ASABEPaper MBSK06 101

The Canadian Society for
Bioengineering
The Canadian society for engineering in agricultural,
food, environmental, and biological systems.
A CSBE/ASABE Inter Sectional Meeting

Presentation
Paper Number: MBSK 06-101
SOIL CONE INDEX ESTIMATION FOR DIFFERENT TILLAGE SYSTEMS

Arun Kumar
Department of Biosystems Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada R3T 5V6
Ying Chen
Department of Biosystems Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada R3T 5V6
Shafiqur Rahman
Iowa state university,61C Schilletter Village Ames, Iowa, 50010
USA
Written for presentation at the

(2006 CSBE/ASABE North Central Inter Sectional Meeting)
Sponsored by CSBE/ASABE
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
October 5-7, 2006
Abstract. Soil cone index (CI) is a mechanical property which affects soil compaction and plant root
development. In this study, data reported in the literature relating CI to tillage practices were
compiled. Two different tillage practices were included and they were no-tillage and conventional
tillage. Based on the literature data, linear regression equations were proposed to estimate CI for
each tillage system. Those equations incorporate basic soil variables such as texture and physical
properties. Values of CI decrease with the increase in clay content, and increase with the increase in
sand and silt contents. CI varies directly with bulk density and depth, and inversely with moisture
content. The regression equations will be validated with field data from Manitoba.
.
Keywords. Cone index, Tillage, Model, Soil texture
The authors are solely responsible for the content of this technical presentation. The technical presentation does not necessarily reflect the
official position of ASABE, and its printing and distribution does not constitute an endorsement of views which may be expressed.
Technical presentations are not subject to the formal peer review process, therefore, they are not to be presented as refereed publications.
Citation of this work should state that it is from an ASABE Section Meeting paper. EXAMPLE: Author's Last Name, Initials. 2006. Title of
Presentation. ASABE Section Meeting Paper No. xxxx. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASABE. For information about securing permission to reprint or
reproduce a technical presentation, please contact ASABE at rutter@asabe.org or 269-429-0300
(2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659 USA).
INTRODUCTION
The most common parameters used to assess soil strength in tillage studies are resistance to penetration
and bulk density. Soil resistance as measured by cone index (CI) can be much easily and more rapidly
measured than soil bulk density and is widely used for assessment of compacting and loosening effects
of agricultural implements (Bedard et al. 1997; Tessier et al. 1997). Soil CI varies with soil properties
such as water content, bulk density, texture, and organic matter (Taylor and Gardner 1963; Camp and
Lund 1968; Pempural 1987).
Cone index is greatly influenced by tillage types. Tillage for seedbed preparation and weed
control modifies soil structure. For instance, conventional plowing generally results in loose soil
structure in the tilled layer while the no tillage leaves the soil relatively intact (Chen 1993). Soil
resistance as measured with a penetrometer has been observed to be more sensitive than bulk density to
different tillage management systems (Bauder et al. 1981; Pidgeon and Soane 1977). Pidgeon and
Soane 1977 reported that though an equilibrium density is achieved within the tillage zone under a
particular tillage system after initial changes in density, CI continuous to increase with time. Previous
research has shown that soil bulk density and /or CI are greater in no tillage than conventional tillage
systems (Elhers et al. 1983; Roth et al. 1988; Chen et al. 2004; Bueno, 2006). Frazen et al. (1994)
observed significantly smaller cone index values under no-tillage down to 0.10 m depth due to
mulching.
Along with tillage practices, soil physical properties (soil moisture content, organic matter and
density) also influence CI. Therefore, some researchers have tried to separate the direct effect of tillage
on CI from its indirect effect on water content and density in different ways to allow better comparison.
Busscher et al. (1997) adjusted different functions to correct cone index values from water content.
Others used analysis of covariance to reduce the effect of water content and density in the CI
comparisons (Yasin et al. 1993; Franzen et al. 1994). After correction, the dependence of CI on these
variables is reduced (Busscher et al 1997). Several researchers (Ayers and Perumpral 1982; Busscher et
al. 1997; Ohu et al. 1988) studied the relationship between CI and soil water content. Ayers and
Perumpral (1982) found a direct relationship between CI and bulk density. Busscher et al. (1997) found
an inverse relationship between CI and water content while, Ohu et al. (1988) found an exponential
official position of ASABE, and its printing and distribution does not constitute an endorsement of views which may be expressed. Technical
presentations are not subject to the formal peer review process, therefore, they are not to be presented as refereed publications. Citation of
this work should state that it is from an ASABE Section Meeting paper. EXAMPLE: Author's Last Name, Initials. 2006. Title of Presentation.
ASABE Section Meeting Paper No. xxxx. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASABE. For information about securing permission to reprint or reproduce a
technical presentation, please contact ASABE at rutter@asabe.org or 269-429-0300
relationship between CI and water content for loams and clays. This conflicting result may be due to
soil physical properties as well as different tillage practices. Yasin et al. (1993) found cubic
relationship between cone index and depth. Therefore, better CI prediction model should incorporate
both tillage and soil physical properties. Various methods have been tried with limited success to
reduce the effects of soil water content and bulk density in the analysis of CI data.
Apart from the tillage and soil factors the CI is also affected by the penetometer device and the
operational procedures. Commonly used penetrometers include pocket, cone, and small diameter
friction sleeve cone types (Lowery and Morrison, 2002). Various types of cone penetrometer such as
static, quasi static, dynamic and their applications have been comprehensively reviewed by Pempural
(1987)
Few studies have been conducted to relate tillage with CI. The development of above
mentioned prediction models require large sets of data. In this study, CI data in terms of tillage
practices and soil physical properties were extracted under different tillage practices and soil conditions
around the world. The main objective of this study was to develop model which incorporate tillage
effects into CI estimation based on the published data from available literature, and to validate the
model based on field data.
MATERIALS and METHODS
A database was complied from previously published studies. There were a number of studies on soil
cone index or penetration resistance, however, only those related to tillage studies since 1980 were
used in the present study. The final database based on the previously published studies around the
world has been presented in Table 1. For the model validation, CI measurements will be undertaken for
different tillage systems from different fields in Manitoba, Canada.
Table1. Description of literature data sources from which the regression equations were developed.
Author
Location
Soil texture
Tillage practices
Bauder et al., 1981
Minnesota, USA
Nicollet Clay loam
Plow, Chisel, NT
Brye et al., 2004
Arkansas, USA
Stuttgart Silt loam
Disk harrow, Chisel, Cultivator
Busscher et al., 1995
Florence, SC, USA
Norfolk Loamy sand
NT
Florence, SC, USA
Norfolk Loamy sand
Disk harrow
Florence, SC, USA
Goldsboro Loamy sand
Disk harrow
Florence, SC, USA
Norfolk Loamy sand
Disc harrow, Shank Para till
Carter, 1987
PEI, Canada
Sandy loam
Plow, NT
Chaplin et al., 1986
Minnesota, USA
Hubbard Loamy sand
Plow, Chisel, NT,
Chen et al., 2004
Manitoba, Canada
Red river Clay
NT, cultivator
Ehlers et al., 1983
Germany
Grey brown podzolic (Silt)
Plow
Grant and Lafond, 1993
Saskatchewan, Canada
Clay
Chisel, NT
Hammel, 1989
Moscow, ID, USA
Silt loam
plow, chisel, NT
Hill, 1990
Mariland, USA
Bertie Silt loam
low, Disk harrow, NT
Karayel and Ozmerzi, 2002
Turkey
Silty loam
Chisel, disk harrow
Larney and Kladivko, 1989
Purdue, IN, USA
Chalmers Silty clay loam
Plow, disk harrow, NT
Lopez et al., 1996
Aragon, Spain
Silty Clay loam
Plow, disk harrow, NT
Materechera and Mloza-Banda, 1997
Lilongwe, Malawi
Sandy clay loam
Disk harrow, NT
McFarland et al., 1990
Texas, USA
Weswood silt loam
Disk harrow, NT
Mielke et al., 1984
Nebraska, USA
Alliance Silt loam, loam
Plow
Moreno et al., 1997
Seville, Spain
Sandy clay loam
Plow, chisel
Osunbitan, et al.,2005
Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Oxic Tropudalf
NT, Disc Plow
Pierce et al., 1992
East Lansing, MI, USA
Riddles Loam
chisel , NT
Tessier et al., 1997,
Quebec, Canada
Orthic Gleysoil
Plow, cultivator
Taboada et al., 1998
Rolling Pampa, Argentina
Sandy loam
Plow, Disk harrow, NT
Unger and Fulton, 1990
Texas, USA
Pullman Clay loam
NT, Sweep plow
Unger and Jones, 1998
Texas, USA
Pullman Clay loam
NT
Vetsch and Randall, 2002
Rochester, MN, USA
Port Byron Silt loam soil
NT, Chisel
Voorhees, 1983
Minnesota, USA
Nicollet Silty clay loam
Plow, chisel, disk harrow
Wilkins et al., 2002
Oregon, USA
Walla Walla Silt loam
NT, Plow
Plow=Mould board plow

NT= no-tillage
Compilation of the database

Constraints associated with data collection
In most of the published studies two different cone
angles (i.e. 30 and 60) with different types of base diameter (ranged from 10.5 to 21.0 mm) were used.
In few cases, either the moisture content or the bulk density data were not available. To avoid any
biasness, only those data were included in the data base for which all information is available. Soil
textural variables (sand, silt, and clay content) were not always available in published studies. In that
case, textural variables were derived from the general soil textural class description (Shirazi and
Boersma 1984).
Data classification category
General classification of the data was made, as the data compiled
was from various studies which interpreted results from different aspects. The data was mainly divided
into two main categories which were tillage types and soil textural classes. The collected database was
categorized into no- tillage and conventional tillage for which further analysis was conducted.
Soil profile
The depth of soil strata to be considered must be established. Depth varies substantially
according to different studies. In conventional tillage, depending on the tillage implements used, the
soil strata up to a depth of 200 mm is affected. Therefore, the soil profile within 0- 200 mm was
considered to characterize the CI for the tilled layer as defined by Chen et al. (1998) and Wilkins et al.
(2002). Similarly, in no tillage system though no seed bed preparation operations are performed, the
same soil strata of 0-200 was used to characterize CI for comparison purpose. The database
characterizes soils with clay, silt and sand contents.
Soil cone index and other soil parameters measurement
Field measurement of soil cone
index was conducted in 2006 using Rimik cone penetrometer (Model CP 20, Agridy Rimik Pty. Ltd.,
Toowoomba, Australia) having cone base area of 129 mm2 and an apex angle of 30. The penetrometer
had a load cell, a depth position sensor and a datalogger. Signals from the load cell and position
indicator were received by the data logger and program was used to convert signals to penetration
resistance force and position. The penetrometer was pushed into the soil manually at a speed of
approximately 0.30 mms-1 (ASAE 2000). At each location three measurements were taken at 25 mm
intervals upto a depth of 200 mm. CI readings were taken at 20 locations in both NT and CT fields.
Also, soil samples for bulk density were taken up to a depth of 0-200 mm from 6 locations in each
field. Soil samples were collected from each site for determining texture. The sites selected were St
Agathe, Oakville, Point and Carman in Manitoba for field data collection.
Data analysis
Data obtained from the literature were regrouped into no tillage and conventional tillage system and
were further divided according to different soil strata and type of tillage system. Regression analysis
was used to determine the relationship between soil texture independent variables such as clay, silt, and
sand content, and dependent variable cone index (CI). Also, regression analysis was performed to
establish relationship between independent variables namely density, depth and moisture content, and
dependent variable CI. Statistical evaluation procedure will be used to test the performance of model
with the field-measured data from this study. These methods include: coefficient of determination (R2)
which evaluates the degree of association between data points and predicted value.
MODEL DEVELOPMENT
Soil cone index for different tillage
Within conventional tillage, the type of implement and number of passes vary from one study to
another. It was assumed that for a conventional tillage system, the tillage implements have the same
effect on CI.
This assumption was based on the fact that the purpose of conventional tillage is to
prepare a good seed bed by a combination of tillage implements to create favorable environment for
plant growth. In this process regardless of implements used the porosity of the soil changes by way of
breaking large aggregate clods and filling the large void spaces.
6.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
CI( Mpa)
CI(Mpa)
6.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0
0.1
0.2
Depth (m)
(a)
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Depth(m)
(b)
Figure 1 Relationship of CI vs depth under (a) no tillage and (c) conventional tillage
CI values showed a general tendency to increase with depth under NT and CT (Fig 1). CI with depth
has a fairly well linear relationship (R2 = 0.172) under CT and the increase is much steeper in CT than
in NT.
The relationships of independent variables with the dependent variable (CI) were mainly limited to the
influence soil strata as affected by the tillage type and can be expressed by the expression
CI = a + bX
Where, CI = Cone index
a = constant
b = slope
X = independent parameter
Regression results of CI with soil texture and physical properties are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Regression results of CI and soil texture (sand, silt and clay content), bulk density, moisture
content, and depth under no tillage and conventional tillage.
Slope
Intercept
R2
Sand
0.023
0.046
0.224
14.69
0.000
Clay
-0.021
2.223
0.190
11.78
0.001
Silt
0.0194
1.100
0.179
18.34
0.000
Density
1.481
-0.305
0.062
4.27
0.042
Moisture content
-0.064
3.337
0.231
15.35
0.000
Depth
2.125
1.313
0.012
0.60
0.439
Sand
0.006
0.982
0.023
1.60
0.191
Clay
-0.014
1.590
0.105
7.95
0.004
Silt
0.009
0.775
0.0372
2.66
0.106
Density
4.970
-5.231
0.414
20.20
0.000
Moisture content
-0.044
2.211
0.160
12.32
0.000
Tillage
Independent
system
parameter
NT
CT
Depth
6.904
0.172
18.72
0.000
Sand, silt and clay content of the soil influences CI under NT and
Soil cone index for soil texture

CT systems.
0.366
Analysis from the sub-dataset for no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) indicate
that CI under both NT and CT increase with the increase in sand (Fig. 2) and silt fraction (Fig. 3) while
it decrease with the increase in clay content (Fig. 4). Regression results (Table 2) show fairly well
linear relationship between CI and sand content (R2 = 0.224), silt content (R2 = 0.179) as well as
between clay content (R2 = 0.190) under NT. The lines of slope for sand content and clay content are
steeper under NT as compared to CT. These results are consistent with those reported by Hummel et al.
(2004) who observed clay content as a significant variable in prediction of CI. Silt fraction was
6.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
CI (Mpa)
CI (MPa)
recognized as a significant modifier for density and CI (Jones 1983).
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
20
40
60
80
Sand content ( %)
100
20
40
60
80
100
Sand content ( %)
(a)
(b)
Figure 2 Relationship between CI and sand content for (a) no tillage (NT) and (b)
conventional tillage (CT) systems
6.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
CI (MPa)
CI (Mpa)
6.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
100
Silt content (%)
Silt content (%)
(a)
(b)
Figure 3 Relationship between CI and silt content under (a) no tillage (NT) and (b)
conventional tillage (CT) systems
6.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
CI,MPa
CI, MPa
6.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
20
40
60
Clay content, %
(a)
80
20
40
60
80
Clay content, %
(b)
Figure 4 Relationship between CI and clay content of soil under no tillage (NT)
and (b) conventional tillage (CT) systems
Soil cone index for different bulk density The graph in Figure 5 show relationship between CI and
bulk density. CI tends to increase with increase in bulk density (Fig. 5) under NT and CT conditions.
This is in agreement with previous investigators who reported that CI varies directly with bulk density
(Blanchar et al. 1978; Cruse et al. 1981; Stitt et al. 1982; Cassel 1983; Voorhees 1983). CI and bulk
density have a good linear relationship (R2 = 0.414) under CT (Table 2). The slopes of lines are much
6.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
CI (MPa)
CI( Mpa)
steeper in CT as compared to NT.
3.0
2.0
1.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.7
1.2
Density, Mg/m3
1.7
1.2
1.4
1.6
Density( Mg/m3)
Figure 5 Relationship of CI vs density for (a) no tillage and (b) conventional tillage.
Soil cone index for different moisture content
The relationship in Figure 6 shows a decrease in CI values as the soil moisture content increases which
is in agreement with the results of several authors (Ayers and Perumpral 1982; Busscher et al. 1997;
Earl 1996; Mapfumo and Chanasyk 1998). The slope of lines for moisture content in NT is much
steeper compared to CT which suggests a greater variation of CI under NT, which agrees with the
results observed by Bueno et al. (2006).
6.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
CI( MPa)
CI (Mpa)
4.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0
20
40
Moisture content ( %)
(a)
60
10
20
30
40
Moisture content (%)
(b)
Figure 6 Relationship of CI vs moisture content under (a) NT and (b) CT.

CONCLUSIONS
The data from the published studies conducted in different regions of the world were classified and
compiled into database. The database encompasses different soil classes and tillage systems. The
database was categorized into no tillage and conventional tillage systems. From testing various model
configurations, the best relationship between the CI values and soil texture and physical properties is
linear.
The analysis indicates decrease of CI with increasing clay fraction and decreasing sand and silt fraction
under NT and CT systems. CI increased with the increase in bulk density for both NT and CT.
In general low R2 values in some equations indicate relatively high variability of the broad data set,
probably owing to different field conditions and tillage practices in different studies conducted in
different regions of the world.
REFERENCES
ASAE Standards, 2000. EP542 Feb99. Procedures for Using andReporting Data Obtained with the Soil
Cone Penetrometer.ASAE, St. Joseph, Mich.
Ayers, P. D., and J. V. Perumpral. 1982. Moisture and density effect on cone index. Transactions ASAE
25(5): 1169-1172.
Bauder, J.W., G.W. Randall and J.B. swann. 1981. Effect of four continuous tillage systems on
mechanical impedence of a clay loam soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 45: 802-806.
Bdard, Y., S. Tessier, C. Lagu, Y. Chen, and L. Chi. 1997. Soil compaction by manure spreaders
equipped with standard and oversized tires and multiple axles. Transactions ASAE 40(1): 37-43.
Blanchar, R.W., C.R. Edmonds, and J.M., Bradford, 1978. Root growth in cores formed from fragipan
and B2 horizons of hopson soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 42: 437-440.
Brye, K.R., N.A. Slaton and R.J. Norman. 2005. Penetration resistance as affected by shallow cut land
leveling and cropping. Soil & Tillage Research 81: 1-13
Bueno, J. C., Amiama, J.L. Hernanz and J.M. Pereira. 2006. penetration resistance, soil water content,
and workability of grassland soils under two tillage systems. Transactions of the ASABE
49(4):875-882
Busscher, W.J., J.H. Edwards, M.J. Vepraskas and D.L. Karlen. 1995. residual effects of slit tillage and
subsoiling in a hardpan soil. Soil & Tillage Research 35: 115-123.
Busscher, W. J., P. J. Bauer, C. R. Camp, and R. E. Sojka. 1997. Correction of cone index for soil
water content differences in a coastal plain soil. Soil & Tillage Research 43(3-4): 205-217.
Busscher, W.J. and P.J. Bauer. 2002 Root growth and soil strength in conservation and conventional till
cotton. Prc. 25th annual southern Conservation Tillage Conference for Sustainable agriculture.
Auburn,AL 24-26 June 2002.
Busscher, W.J., J.R. Frederick and P.J. Bauer. 2000. Timing effects of deep tillage on penetration
resistance and wheat and soybean yield. Soil Science Society of America Journal 64: 999-1003.
Camp, C.R. and Z.F. Lund.1968. Effect of mechanical impedance on cotton root growth. Transactions
ASAE 30(4): 188-190.
Carter, M. R. 1987. Physical properties of some Prince Edward Island soils in relation to their tillage
requirement and suitability for direct drilling. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 67(1): 473-487.
Cassel, D.K., 1983. Spatial and temporal variability of soil physical properties following tillage of a
norfolk loamy sand. Soil Science Society of America Journal 47: 196-201.
Chaplin, J., M. Lueders and D. Rugg. 1986. A study of compaction and crop yields in loamy sand soil
after seven years of reduced tillage. Transactions of the ASAE 29(2): 389-392.
Chen, Y. 1993. Soil thermal regime resulting from reduced tillage systems. Ph.D. thesis. Montreal,
Canada: Agricultural Engineering Dept., McGill Univ.
Chen, Y., S. Tessier, and J. Gallichand. 1998. Estimations of tillage effect on saturated hydraulic
conductivity. Canadian Agricultural Engineering 40(3):
Chen, Y., F.V. Monero, D.Lobb, S. Tessier and C. cavers. 2004. Effects of six tillage methods on
residue incorporation and crop performance in a heavy clay soil. Transactions of the ASAE 47(4):
1003-1010.
Cruse, R.M., D.K. Cassel, R.E. Stitt, and F.G., Averette.1981. Effect of particle surface roughness on
mechanical impedance of coarse textured soil materials. Soil Science Society of America Journal
45: 1210-1214.
Earl, R. 1996. Prediction of trafficability and workability using tensiometers. Journal of Agricultural
Engineering Research 63(1): 27-34.
Elhers , W., U. Kopke, F. Hesse and W. Bohm. 1983. Penetration resistance and root growth of oats in
tilled and untilled loess soil. Soil & Tillage Research.3:261-275.
Grant, C.A. and G.P. Lafond. 1993. The effect of tillage systems and crop sequences on bulk density
and penetration resistance on a clay soil in southern Saskatchewan, Canadian Journal of Soil
Science 73:223-232.
Gregorich, E.G., W.D. Reynolds, J.L.B. Culley, M.A. McGovern and W.E. Curnoe. 1993. Changes in
soil physical properties with depth in a conventionally tilled soil after no-tillage. Soil & Tillage
Research.26:289-299.
Hammel, J.E. 1989. Long term tillage and crop rotation effects on bulk density and soil impedence in
Northern Idaho. Soil Science Society of America Journal 53: 1515-1519.
Hill, R.L. 1990. Long term conventional and no-tillage effects on selected soil physical properties. Soil
Science Society of America Journal 54: 161-166
Hummel, J. W., I. S. Ahmad, S. C. Newman, K. A. Sudduth and S. T. Drummond.2004. Simultaneous soil
moisture and cone index measurement. Transactions of the ASAE 47(3): 607-618.
Jones, C.A. 1983. Effect of soil texture on critical bulk densities for root growth. Soil Science Society of
America Journal 47: 1208-1211
Larney, F.J. and E.J. Kladivko. 1989. Soil strength properties under four tillage systems at three long
term study sites in Indiana. Soil Science Society of America Journal 53: 1539-1545.
Lpez, M. V., J. L. Arre, and V. Snchez-Girn. 1996. A comparison between seasonal changes in
soil water storage and penetration resistance under conventional and conservation tillage systems
in Aragn. Soil & Tillage Research 37(4): 251-271.
Lowery, B., and J. E. Morrison. 2002. Soil penetrometers and penetrability. In Methods of Soil
Analysis: Part 4. Physical Methods, 363388. 1st ed. J. H. Dane and C. G. Topp, eds. Madison,
Wisc.: ASACSSASSSA.
Mapfumo, E., and D. S. Chanasyk. 1998. Guidelines for safe trafficking and cultivation, and resistancedensity-moisture relations of three disturbed soils from Alberta. Soil & Tillage Research 46(3-4):
193-202.
Materechera, S.A. and H.R. Mloza-Banda. 1997. Soil penetration resistance, root growth and yield of
maize s influenced by tillage system on ridges in Malawi. Soil & Tillage Research 41: 13-24.
McFarland, M.L., F.M. Hons and R.G. Lemon. 1990. Effects of tillage and cropping sequence on soil
physical properties. Soil & Tillage Research 17: 77-86.
Mielke, L.N., W.W. Wilhelm, K.A. Richards and C.R. Fenster. 1984. Soil physical characteristics of
reduced tillage in a wheat fallow system. Transactions of the ASAE 27(6): 1724-1728.
Moreno, F., F. Pelegrn, J. E. Fernndez, and J. M. Murillo. 1997. Soil physical properties, water
depletion, and crop development under traditional and conservation tillage in southern Spain. Soil
& Tillage Research 41(1-2): 25-42.
Ohu, J.O. G.S.V. Raghvan and E. McKyes.1988. Cone index prediction of compacted soils.
Transactions of the ASAE 31(2): 306-310.
Osunbitan, J.A., D.J. Oyedele, K.O. Adekalu. 2005. Tillage effects on bulk density, hydraulic
conductivity and strength of a loamy sand soil in southwestern Nigeria. Soil & Tillage Research
82: 57-64.
Perumpral, J.V. 1987. Cone penetrometer applications- A review. Transactions of the ASAE 30(4):
939-944.
Pidgeon, J.D. and B.D. Soane.1977. Effects of tillage and direct drilling on soil properties during the
growing season in a long term barley mono-culture system. Journal of Agriculture Science
88:431-442.
Pierce, F.J., M.C. Fortin and M.J. Staton. 1992. Immediate and residual effects of zone tillage in
rotation with no tillage on soil physical properties and corn performance. Soil & Tillage Research
24: 149-165.
Roth, C.H., B. Meyer, H.G. Frede, and R. Derpsch.1988. Effect of mulch rates and tillage systems on
infiltrability and other soil physical properties of an Oxisol in Parana, Brazil. Soil & Tillage
Research 11: 81-89
Shirazi, M.A. and L. Boersma. 1984. A unifying quantitative analysis of soil texture. Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48: 1421-147.
Stitt, R.E., Cassel, D.K., Weed, S.B. and Welson, L.A., 1982. Mechanical impedance of tillage pans in
Atlantic Coastal Plains soil and relationships with soil physical, chemical and mineralogical
properties. Soil Science Society of America Journal 46: 100-106.
Taboada, M.A., F.G. Micucci, D.J. Cosentino and R.S. Lavado. 1998. Comparison of compaction
induced by conventional and zero tillage in two soils of the Rolling Pampa of Argentina. Soil &
Tillage Research 49: 57-63.
Taylor, H.M. and H.R. gardner. 1963. Penetration of cotton seedling tap roots as influenced by bulk
density, moisture content and strength of soil. Soil Science 96(3): 153-156.
Tessier, S., B. Lachance, C. Lagu, Y. Chen, L. Chi, and D. Bachand. 1997. Soil compaction reduction
with a modified one-way disker. Soil & Tillage Research 42(1-2): 63-77.
Unger, P.W. and L.J. Fulton. 1990. Conventional and no-tillage effects on upper root zone soil
conditions. Soil & Tillage Research 16(4): 337-344.
Unger, P.W. and O.R. Jones. 1998. Long term tillage and cropping systems affect bulk density and
penetration resistance of soil cropped to dryland wheat and grain sorghum. Soil & Tillage
Research 45: 39-57.
Vetsch, J. and G.W. Randall. 2002. Corn production as affected by tillage system and starter fertilizer.
Agronomy Journal 94: 532-540.
Voorhees, W.B. 1983. Relative effectiveness of tillage and natural forces in alleviating wheel induced
soil compaction. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 47: 129-133.
Wilkins, D.E., Changes in soil physical characteristics during transition from intensive tillage to direct
seeding. Transactions of the ASAE 45(4): 877-880.
Yasin, M., R.D.Grisso, L.L. Bashford, A.J. Jones and L.N. Mielke. 1993. Normalizing cone resistance
values by covariance analysis. Transactions of the ASAE 36(5): 1267-1270.

ASABEPaper MBSK06 101

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ASABEPaper MBSK06 101

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Canadian Society for

A CSBE/ASABE Inter Sectional Meeting

Paper Number: MBSK 06-101

SOIL CONE INDEX ESTIMATION FOR DIFFERENT TILLAGE SYSTEMS

Written for presentation at the

Bauder et al., 1981

Nicollet Clay loam

Brye et al., 2004

Stuttgart Silt loam

Disk harrow, Chisel, Cultivator

Busscher et al., 1995

Florence, SC, USA

Norfolk Loamy sand

Busscher et al., 1997

Florence, SC, USA

Norfolk Loamy sand

Busscher et al., 2000

Florence, SC, USA

Goldsboro Loamy sand

Busscher et al., 2002

Florence, SC, USA

Norfolk Loamy sand

Disc harrow, Shank Para till

Chaplin et al., 1986

Hubbard Loamy sand

Plow, Chisel, NT,

Chen et al., 2004

Red river Clay

Ehlers et al., 1983

Grey brown podzolic (Silt)

Grant and Lafond, 1993

Moscow, ID, USA

Bertie Silt loam

low, Disk harrow, NT

Karayel and Ozmerzi, 2002

Chisel, disk harrow

Larney and Kladivko, 1989

Purdue, IN, USA

Chalmers Silty clay loam

Plow, disk harrow, NT

Lopez et al., 1996

Silty Clay loam

Plow, disk harrow, NT

Materechera and Mloza-Banda, 1997

Sandy clay loam

McFarland et al., 1990

Weswood silt loam

Mielke et al., 1984

Alliance Silt loam, loam

Moreno et al., 1997

Sandy clay loam

NT, Disc Plow

Pierce et al., 1992

East Lansing, MI, USA

Tessier et al., 1997,

Taboada et al., 1998

Rolling Pampa, Argentina

Plow, Disk harrow, NT

Unger and Fulton, 1990

Pullman Clay loam

NT, Sweep plow

Unger and Jones, 1998

Pullman Clay loam