n - Lan d
2 6 2 .7 to n e s
81
1 ,5 8 4 .9 to n s
C o n tro lle d d u m p
Etude de la composition des

ordures Ktao
La dure
de ltude
Ltude se ralisera dans le mois de
Janvier
2010.
Lquipe de chercheur est compose des tudiants
ingnieures, Jrn
Rasmusen et Edjabou Maklawe Vincent. Tous deux
sont tudiants
lUniversit Technique du Danemark (DTU).
Introduction
Ltude de la composition des ordures Ktao
consiste dterminer
dabord la quantit
dordure que gnre un
habitant par jour et
dexaminer la composition des ordures gnres dans la ville de Ktao. Il est prciser que
ltude est destine uniquement des fins pdagogiques.
Elle
sinscrit dans le cadre
des travaux de recherches universitaires.
Pourquoi ltude?
Ltude vise ressortir des
donnes exactes et prcises en ce qui concerne les
ordures mnagres dans la
ville de Ktao. Les rsultats seront utiliss pour
concevoir les diffrents
systmes adapts et fiables
de la gestion des ordures
Ktao, tout en mettant en
relief limpact environnemental de chaque systme.
Limpact environnemental
est la quantification des
missions des gaz effets
de serre et autres laide
du modle EASEWASTE.
En quoi consiste ltude?

Ltude consiste collecter les ordures des mnages, des boutiques, des
ateliers, des coles et des
institutions durant deux
semaines. Compte tenue
des moyens matriaux et
le temps limits dont dispose lquipe de cher-
cheurs et comme il est de

coutume dans le cas de
pareil tudes, cest seulement sur un chantillon de
la population que ltude
sera ralise. Dans ce cadre, les poubelles seront
distribues aux familles,
boutiques et institutions
slectionnes pour ltude.

Toutes les ordures collectes seront tries en diffrents type dordure en fin
de dterminer la composition prcise des ordures.
maklawe@gmail.com , s081866@student.dtu.dk, www.dtu.dk tel:00228 857 42 41
Etude de la composition
des ordures Ktao
Introduction
Ltude de la composition des ordures mnagres a t ralise en
Janvier 2010 Ktao.
Il est estim quen
moyenne une personne
produit 320g dordure
par jours Ktao (taux
de generation des ordures). En plus, en
moyenne, 550 Kg
dordures sont produits
chaque mercredi au
march de Ktao.
Rsultat de ltude de janvier 2010

La composition des ordures collectes dune part
chez les mnages, les institutions et les
commerces, et dautre part dans le march se
prsente comme suit:
Mnages, instutions et commerces
Type dordures
Matire organique
Cendres
Papiers et cartons
Mtaux
Textiles
Verres
Plastics
Battery
Autres
Total
(en pourcentage)
March
(en pourcentage)
26
3
6
1
1
0
10
0
52
100
37
0
10
1
1
0
14
0
36
100
La suite...
Aprs ltude effectue en Janvier 2010 (pendant Les rsultats permettrons detablir avec prcision et certila saison sche) il sest avr ncessaire de raliser tude la base de donnes des ordures mnagres Ktao.
une deuxime tude en saison pluvieuse.
Le but est de concevoir un plan de gestion des ordures
Ktao. Ce plan se veut adapt et apte rpondre aux raLa prsente tude sera une rptition de ltude lits de Ktao.
ralise en Janvier 2010. Elle a pour but dtudier
limpact des saisons (saisons sche et saison plu- NB: Cette tude est a dessein acadmique avec le souci
vieuse) sur la quantit et la composition des odures de contribuer au developpement de Ktao.
gnres Ktao.
www.dtu.dk, maklawe@gmail.com, tel: 00228 857 41 42

Innovation in Togo - Cleaning The Area of Ketao

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MASTERTHESIS

Kongens Lyngby, October 2010

Maklawe Essonanawe Edjabou, s081470

2.1 BACKGROUNDOFWASTECHARACTERIZATIONPROJECT ............................................................................... 11

2.2 MATERIALANDMETHODS ............................................................................................................................ 12

2.3 RESULTS ....................................................................................................................................................... 17

3.4 PRESENTATIONOFEXISTINGRECYCLINGINKTAO ....................................................................................... 40

3.6 COMPOSTING ............................................................................................................................................... 44

3.8 IMPLEMENTATIONSTRATEGYOFCONTROLLEDDUMPSITE ........................................................................... 57

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Assess the potential environmental impact of the waste management plan.

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Chapter 1: Background and presentation of Ktao

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Figure 1: children playing on the top of waste pile

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Figure 2: Map of Togo showing the study city (Ktao)

Location and climate

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Table 1: Cities around Ktao

Rain fall (mm)

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Socio-economical activities in Ktao

General infrastructure situation in Ktao

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Administrative organization and political situation in Ktao

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

The market and station in Ktao

Figure 4: Pictures of the market in Ktao

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Figure 5: Middle buses, taxi and motorbikes taxi station of Ktao

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Chapter 2: Waste characterization

Background of waste characterization project

Importance of the waste characterization projects

Figure 6: Nature in dry (a) and rainy (b) season in Ktao

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Material and methods

Selection of the sample for the waste characterization

Selection of commercials and institutions

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Table 2: List of waste sources of the waste characterization samples

Waste collection from households, shops and institutions

Waste bins used for the waste collection

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Waste collection from households, commercials and institutions

Collection of waste from market

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Waste drying methods

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Waste bulk density

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Presentation of the waste data

Total waste collected during the studies

Waste generation rate

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Waste density and composition

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Figure 8: Materials fraction generated the waste stream in Ktao

Paper and cardboard (1)

Planning of waste management in Ktao, Togo

Vegetable and putrescible (4)