Final Draft Introduction To Soil and Dam Engg. 12-3-2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER-I
SOIL AND DAMS
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Soil
1.3
Formation Of Soil
1.4
Types Of Soil
1.5
Soil Mechanics
13
1.6
Soil Mass Subjected To Different Types Of Forces
14
1.7
Salient Features Of Dams
22
1.8
Types Of Dams
35
1.9
Arch Dams
37
1.10
Embankment Dam
40
1.11
Buttress Dams
44
1.12
Gravity Dams
46
CHAPTER-II PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
49
2.1
Introduction
49
2.2
Colour
49
2.3
Soil Structure
49
2.4
Particle Shape And Size
52
2.5
Specific Gravity
54
2.6
Soil Phases
56
2.7
Porosity
58
2.8
Void Ratio
59
2.9
Moisture Content
60
2.10
Degree Of Saturation
62
2.11
Air Void Ratio Or Air Content
63
2.12
Atterberg Or Consistency Limits
63
2.13
Particle Size Distribution
75
2.14
Relative Density (Dr) Or Density Index (Id)
80
2.15
Multiple Choice Questions (Mcq)
82
2.16
Examples:
84
2.17
Problems:
97
CHAPTER-III CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY
99
3.1
Introduction
99
3.2
Capillarity
99
3.3
Capillary Affects In Soil
101
3.4
Capillary Movement In Soil
102
3.5
Importance Of Capillarity In Civil Engineering
102
3.6
Factors Affecting Capillarity
105
3.7
Permeability
107
3.9
Factors Affecting Permeability
109
3.11
Constant Head Permeameter
113
3.12
Variable Head Permeameter
114
3.13
Field Determination Of Permeability
116
117
3.14
Theory Of Ordinary Perfect Wells (Dupuit Thiems Theory)
3.15
Derivation Of Equation For The Co-Efficient Of Permeabilityity K
118
3.16
Multiple Choice Questions (Mcq)
125
3.17
Examples:
127
3.18
Problems
132
CHAPTER-IV SEEPAGE AND FLOWNET
133
4.1
Introduction
133
4.2
Importance Of Seepage Studies
133
4.3
Laplace Equation For Two Dimensional Flow
133
4.4
Flow Nets
136
4.5
Properties Of Flow Net
136
4.6
Types Of Flow Nets
137
4.7
Boundary Conditions
144
4.8
Anisotropic Soil Conditions
149
4.8
Anisotropic Soil Conditions
150
4.9
Construction Of Flownet
153
4.10
Application Of Flownet
157
4.11
Examples
160
4.12
Problems
174
CHAPTER-V
5.1
5.2
PIPING CONTROL AND FILTER DESIGN
Introduction
Piping Failure
176
176
177
5.3
Factor Of Safety Against Heave Piping
179
5.4
Prevention Of Piping
180
5.5
Protective Filters
183
5.6
Design Criteria For Protective Filters
183
5.7
Types Of Filters
183
5.8
Examples
187
5.9
Problems
193
CHAPTER-VI
DAMS
195
6.1
Introduction
195
6.3
Selection Dam Type
196
6.4
Selection Of Dam Site
197
6.5
Determination Of Dam Height
197
6.6
Instrumentation
198
6.7
Inspection Of Dam
198
6.8
Embankment Dams
199
6.9
Component Of Earth Dams
200
6.10
Design Criteria For Earth Dam
202
6.11
Technical Standards For Earthfill Dam
204
CHAPTER-VII
HYDROPOWER PROJECTS
221
7.1
Introduction
221
7.2
Components Of Hydelpower Scheme:
221
7.3
Factors Affecting Economy Of Plant
224
7.4
General Types Of Plant Layout
226
7.5
Governing Of An Impulse Turbine (Pelton Wheel)
229
7.6
Different Types Of Hydropower Schemes
231
7.7
Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project
235
Abbreviations
282
CHAPTER-I
1.1
SOIL AND DAMS
INTRODUCTION
The industrial development for the progress of a nation depends mainly on the
availability of power. There are multiple means of power generation. The hydropower, for most
of the cases is the cheapest (no operating fuel cost) and the safest (no environmental pollution). A
dam is the most important component of a hydropower scheme. The design and construction of
dams requires a sound knowledge of geotechnical engineering. The reservoir operation and dam
monitoring are also related to geotechnical engineering. For earthfill dams, where huge quantities
of soil are involved, basic knowledge of soil mechanics regarding compaction, seepage, piping
control and filter design is very important. An exhaustive soil investigation program is required
for the selection of the most economical site for a dam. The properties of soil and its behavior
under changing reservoir level greatly affect the design of various components of an earthfill dam.
All the components of any hydropower project (e.g., dam, penstock, power house,
tailrace and the reservoir etc.) involve soil as a construction material or foundation support. An
adequate knowledge of the properties of soil is essential for the proper design and construction as
well as operation and monitoring of these components. Geotechnical Engineering is therefore
very important for the construction and operation of the hydro power projects. Soil Mechanics is a
section of Geotechnical Engineering and simply means the application of laws of mechanics and
hydraulics to the soil.
1.2
SOIL
The term soil according to engineering point of view is defined as the material, by means
of which and upon which engineers build structures. The term soil includes entire thickness of
earths crust (from ground surface to bed-rock) which is accessible and feasible for practical
utilization as a foundation support or construction material. It is composed of loosely bound
mineral particles of various sizes and shapes formed due to weathering of rocks. It also contain
organic matter, water and air. The behavior of soil as a foundation support or as a construction
material is greatly influenced by the following;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The moisture content present in the soil pores

The fluctuation of groundwater table
Seepage force of the percolating water
Freezing and thawing phenomena
The presence of organic matter
History of formation of soil
Seismicity of the area
Soil mass generally means a collection of particles of varying sizes and shapes that are
bonded together by mechanical or attractive forces. The binding power of soil particles however,
is very low as compared to the binding power of rocks. The type of soil may vary from clay to
gravel and even to cobbles and boulders. The top soil, which usually extends to a depth of about
two feet contains appreciable amount organic matter and is generally considered unsuitable for
Civil Engineering use.
1.3
FORMATION OF SOIL
Soil is generally formed by the disintegration and decomposition of rocks at or near the
earths surface through the action of many natural, physical, mechanical and chemical agents,
which break them into smaller and smaller particles (Fig: 1.1).
Top Soil (Highly Organic)
Residual Soil
(Oldest soil)
Completely
weathered rock
Highly weathered rock
(Mostly soil)
Moderately
weathered rock
Slightly
weathered rock
(Some Fissures in the

upper zone)
Sound massive rock
Fig: 1.1 Different stages of weathering of rocks and formation of soil.
The disintegration of rocks is the result of wedging action of water turned to ice within
the rock pores, because water expands during freezing. The mechanical movement of water
destroys the bonds between mineral particles, and if the water is charged with dissolved carbon
dioxide from the air, a weak carbonic acid is formed. Though weak as an acid, such water
becomes a powerful solvent, which by chemical action may dissolve or change the nature of the
parent rocks constituent minerals. Previously existing igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks provide the materials, in the form of minerals, from which the different types of soil are
produced The majority of soil particles are silicates of one form or another, so the silicate
minerals occurring in igneous rocks may eventually turn into the soil particles.
Water, wind and gravity are the transporting agents which further work on the weathered
rocks to produce soils. Geological time is still another factor in soil formation. Over a period of
thousands of years, the beating action of rains, the grinding action of the waves and tides of the
sea, combined with the transporting action of wind, flowing streams and rivers, has progressively
reduced the rock fragments and sorted them into particles varying in size between that of
boulders, at one end of the scale, and dust at the other.
1.4
TYPES OF SOIL
A geologist has an entirely different view point about the types of soil as compared to an
engineer. According to a geologist the soil types are named on the particular geological agent, due
to which the soil has been formed. The name assigned to a soil on the basis of geological agent
gives some idea about the engineering behaviour. According to an engineer, the soil types are
solely based on the range of particle sizes within a soil mass. Since the soil properties very much
depend on the particle size, the name so assigned gives a general idea about its properties and
behaviour. However commonly occurring soil deposits consist of a very wide range of particle
sizes i.e., a mixture of soil types. Therefore soil classification systems (as discussed in chapter-3)
have been developed to classify the soil for different engineering uses. The soil types based on
geological and engineering view points separately are discussed below.
1.4.1
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION:
The history of formation of a soil deposit, greatly influence its properties and behaviour.
The properties of soil highly depend on the geological and climatic agents or the processes
through which the soil deposits have been developed. The geological and the climatic forces have
never ceased to act; they still are at work and degrading the earths surface. The factor time
plays an important role in the consolidation process of cohesive soils.
Following are the types of soil based on the geological and the climatic agents or the
processes of formation of soil.
1.
Glacial soil: This type of soil is developed, transported and deposited by the
action of glaciers. The glacial deposits may be sorted, assorted or stratified. These deposits consist
of rock fragments, boulders, gravels, sand, silt and clay in various proportions (i.e., a
heterogeneous mixture of all sizes of particles).
2.
Residual soil: This type of soil is found on nearly flat rock surfaces where the
weathering action has produced a soil with a little or no tendency to move. Residual soil also
occurs when the rate of weathering is higher than the rate of removal. The surface soil formed due
to weathering of upper rock layers; conceal the parent intact rock below the ground surface.
3.
Alluvial soil: The soil transported and deposited by water is called alluvial soil.
As flowing water (stream or river) loses velocity, it tends to deposit some of the particles that it
was carrying in suspension or by rolling, sliding or skipping along the river bed. Coarser or
heavier particles are dropped first. Hence on the higher reaches of a river, gravel and sand are
found. However on the lower parts, silt and clay dominate, where the flow velocity is almost zero
or very small, i.e., when the river enters the sea or a lake. Thus river deposits are segregated
according to size.
4.
Wind blown soil or Aeolian soil: The soil transported by the geological agent
wind and subsequently deposited is known as wind blown soil or Aeolian soil. Wind can move
small particles of soil by rolling or by carrying them and may pile up in the form of dunes. The
wind may bring dust storms in arid regions, removing the soil, which is necessary to the plant life,
and causing deserts. Wind blown soil has two main types namely Dune sand and Loess.
Fig: 1.2 Sand dunes
4-a. Dune or Dune Sand: In arid parts of the world, wind is continually forming
sand deposits in the form of dunes characterized by low hill and ridge formation. They generally
occur in deserts and comprise of sand particles which are fairly rounded and uniform in size. The
particles of the dune sand are coarser than the particles of loess. Dune material is generally, a
good source of sand for construction purposes.
4-b. Loess: Accumulations of wind blown dust (mainly siliceous silt or silty-clay)
laid down in a loose condition is known as loess. The dust is originally derived from desert areas
or from vegetation free areas around the ice sheets. Silt soil in arid regions have no moisture to
bond the particles together and are very susceptible to the effects of wind and therefore can be
carried great distances by wind storms. An important engineering property of loess is its low
density and high permeability. In saturated condition its strength falls significantly, such that its
structure collapses and it consolidates under its own weight. Saturated loess is very weak and
always causes foundation problems e.g., liquefaction.
Fig: 1.3 Loess (The dust blown by wind is seen at the top.)
5.
Colluvial soil: The accumulation formed by rock fragments and soil material
resulting from the mechanical weathering of rocks is known as colluvial soil. This type of soil is
formed more or less in situ or as a result of transport by gravity over a short distance. Colluvial
soil usually exists as heaps of coarse debris at the foot of cliffs and steep slopes, the free face
10
(slope) adopting the angle of repose for the material, usually 25-350. The finest particles are
usually removed from the heaps by percolating water.
1.4.2
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION:
The types of soil based on engineering consideration solely depend on the particle size. Since
the engineering properties of soil are greatly influenced by the change of particle size, different
names are assigned to particular ranges of particle sizes. The range of particle sizes specified for
each soil type, however, vary among the agencies. The soil types based on the MIT classification
are as follows.
1.4.2.1 Clay: It is composed of very fine particles, less than .002 mm in size. They are flaky in
shape and therefore have considerable surface area. These surfaces carry electrical charge, which
helps in understanding the engineering properties of clay soils. In a moist condition, clay becomes
very sticky and can be rolled into threads. Due to electrical charge, clay shows high inter-particle
attraction and thus exhibits sufficient cohesion. It has very high dry strength, low erosion and
good workability under moist condition, and can be readily compacted. It has no inter-particle
friction and is, therefore, subjected to slides at high moisture contents. It is also susceptible to
shrinkage and swelling. It has very low permeability. Clay soils commonly have brown colour.
Particle edges having positive & negative charges.
Particle surface having a net negative charge
Fig: 1.4 Electrical charge on clay

particles.
11
1.4.2.2 Silt: It is composed of particle ranging in size between .002 and .06 mm. It has high
capillarity, no plasticity and has very little dry strength. It has particle size intermediate between
clay and the sand. Therefore it possesses properties of both the clay and sand, i.e. it shows slight
cohesion and also the friction. The colour of silty soil is mostly brown.
1.4.2.3 Sand: Durable mineral grains, usually broken crystals of quartz are known as sand. It
consists of particles ranging in size from .06 mm to 2 mm. It commonly has a grey colour. These
particles may be rounded to angular in shape. It shows no plasticity, high strength in a confined
state and has considerable frictional resistance. The frictional resistance depends upon the particle
shape. Angular particles have higher frictional resistance as compared to the rounded ones. The
particles of sand have no cohesion and therefore it is known as non-cohesive soil. Sand due to its
above mentioned properties may be termed as, non plastic soil, frictional soil or granular soil.
When sand particles are strongly bonded together by some natural cementing agent it is as
sandstone. It has high permeability and low capillarity. Sand is commonly used in filters and
drainage blankets for earthfill dams. In geotechnical engineering sand is frequently used in sand
drains to speed the process of consolidation. Sand is also used as main constituent in cement
concrete construction.
1.4.2.4 Gravels: They consist of particles varying in size from 2 mm to 60 mm. They form a
good foundation material. They show high frictional resistance. The frictional resistance depends
upon the particle size and shape. Angular particles have higher frictional resistance as compared
to the rounded particles. The gravels produced by crushing of rocks are angular in shape, while
those taken from river beds are sub-rounded to rounded in shape. Therefore, gravels from crushers
are used in the upper layers of pavement, where wheel load stresses are higher. They show very
high permeability. Gravels are used in filters, relief wells and drainage blankets for earthfill dams.
They also used as main constituent in cement concrete construction. When sand and silt are mixed
with gravels their bearing capacity in further increased but permeability may be decreased.
1.4.2.5 Cobbles or Boulders: Particles larger than gravel are commonly known as cobbles or
boulders. Cobbles generally range in size from 60mm to 200mm. The material larger than 200mm
is designated as boulders. They are used in stone masonry walls, gravity retaining walls and
gabion retaining walls. They are commonly used as rip rap for earthfill dams.
1.4.2.6 Organic Matter: The main source of organic matter is the plants or animal remains that
are added to the soil when these organism die. Plants decompose at a slower rate than the animal
remains. Commonly about 12 of the soil from top surface has a major concentration of organic
matter. Organic matter has open spongy structure and is mechanically weak. It undergoes large
volume changes under loads and contains high natural moisture content. The strength of soil is
very much reduced when the concentration of organic matter is more than 2% and the soil is
considered unsuitable for foundation support.
The above particle size limits as already mentioned are based on the MIT (Massachusetts
Institute of Technology) classification. The soil types based on the grain size limits according to
ASTM and AASHTO are given in the following table.
12
Table: 1.1 Nomenclature of material (soil type) and range of sizes

Nomenclature
(Soil Type)
Gravel
Coarse Sand
Medium Sand
Find Sand
Silt
Clay
Colloids
Range of Sizes
ASTM
AASHTO
75 mm to 4.75 mm
(3in Sieve to No. 4 sieve)
Larger than 2 mm
4.75 mm to 2 mm
(No. 4 to No. 10 sieve)
2mm to 0.425 mm
2 mm to 0.425 mm
------------------------0.425 mm to 0.075 mm
0.425 mm to 0.075 mm
0.075 mm to 0.005 mm
(No. 200 to ---)
0.075 mm to .002 mm
Smaller than 0.005 mm
The nomenclature for the materials assigned to the grain-size limits adopted by the
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) as given in the Table: 1.1, has been used in
the unified soil classification system. The AASHTO soil classification system however, follows
the nomenclature established by the AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials) for the classification of soils.
1.5 SOIL MECHANICS

Soil Mechanics is defined as the branch of engineering science which enables an
engineer to know theoretically or experimentally the behavior of soil under the action of loads
(static or dynamic), gravitational forces, water and temperature. Simply speaking it is the
knowledge of engineering science, which deals with properties, behavior and performance of soil
as a construction material or foundation support. Terzaghi, a famous soil scientist, defines soil
mechanics as follows:
Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of hydraulics and mechanics to engineering
problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles
produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks.
With recent advances in Engineering science, the design and execution of large projects,
which in the past were considered beyond imagination and control, have now become quite
common. Dams for hydro power, sky scrapers, subways, maritime & off-shore structures, tunnels
through the sea-bed for transportation linkage of the islands, and bridges spanning the sea are
some examples of large projects.
For the design and construction of almost all such projects the engineers have to deal
with both soil and rock, either as construction material or as foundation support. Further, it is
13
known that physical and engineering properties of soil and rock are very much dependent on the
geological processes of formation. Few decades back, it was therefore considered more logical to
use a more descriptive term, i.e., Geotechnical Engineering instead of Soil Mechanics. Thus Soil
Mechanics, now-a-days is considered as a section of Geotechnical Engineering. Some of the
cases where a soil mass is subjected to different types of forces are discussed as follows
1.6 SOIL MASS SUBJECTED TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF FORCES

To familiarize the reader, how a soil mass is subjected to different type of forces, some
practical examples are discussed below.
1.6.1
SOIL SUBJECTED TO STATIC LOAD:
Figure 1.5 shows a soil mass subjected to a static load i.e., from a gravity dam. When a dam
is constructed, the dead load is transferred to the soil. The dead load, once applied to the soil,
remain constant and known as static load. Due to the static load, the supporting soil is compressed
and the dam settles down. For the safety of dams, the following basic stability criteria should be
satisfied.
1.
2.
3.
4.
There should be no shear failure of the supporting soil.

The settlement should be within permissible limits.
No sliding away of the dam due to water pressure, ice pressure, wave pressure, etc.
No overturning of the dam.
Therefore, for the design of dam foundation, the information about the shear strength and
compressibility characteristics of the soil are required.
Fig: 1.5 Concrete gravity dam
14
1.6.2
SOIL SUBJECTED TO DYNAMIC LOAD:
The dynamic loads on dams include wave pressure, wind pressure and the earthquake
forces and are considered in the design.
1.6.3
SOIL SUBJECTED TO WATER FORCES:
1.6.3.1 Uplift Pressure: Figure 1.6 shows uplift forces acting on a gravity dam. Water seeping
through the soil underneath the dam with high pore pressure develops significant uplift pressure.
Uplift pressure is an active force and is very important for the stability analysis of the dam. High
uplift pressure greatly reduces the stress and hence friction at the dam-foundation interface, which
eventually decreases the factor of safety against sliding away of the dam. These pressures vary
with time and are related to boundary conditions and the permeability of the material. Therefore,
for the design and monitoring of dams, the soil characteristics related to the permeability and
seepage are required.
Drain
Gallery
[h + k(H-h)]
Fig: 1.6 Uplift Pressure on concrete gravity dam
15
1.6.3.2 Seepage Forces: Figure 1.7 shows seepage taking place through a dam foundation. The
construction of hydraulic structures, e.g., weirs and dams etc., create difference between upstream
and downstream water levels. Due to this head difference water seeps down into the bed material
(soil) from the upstream side of hydraulic structure at a much higher rate compared with normal
river flows. On the downstream side, the tail water level is much lower, therefore the seepage
water moves up towards the ground surface. Depending upon the hydraulic gradient causing the
flow, the seepage pressure at the exit point, commonly known as exit gradient may be higher. If
the exit gradient exceeds the critical hydraulic gradient, boils occur and the soil particles are
eroded away by upward flowing water, leading to the formation of a pipe shaped channel
eventually causing piping failure. To prevent erosion of soil particles and the piping failure, relief
wells are installed to allow safe exit of water.
Fig: 1.7 Seepage & backward erosion piping through dam foundation.
Fig: 1.8 Boils on the D/S of main embankment (Mangla dam Pakistan).
16
Relief wells are installed at the down stream side of a dam for safe collection and
disposal of seepage water away from the dam. Relief wells are vertically installed wells consisting
of screens surrounded by a filter material designed to prevent in-wash of foundation materials into
the well. The wells have inside diameters generally between 6 and 18 inches to accommodate the
maximum design flow. Relief wells intercept under-seepage and provide a controlled outlet for
the water. They are used to relieve excess hydrostatic pressures in the pervious substratum
overlain by more impervious top strata, conditions which often exist landward of dams.
Flow
Top Stratum
Previous Substratum
Seepage
Relief well
Fig: 1.9 Relief well at the down stream (landside) of dam

Fig: 1.8 shows boils on the downstream of the main embankment (Mangla dam). The
Mangla dam has relief wells system to collect seepage water, but the boils appeared at certain
locations and some boils disappeared after sometime. The reason may be inadequate depth and
spacing of the relief wells or loss of efficiency due to clogging of the well screens. Fig: 1.9 shows
a relief well installed at the downstream of an earthfill dam. Therefore for the design of relief
wells knowledge of soil mechanics related to filter design is required.
Figure 1.10 shows a landslide in Mangla dam reservoir which basically occurred due to
gravitational forces acting on the soil mass. Gravitational forces are continuously acting on soil
mass to pull it down to lower levels. The shear strength of soil provides a resisting force against
the downwards movement. If the downwards gravitational force is greater than the resisting shear
force, a slide takes place. Water is the most aggressive factor responsible for the occurrence of
most of the landslides. Water has a two ways negative effect. It reduces the resisting forces due to
decrease in shear strength and at the same time it increases the gravitational forces due to increase
in unit weight. The soil mass of reservoir slope which was stable before imponding, became
saturated after imponding, the shear strength reduced, density increased and eventually the slide
occurred. The landslides, for most of the slopes in critical condition, are triggered by earthquake.
Therefore, soil properties related to permeability, seepage, drainage, shear strength and
stability analysis of slopes are required to be known. A slope angle should be designed using
17
knowledge of soil mechanics to provide a reasonable factor of safety under all conditions
expected during lifetime of a reservoir.
Fig: 1.10 Landslide in the Mangla reservoir, mainly due to increase in moisture content.
Figure 1.11 below, shows a soil mass subjected to the action of water. The storm water
moving along a soil surface without vegetation cover carries the soil particles with flow. As the
particles are gradually eroded away with the flow, small channels are developed. The channels
gradually grow in size as they attract more and more water. The rate of erosion or the sediment
Fig: 1.11 Soil subjected to action of water (Erosion).
18
transport gradually increases due to gully formation. Sediment eventually fills reservoirs (quickly
in some cases) and gradually reduces storage capacity. The highest rates (in percentage terms) of
loss of storage are found in the smallest reservoirs and the lowest rates in the largest. The
worldwide average loss of storage due to sedimentation is between 0.5% and 1.0% per annum.
In many areas of the world the life span of reservoirs is determined by the rate of
sedimentation which gradually reduces the storage capacity and eventually destroys the ability to
provide water and hydel power generation.
The rate of loss of storage for a reservoir depends on the sediment yield from the
catchment which is dependent on the rate of erosion and transport of sediment by water within the
catchment. In regions where the catchments have remained stable, the rate of loss of storage is
essentially constant. In regions where deforestation has occurred, the loss of storage increases
with the rate of catchment erosion.
The basic principles of sediment transport from the upstream river system into a
reservoir are set out in standard texts and are not described in detail here. The location of
deposition of sediments within the reservoir depends on the local water velocity. Coarser material
is deposited first at the upstream of reservoir often in a form that is recognized as a delta. Finer
material may reach the dam and affect the design and operation of the outlet works. The problem
is to estimate the rate and location of deposition and the period of time before it will start to
interfere with the operation on the reservoir.
Figure 1.12-15 shows a soil mass subjected to the action of river water. Whenever a
bridge is constructed, the piers obstruct the flow and the flow path is disturbed. The flow area at
the bridge section is reduced and the flow velocity is increased. The disturbed flow path and the
increased flow velocity result in erosion of soil around the pier known as scouring.
Fig: 1.12 Soil under the action of water (Scouring)
19
Scour depth

The scour depth depends mainly on the flow velocity and the particle size of the river
bed material. For the design of foundation of the bridge pier, the maximum depth of scour for
maximum anticipated flood during the lifetime of bridge should be known. The foundation for
the pier should be placed below this depth. If the foundation is placed above the potential scour
depth, expected during the maximum anticipated flood, the soil below the pier foundation will
20
be eroded away, resulting in washing away of the entire bridge structure. Therefore, knowledge
of soil mechanics is required to determine the scour depth for the design of bridge foundations.
Fig: 1.15 Failure of Machnai Bridge at river Kabul, near Peshawar due to tilting of pier as a result
of excessive scouring (July 2005 floods)
1.6.4
SOIL SUBJECTED TO COMPACTION, SWELLING AND SHRINKAGE

FORCES:
Figure 1.16 shows an under construction earthfill dam. Huge volumes of soil are
required for the construction of earthfill dams. The soil is excavated from the borrow areas and
dumped at the dam site and then compacted by rollers. The compaction of a soil very much
depend on its type, the moisture content, the weight and type of roller and the number of passes of
the rollers. The type of roller is selected based on the type of soil. The weight of roller is based on
the degree of densification required. For economic reasons the borrow areas are selected close to
the dam site. However, if the soil from the borrow areas close to the proposed dam is not suitable
for construction, then either the soil will be stabilized or may be brought from other areas. The
dam has to store water and during operation the reservoir level fluctuates due to weather
conditions. The moisture content within the dam body remains changing during its life time.
Some soils show significant swelling and shrinkage due to increase and decrease of moisture
content respectively. Therefore, for the design and construction of dams, compaction related
21
characteristics of the soil and its behavior with respect to changes of moisture content are
required.
Impervious Core
Transition Section
Filter Section
Fig: 1.16 Different components of an earthfill dam
1.7
SALIENT FEATURES OF DAMS
The salient features of dams include type height and length of dam, reservoir and catchment area,
gross and live storage capacity of reservoir, spillway type and capacity and power generation
capacity etc. As an example salient features of Mangla Dam are given below. Brief history of the
original Mangla Dam and its present raising are given in the next sections for information of the
readers.
1.7.1
SALIENT FEATURES OF MANGLA DAM
Dam Type:
Earthfill
Height:
454 ft. (above riverbed)
Length:
10,300 feet (main + intake)
Lake Area:
97.7 sq. miles
22
Catchment Area:
12,870 Sq miles
Gross Storage Capacity:
5.88 MAF
Live Storage Capacity:
5.34 MAF
Main Spillway Capacity:
1.10 million cusecs
Year of Completion:
1967
Hydropower Generation:
1,000 MW from 10 units of 100 MW each
No. of people to be displaced by raising of dam:
40,000
1.7.2
CHARACTERISTICS
Main Embankment
Type
Maximum height
Crest length
Storage capacity
:
:
:
:
Earthfill
138 m
2560 m
6587 million m3.
Intake Embankment
Type
Maximum height
Crest length
Crest width
:
:
:
:
Earthfill
79.8 m
579 m
44.8 m
Sukian Dam
Type
Maximum height
Crest length
Crest width
:
:
:
:
Earthfill
43.9 m
5151 m
9.1 m to 12.2 m
Jari Dam
Type
Maximum height
Crest length
Crest width
:
:
:
:
Earthfill
83.5 m
2072 m
12.1 m
Main Spillway
Type
Discharge capacity
:
:
Submerged orifice
31, 150 cumecs
Emergency Spillway
Type
Control
Capacity
:
:
:
Weir
Erodible bund
6,513 Cumecs
23
Tunnels
Number
Diameter
Length
:
:
:
5, steel and concrete lined in bedrock.

9.14, 9.44, 7.92 m
475 m
Power House
The power house has 10 vertical shaft francis type turbines, each having a generating 100 MW.
1.7.3
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Mangla Dam Project is a multi-purpose project designed and built to store and control
waters of river Jhelum. The primary purpose of the project is to provide replacement storage
capacity for irrigation under the terms of Indus Basin Water Treaty.
At present Mangla power plant is generating 800 MW but has an ultimate capacity of
1000 MW. In order to ensure the safety of the project, periodic inspections of the embankment are
carried out by NESPAK. The experts analyze exhaustive monitoring data and carry out physical
inspection of all structures and the reservoir rim. In a project of such large size several minor
problems if left unattended, can have far-reaching consequences. In one of such inspection carried
out few years back, NESPAK suggested several measures such as careful investigation of boiling
at the toe of main dam. In order to check the excessive seepage through Sukian dyke, upstream
blanket for the area was suggested. An inspection report discussing the inspection along with
findings and recommendations was submitted to the client.
1.7.4
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT
In April 1948, India diverted the flow of three rivers (Ravi, Sutlej and Beas), which
threatened irrigated cultivation in Pakistan. In an effort to mitigate the consequences of possible
interference by India resulting in non supplies of the canals feed by those rivers, a program of link
canal construction to enable the transfer of water between rivers was undertaken.
Until 1967, the entire irrigation system of Pakistan was fully dependent on unregulated
flows of the Indus and its major tributaries. The agricultural yield was very low mainly due to
lack of water during critical growing seasons. The core of water shortage problems being, the
seasonal variation in river flows and the absence of storage reservoirs to conserve the vast
amounts of surplus water during periods of high river discharge.
Mangla Dam was the first development project undertaken to reduce the shortcoming
and strengthen the irrigation system.
1.7.5
THE DAM PROJECT
Mangla Dam was the 12th largest dam in the world when constructed. It was constructed
in 1967 across the River Jhelum, about 60 miles southeast of the federal capital, Islamabad. The
main structures of the dam include 4 embankment dams, 2 spillways, 5 power-cum-irrigation
tunnels and a power station.
24
Since its first impounding in 1967, sedimentation to the extent of 1.13 MAF has
occurred, and the present gross storage capacity has reduced to 4.75 MAF from the actual design
of 5.88 MAF.
The live capacity has been reduced to 4.58 MAF from 5.34 MAF. This implies a
reduction of 19.22 % in the capacity of the reservoir. The project was designed primarily to
regulate the river flows in terms of increasing the amount of water for irrigation from River
Jhelum and its tributaries. Its secondary function was to generate electrical power from the
irrigation releases. The project was not designed as flood control structure, although some benefit
in this respect also arises from its use for irrigation and water supply.
1.7.6
FINANCIAL BENEFITS
A brief summery of financial benefits for the previous years (1996 1999) is given as an
example.
The Indus River System Authority (IRSA) indented 4.21 MAF of water releases for
irrigation purpose during 1999-2000, against 5.1 MAF during the previous year, worth Rs 3,789
million at a rate of Rs. 900 per acre-feet. In addition, the Mangla Power Station generated
3,184.77 million kilowatt hours (MKWH) of electricity, worth Rs. 955.43 million at a rate of Rs.
0.30 per kwh unit. The financial benefits for the years 1996 and onwards are given below:
Year
July to
June
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
1999-00
1.7.7
Storage
Releas
MAF
4.98
4.36
5.1
4.21
Water
Rs. 900 per
Ac-Ft
Benefit, Rs.
Million
4,482
3,924
4,590
3,789
Power
Rs.0.3 per
Generation
Ac-Ft
Benefit, Rs.
MKWH
Million
5,665.63
1,699.69
6,103.72
1,831.11
4,778.53
1,433.56
3,184.77
955.43
Total Benefits
Benefit, Rs.
Million
6,181.69
5,755.11
6,023.56
4,744.43
MANGLA WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROJECT
The main objective of the project is to prolong the reservoir life through improved
methods of land-use and implementation of watershed management practices in the catchment.
The project, in addition to reducing the entry of sediments into the reservoir, has also improved
the following:
Socio-economic conditions of the public living in the area by improvement of
land with consequent increase in agriculture
Forest and range-land products
Increase in sub-soil water resources and perennial stream flows
Minimizing runoff with consequent reduction in flood hazards and
Environmental protection of the area
25
The total catchment area of the River Jhelum is 12,870 square miles. Out of the total
area, 56% lies in the Indian-held Kashmir territories and the remaining 44% in Pakistan and Azad
Jammu and Kashmir. Within Pakistan, only 3,433 square miles is covered by this project, which
includes the critical sediment source areas.
The watershed management practices include reforestation of bare and denuded lands,
development of range-lands, improvement of cultivated fields by land leveling/improvement of
terraces and structural works such as silt trap storages, spillways, check dams, retaining diversion
walls and gully control structures.
1.7.8
RAISING OF MANGLA DAM
A joint venture of consultants comprising NESPAK, Barqaab, Binnie and Partners and
Harza has been awarded the contract to undertake the feasibility for raising Mangla Dam by 40
feet. The proposal for raising of Mangla Dam was part of the Final Completion Report submitted
by Binnie and Partners in 1971. This will raise the elevation of the dam from 1,234 feet to 1,274
feet and subsequently increase the conservation level from 1,202 feet to 1,252 feet and the
minimum operating capacity of reservoir from 5.88 MAF to 9.6 MAF. But finally the dam was
raised from 1,234 feet to 1,264 feet with increase of reservoir level from 1,202 feet to 1,242 feet
and the minimum operating capacity of reservoir from 5.88 MAF to 9.6 MAF.
According to the investigations made during 1999, the capacity of Mangla has reduced
by 19.22% due to silting i.e from 5.88 MAF to 4.75 MAF. Concerned by this, the government
initiated the raising of Mangla Dam as a fast-track project on 14-8-2000. The raising of Mangla
dam will make the main dam 494 feet high, providing an additional 1,000 GWH or an 18%
enhancement and 3.1 MAF of additional storage under normal conditions. The Government of
Pakistan has allocated 53 billion rupees for this project between 2001-06.
Budget Allocation for Mangla Raising Project
Million Rupees
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
Fiscal Year
26
1.7.9
RESETTLEMENT ISSUES
7.0 THE RESSETLEMENT ISSUE
During the construction of the Mangla dam, 65,100 acres of land was submerged. This
led to the resettlement of the residents of old Mirpur town and the affected people were provided
accommodation in the newly developed town of Mirpur. Most of the people were accommodated
however, some grudges remained after resettlement.
An important concern on the raising of Mangla dam was the resettlement of an estimated
40,000 people living in 7,000 houses. Rs. 20 billion has been allocated for population resettlement
in the Rs 53 billion project. WAPDA has developed a policy and compensation package for
resettlement of the affected.
1.7.10
SOCIAL ISSUES
Kashmiri Group Vows to Stop Mangla Dam Extension (The News International 11-305). Arif Chaudhry, spokesman for the Anti-Mangla Dam Extension Committee, has said that
they will use all possible means, including diplomacy, dialogue, protest, hunger strike and road
closure, to stop the extension of Mangla Dam. He was responding to questions at a seminar on
'People's perspective on Mangla Dam Extension Project' organized by the Sustainable
Development Policy Institute here on Friday. Naeem Iqbal of the Pakistan Network of Rivers,
Dams and People conducted the proceedings. Arif Chaudhry said that the present unrest among
people would further aggravate if no attention was given to their demands. He said that if the dam
is raised, it would displace the people of Mirpur. He said that 80,000 to 85,000 people were
displaced during the construction of Mangla Dam in the 1960s and some of the affected persons
were still waiting payment of compensation. He said that seven promises were made, including
free electricity to Mirpur at the time of the construction of the dam, but except for sending 300
people to England, no other promise was fulfilled. He said that even this was done by the British
construction company to win support for the project. He said that raising the dam would lead to
many socio-economic problems as it would adversely affect most of the immigrants living in
England who constructed beautiful houses in Mirpur. He said Kashmiris living in England do not
bury their family members in the UK but bring their dead bodies to Mirpur. He regretted that all
this would be submerged in the lake. He said his organization had presented 12 alternatives to the
government but no attention was paid to them as these reduced chances of corruption. He said that
the price of one kanal land in Mirpur is Rs. 2.5 million while the government allocated Rs. 50,000
per kanal in the budget. Afsar Shahid, president of the Kashmir Freedom Movement, said that it is
better to take people into confidence. He said that the issue could only be solved through
consensus.
The issues mostly have settled down and the construction of raising project has
commenced since 20-06-04 and the scheduled completion date was 19-09-07. It should be kept in
mind that these issues are very important for smooth execution and timely completion of any such
project involving resettlement and compensation to public.
The Maps, drawings and pictures of the Dam, reservoir and different dam structures are
given on the next pages:
27
Sukian Dyke
Reservoir
To Mirpur
Erodible bund
Power intakes
Main Dam
Power tunnels
Power station
Bong Canal
Main spillway
River Jhelum
Fig: 1.17 Map showing location of the Mangla Dam on Jhelum River, Pakistan
28
Tailrace
Fig: 1.18 Layout Plan showing Mangla dam and other structures
Fig: 1.19 A View of main spillway of Mangla dam
29
3-6 Rip rap class I

2-6 Rip rap class III
5 Free drainage gravel
Washed Gravel
Rolled
sandstone
type A
2-0 Cobbles a boulders

4-6 Gravel fill
Rolled
sandstone
type A
Rolled
clay
3-0 Foundation gravel drain

2-0 Foundation coarse filter
5 Foundation Excavation
D/S
Fig: 1.20 Dam cross-section showing various components of Mangla dam
Fig: 1.21 Main spillway of Mangla dam, view of upper chute
30
Fig: 1.22 Emergency Spillway of Mangla dam
Fig: 1.23 Reservoir of Mangla dam
31
Fig: 1.24 Arial view of Spillway of Mangla dam
Tailrace
Fig: 1.25 Arial view of Powerhouse and tailrace of Mangla dam
32
Fig: 1.26 Mangla dam raising project, additional reservoir areas shown by dark colour
33
34
Figure-1.27 Housing colony for the affectees of Mangla dam raising project
Fig: 1.28 Designed Cross-section of raised Mangla dam
1.8
TYPES OF DAMS
Based on material used, following are the main types of dams.

1. Masonry Dam
2. Concrete Dam
3. Earth-fill Dam
4. Rock-fill Dam
Masonry dam were used for low height small reservoirs in the past and presently are quite
uncommon. The above dams are further classified based on shape and arrangement of their
components.
1.8.1
TYPES OF CONCRETE DAMS
Based on shape, following are the types of concrete dams.

1. Concrete Arch Dam
2. Concrete Gravity Dam
3. Concrete Buttress Dam
Arch dam
Gravity dam
Buttress dam
Fig: 1.29 Types of Concrete Dam
35
1.8.2
TYPES OF EARTH-FILL DAMS
Based on the arrangement of components and mode of construction, following are the types of
earth-fill dams.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Homogeneous Earth-fill Dam

Modified Homogeneous Earth-fill Dam
Zoned Earth-fill Dam
Hydraulic-fill Dam
The first three dams are constructed using conventional earth moving and compaction machinery
and based on mode of construction they are known as rolled-fill dams. While hydraulic-fill is a
special technique for raising and constructing dam embankment. In this method soil is transported
to the dam site by pumping soil water mixture through pipes.

Fig: 1.30 Types of Earth-fill Dam
1.8.3
TYPES OF ROCK-FILL DAMS
Based on the arrangement of components, following are the types of rock-fill dams.
1.
2.
3.
Rock-fill dam with central core

Rock-fill dam with sloping core
Rock-fill dam with diaphragm
36
Rock-fill dam with Central Core
Rock-fill dam with upstream Core
Rock-fill dam with Diaphragm

Fig: 1.31 Types of Rock-fill Dam
1.9
ARCH DAMS
The dam is built in an arch, and most of the water pressure is resisted by the abutment rock. An
arch dam is a curved dam which depends upon arch action for its strength. They are quite thinner
and hence require less material than any other type of dam. They are suitable for sites that are
narrow and have strong abutments.
Fig: 1.32 Arch dam
37
Fig: 1.33 Arch dam

Arch dams are usually made of reinforced cement concrete and are very suitable for narrow
gorges with strong abutments. The gorge often has a V-shape. Arch dams require much less
concrete than gravity dams. The best design is a double-curved arch.
Arch dams are generally classified as thin, medium, and thick, depending on the ratio of the width
of the base (b) to the height (h). The following general criterion is usually followed.
Thin arch when the ratio b/h < 0.2

Medium thick arch when the ratio 0.2 < b/h < 0.3
Thick arch when the ratio b/h > 0.3
There is no generalization for the ratio between the width at the crest (c) and the width at the base
(b). Historically, c/b = 1 (the same thickness at the base and crest) has even been used. But
usually c/b ratio is equal to 0.5.
If the height of an arch dam is known, the following simple equations can be used to find the
other dimensions for a simulation:
Crest width = height * 0.2

Base width = height * 0.3
38
1.9.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
COMPONENTS OF ARCH DAM

Abutment
Axis
Central Angle
Crest
Cross Section
Downstream Face
Foundation
Heel
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Height
Plan View
Radius
Reservoir
Span
Toe
Upstream Face
Width
Span
Width
Upstream face
Crest
Reservoir
Width
Radius
Downstream face
Height
Axis
Abutment
Toe
Toe
Downstream face
Foundation
Heel
Central angle
Fig: 1.33 Cross Section & Plan View

1.9.2
FORCES ON ARCH DAM
The main forces on a dam include the forces of the reservoir water, uplift force and the weight of
concrete. There are many other forces that may act on an arch dam and are listed below:
There may be water on the downstream side of the dam as well; this water will have the
same sort of vertical and horizontal forces on the dam as the water on the upstream side
Internal hydrostatic pressure: in pores, cracks, joints, and seams
Temperature Variations
Chemical Reactions
Silt pressure; silt will build up over time on the upstream side; silt provides about 1.5
times the horizontal pressure of water and twice the vertical pressure of water
Ice load on the upstream side
Wave load on the upstream side
39
1.10
Eart
hquake Loads
Settlement of the foundation or abutments
Other structures on top of the dam -- gates, a bridge, cars
Creep of concrete: deformation of the concrete when under a constant load for a long
period of time
EMBANKMENT DAM
Embankment dams are massive dams made of earth or rock. They rely on their weight to resist the
flow of water, just like concrete gravity dams. Embankment dams may be made of earth or rock,
both of which are pervious to water that is, water can seep through it. These dams usually have
some sort of water proof insides (called the core). The core material is usually more watertight
than the rock or earth that is on the outside of the dam, but the core material is still not totally
impervious to water. There are two types of embankment dams namely rock-fill dam (when the
dam body mainly comprise of rocks) and earth-fill dam (when the dam body mainly comprise of
earth).
1.10.1
ROCK-FILL DAM
The main body of these dams consists of rocks and gravels. A relatively impervious element is
included in the dam body to control seepage. It is best suited in the area where rocks are available.
40
Fig: 1.34 Rock-fill dam with concrete upstream face

1.10.2
EARTH-FILL DAM
These dams are built using soil (clay/silt, sand and gravels) as a main constituent material. They
can be built in locations where the ground is relatively soft.
41
Fig: 1.35 Earth-fill dam

1.10.3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
COMPONENTS OF EMBANKMENT DAM

Crest
cross section
downstream face
foundation
Heel
height
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
plan view
reservoir
Span
toe
upstream face
width
Crest
Width
Reservoir
Height
Upstream
face
Heel
Toe
Foundation
Cross Section of Dam
42
Downstream face
Upstream face
Length
Crest
Width
Plan View of Dam
Fig: 1.36
1.10.4
FORCES ON AN EMBANKMENT DAM
The main force on an embankment dam is the force of the water. The weight of the dam is also a
force, but each material has a different weight, so it is not shown here as one force the way it is on
the concrete dams. The uplift force is also acting on the embankment dam, but some of the water
seeps into the dam so the force is not the same as on a concrete dam.
Homogeneous
Water surface
Free water surface
of seepage line
Unstable zone
Impermeable foundation
Fig: 1.37 Forces on an embankment dam
43
with a drainage blanket
Free water surface

Drainage blanket
Other forces that may act on an embankment dam are:
1.11
Earthquake Loads
Other structures on top of the dam -- gates, a bridge, cars
BUTTRESS DAMS
In Buttress dams the dam face is held up by a series of supports. The face may be flat or curved.
The buttress head may be flat, as shown above, or rounded. Usually, buttress dams are made of
reinforced concrete. The buttresses may be hollow or solid.
Fig: 1.38 Buttress Dams
44
1.11.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
COMPONENTS OF BUTTRESS DAM

Abutment
Axis
Buttress
Buttress head
Crest
Cross section
Downstream face
Foundation
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Heel
Height
Plan view
Reservoir
Span
Toe
Upstream face
Width
Width
Reservoir
Crest
Downstream face
Upstream face
Dam
Axis
Heel
Foundation
Toe
Span
Upstream face
Buttress head
Width
Abutment
Buttress
Downstream face
45
1.11.2
FORCES ACTING ON A BUTTRESS DAM
concrete. There are many other forces that may act on a buttress dam and are listed below:
1.12
Chemical Reactions
Earthquake loads
Other structures on top of the dam -- gates, a bridge, vehicles, creep of concrete:
deformation of the concrete when under a constant load for a long period of time.
GRAVITY DAMS
Gravity dams resist the horizontal thrust of the water entirely by their own weight. These dams
are typically used to block streams through narrow gorges. Because it is their weight holding the
water back, large amount of concrete is used for gravity dams. These dams can be very expensive
depending upon the large amount of material they use. Generally, the base of a concrete gravity
dam is equal to approximately 0.7 times the height of the dam:
Fig: 1.40 Gravity Dam
46
Gate
Training wall
Overflow section
Apron
Reservoir
Bedrock
Fig: 1.40 Gravity Dam
1.12.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
COMPONENTS OF GRAVITY DAM

Abutment
Axis
Crest
Cross section
Downstream face
Foundation
Heel
Width
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Height
Plan view
Reservoir
Span
Toe
Upstream face
Width
Span
Reservoir
Crest
Upstream face
Width
Downstream face
Height
Downstream face
Axis
Toe
Abutment
Heel
Foundation
47
1.12.2
FORCES ON GRAVITY DAM
concrete. Beside these main forces, there are many other forces that may act on a gravity dam
which are listed below:
Chemical Reactions
Earthquake Loads
Other structures on top of the dam -- gates, a bridge, vehicles
Creep of concrete: deformation of the concrete when under a constant load for a long
period of time.
48
CHAPTER-II
2.1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is designed to introduce the reader to the general terms and definitions
routinely used by geotechnical engineers. These terms, and definitions, primarily describe the
important physical and index properties of soils. Most of the physical properties are interrelated
and simple equations have been developed so that if some of the properties are known, the other
can be determined by the use of equations. Several of the equations will be used so frequently
throughout the text that it will be most appropriate to memorize them. However it is worthwhile
to mention that these equations are quite large in number and perhaps may be difficult to
remember them all. Therefore the students must practice to derive the required relationships
(equations) from the basic definitions.
The fundamental physical properties of soil are colour, structure, particle size and shape,
specific gravity, unit weight, porosity, void ratio, soil phases, moisture content, and consistency,
which are mainly important for the selection of material for construction of embankments. These
properties are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.
2.2
COLOUR
It is the most common property of soil. Soil exist in nature in a wide variety of colours
depending upon the particular type of soil mineral, organic contents, the amount of colouring
oxides and the degree of oxidation. Black colour of soil is due to the presence of manganese
compounds, green or blue colour due to ferrous compound, red, brown or yellow due to iron, and
grey due to organic matter. For identification purposes the colour of moist soil in the natural state
is generally noted.
2.3
SOIL STRUCTURE
Arrangement or grouping of soil particles depending upon their size and shape in various
patterns of structural framework is called soil structure. This arrangement is usually developed
during the process of sedimentation or rock weathering.
Soil deposits at the face of earth have been developed by many natural processes of
accumulations of soil particles over historical period of time. During the process of accumulation,
soil particles arrange (group) themselves in different patterns, depending upon their size and
shape (mass to surface area ratio). For coarse grained or non-cohesive soil, mass to surface area
ratio is relatively higher therefore, the effect of gravity has major influence on the arrangement of
particles, and the effect of electrical charge on the particle surfaces is negligible.
49
The fine-grained soil (mainly clay) because of their low mass to surface area ratio is
more affected by the electrical forces acting on their surfaces compared with gravity forces, and
therefore the particles arrange (group) themselves in different patterns.
Terzaghi grouped the most common patterns of soil structure into the following three
principal groups.
i.
ii.
iii.
i
Granular or Single-grained structure

Flocculent Structure
Dispersed structure
Granular or single-grained structure:
Cohesion-less soil (coarse-grained soils and silts > .01mm) tend to form a single-grained
structure which may be loose or dense (Fig: 2.1). In single grained structure, each grain is in
contact with several of its neighbors in such a way that the aggregate is stable even if there are no
forces of adhesion at the point of contact between the grains. Single-grained soil structures are
formed when soil grains independently settle slowly in quiet water. However experience indicates
that it is possible for sands or silts to develop an unusual loose or honeycomb structure (Fig: 2.2).
Honeycomb structure may develop due to settlement of grains in soil-water suspension, or from a
loosely dumped moist soil, where grains develop a particle-to-particle contact that bridge over
relatively large void spaces and can resist the overburden pressure. Such deposits in coarsegrained soil may be unstable when subjected to shock or vibrations, resulting in quick volume
reduction and loss of strength.
Fig: 2.1 Granular soil Structure.

The risk of instability or loss of strength is reasonably reduced if some cementing at points of
particle contacts exists. The cementation over geologic time period may occur as percolating
water precipitates various carbonates and other materials.
50
ii.
Flocculent Structure:
The clay minerals are extremely flaky in shape and have a large surface area-to-mass
ratio. The clay particles carry a negative electrical charge on their surfaces. The affect of
electrical forces is more than the gravity forces. Clay deposits developed from particles settling
out of soil-water suspension (either in fresh-water or salt-water) tend to form a flocculent
structure. A flocculent structure is developed when the edge of one clay particle is attracted to
the flat face of another (i.e., edge-to-face contact) (Fig: 2.2). The structure of clay soil settling
out in marine environment (salt-water, which acts as an electrolyte) is more flocculent than clay
in fresh water.
Clay deposits with flocculent structure have high void ratio, low density, high water
content and high permeability. The structure however is quite stable and resistant to external
forces that can be maintained as long as the electrical charges on the edges of the particles remain
opposite in sign to those on the faces. However, due to change of environment surrounding the
particles, such as the salt being leached from the deposit, the inter-particle attraction and hence
the strength is drastically reduced.
(a) Honeycomb structure in a
(b) Flocculated-type structure (edge to face
Fig: 2.2 Honeycomb and flocculent structure

iii
Dispersed Structure:
The dispersed structure is developed when the edges and faces of the clay particles have
similar electrical charge. The particles repel each other and the orientation is nearly parallel (Fig:
2.3). The dispersed structure also develops as a result of remolding by the transportation process
51
(man-made earth fills). The particle arrangement that develops from remolding has a more
parallel orientation of particles. A flocculated structure with the addition of moisture content and
application of compaction energy is changed to a dispersed structure.
(a) Dispersed-type structure (face to face
(b) Remolded or dispersed
Clay Particle
Silt particle
Fig: 2.3 Dispersed structure.
2.4
PARTICLE SHAPE AND SIZE
Particle size and shape very much influence the engineering properties of soil. Particles of
coarse-grained soil (sand, gravel, boulder etc.) are generally bulky in shape, i.e., their length
width and thickness are approximately equal. Different shapes are commonly termed as angular,
sub-angular, sub-rounded and rounded (Fig: 2.4). The shapes of the particles however depend on
the rock type, their age, weathering and transportation processes. The newer particles are
generally angular and rough surfaced. With the passage of time and as a result of weathering and
transportation processes, the edges are broken and the particles change finally to rounded shape.
Sub-angular and sub-rounded are the transition stages. The angular and rough surfaced particles
possess better engineering properties compared with those of rounded and smooth particles. Some
of the rocks, upon weathering produce flaky particles. The presence of flaky particles in a
granular soil mass has significant effect on the engineering properties e.g., void ratio, density and
compressibility. The flaky & elongated particles bridge over open spaces, which can resist
overburden pressure. Therefore they produce relatively large void ratios and loose soil mass (Fig:
2.5). The flakes, however, are incapable of resisting the applied loading. They bend or break and
allow rearrangement of particles under applied loading, which some times produce undesirable
deformations.
52
Angular
Sub-Angular
Sub-Rounded
Fig: 2.4 Particle shapes.

The silt particles although classified as fines are still bulky in shape and have the same
mineralogical composition as the coarse grained soil.
The clay particles are flaky in shape (flat plate-like shape). Their length and width are
many-many times greater than the thickness. The clay particles originate from crystalline
minerals. Due to their distinct mineralogical composition they exhibit inter-particle attraction
and bonding with water molecules. As a result the behavior of clay soil drastically changes with
change of moisture content. At different moisture contents, but at the same void ratio, a clay soil
may behave as a liquid, plastic or a solid mass.
Rounded
Elongated
Flaky
Fig: 2.4 Particle shapes.

Individual clay particle seldom exists. Due to cohesive forces, they group together, to
form a cluster. The clay particles are very small in size (less than .002mm or 2). However it
53
must be kept in mind that the properties of clay (cohesion and plasticity) are due to the type of the
mineral (i.e., clay mineral) and not due to its small size. The particles of non-clay minerals
although smaller than .002mm, do not exhibit the clay properties (i.e., cohesion and plasticity).
Actual soil deposits consist of soil particles having variation in particle sizes. The
variation of particle sizes may be small to large. An ideal particle size distribution (well-graded)
produces an optimum particle arrangement and upon compaction produce a dense and strong soil
mass. While a mass of soil having particles of nearly the same sizes (uniformly or poorly-graded),
produces a loose packing due to absence of small particles to fill the voids between bigger
particles.
Fig: 2.5 Elongated particles bridging the gap
2.5
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity of any substance is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of that
substance, to the unit weight of water at 4oC.
The above definition simply means that how many times a substance (or material) is
heavier than water. For example the specific gravity of mercury of 13.6 means that if equal
volumes of mercury and water are taken than mercury will be 13.6 times heavier than water.
54
Similarly specific gravity of gold is 19.3 or one can say that gold is 19.3 times heavier
than water. A geotechnical engineer is commonly interested in the specific gravity of the soil
grains (or solids), which is defined as the ratio of unit weight of soil grains, to the unit weight of
water. It is denoted by Gs and expressed as:
Gs =
s
Ws
=
w Vs w
(2.1)
Where, s = unit weight of the soil solids (no pores)
s = Ws/Vs
(2.2)
Where Ws is the weight of soil solids, which is equal to the dry weight. And Vs is the
volume of soil solids (no pores).
The term bulk specific gravity or mass specific gravity is also used and it is expressed as
G = b/ w
(2.3)
Where b = bulk density of soil.

Average values of Gs for soil solids range from 2.50 to 2.70, and it depends on the
mineral making the soil particles. If the mineral composing the soil is heavier the specific gravity
will be greater. A soil mass may be composed of a single mineral or have been developed by a
mixture of various minerals. Any mineral soil has a unique value of specific gravity, which is
independent of state of soil deposit (i.e., moisture content, compaction etc.).
The bulk specific gravity however depends on the state of soil deposit. It is variable i.e.,
a lower value for loose soil and a higher value for dense soil but can never be more than the
specific gravity of soil solids.
The specific gravity is a very important soil property and is extensively used for the
determination and calculation of many other soil properties; some of them are listed below.
1234-
Particle size analysis by hydrometer test

Porosity and void ratio
Unit weight
Critical hydraulic gradient in studying the quick condition especially to check
55
5-
piping failure of hydraulic structures, or heaving of soil while excavating below

water table.
Degree of saturation or zero-air-voids in the studies of compaction of soil.
It is therefore very important to pay serious attention and care to the determination of
specific gravity of soil.
Specific gravity of some common soil minerals and various soil types are given in the
following table.
Table: 2.1 Specific Gravity of some Minerals and Soil types
Minerals
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity
Dolomite
2.8-2.9
Bentonite clay
2.13-2.18
Feldspar
2.5-2.6
Chalk
2.63-2.73
Gypsum
2.2-2.4
Clay
2.45-2.90
Illite
Quartz
2.60
2.60-2.65
Humus
1.37
Loess
2.65-2.75
Talc
2.7-2.8
Peat
1.26-1.8
Kaolinite
2.6-2.63
Silt
2.68-2.72
Quartz sand
2.60-2.65
Magnetite
Calcite
2.6
Soil-type
5.17-5.18
2.8-2.9
Lime
2.7
SOIL PHASES
A soil mass is a collection of solid particles of different sizes and shapes, which form a
porous medium. Depending upon seasonal variations these pores may be filled with air or water
or both. The phase of a soil means any homogeneous part of a soil mass different from other parts
in the mass and clearly separated from them.
Since soil is a porous medium consisting of three different homogenous parts (e.g.,
solid particles, water and air), a given volume of soil mass may be regarded as a mass consisting
of three fundamental phases, namely: Solid phase, Liquid phase and Gaseous or vapour phase.
56
Solid particle
Fig: 2.6 Schematic diagram indicating different soil phases
Water in voids
Air in voids
Air
Va
Water
Volume of soil
mass = V
Air
Water
Vw
Solids
Vs
Partially Saturated
3-phase soil mass
Va
Vw
Solids
Vs
Fully Saturated
2-phase soil mass
Air
Ice
Va
Vi
V = Vs +Vv
Water
Vw
Vv = Vw + Va + Vi
Vv = Vw (Saturated)
Vv = Va (Dry)
Solids
Fully dried
2-phase soil mass
Vs
Solids
Vs
Frozen soil
4-phase soil mass
Fig: 2.6 Schematic diagram indicating different soil phases

In cold regions, the pore water in the upper soil layers freezes due to accumulation of
snow on the ground surface.
In the studies of these soils, four phases can be defined as under.
1. Solid phase
2. Liquid phase
3. Gaseous phase
4. Ice phase.
The volumetric proportion of different phases can be studied by phase diagram. It must
be kept in mind that there is no real means of separating the soil phases as shown in the Fig: 2.6.
57
2.7
POROSITY
A soil mass is a porous medium consisting of solid particle, and the pores or voids. The
total volume of soil mass is the summation of volume of solid particles and the volume of pores or
voids. The volume of the pores or voids depends on the soil density or degree of packing and is
reduced considerably by compaction.
V = Vs + Vv
(2.4)
V = Total volume of soil mass

Vs = Volume of solid particles of soil
Vv = Volume of voids, which may be filled with air or water or both
The ratio of volume of all the voids Vv to the total volume of the soil mass V is
known as the porosity. It is denoted by n and expressed in percentage.
n=
(2.5)
Vv
100
V
In the above basic formula, it is difficult to determine the term Vv by any simple
means. The porosity n may be expressed in terms of other physical properties of soil and then it
will be easily determined. The relationships can be developed as follows.
n=
Vv V Vs
=
V
V
n =1
G=
G=
Vs
V
s
w
Ws
Vs w
Vs =
(2.6)
Ws
G w
while s =
Ws
Vs
while Ws = dry weight of soil
Putting the value of Vs in Equation - 2.6

n = 1
Ws
G wV
(2.7)
All the terms on the right hand side of Eq-2.7 can be easily determined and hence n
can be calculated. Porosity varies in the range of 0< n < 100.
58
Since it is practically impossible to eliminate all the voids therefore porosity can never
be zero. The increase in the volume of voids increases the total volume by the same amount
therefore porosity can never be 100 percent. Porosity helps in the studies of seepage through
soil.
2.8
VOID RATIO
It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids present in the soil to the volume of solid
particles in a soil mass. It is denoted by e.
e=
V
volume of voids in soil
= v
volume of solids in soil
Vs
(2.8)
Relationship with other soil properties

e=
Vv V Vs V
=
=
1
Vs
Vs
Vs
(2.9)
e=
VG w
Ws
1 while Vs =
Ws
Gs w
(2.10)
The values on the right hand side of the equation (2.10) can be determined easily and
hence e can be calculated.
Again from Eq.-2.9
1+ e =
V
Vs
V
V Vv
1
= s =
1+ e
V
V
V
1
=1 v =1 n
1+ e
V
1
n = 1
1+ e
n=
1+ e 1
e
=
1+ e
1+ e
(2.11)
Similarly it can be derived that

e=
n
1 n
(2.12)
59
The void ratio is expressed as a number and the values vary within the range.
0< e <<
The common values however may range from 0.5 to 1.3. The values are lower for sand
and higher for clay, but also depend on compaction. The void ratio is extensively used in
calculating the following important soil parameters.
i Unit weight
b =
(2.13)
(es + G )
w
1+ e
(e + G ) w
1+ e
G w
d =
1+ e
(2.14)
sat =
sub =
(G 1) w
1+ e
ii Critical hydraulic gradient, i c =

iii Re lative density, D =
(2.15)
(2.16)
G 1
1+ e
(2.17)
e max e
e max e min
iv Modulus of compressibility , m v =
(2.18)
e1 e 2
( p 2 p1 ) (1 + e1 )
v Theoratical maximum dry density , d max =
vi Final settlement , H = (
e
)H
1 + e1
G w
1+ e
(2.19)
(2.20)
(2.21)
Void ratio further plays an important role to understand the process of consolidation of
soil and in the settlement analysis of structures. Practically, void ratio e cannot be reduced to
zero but it can be more than one.
2.9
MOISTURE CONTENT
The amount of water present in the voids of a soil in its natural state is termed as the
moisture content of soil. It is denoted by m and expressed as percentage. It is numerically
expressed as under:
m =
weight of water
100
weight of dry soil
(2.22)
60
It is an important physical property since the behavior of soil is very much influenced
by changes of moisture content. At large changes of moisture content the behavior of soil is
entirely changed e.g., a soil which behaves as a solid at low moisture contents change to liquid
state at high moisture content and the shear strength is practically reduced to zero. Increase in
moisture always increases the unit weight of a dry soil. The moisture in the voids of a soil mass
occurs in a variety of forms. Depending upon the form of occurrence they are given different
names e.g.,
a-
Hygroscopic Moisture
It is also known as adsorbed moisture, contact moisture or surface bound moisture. This
form of soil moisture exists as a very thin film of moisture surrounding the surfaces of individual
soil particles and is held by the force of adhesion. Practically the moisture present in an air dried
soil sample may be termed as hygroscopic moisture. The value of hygroscopic moisture however
depends on the atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and the type of soil. In fine grained
soil such as clays, due to large specific surface, hygroscopic moisture is high (up to 20% or
more) while in coarse grained soil (sand) it is relatively low due to limited amount of specific
surface. The approximate values of hygroscopic moisture for various soils are as under:
1Sand
1-2 percent
2Silt
7-9 percent
3Clay
17-20 percent
The values are just approximate and vary with humidity and temperature etc.
Hygroscopic moisture is not affected by gravitational forces, capillary forces and air drying at
ordinary temperature. Hygroscopic moisture film is bound so rigidly to the particle surfaces that
it can not be removed even by centrifugation. It does not exert any hydrostatic pressure. The
difference between the weight of an air-dried sample to its weight after oven drying at + 105C
gives the amount of hygroscopic moisture present in the soil.
b.
Film Moisture
The thickness of moisture film around soil particles varies depending upon the
conditions such as weather etc. The moisture film attached to the soil particles, above the layer
of hygroscopic moisture film, is known as film moisture. It is held by the molecular forces and is
not affected by gravity. It can move from points of higher potentials (heat or electric) to lower
ones or from points of thicker to thinner films. The amount of film moisture depends on the
specific surface i.e., higher the specific surface higher will be the film moisture and vice-versa.
c.
Capillary Moisture
It is defined as the moisture which is held within the voids of capillary size. The
capillary moisture is continuously connected to the groundwater table. It rises above the water
table and is held by the surface tension force of the menisci at the top of water columns in
capillary tubes formed due to interconnected pores in soil. The voids are completely filled with
water and the soil is fully saturated. The height or thickness of capillary saturated zone above the
61
groundwater table depends on the size of soil particles. Finer the particles, greater is the
thickness of capillary zone.Capillary water can be removed from the soil by drainage when the
quantity of water present in the voids is in excess of that retained by the surface tension forces.
d.
Chemically Bound Moisture
It is the moisture contained chemically within the mineral particles and can be removed
only by chemical process which breaks the crystalline structure of the mineral. The chemically
bound water does not influence the physical properties and behavior of soil and therefore is not
commonly determined.
The moisture content determined through oven drying method (or any other method) by
Eq.-2.22 includes adsorbed moisture, film moisture and only that portion of capillary moisture,
which is held within the voids by surface tension forces. All other forms of water (not discussed
here) will be drained out by gravity as the soil sample is extracted from the ground (from surface
or sub-surface layers). Chemically bound moisture is not important for common soil engineering
problems and therefore is not determined.
The range of moisture content is
0 m <<
It is not unusual for some soils (marine or organic lake soil) to have moisture content
up to 300-400 percent. The common range of moisture content for most soils is about 20-40
percent. Oven dried soil has zero percent moisture and the soils which appear dry (i.e., air dried
soil) often have 2 to 4 percent moisture content.
2.10
DEGREE OF SATURATION
The moisture content in a soil mass is variable. It continues changing depending upon
the climatic conditions. In rainy season it is high, while in dry weather it is low. The condition
when voids are partially filled with water is expressed by the degree of saturation or relative
moisture content. It is the ratio of actual volume of water in voids Vw to the total volume of
voids Vv.
It is denoted by S and is expressed by the following relationship.
S =
Vw
Ww
m
=
=
Vv
Wv
m sat
(2.23)
Ww is the weight of water actually present in the voids.

Wv is the weight of water that can fill all the voids.
m actual moisture content.
msat moisture content when all voids are totally filled with water.
62
The range of S is expressed as follows.

0 S 100
For an oven dried soil, S = 0, which means that all the voids in the soil mass are filled
with air i.e., Vw = 0. For fully saturated soil, S = 1, which means that all the voids are filled with
water i.e., Vw = Vv . Remember! For air dried soil the value of S is seldom equal to zero but is
always more than zero, the value however depends on the type of soil, atmospheric temperature
and humidity etc.
2.11
AIR VOID RATIO OR AIR CONTENT
In fully dried or partially saturated soil, the voids are fully or partially filled with air.
When the soil is considered for engineering purposes the volume of air should be reduced as
much as possible, since it contributes nothing to the strength when the soil is subjected to loading
(e.g., highway embankment or foundation support etc.,) and obstruct the seepage flow when the
soil is being used as a permeable medium (e.g., filters etc.,). The air void ratio or air content is
defined as the ratio of the volume of air present in the voids to the total volume of a soil mass.
Av or A =
A=
V a Vv V w
=
V
Vv + V s
Vv SVv
V
Vs (1 + v )
Vs
Vv (1 S )
Vs (1 + e)
e (1 s )
A=
1+ e
A = n (1 S )
2.24
while Vw = SVv
A=
2.25
2.26
while n =
e
1+ e
2.27
A study of Eq. (2.27) indicates that for fully saturated soil, the air content will be zero and for
fully dried soil air content will be equal to porosity. Air content falls within the range of
0 A < 100
2.12
ATTERBERG OR CONSISTENCY LIMITS
The term consistency is related to fine-grained soils (i.e., clay). In clay soil the shape
(i.e., flaky shape) of the particles has greater influence on engineering properties rather than the
size. The properties and behavior of clay is very much influenced due to moisture variation. The
electrical charge on the flakes plays an important role in changing the behavior. It is daily life
experience of even a common man that the strength of clay varies widely with changes of
moisture content. It is very hard in a dry state while it behaves as a viscous fluid (almost zero
63
shear strength) at high moisture content. The consistency of a soil means its physical state with
respect to the moisture content present at that time.
Four consistency states are commonly defined for clays (cohesive soils)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Solid state
Semi-solid state
Plastic state
Liquid state.
Atterberg, a Swedish soil scientist defined the boundaries of the above four states in
terms of limits as follows.
12-
3-
Shrinkage Limit: It is the moisture content at which a soil changes from solid state to
semi-solid state.
Plastic Limit: It is the moisture content at which a soil changes from semi-solid state to
plastic state.
Liquid Limit: It is the moisture content at which a soil changes from plastic state to
liquid state.
The transition from one state to the next however is gradual, and according to above
definitions it is quite difficult to know the value of moisture content at which the change of state
occurs. The definition that clearly states the moisture content at which the change of state occurs
will be given later.
The most important of these limits are the liquid and the plastic limits, which indicate
the range of plastic state. The range of plastic state means, the upper and lower bounds of
moisture content within which the soil behaves similar to a plastic material. It is the numerical
difference between the liquid and plastic limits and is known as plasticity index.
Due to the plastic behavior of fine-grained soils, these limits are related to the plasticity,
which is a major characteristic of fine-grained (clay) soils. It is defined as the property that
enables a material to undergo large irrecoverable deformations without cracking or crumbling.
Since the plasticity, greatly influence the engineering properties, such as shear strength and
compressibility, it is therefore used as a basis for the classification of fined grained soils.
As discussed earlier the plasticity does not depend on the size of the particles. Rock
flour, for example, practically exhibits no plasticity, where as clay having the same size will
exhibit a marked plasticity. Bentonite and kaolinite clays having almost similar particle sizes have
different plasticity values. Actually many factors, such as, the size, shape, nature of the clay
mineral and the nature of the adsorbed layer, control the plasticity. Where the average specific
surface is high (more fine and flaky e.g., Montmorillonite clay having approximate size,
length=0.1-0.5, & thickness=0.001-0.01m), the plasticity may be extremely high and the soil
extremely compressible.
64
2.12-a
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
It is defined as that moisture content at which a reduction in moisture will not cause a
decrease in the total volume of soil mass, but an increase in moisture will result in an increase in
volume of soil mass. This happens due to the fact, that at a certain point during the drying
process, air begins to enter the soil mass and the volume decrease becomes appreciably less than
the volume of water lost. The process of drying can be better explained by the following diagram.
E
Volume
Drying
process
45
C
B'
B
Vd
or
Vf
Va
F
Semi-solid
state
Solid
state
Plastic
state
Liquid
state
Vs
m=0
SL
PL
LL
moisture content (%)
Fig:
2.7 Relationship
betweenvolume
volume
content
Fig:
26-1.
Relationship between
of and
soil moisture
and its moisture
content
During drying process from point E to point B the reduction in total volume of soil
mass is equal to the volume of moisture lost and the soil shrinks. As the drying continues from
point B to point A i.e. up to zero % moisture content, no appreciable volume change is
observed, and the soil ceases to shrink. At this point the soil changes its colour from dark to
light. It should be kept in mind that, at shrinkage limit the degree of saturation is 100 percent.
The shrinkage limit is not given much importance and not commonly determined, since
it is not used in classification of soil. The shrinkage limit however gives some idea about the soil
structure e.g., a dispersed structure generally shows low shrinkage limit while a flocculated
65
structure shows a high shrinkage limit. It is also of much importance for certain soil types, which
exhibit considerable volume change (i.e., shrinkage & swell) with changes in moisture content.
It should be noted that smaller the shrinkage limit, the larger will be change in volume of soil
due to moisture changes. For example if the shrinkage limit of a soil is 10-percent, then
according to Fig: 2.7, when the moisture content exceeds this value the soil will begin to expand.
And during the drying cycle will continue shrinking until the moisture content reduces back to
10-percent (i.e. shrinkage limit). A soil with shrinkage limit of less than 10-percent will
therefore shrink more.
The concept of shrinkage limit of cohesive soil is helpful in studying the behavior of
slopes of dams, highway embankments and cuts, especially to check the possibility of
development of shrinkage cracks. In rainy seasons these cracks get filled with water, which
increase the weight of earth mass due to saturation and exert hydrostatic pressure and eventually,
may cause a landslide. Higher the liquid limit of a soil, higher is the shrinkage potential.
Fig: 2.8 Concept of surface tension forces and induced compressive stresses (a) Particle
separated due to thick moisture film (b) Meniscus contracting due to drying process (c)
Meniscus tending to tear off (d) Meniscus fully torn off allowing entry of air.
With the increase of moisture in a soil mass, the thickness of moisture film around the
clay particle increases, until at a certain state the cohesion is reduced to such a low level that soil
behaves as a liquid. At this stage the soil particles are separated by water so widely that the shear
strength of the soil mass is almost lost and the particles tend to flow under the influence of
gravity. When this soil is subjected to drying, it looses its moisture and the particles which were
66
separated by water get closer due to decrease in thickness of moisture film and the soil shrinks.
During drying process the surface tension forces of the pore water, compress the particles together
into a compact mass and the volume of soil decreases. The loss of moisture accompanied by the
decrease in volume continues down to the shrinkage limit moisture content. When this moisture
content is attained, no further decrease in volume or shrinkage takes place. At this stage the
menisci of the moisture tear off (Fig: 2.8) and air begins to enter the voids and further drying
causes no volume change.
Due to fine particles of clay soil, the break of meniscus and air entry occurs at
considerable low moisture content resulting in low shrinkage limit for clay soil. Since clay soils
have high liquid limit, the amount of moisture loss up to the shrinkage limit and the resulting
volume decrease is very high, and therefore very big cracks develop.
Fig: 2.9 Shrinkage cracks at Rawal Lake, which dried due to drought.
It is worth bearing in mind that very high compressive stresses are developed during
drying due to large number of soil pores simultaneously being subjected to water surface tension.
Due to these shrinkage stresses the soil is densified to such a degree as if it has been subjected to
an overburden pressures of the order of 200 to 900 kpa. (Tschebotarioff,1936).
A series of polygonal cracks as shown in (Fig: 2.9) develop on the surface due to
shrinkage of cohesive soil. These cracks may extend to a great depth (couple of meters). Upon
wetting, the soil swells due to increase in volume and the cracks disappear. Shrinkage-susceptible
soils cause serious engineering problems mainly due to their volume change character. The annual
economic loss in United States, where nearly 25 percent of the land area is covered with
shrinkage-susceptible soil was about 5.5 billion dollars in the year 1980 (Holtz, 1980).
67
The soils which show higher shrinkage upon drying also swell more upon wetting and
are known as expansive soils. Expansive soils are very dense and hard in dry state due to very
high shrinkage stresses.
Even at low moisture contents the soil is sufficiently dense and hard, such that it is often
difficult or impossible to obtain thin-walled tube samples for laboratory testing. Test results are
considerably affected due to presence of cracks or cracks filled with silt or other foreign material.
Volume change is directly related to the shrinkage limit and to some extent to the
plasticity index. If the plasticity index is greater than 20%, the volume change may cause
engineering problems which require precautionary measures. The following Table may be used as
a reference in predicting the occurrence of volume change.
Table: 2.2 Relationship between Atterberg limits and volume change*

Volume change
potential
Plasticity index
Arid area
Little
0-15
Moderate
15-30
High
>30
From Holtz and Gibbs (1956)
Humid area
0-30
30-50
>50
Shrinkage
limit
>12
10-12
<10
The expansion problem can be avoided only when the soil is protected against water
infiltration by the use of surface or subsurface drainage, landscaping and impervious membranes.
Shrinkage limit is determined by a simple test. A test sample is prepared by filling a
paste of saturated soil (passing No.40 sieve) in the shrinkage mould. The weight of the sample
and volume is determined. The sample is then dried in an oven and dry volume is determined.
Let,
Initial weight of saturated sample (paste) = Wi
Initial volume of saturated sample = Volume of mould = Vi
Final volume of sample after drying = Vf or Vd
Dry weight of sample = Wd
Initial (Total) weight of water in the sample = Wi - Wd
Weight of water lost during the process of drying of the original sample up to the
shrinkage limit = (Vi Vf) w
As the drying starts, there is a loss of moisture and the volume decreases, which
continues to decrease up to the shrinkage limit and the sample still remains saturated.
Further drying reduces the moisture but keeping the volume constant equal to Vd, since
air begins to enter the voids.
68
Weight water at shrinkage limit = (Wi Wd) (Vi Vf)
(Wi Wd ) (Vi V f ) w
Moisture content at shrinkage limit =
SL = m (
Wd
Vi V f
Wd
) w 100
Where m is the moisture content of sample at the start of test

Alternate Method for determination of Shrinkage Limit:
Shrinkage limit may also be defined as the moisture content just sufficient to saturate a
dry sample at constant volume.
Volume of soil in dry state (Vd) = Volume in saturated state at shrinkage limit
Volume of void in dry state (Vv) = Volume of water (Vw) at shrinkage limit (saturated soil)
Volume of voids in dry state (Vv) = Vd - Vs
= Vd - W d
s
Volume of water (Vw) at shrinkage limit = Vd
Weight of water at shrinkage limit = (Vd
Wd
Wd
)w
(Vd
Moisture content at shrinkage limit (S.L.) =
Wd
) w
Wd
S.L. =
Vd w Wd w
Wd
Wd s
S.L. =
W 1
d G
69
2.12-b PLASTIC LIMIT

It is defined as the moisture content at which a soil can be rolled into threads of 1/8
(3.2mm) diameter without cracking and crumbling. Threads thinner than 1/8 (3.2 mm) diameter
are possible, if the moisture is higher than the plastic limit. And if the moisture is less than plastic
limit the thread will crumble before reaching the required diameter of 1/8 (3.2 mm). Above the
plastic limit for a specific range of moisture content, depending on the type of soil, a soil mass
behaves as a plastic material. A soil for that range of moisture content allows a change in shape,
without a noticeable change in volume and without rupture involving a complete rearrangement
of particles and will retain this shape when pressure is removed.
Sandy soils do not have plastic limit, and are known as non-plastic soils. Fine-grained
soils (silt and clay) have plastic limits, and are known as plastic or cohesive soils. The plastic
limit depends on the amount and nature of clay minerals present in the soil mass. Higher clay
contents usually give higher plastic limits. The plastic limit increases as the grain size decreases.
At plastic limit moisture content, the shear strength (load-carrying capacity) of soil is
very low. The shear strength of cohesive soil varies considerably with changes of moisture
content. Therefore, the earth-work structures e.g., Pavements and Embankments, which are open
to seasonal changes of moisture content, should be designed on the basis of worst soil condition,
(i.e., at maximum possible moisture content expected during the life time). Plastic limit is used to
find Plasticity index, Liquidity index and the Activity of soil. It is used in the classification of soil
and is also useful in predicting the optimum moisture content.
2.12-c
LIQUID LIMIT
It is defined as that moisture content at which 25 blows of Casagrande apparatus, closes

a standard groove in the soil paste, along a distance of 12.7 mm (0.5 in). It is also defined as the
moisture content which gives a penetration depth of 20mm of the standard cone (fall cone test)
into the soil, when the cone is released for 5 seconds.
It is the cohesion, which retards the flow of soil to close the groove. Liquid limit
therefore, gives an indication of the soil cohesion. Liquid limit increases as the grain size
decreases. A higher value of liquid limit therefore indicates higher cohesion and a higher
percentage of clay, which further indicates that upon wetting, the load bearing capacity of the soil
will be drastically reduced.
According to Casagrande, the number of blows required to close the groove represent a
relative measure of shearing resistance of soil. He concluded that each blow in the apparatus
corresponds to shear strength of about 1.0 g/cm2 ( 2.5 kN/m2). In other words the shear strength
of all soils at their liquid limits is constant, i.e. 25.0 g/cm2.
The liquid limit is used in the classification of soil and some times is used to estimate the
consolidation settlement. It is also useful in predicting the optimum moisture content of soil in
compaction studies.
70
2.12-d PLASTICITY INDEX

Plasticity Index indicates the range of moisture through which a cohesive soil behaves as
a plastic material. It is simply defined as the numerical difference between liquid and plastic
limits. It is expressed as
P.I = L.L. P.L
(%)
By definition it is clear that P.I. can never be negative. The plasticity index gives an idea
about the plastic behavior of soil and indicates the degree of cohesiveness of the soil, e.g., the
smaller the plasticity index, the less plastic is the soil. When the plasticity index is zero (Liquid
limit = Plastic limit), the soil is termed as non-cohesive or non-plastic.
Atterberg defined the range of plasticity index as under:
P.I. = 0
P.I. < 7
P.I. 7 - 17
P.I. > 17
The soil is non-plastic and non-cohesive.

The soil is low plastic and partly cohesive.
The soil is medium plastic and cohesive.
The soil is highly plastic and very cohesive.
Fig: 2.10 shows that with a decrease in plastic properties of soil, the liquid limit
decreases faster than the plastic limit and ultimately for non-plastic soil the liquid and plastic
limits coincide. Fig: 2.10 also reveals that upon drying, the sandy (non-plastic or non-cohesive)
soils do not pass through the plastic state and change from liquid state to semi-solid state (or
vice-versa) abruptly, resulting in a non-coherent material. This is the reason that fine sands and
silts are very sensitive with respect to saturation and hydraulic gradient. When the hydraulic
gradient exceeds the critical value quicksand phenomenon occurs.
Plasticity index is used in the Plasticity Chart for the classification of fine-grained soils
according to Unified soil classification system. Plasticity index helps in evaluating a soil for use
as a structural fill e.g. dams, embankments, landfills, pavements subgrade and for foundation
support. Higher the plasticity index, higher will be the loss of strength upon wetting. Therefore
many construction companies in highway engineering recommend that the plasticity index should
not exceed 6 for the subgrade soil, used close under the pavement structure (i.e., top subgrade
layer).
The plasticity index is an indicator of the suitability of the clay fraction in a stabilized
soil mixture. Sand-clay mixture or clay-gravel mixture, in which the plasticity index of the binder
(clay) fraction is too high, tends to soften in wet weather. A pavement constructed of such
material develops ruts under the traffic and may show other signs of instability. When a pavement
of this type is used without a bituminous wearing surface, a high plasticity index indicates that the
surface will become slippery in wet weather. On the other hand, if the plasticity index is too low
or the mixture is non-plastic, it will become friable in dry weather, ravel at the edges and abrade
severely under traffic.
71
Cohesive soil
No Cohesive
Fig. 2.10 Change of liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits with plastic properties (not
to scale, just to show comparison).
2.12-e
LIQUIDITY INDEX
It is defined as the ratio of difference between the moisture content and plasticity index to the
plasticity index. It is also known as consistency index or relative plasticity index and is expressed
as under.
m P.L
m P.L
(2.28)
=
L.L P.L
P.I
When L.I < 0, (i.e. a negative value) the field moisture content is less than the plastic
limit, and hence the soil is in a semi-solid state.
L.I =
When 0 L.I. 1,
When L.I. > 1,
The soil is in a plastic state

The soil is in a liquid state.
72
The liquidity index gives a direct indication of the state of consistency of a soil at its
natural moisture content.
When
L.I < 0,
0.00 < L.I 0.25,
0.25 < L.I 0.50,
0.5 < L.I 0.75,
0.75 < L.I 1,
L.I > 1,
the soil is in a semi-solid or solid state

the consistency is stiff or hard
the consistency is medium
the consistency is soft
the consistency is very soft
the soil is in a liquid state
The liquidity index helps to know the possibility of landslides. When the natural moisture
content in a soil approaches to liquid limit, the L.I. approaches to unity. Therefore L.I. can be
considered as a slide coefficient. Hence, the liquidity index indicates in which part of its plastic
range a given soil sample lies.
2.12-f
FLOW INDEX
The slope of the flow curve (graph between log N and moisture content drawn for the
determination of liquid limit) is known as the flow index. It is expressed by the following Eq.,
F.I =
m m2
m.c.
= 1
Log N log N1 / N 2
(2.29)
Its numerical value is the difference of two moisture contents intercepted by the flow
curve for the two values of number of blows in one log-cycle.
F.I =
For
m1 m2
log N1 log N 2
one cycle of logarithmic scale, e.g.,
If, N1 = 10 then, N2 = 1 - one cycle

Or,
If, N1 = 100 then, N2 = 10 - one cycle
F.I =
F.I =
m1 m2
m m2
= 1
10
log10 log1
log
1
m1 m2
= m1 m2 = m
1.00
for one log cycle
(2.30)
73
As discussed in the preceding sections, the number of blows required to close the groove
represent a relative measure of shearing resistance of soil, therefore flow index gives an indication
of the shearing strength of soil. Any two soils, although having the same plasticity index and/or
the liquid limits may have different values of flow index, and hence may possess different shear
strength. For example consider the following two cases.
Case-I: Two soils having the same values of plasticity index.

The flow curves of two soils having same plasticity index indicated by curve-1 & curve2 are shown in Fig: 2.11. The curve-1 is steep and gives a higher flow index as compared to
curve-2, which is comparatively flat (lower flow index). From the curves it can be seen that a
decrease in moisture content, m in both the soils by the same amount, the soil with flat curve-2
takes a greater number of blows, i.e., n2 > n1. A comparison of the two flow indices therefore
indicates that the soil with higher flow index (steep curve-1) possesses lesser shear strength than
the soil with lower flow index (flat curve-2).
Fig: 2.11 Effect of flow index on shearing strength of soil having same
plasticity
Case-II: Two soils having the same value of liquid limit.

The flow curves of two soils having same liquid limit indicated by curve-I & curve-2 are
shown in Fig: 2.12. Although the liquid limits are the same, curve-2 which is flat requires greater
number of blows (i.e., n2 > n1) as compared to curve-1, for the same decrease in moisture content
m. This again indicates that the soil of curve-2 (lower flow index) has higher shear strength than
the soil of curve-1 (higher flow index).
74
Fig: 2.12 Effect of flow index on shear strength of soils having same liquid limit
2.12-g TOUGHNESS INDEX
Soils having same values of plasticity indices may vary in toughness. This property of a
soil is expressed by the toughness Index.
It is defined as the ratio of plasticity index to the flow index.
Thus,
P.I .
F .I .
Toughness and dry strength increases with increase in toughness index.
T ..I . =
2.13
(2.31)
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
A soil mass is a collection of particles having a large variation in sizes and may range
from relatively massive Boulders, Cobbles, Gravels down to very tiny particles of Clay. The
physical and geotechnical properties of soil, very much depend on the percentage of various
particle sizes in soil. Since each of the particle fractions has a unique effect on the soil properties,
it is therefore important to find the particle size distribution in order to classify a soil for any
engineering use.
75
Particle size analysis provides very useful information regarding the behavior of a soil
mass and is used for the following purposes.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Engineering classification of soils.

Selection of the most suitable soil to be used for the construction of road,
airfield, levee, dam and other embankments.
To predict the seepage through soil (although permeability tests are more
generally used)
To predict the susceptibility to frost action.
Selection of most suitable filter material.
Particle size analysis is performed by sieving or by sedimentation.

iii-
Sieving method when particle size .074 mm

Sedimentation method when particle size < .074mm.
The percentage of various particle sizes present in a soil is known as particle size
distribution or gradation.
The particle size distribution of a soil is better explained in the form of particle size
distribution curve or gradation curve. A gradation curve is drawn by plotting the percentage finer
than various equivalent particle sizes (%age passing) as ordinate against the sizes as abscissa. The
x-axis, which shows the sizes being commonly on logarithmic scale, to accommodate quite a wide
range of particle sizes on a sizeable (small) sheet of paper.
The gradation curves indicate the type of soil, and provide very important information
related to the properties and behavior of soil as a construction material (e.g., embankments) or
foundation support. A simple look on the gradation curve gives a very clear idea about the
gradation of soil, e.g., well-graded, uniformly-graded or poorly-graded as defined below.
a-
Well-Graded Soil
The gradation curve of a well-graded soil stretches, approximately at a uniform slope

covering a wide range of particle sizes (e.g., Curve-a, Fig: 2.13). A well-graded soil therefore is
defined as a soil containing an assortment of particles with a wide range of sizes. A well-graded
soil produces an ideal particle size distribution for optimum packing, because the smaller particles
always remain available to fill the voids between comparatively bigger particles (Fig: 2.13).
76
Ideal packing, due to particles ranging

from large to small sizes
(well-graded)
Loose packing, as smaller particles to

fill the voids are missing
(uniformly-graded)
Fig: 2.13 Effect of gradation on packing of soil

A well-graded soil therefore has the following merits:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
b-
Higher shear strength, because there is more particle contact

Higher density, since the voids are almost eliminated due to the presence of
successive smaller particles filling the voids between the next bigger particles
Reduced compressibility, since there are no or least available voids to allow volume
changes
Higher stability, because of lesser tendency for particles to roll and slide to new
equilibrium positions under applied pressure
Higher bearing capacity due to the particles being densely packed
Low permeability due to smaller voids
Uniformly-Graded Soil
The gradation curve of a uniformly-graded soil is steep and covers a narrow range of
particle sizes i.e., it contains particles of nearly the same size (e.g., curveb, Fig: 2.14). A
uniformly-graded soil is therefore defined as a soil containing an assortment of particles having a
limited range of sizes. Such soils give low density with higher voids and therefore possess lower
strength.
c-
Poorly-Graded Soil
The gradation curve of a poorly-graded soil show steps indicating an excess of certain
particle sizes, and a deficiency of others (e.g., curve-c, Fig: 2.14). Such soils give lower density
and lower strength.
77
The gradation curves have great importance in civil engineering and are extensively used
for the following purposes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Determination of Effective Grain (Particle) Size.

Determination of Uniformity co-efficient.
Determination of co-efficient of Curvature.
Determination of percentage of different soil types in a soil sample
Determination of percentage larger or finer than a given size.
Classification of soil.
Design of filters.
Concrete mix design.
1.
Effective Grain (Particle) Size
A soil mass is a mixture of particles of varying sizes. The determination of soil

properties (e.g., capillarity, permeability etc.), require the soil mass to be designated by a size,
known as Effective Grain size, which is determined by the gradation curve. It is the size, read on
the x-axis of the gradation chart against 10-percent passing line on the gradation curve and is
denoted by D10.
2.
Co-efficient of Uniformity
Co-efficient of uniformity is determined from the gradation curve. It is attributed to

Allen Hazen, denoted by Cu and defined as follows.
D
Cu = 60
( 2.32)
D10
The co-efficient of uniformity Cu gives information about the gradation of soil. For a
single-sized soil (all the particles having the same size) the value of Cu will be unity. When the
value of Cu is less than 4, the soil is generally considered as uniformly-graded. However a higher
value of the coefficient represents a wide range of particle sizes and the soil is termed as wellgraded.
3.
Co-efficient of Curvature or Co-Efficient of Concavity
Coefficient of curvature is denoted by Cc and is expressed as under.

Cc =
( D30 ) 2
( D60 )( D10 )
(2.33)
78
79
Fig. 2.14: Gradation curves (a) well graded soil; (b) uniformly graded soil ;(c) poorly
graded soil.
D60D30D10
It is determined from the gradation curve. It is also known as coefficient of gradation. A

value of Cc = 1, represents that all the soil particles have the same size, and the soil is uniformlygraded.
The values of Cc between 0.2 and 2.0 indicate well-graded or poorly- graded soil.
`However as discussed earlier, the exact nature of gradation is better known by a look at
the gradation curve.
2.14
RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr) OR DENSITY INDEX (ID)
The term relative density is used to express the state of compactness of a granular soil.
Depending upon the state of compaction, the void ratio of a soil will be between the possible
minimum and maximum values, i.e., emin and emax. The following relationship between the void
ratio values is termed as the relative density.
Dr = I D =
e max e
e max e min
(2.34)
or
D r = ID =
d max
d d min
d
d max d min
( 2.35)
Where,
emax = Void ratio of soil in loosest state.
emin = Void ratio of soil in densest state.
e
= Void ratio of soil deposit (in situ state)
or, Void ratio of the soil whose relative density is required.
dmax = dry density of soil in densest slate.

dmin = dry density of soil in loosest state.
d
= dry density of soil deposit (in-situ state)

or, the dry density of soil whose relative density is required.
80
The determination of void ratios, require Vs (volume of solids) which is difficult to

measure by any direct method, the determination of relative density by Eq-1.34 is therefore not
convenient. However it is quite simple to determine the relative density by Eq-1.35, since the
measurement of dry density is much easier.
The dry density in the densest state (dmax), is determined by vibrating sand subjected to a
surcharge weight (ASTM D 2049-69).
The dry density in the loosest state (dmin) is determined by pouring dry sand into a
mould from a fixed height (ASTM D 2049-69).
The in situ density (d) is determined by any of several approved methods.
Relative density is commonly used to indicate the in-situ state of compactness, which
reflects the stability of granular soil strata. For example, a loose granular soil, indicated by smaller
value of Dr is unstable, especially when subjected to shock or vibration and give large settlement
of embankments and foundations. The vibratory loads however compress the soil to a denser and
more stable formation.
The range of values for Dr and the commonly referred state of compaction are given in
Table: 2.3.
Relative density is also determined by the standard penetration test (SPT). Empirical corelation between SPT value and relative density is given in Table: 2.3.
Table: 2.3 Commonly referred state of compaction and relative densities for granular soil
__________________________________________________________
State of compaction: Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Relative density (%):

SPT N-value:
0-15
<4
15-35 35-65
65-85 85-100.
4-10 10-30
30-50
> 50
81
2.15
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)
From the following statements encircle the correct statement.

1. a.
b.
c.
2. a.
b.
c.
3. a.
b.
c.
4. a.
b.
c.
5. a.
b.
c.
d.
6. a.
b.
c.
7. a.
b.
c.
8. a.
b.
c.
9. a.
b.
c.
d.
10. a.
b.
c.
d.
11. a.
b.
c.
Silt particles are smaller than clay particles.

Silt particles are larger than clay particles.
Silt and clay particles have the same size.
Sieve analysis gives the largest dimension of a soil particle.
Sieve analysis gives the smallest dimension of a soil particle.
In sieve analysis the smallest sieve is placed at the top.
Wet sieve analysis gives slightly larger size than the dry sieve analysis.
Wet sieve analysis gives slightly smaller size than the dry sieve analysis.
Wet sieve analysis is preferred for coarse grained soils.
Sedimentation analysis is performed for soil particles smaller than 75 size.
Sedimentation analysis is performed for sandy soil.
Sedimentation analysis is performed for gravels.
Rock flour even of clay size particles is non-plastic.
Rock flour of clay size particles is plastic.
Rock flour of sand size particles is plastic.
Rock flour of clay size has high plasticity index.
A gap-graded soil is also called a uniform soil.
A well-graded soil contains particles of one size.
A gap-graded soil is also called a poorly graded soil.
Disturbed soil samples are used to determine all the consistency limits.
Undisturbed soil samples are used to determine all the consistency limits.
Remolded soil samples are used to determine all the consistency limits
Liquidity index cannot be more than 1.
Liquidity index can be more than 1.
Liquidity index is always equal to 1.
Void ratio of a saturated soil can be determined from its water content
Void ratio of a saturated soil cannot be determined from its water content.
Void ratio of a saturated soil can be determined from its plastic limit.
Void ratio of a saturated soil can be determined from its shrinkage limit.
For the determination of water content oven temperature of 1100 500 c is recommended
for all types of soil.
for most of the soil types.
for soil containing gypsum and organic matter.
for soil containing organic matter only.
A well graded soil contains particles of one size.
A gap graded soil is also called a uniform soil.
A well graded soil contains particles over a wide range of sizes.
82
d.
12. a.
b.
c.
d.
13. a.
b.
c.
d.
14. a.
b.
c.
d.
15. a.
b.
c.
d.
16. a.
b.
c.
d.
17. a.
b.
c.
d.
18. a.
b.
c.
d.
19. a.
b.
c.
d.
20. a.
b.
c.
d.
A well graded soil means a fine grained soil.

The liquidity index cannot be more than 100%.
The liquidity index can be more than 100%.
Consistency index cannot be negative.
P.I = P.L L.L.
At shrinkage limit the soil is fully saturated.
At shrinkage limit the soil is partially saturated.
The consistency limits of soil can only be determined by undisturbed soil sample.
For clayey soil shrinkage limit is equal to plastic limits.
According to MIT classification, particle size for clay is smaller than 0.002 mm.
According to MIT classification particle size for clay is greater than .002 mm.
According to MIT classification particle size for clay is smaller than .005 mm.
According to MIT classification system particle size for clay is equal to .002 mm.
Slaking and bulking phenomena in soil are similar.
Slaking phenomenon is associated with clay soil.
Bulking phenomenon is associated with clay soil.
Frost heave and boil are similar phenomena.
Uniformity coefficient of 1.0 indicates uniformly graded soil
Uniformity coefficient of 1.0 indicates well graded soil
Uniformity coefficient of 1.0 indicates poorly graded soil
Uniformity coefficient of 10 indicates uniformly graded soil
Relative density > 0.15 indicates very loose sand.
Relative density < 0.15 indicates very loose sand.
Slope of the gradation curve is known as flow index.
Slope of the flow curve is known as flow index.
Slope of the A-line on plasticity chart is known as flow index.
Slope of the moisture density ~ curve is known as flow index.
Cc = 1.0 indicates well graded soil
Cc = 1.0 indicates poorly graded soil
Cc = 10 indicates uniformly graded soil
Cc = 1.0 indicates uniformly graded soil
Hygroscopic moisture is more than fill moisture.
Hygroscopic moisture is more less than fill moisture
Hygroscopic moisture is more than capillary moisture
Hygroscopic moisture is capillary moisture
83
2.16
EXAMPLES:
Example-2.1
A moist sample of soil with container had a weight of 252.4 gm, and the
container when empty, had a weight of 142.0 gm. After drying in an oven for
24 hours, the container and soil sample had a weight of 216.2 gm. Find, the
moisture content of the soil.
Solution:
Given data
= 142.0 gm.
W1 = weight of container
W2 = weight of container + wet soil = 252.4 gm.
W3 = weight of container + dry soil = 216.2 gm.
Required
Moisture content =
Ww
Wd
W2 W3
100%
W3 W1
( 25.24 216.2)
m=
100% = 49%
(216.2 142.0)
m=
m = 49%
Example-2.2 Following are the results from a sand replacement test,
Weight of soil excavated from hole
4.0 Kg
Moisture content of soil
18%
Weight of dry sand to fill hole
3.1 Kg
Weight of dry sand to fill container
of volume= 4.2 liters
5.8 Kg
Calculate the wet and dry densities of the soil. If the specific gravity of the solid
particles is 2.68, find the degree of saturation of the soil.
Solution:
Given data
As above
Required
Weight density =
Dry density
Degree of saturation
Density of sand =
b
=
=
d
s
weight of sand
5.8
=
= 1 380 Kg / m3
volume of sand 4.2 10 3
84
Volume of hole=
weight of sand to fill hole

3.1
=
= 2.25 10 3 m3
density of sand
1 380
Wet density, b =
weight of soil excavated

volume of hole
4.0
2.25 10 3
= 1 780 Kg / m3
b. = 1780 Kg/m3
m=
WW
W
100 = 18 or W = 0.18 or WW = 0.18 WS
WS
WS
Weight of soil=W=WW+WS=4.0Kg
Putting the value of WW
0.18 WS + WS = 4.0
WS = 3.39 Kg
Dry density d =
3.39
2.25 10 3
d = 1510 Kg/m3
WS
W G
3.39
VS =
= 1.275 10 3 m3 ( W = 1000 Kg / m3 )
1 000 2.68
VS =
WW = m WS = 0.18 3.39 = 0.61 Kg
VW =
0.61
W
= 0.61 103 m3 (VW = W )
1 000
W
Total volume=2.25 10-3 m3

VA = (2.25 0.61 1.275) 10-3 -------(VA = V VW - VS)
= 0.365 10-3 m3
Vv = (0.365 + 0.61)10-3 ------------(VV = VA + VW)
85
= 0.975 10-3 m3
S =
VW
0.61 10 3
=
= 0.625 or S = 62.5%
VV 0.975 10 3
S = 62.5%
Example: 2.3
A saturated soil sample has a moisture content of 27 percent and a bulk density
of 1970 Kg/m3. Determine the dry density and the void ratio of the soil, and the
specific gravity of the solid particles.
What would be the bulk density of a sample of this soil with the same void ratio, but
only 90 percent saturated?
Solution:
Given data
Moisture content m = 27%, Bulk density = b =1970 Kg/m3 Initial degree of
saturation = 100%, Reduced degree of saturation = 90%.
Required
Dry density
Void ratio
Sp. Gravity
Bulk density
m=
=
=
=
=
d
e
G
b
WW
W
100 = 27 or W = 0.27
WS
WS
WW = 0.27 WS
Let the volume of sample = V = 1.0m3
b = WW + WS = 1970 Kg/m3
0.27 WS + WS = 1970
WS = 1550 Kg and since 1 m3 of soil is being considered
Dry density = d = 1550 Kg/m3
WW = 0.27 1550 = 420 Kg
VW =
WW
420
=
= 0.420 m3
1000
VS = 1 0.42 = 0.58 m3 -------VS = V - VW
86
e=
VV 0.42
=
= 0.724
VS 0.58
Vw = Vv ----- since S =100%
e = 0.724
GS =
GS =
WS
VS W
Ws = d -----since V=1m3
1 550
= 2.68
0.58 1 000
Gs = 2.68
If voids are 90% saturated
WW = 420 0.90 = 378 Kg
WS = 1 550 Kg
WW + WS = 1928 Kg/m3
b = 1928 Kg/m3 since the volume of the soil = 1m3

b = 1928 Kg/m3
Example: 2.4
A completely saturated sample of clay has a moisture content of 39.3% and a

specific gravity of soil mass of 1.84. Find,
a - Void ratio
b - Specific gravity of solids
Solution:
Given Data
m = 39.3%
Gm= 1.84
S = 1.0
Gm, means specific gravity of soil mass.
Required
Void ratio = e
Sp. Gravity of solids = Gs
e=
mGS
s
s = Gsm/e
e= Gsm
as S = 1.0
87
b = s
(1 + m)
1+ e
e= 0.393.GS
b = Gm W
W = 1g/cc.
b = 1.84 g/cc.
1.84 =
S (1 + m)
1 + e.
G (1 + m)
1.84 = S W
1 + 0.393GS
1.84 =
1.84 =
Gs
Gs
as s = GS W , e = 0.393 GS
W (1 + m)
(
1
+ 0.393)
GS
1 (1 + 0.393)
1 / GS + 0.393
1 / GS + 0.393 =
1.393
1.84
1/GS = 1.393/1.84 0.393

1/GS = 0.364
GS = 2.74
e = 0.393GS
e = 1.079
e = 1.079
Alternate solution:
Let
Gm =
V = lcm3
b
, b = Gm W = 1.84 gm / cc
W
as W = 1
88
as V = 1cm3
W = b V = 1.84 gm.
W Wd W
=
1
Wd
Wd
m=
1.84
Wd
Wd = 1.32 gm
1 + 0.393 =
WW = 1.84 1.32 = 0.52 gm
W =
WW
VW
or
VW = 0.52 cm3
VS = V VW ---------VV = VW as the soil in fully saturated.

VS = 1- 0.52 = 0.48cm3
e=
VV 0.52
=
= 1.083
VS 0.48
e = 1.083
GS =
es
= 1.083 / .393 = 2.75
m
GS = 2.75
Example: 2.5
A sample of clay with initial void ratio 1.193 is subjected to compressive load.
After complete consolidation thickness of sample is reduced from 0.75 to 0.705
inches. Estimate final void ratio.
Solution:
Given Data
e1 = 1.193
H1 = 0.75
H2 = 0.705
Required
Final void ratio = e2
e1 =
VV
VS
V1 VS
VS
V1
1
VS
89
V1
= 1 + e1
VS
V
VS = 1
1 + e1
During consolidation test, volume of sample changes only due to change in thickness,
while the area remains constant.
V1 = Area H1
VS =
Area 0.75
1 + 1.193
VS = Area
0.75
2.193
VS = 0.342 area (2)

e2 =
VV
VS
V2
1
VS
V2 VS
VS
area 0.705
1
0.342 area
as V2 = Area H 2
e2 = 1.06
e2 = 1.06
Alternate Solution
e1 = 1.193 , H1 = 0.75,
H2 = 0.705
e2 = ?
H = 0.75 0.705 = 0.045
H =
H (e1 e2
(1 + e1 )
0.045 = 0.75
(1.193 e2 )
1 + 1.193
90
0.045 2.193
= 1.193 e2
0.75
0.1315 = 1.193 e2
e2 = 1.061
Example: 2.6
A soil sample has a mass specific gravity of 1.9, specific gravity of solid
particles of 2.6, and moisture content of 30%. Determine the following for the
sample.
(a) Void ratio (b) Porosity (c) Degree of saturation.
Solution:
Given data
Specific Gravity of soil mass = G = 1.9
Specific Gravity of solids = Gs = 2.61
Moisture Content
= m = 30%
Required
Void ratio =
Porosity = n
Degree of saturation = S
= G w
= 1.9 1
= 1.9 g/cc
b =
s = Gs w
= 2.61 1
= 2.61 g/cc
s (1 + m )
1+ e
1+ e =
s (1 + m )
b
1+ e =
2.61 (1 + 0.30)
1 .9
1 + e = 1.7875
e = 0.7875
n=
e
0.7857
=
1.7857
1+ e
n = 43.99%
Soil is partially saturated
91
Gs =
Se
m
S =
m Gs
e
S =
0.3 2.61
0.7857
S = 99.65%
Example: 2.7
A sample of completely saturated clay along with the container has a wt. of
68.5g. After drying in an oven the wt. is 62g. Weight of the empty container is
35g and the specific gravity of solid particle is 2.8. Determine,
(a) Void ratio (b) Porosity (c) Moisture content (d) Degree of saturation.
Solution:
Given data
Wt. of saturated clay + container = 68.5g
Wt. of dry clay + container = 62.0g
Wt. of container = 35.0g
Specific gravity of solids = Gs = 2.8
Required
Porosity = n
Void ratio = e
Moisture content = m
Wt. of saturated soil
= 68.5 - 35
= 33.5g.
= 62 35
= 27.0g.
= 33.5 - 27
= 6.5g.
Wt. of dry soil

Weight of water
Moisture content = m =
Ww
Wd
6.5
= 0.2407
27
m = 24.07%
m =
S = 100 %
as given in the statement
es
m Gs
or,
e =
m
s
e = 0.2407 2.8
Gs =
92
e = 0.6740
n =
e
1+ e
0.6740
1 + 0.6740
n = 0.4026
n = 40.26 %
Example: 2.8
A completely saturated sample of clay has a volume of 31.25 cm3 and wt. 58.5
g. After drying, the sample has a volume of 23.90 cm3 and weighs 42.8g.
Compute,
(a) Porosity (b) Specific gravity (c) Shrinkage limit
Solution:
Given Data:
Initial volume of sample = Vi = 31.25 cc
Initial weight of sample = Wi = 58.5 g
Final volume after drying = Vf = 23.9 cc
Final weight after drying = Wd = 42.8 g
= S = 100 %
Required:
Porosity = n
Specific gravity = Gs
Shrinkage limit = S.L
Wi Wd 58.5 42.8
=
= 0.3668
Wd
42.8
Vi V f
S .L = m
w
Wd
m=
S .L = 0.3668
=
S .L =
0.195 =
W Vd
Wd
31.25 23.9
1
42.8
0.195
= 19.5 %
1
Gs
1 23 .9
1
42 .8
Gs
93
1
= 0.3634
Gs
Gs = 2.75
mG .3668 2.75
=
= 1.0087
S
1
= 1.0087
n=
e
1.0087
=
= 0.502
1 + e 1 + 1.0087
n = 50.2 %
Example: 2.9
The following observations were made during a liquid

limit test using Cassagrande apparatus.
No. of blows.
8
12
26
28
31
Moisture content (%)
52.3
48.2
40.00 38.8
37.1
The initial moisture content of the soil is 30% and its plastic limit is 28%.
Determine, liquid limit, plasticity index, liquidity index and classify soil
according to USC.
Solution:
Given Data
Moisture content = mi = 30%
Plastic limit = P.L. = 28%
Required
Liquid limit
=
Plasticity index =
P.I.
Liquidity index =
L.I.
Classify the soil according to USC.
L.L.
Moisture Content
Liquid Limit Test
No. of blows
94
From the graph between log N and moisture content as drawn above, the liquid limit =39.8%.
L.L.= 39.8 %
P.I. = L.L P.L. = 39.8 28.0 = 11.8
P.I. = 11.8
L.I. =
m P.L. 30.0 28.0

=
= 0.17
P.I .
11.8
L.I. = 0.17
The above value of liquidity index indicates that the soil is in plastic state.
For classification according to USC system, refer to the plasticity chart in chapter-2.
The soil is classified as ML soil
Example:2.10 A sandy soil has a wet density of 1.8 g/cm3. The moisture content of sample is
17%. The specific gravity is 2.65.
Find,
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Solution:
Void ratio
Dry density
Porosity
Given data
b = 1.8 g / cm3
m = 17%
Gs = 2.65
Required
Void ratio = e
Dry density = d
Porosity = n
s = 2.65 g/cm3
b =
s (1 + m)
1+ e
95
(1 + e) =
1+e =
s
(1 + m)
b
2.65
(1 + 0.17)
1.8
e = 0.728
n=
e
0.723
=
1 + e 1.723
n = 0.419 = 41.9%
S=
m Gs 0.17 2.65
=
e
0.723
S = 62.30%
d =
b
1+ m
1.8
1 + 0.17
= 1.538 g/cm3
96
2.17
PROBLEMS:
Problem:2.1
A soil has a moisture content of 15%, specific gravity of 2.66 and porosity of
36%. Determine the weight of water required to be added to 10m3 of the soil to
make it fully saturated.
Problem:2.2
The tests on a borrow area soil showed that the specific gravity is 2.66, moisture
content is 8% and void ratio is 0.65. It is to be used for the construction of a
dam with moisture content of 12% and dry density of 1.75g/cc. Calculate the
volume of soil required per cubic meter of embankment.
Problem:2.3
A soil sample was placed in an oedometer ring of 50mm diameter and 20mm
height. The sample was initially saturated with a moisture content of 30%. The
specific gravity of soil solids is 2.64. The sample was then consolidated to a
final height of 15mm. Find the initial void ratio, the final void ratio and the
moisture content.
Problem:2.4
A soil has a bulk density of 1900Kg/rn3, specific gravity of 2.71 and a water
content of 10%. Calculate the void ratio and degree of saturation of the soil.
What would be the values of density and water content if the soil was fully
saturated at the same void ratio?
Problem:2.5
Calculate the dry unit weight, the saturated unit weight and the buoyant unit
weight of a soil having a void ratio of 0.72 and specific gravity of 2.68.
Calculate also the unit weight and moisture content at a degree of saturation of
90%.
Problem:2.6
A specimen for triaxial compression test is 38mm in diameter and 76mm long
and has a weight of 168g. After drying in an oven the weight is reduced to
130g. The specific gravity is 2.71. Find the degree of saturation of the
specimen.
Problem:2.7
In an embankment the bulk density of soil is 2175Kg/m3 and the moisture

content is 13%. The specific gravity is 2.66. Determine the dry density,
porosity, degree of saturation and air content.
Problem:2.8
A sample taken from a soil mass has a bulk density of 1.75g/cc and moisture
content of 6%. How much water in litres should be added to one cubic meter of
this soil to raise the moisture content to 15%. Assume that the void ratio
remains unchanged.
Problem:2.9
A test specimen was prepared by compacting soil in a mould of 100mm.

diameter and 200mm height. The weight of the specimen was 3250gm and its
moisture content was 23 percent. Find the dry density and void ratio of the
sample.
97
Problem:2.10 The minimum and maximum dry densities of a sand sample were found to be
1.43g/cc and 1.75g/cc respectively, the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68.
Calculate the dry densities corresponding to the relative densities of 50, 60, and
70 percent.
Problem:2.11 Tests on a soil sample gave the following results: Specific gravity of soil mass =
1.85, Specific gravity of solids = 2.65, Moisture content = 31%. Determine;
void ratio, porosity, bulk density, unit weight, and degree of saturation.
Problem:2.12 A soil sample has a volume of 500 cc in natural state and its weight is 850 gm.
After oven drying the weight is 795 gm, the specific gravity of solids is
2.68.Determine; void ratio, porosity, moisture content, and degree of saturation.
Problem:2.13 A sample of completely saturated clay has a moisture content of 39.0% and a
mass specific gravity of 1.9. Determine; void ratio, porosity, bulk density, unit
weight, and degree of saturation.
Problem:2.14 A saturated sample of soil has a volume of 0.31m3, and weight of 61.5Kg. The
specific gravity of solids is 2.70. Determine; void ratio, porosity, bulk density,
unit weight, moisture content and degree of saturation.
Problem:2.15 A sample of clay has an initial void ratio of 1.19. After complete consolidation
the thickness of sample is reduced from 2.0cm to 1.8cm. Determine the final
void ratio.
98
CHAPTER-III
3.1
CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY
INTRODUCTION
Soil mass comprise collection of particles of different sizes and shapes with voids
within the particles. The voids contain moisture and air. Depending on the degree of saturation
movement of the moisture occurs. The direction of movement depends on the relative potential.
The upwards movement of moisture through small pores acting as capillary tubes is usually
known as capillarity. The downward movement of moisture due to gravity is called
permeability. As the moisture content and its movement greatly affects the soil properties and
performance of the related projects, it is important to study the movement of moisture through
soil.
3.2
CAPILLARITY
Capillary movement in soil is defined as the movement of soil moisture through small
pores between the soil particles. These pores serve as capillary tubes through which the moisture
rises above the groundwater table. Water held in this manner is in a state of suction or negative
pressure; its height depends on soil type, and in general, the finer the voids the greater the
capillary rise. Clay consists of very fine particles exhibiting high capillary rise, approximately
twice those of silts, but the velocity of flow is slow.
The capillary water is continuously connected to the groundwater table and rises up
against the force of gravity due to capillary action. It can be removed by drainage only when the
quantity of water present in soil is in excess of that, which can be retained by surface tension.
The water in the capillary fringe (zone) held by the surface tension forces, cannot be drained out
of soil, particularly from silt and clay by any drainage system, became capillary flow does not
obey the law of gravity. However if the groundwater table is lowered, the whole capillary fringe
will be lowered. It should be noted that the drainage system or pumps need to be installed to
lower down the groundwater table and the capillary fringe. The lowering of capillary fringe
takes place slowly with a great time lag as compared to the lowering of groundwater table.
Capillary water can also be removed by evaporation. In cohesive soils its presence
decreases cohesion and stability, and the soil is transferred into plastic state. In the case of sand
and sandy soils it adds to the stability provided the lateral movement of the soil is controlled.
Consider the system shown in the figure 3.1.
Let, h = capillary rise.

r = radius of capillary tube.
Downward force due to gravity = wt. of the liquid column in the tube = w(r2h)
(3.1)
Let, T = surface tension force per unit length and = Contact angle
99
Upward force due to surface tension = T 2r cos
(3.2)
Fig: 3.1 Capillary rise in a tube above the free water surface.
As soon as capillary tube is dipped in water, water starts rising in the tube due to
surface tension forces. Water will stop rising when the upward force will be balanced by the
downward force. Equating upwards and downward forces the following equation is obtained.
w (r2 h) = 2 T r cos
h=
2T cos
w r
(3.3)
From the above equation it is clear that h increases as r decreases. It may be noted that
for pure water in contact with clean glass the value of angle = 0. The equation is then simplified
as follows:
2T
h=
(3.4)
w r
Where:
r = radius of tube.
w = density of water.
100
The value of T at room temperature is 0.073 N/m or 73.0 dynes/cm. In applying the
development of capillary rise in tubes to capillary rise in soil these values of T are sufficiently
accurate for many practical problems. Putting the values T = .073 and w = 9.81 in equation 3.4,
the equation for capillary rise in soil can be expressed as follows:
hc =
0.297
cm
d
(3.5)
Where:
d = Effective capillary diameter = 1/5 D10

D10 is the effective grain size
3.3
CAPILLARY AFFECTS IN SOIL
Due to capillarity, water rises up above the groundwater table into the interstices of the
soil or rock. The interconnected pores in a soil mass serve as capillary tubes. The pore tubes
however are quite irregular and variable in diameter. The region within which this water is
encountered is known as the capillary fringe. A soil mass, of course, is not a capillary tube
system, but a study of theoretical capillarity enables one to determine a qualitative view of the
behavior of water in the capillary fringe of a soil deposit. Water in this zone is in a state of
negative pressure.
The minimum height of the fringe, hc min, is governed by the maximum size of the voids
within the soil. The size of coarse sand particles are large enough that it practically shows no
capillary properties.
The maximum height of the fringe hc max, is governed by the minimum size of the voids.
Simply speaking the height of capillary rise varies inversely with size of voids or pores, which is a
function of the particle size and density of soil. Up to this height above the water table the soil
will be sufficiently close to full saturation. The capillary height is determined by capillarimeter.
Terzaghi and Peck (1948) gave an approximate relationship between hc max, and the grain
size:
hc max =
C
eD10
(3.6)
Where, hc max. is in millimeter, C is a constant depending upon the shape of particles and
the surface impurities (varying from 10.0 to 50.0 mm2) and D10 is the effective grain size
expressed in millimeters.
Approximate range of capillary rise for different soils is shown in the following table.
101
Table: 3.1 Approximate capillary height for different soil types.

SOIL TYPE
APPROX. CAPILLARY HEIGHT (cm)
3.4
Fine gravel
2-10
Coarse sand
Fine sand
Silt
10-15
30-100
100-1000
Clay
1000-3000
Colloids
>3000
CAPILLARY MOVEMENT IN SOIL
There is a continuous movement of soil moisture even through the unsaturated soil. The
direction of movement depends on the relative potential. The moisture moves from higher
potential towards lower potential. The demand of a moist soil for additional moisture above the
groundwater table and the gravitational pull provide the principal potentials, which influence the
direction of moisture movement. It should be noted that this demand or capillary attraction for
water is exerted in all directions. Therefore capillary water may also move horizontally in soil
depending upon the relative potential.
A groundwater table is a free water surface at which the pressure is atmospheric. In an
unsaturated soil, the capillary potential is always negative while in a saturated soil, it is zero. The
water therefore rises above the groundwater table. When the capillary potential is balanced with
the gravitational potential, the capillary moisture will approach a state of static equilibrium, and
no upward or downward flow will occur. However moisture in the field seldom reaches a state of
equilibrium, because of relatively slow rate of capillary movement and the continuously changing
weather conditions. During dry season the upper soil is drier with low capillary potential than the
lower soil and upward movement of moisture occurs. When rain fall occur, downward movement
due to combined affect of gravity and capillarity takes place. Very high range of capillary rise has
been observed in fine grained soils (see table-3.1).
3.5
IMPORTANCE OF CAPILLARITY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
A major affect of capillary rise, is the increase of moisture in soil. An increase of

moisture always reduces the strength of soil (especially fine grained soil where the capillary rise
is very high). The study of capillary rise is therefore very important for the following Civil
Engineering projects.
3.5.1
PAVEMENT SUB-GRADE:
Sub-grade performance is very much influenced by capillary water. The construction of

pavement provides an impervious cover on the sub-grade. Due to this, rain water can not
percolate in to the sub-grade soil, and evaporation and transpiration are also prevented. It also
102
reduces the range and frequency of temperature changes in the underlying soil. These artificial
conditions created due to construction of pavement help the establishment of equilibrium with the
groundwater table. As a result moisture tends to accumulate in a pavement sub-grade after the
pavement is laid. Field experience indicates that such accumulation occurs slowly and requires 35 years before the maximum accumulation is reached. Consequently the soil loses a substantial
part of its shear strength by accumulation of capillary moisture from a water table below. It is
therefore very important to study the capillary characteristics of sub-grade soil. If the study
indicates the possibility of increase of capillary moisture to alarming level, techniques to avoid
the accumulation of capillary moisture (within the zone of higher stresses below the pavement)
are adopted. These techniques include the provision of impermeable membrane or a drainage
layer at a design level (depth) to stop the rise of capillary moisture above that level.
3.5.2
EXCAVATIONS:
Surface tension forces due to negative capillary pressure produce an additional bonding
force within the soil particles. This bonding force is known as apparent cohesion. The apparent
cohesion however disappears with the loss of negative capillary pressure resulting from absence
of the surface tension forces.
The apparent cohesion permits the excavation of deep cuts in soil without supporting
(shoring) the excavation walls. But with an increase in moisture content the surface tension forces
are destroyed, and when the amount of excess water in the soil has reached a certain value, the
walls of the excavation collapse. Therefore in case of excavations where the increase of moisture
is expected the excavation walls should be properly supported to avoid any accident.
Capillarity is also a significant factor in fine to medium sands. When the sand is fully
saturated or completely dry, the capillary pressure (which is due to surface tension) is zero and the
sand particles can be displaced easily. However at some intermediate moisture content, a negative
capillary pressure exists and due to many particles the cumulative effect is great enough to make
sand to stand temporarily in vertical cuts without supports. The capillary pressure in damp sand is
known as apparent cohesion, which disappears when sand is either dry or saturated. It is totally
impossible to make a vertical excavation in dry and saturated sand. Shallow vertical excavations
(trenches etc) in moist sand therefore can be permitted without supports (sheeting and bracing)
provided the construction work (for laying sewerage or water supply pipes, telephone lines etc.) is
completed expeditiously.
3.5.3
CAPILLARY SIPHONING
Water in the pervious shell on the upstream side of a dam rises due to capillary action.
The water then moves over the crest of the impervious core to the down stream side, as shown in
Fig. 3.3, since the soil at the down stream side has lower capillary potential being drier resulting
from direct exposure to sunlight. The phenomenon is known as capillary siphoning. Considerable
amount of water in dam reservoirs is lost due to this phenomenon.
103
Fig: 3.2 Different zones of capillary water, capillary potential and capillary movement.
Fig: 3.3 Capillary siphoning in dams above the impervious core
104
To prevent this loss, the crest of the impervious core should be kept sufficiently high. In
other wards, the level difference between the crest of the core and the reservoir water level should
be more than the height of capillary rise in soil used for the construction of the shell.
3.6
FACTORS AFFECTING CAPILLARITY
The capillary potential basically depends on the surface tension and the radius of
curvature of the soil water meniscus between the soil particles. The percentage of soil water
(moisture content within the capillary zone), on which the radius of curvature actually depend,
however, is dependent on many factors, e.g., particle size, density, temperature, degree of
wetting in terms of angle of contact, and the percentage of dissolved salts in the soil water. If the
surface tension and the radius of curvature at any point in a moist soil are known, capillary
potential can be calculated. But such measurements are impossible. However a consideration of
these factors will help to know the qualitative effects of the soil characteristics and the soil water
on capillary potential.
3.6.1
EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE:
If the moisture content in a fine soil and coarse soil is the same, the fine soil due to
more surface area will have more points of contacts between the soil particles. At each point of
contact, less water will be collected hence the meniscus curvature (Fig. 3.4) and the
corresponding surface tension will be greater (R1<R). A lower capillary potential and a greater
attraction for moisture is observed in fine grained soils as compared to coarse-grained soils.
Soil
Soil
grains
(a)
Fig: 3.4 Effect of particle size upon curvature of air-water interface.
(a) Coarse-grained soil; (b) fine-grained soil
3.6.2
EFFECT OF SOIL DENSITY:
If two particles of moist soil are packed closer the meniscus curvature will be reduced,
lowering the surface tension and increasing the capillary potential, resulting in lesser attraction
for water. When a relatively dry soil mass is sufficiently compressed if become saturated,
although the moisture content remain unchanged. The capillary potential, which initially was
negative in loose state, increases to the maximum value of zero on densification. Actually the
process of densification gradually reduces the meniscus curvature (R1<R); and, finally, no
curvature remains at saturation. Hence the capillary potential increases with increase of density.
105
R1
Soil
grains
Soil
grains
(a)
(b)
Fig: 3.5 Influence of state of packing of soil on curvature of air-water interface.

(a) Closely-packed soil; (b) Loosely-packed soil.
Note: Decrease of radius causes increase of curvature and vice versa

3.6.3
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE:
The surface tension varies inversely with temperature. A decrease in temperature

increases surface tension and hence the capillary potential is reduced. It means that cooling of
soil reduces capillary potential thereby increasing its attraction for water. This may be one of the
reasons that subgrade moisture in late winter is usually greater when the soil is at its coolest
temperature as compared to moisture content in the late summer when the soil is warmest.
3.6.4
EFFECT OF ANGLE OF CONTACT:
The angle of contact between the meniscus and the soil particles depends on the mineral
composition of soil. An increase in the angle of contact will show low degree of wetting and
hence tend to decrease the curvature of the meniscus (R1<R) and thereby increase the capillary
potential of soil at that particular water content. A soil with an angle of contact greater than zero
will have less attraction for water than a soil in which the particles are completely wetted.
Contact
R
=0
Soil
grains
R1
Soil
grains
(a)
(b)
Fig: 3.6 Influence of wettability of soil grains on curvature of air-water interface.

(a) Low wettability; (b) High wettability
106
3.6.5
EFFECT OF DISSOLVED SALTS:
An increase in percentage of dissolved salts in soil water increase its surface tension,
and reduces the capillary potential, and hence indicate more attraction for moisture. Therefore,
subgrade soil in coastal areas and in regions with soil of high alkaline content attracts more
capillary water than do similar subgrade soil in freshwater areas. However the effect of dissolved
salts is very small.
3.6.7
EFFECT OF MOISTURE CONTENT:
Moisture content affects the capillary potential because of its influence on the radius of
curvature of the water meniscus. As shown in figure 3.7, if the amount of water between two soil
particles is decreased the meniscus curvature will increase (radius will decrease). This causes a
decrease in capillary potential and indicates a greater attraction for water. It is a well-known fact
that a moderately wet soil has less attraction for additional moisture than a drier soil..
R
Soil
grains
R
Soil
grains
(a)
(b)
Fig: 3.7 Effect of moisture content upon curvature of air-water interface.

(a) Wet soil; (b) Dry soil
3.7
PERMEABILITY
Permeability of a soil is its property which indicates the ease or difficulty with which
water or any other liquid flow through soil. A soil mass consists of discrete particles. The pore
spaces between particles are interconnected so that water is free to flow within the soil mass.
The knowledge of permeability of soil is important for the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Evaluating the amount of seepage through or beneath dams and levees and into water
wells.
Evaluating the uplift or seepage forces beneath hydraulic structures for stability analyses.
Providing control of seepage velocities, so that, fine particles are not eroded from the soil
mass.
Rate of settlement (consolidation) studies where soil volume changes occur as water is
expelled from the voids.
Controlling seepage from sanitary landfills and hazardous liquid waste dumps.
Evaluating the yield from wells as a source of water supply.
Designing the highways sub-drainage system.
107
8.
9.
10.
11.
Designing sub-drainage for water logging and salinity control.

Groundwater lowering (Dewatering).
Investigation of contaminated lands.
Design of landfill sites.
3.8
DARCYS LAW
According to Darcys law, the velocity of flow through soil is directly proportional to
the hydraulic gradient.
Fig: 3.8 Loss of head, due to flow of water through soil.

Let us consider Fig. 3.8
h = difference of head.
L = length of soil between two points along the flow path where piezometer are installed.
V = velocity of flow through soil = Q/A
Where:
Q is the discharge & A is the gross cross-sectional area of the soil cylinder.
i = hydraulic gradient = h/L
According to Darcys law,
Vi
V = ki
(3.7)
108
Where K is the constant of proportionality and is known as coefficient of permeability.

Assumption of Darcys Law:
3.9
1.
The continuity of the flow condition in the soil mass must be satisfied with no
velocity changes taking place during the flow.
2.
The flow must be with voids saturated through out the flow and no
compressible air present in the voids.
3.
The flow must be in a steady state. i.e., the velocity of flow must be constant at
any particular section with respect to time.
4.
The flow must be laminar.
FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY

The factors, which affect the flow of a fluid through a soil mass, are discussed as under.
3.9.1
SOIL GRAIN SIZE:
The permeability depends largely on the size of voids, which in turn depends on the size,
shape and state of packing of the soil particles. Permeability appears to be proportional
to the square of the effective grain size.
K (D10)2
For sandy soil, A.Hazen developed the following empirical equation.
K = C (D10)2
cm/sec.
(3.8)
In this equation D10 is the effective grain size in centimeters. According to

Hazen the coefficient C varies, from about 40 to 150 (expressed as1/cm.sec) and suitable
values may be taken from the following table.
Table: 3.2Values of coefficient C for different grades of sand
C
40-80
80-120
120-150
Sand (any or all of the following applies)

Very fine, well graded or with appreciable fines [(-) No.200]
Medium coarse, poorly graded; clean, coarse but well graded
Very coarse, very poorly graded, gravelly, clean.
It is quite usual that a poorly graded material will show a larger coefficient than a wellgraded material, since the void spaces will be larger in poorly graded soil.
Generally for sandy soil, K = 100(D10)2
cm/sec.
109
3.9.2
PROPERTIES OF THE LIQUID:
The permeability varies with density and viscosity of the fluid flowing through the soil
a.
Density of the fluid:
K
Where, = Density of fluid.
b.
Viscosity of the fluid:
K 1/
Where,
= Absolute viscosity of fluid.

Since viscosity changes with temperature following equation may be used to find K1
for any temp.
K
= 1
K1
(3.9)
Where:
K is co-efficient of permeability at standard temperature commonly 20 oC.
K1 is the co-efficient of permeability at any test temperature.
is viscosity at standard temperature i.e., 20oC.
1 is viscosity at test temperature.
3.9.3
VOID RATIO:
The effect of void ratio on permeability depends on the type of soil i.e., a clayey soil will
have a much lower permeability than a sandy soil even though the void ratio and the
density of the two soils may be nearly the same. The reason being the smaller size of
pores (voids) offering greater resistance to flow in case of fine grained soil. A number of
empirical relationships have been proposed between K and void ratio.
abc-
For cohesive soil K e2

For non cohesive soils K e3/1+e
Cassagrande equation for fine or medium clean sand is:
K = 1.4e2 K0.85
Where:
K = permeability at any void ratio
110
K0.85 = permeability at a void ratio of 0.85

SOIL STRUCTURE:
3.9.4
For the same void ratio, the permeability of a soil with mass flocculent structure is more
than that of dispersed structure. Also the permeability of soil deposit depend on
shrinkage cracks, however the shrinkage cracks disappear after sometime due to
expansion of soil. For rocks, permeability depends on the intensity and frequency of
fissures, joints, shear zones and the bedding planes or planes of discontinuity.
Soil in-situ generally shows a certain amount of stratification because of which the
permeability is greater in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction. In
performing laboratory permeability test, it is always advisable to use undisturbed
samples.
3.9.5
DEGREE OF SATURATION:
Air in the voids of non-saturated soil obstructs the flow. An increase in the degree of
saturation of a soil causes an increase in permeability. Permeability appears to be directly
proportional to the degree of saturation.
KS
Where, S is degree of saturation.
3.9.6
ENTRAPPED AIR WITHIN THE SOIL:
Entrapped air/gases reduce the degree of saturation. Entrapped air, obstruct the flow
reducing the value of coefficient of permeability. Entrapped air/gases may be due to,
i.
ii.
iii.
Chemical decomposition of soil.

Disintegration of rock and animal remains.
Dissolved air.
According to D.W. Taylor the following simple Eq. relates the K to a number of
factors, which influence permeability.
Where:
K = D10
w e3
C
1+ e
(3.10)
D10 = Effective, grain size

w = Density of permeant (water/fluid)
= Viscosity of permeant (water/fluid)
e = Void ratio
C = constant which depends on shape and arrangement of pores.
111
The range of values of coefficients of permeability of different soil types along with their
drainage characteristics is given in the following table. The values can only be used as a rough
guide and should not be used for any design purposes since the permeability depends on the state
of compaction and many other factors. Different test methods to determine the coefficient of
permeability of various soil types is also given in the table.
Table: 3.3 Permeability and drainage characteristics of main soil types
3.10
MEASUREMENT OF PERMEABILITY
The co-efficient of permeability of a soil is determined by the following methods.
3.10.1
LABORATORY METHODS:
The co-efficient of permeability of a uniform soil deposit can be determined, using
undisturbed soil samples by the following laboratory permeameters.
iii-
Constant head permeameter.

Variable head permeameter.
The first one is suitable for relatively coarse grained (sandy) soils, while the second is
recommended for fine grained (silty/clayey) soils.
3.10.2
FIELD METHOD:
When the soil deposit is non-uniform and the undisturbed samples do not represent the
actual strata, the co-efficient of permeability is determined by the field pumping test. The
test is very costly and time consuming and therefore is performed only when the in-situ
conditions of the deposit and the importance of the project demand for the accurate
112
measurement of the permeability. Pumping test can be performed in any of the following
two ways.
iii-
Pumping-out test/discharge well test.

Pumping-in test/recharge well test.
In case of water bearing strata discharge well test is commonly performed. However, if
the permeability of a non-water bearing strata is required for any project, then a recharge
well test is carried out.
3.11
CONSTANT HEAD PERMEAMETER
It is an apparatus in which the head remains constant and the quantity of water flowing
through a soil sample of known cross-sectional area and length in a given time can be measured.
The permeameter is shown in the fig: 3.9
Fig: 3.9 Constant head Permeameter.
Let
A = Cross-sectional area of soil sample

L = Length of sample
h = drop in head between the two piezometers
l = distance between peizometers
Vol. = Volume collected in time T.
T = time for test
113
According to DARCYS law, velocity of flow through soil is directly proportional to hydraulic
gradient.
Vi
V=Ki
h
l
Since i =
h
l
Multiplying by A on both sides
V =K
AV = KA
Q = KA
Since
Q=
h
l
h
l
Vol.
Time
Vol.
h
= KA
T
l
K=
Vol. l
AhT
(3.11)
All the quantities on the right hand side of the equation are measured during the test,
hence K is determined.
In highly impervious soil the quantity of flow is small and accurate measurement of its
value is not possible. Therefore the constant head permeameter is mainly applicable to relatively
previous soil such as sands and gravel.
3.12
VARIABLE HEAD PERMEAMETER
Variable head permeameter is used to find the permeability of relatively less permeable
soil i.e., fine grained soil (silt and clay). A stand pipe of small cross-sectional area is used, such
that a very small amount of flow through the soil sample gives a significant drop of head in the
stand pipe. Since the measurement of drop of head is taken during the test, it is also known as
falling head permeameter. Consider the permeameter shown in the fig.3.10.
114
Fig: 3.10 Falling/Variable head permeameter.
Let
a = cross-sectional area of the stand pipe.

A = cross-sectional area of soil sample.
L = Length of sample.
h1= Initial head at time t1.
h2= Final head at time t2.
dh = the drop in head in time dt.
Velocity of fall of water level in the stand pipe V = -dh/dt (-ve sign indicates a fall of head).
V =
dh
dt
Multiplying by a on both sides
Va = -a
dh
dt
Q = -a
dh
dt
Q = Disch arg e = Velocity area
115
dh
dt
KAi = -a
KA
h
dh
= a
L
dt
KA
dh
dt =
aL
h
Integrating the above equation
KA
aL
t2
h2
dt =
t1
h1
1
dh
h
KA
(t 2 t1 ) = (l n h2 + l n h1 )
aL
KA
h
t = ln 1
aL
h2
K = 2 . 303
aL
h
log 10 1
At
h2
(3.12)
All the quantities on the right hand side of the equation, are measured during the test,
hence K is determined.
3.13
FIELD DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY
When the soil conditions in the field are non-uniform, laboratory tests do not give
accurate value of co-efficient of permeability. In such cases full scale pumping test gives reliable
results. There are two types of pumping test.
3.13.1
DISCHARGE WELL (PUMPING-OUT TEST)
If water is pumped out of the test well, it is called discharge well pumping test.
The method is extensively used by water supply Engineers.
A certain quantity of water Q, is continuously pumped out of the test well.
Depending on soil properties, after a period of few days to fortnight, the groundwater
flow to the well is stabilized i.e. steady state of flow is attained and the depression funnel
or cone of the lowered groundwater table around the well is established. The cone of
depression is observed by means of the observation wells spaced around the test well. At
least two observation wells are needed to calculate the coefficient of permeability of soil.
116
The depression line or draw down curve moves up gradually and ultimately
touches the original groundwater table, and forms, a circle around the test well known as
the circle of influence.
In foundation engineering the important problem is the draw down of the
groundwater table, which is necessary to get the dry foundation pit to start the
construction work.
3.13.2
RECHARGE WELL (PUMPING-IN TEST)
When water is pumped into the well from an out side source, it is called a recharge well test.
All the procedure is similar to discharge well method, except an inverted cone of depression is
developed
3.14
THEORY OF ORDINARY PERFECT WELLS (DUPUIT THIEMS

THEORY)
For the derivation of an analytical equation for the discharge Q of the well or the
permeability of soil K, following assumptions are made.
1.
The soil is homogeneous, uniform and porous medium of infinite areal extent.
2.
The well takes the groundwater from the entire thickness of the permeable water bearing
stratum.
3.
There exists an unconfined, uniform, steady, laminar and radial groundwater flow to the
cylindrical well from a concentric boundary.
4.
For small inclination of the free surface of the groundwater gravity flow system, the
streamlines can be taken as horizontal.
5.
The horizontal velocity is independent of depth.
6.
The hydraulic gradient is equal to the slope of the tangent at any point on the depression
curve, of the free groundwater table.
7.
The coefficient of permeability K of the soil is constant at all times and at all places.
8.
The well is being pumped continuously at a uniform rate until the flow of water to the
well is stabilized.
117
3.15
DERIVATION OF EQUATION FOR THE CO-EFFICIENT OF

PERMEABILITYITY K
3.15.1
UNCONFINED AQUIFER:
A tube well known as pumping well is drilling through the soil deposit whose
permeability is required. The well reaches the underlying imperious stratum. A pump is
installed and water is pumped out of the well till a steady state is reached and the flow is
established. At this stage the water pumped out of the well equals the water reaching the
well from the surrounding soil. The water table, which was originally horizontal before
the start of pumping, is depressed. To observe the level of depression of water table in
the surrounding soil, two observation wells are also drilled into the soil. The maximum
depression of water table at pumping well is known as the draw down.
Consider a single perfect well system as shown in fig.
ro = Radius of the pumping well
H = Thickness of water bearing stratum
R = Radius of influence i.e. where the draw down S is zero
x-x = Original static groundwater table
Smax = The maximum draw down which is at the pumping well.
Upon pumping, the water table in the well lowers by an amount of S termed as
draw down. At the same time the groundwater table around the well lowers. The
dewatered zone in the soil ABCDA takes the form of a funnel or cone known as cone of
depression.
The rate of flow, Q, towards the well from the surrounding soil at stabilized
flow is expressed by means of Darcys law as follows
Q = VA = KAi
V = Velocity of flow
A = Area of flow
dy
hydraulic gradient
dx
Area of flow =A= 2 xy
i=
Q=K
dy
2 xy
dx
( 3.13)
ydy =
Qdx
2K .x
(3.14)
When x = ro, y = h
x = R, y = H
118
Fig: 3.11 Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer to find
permeability
119
Integrating for the above limits

H
ydy =
h
Q
2K
ro
dx
x
1
Q
R
(H 2 h2 ) =
log e
2
2K
ro
Q
R
H 2 h2 =
loge
K
ro
When
Q log e
K=
R
ro
(3.16)
(3.17)
(H 2 h 2 )
x = r1
x = r2
(3.15)
y = h1
y = h2
Integrating for the above limits

h2
ydy =
h1
r2
Q
2 K
r1
dx
x
r
1
Q
(h2 h1 ) =
log e 2
2
2 K
r1
r2
Q log e
r1
K=
2
(h2 h1 2 )
(3.18)
3.15.1.1 Equation for Cone of Depression
The curve of depressed water table can be drawn, using an equation having x and y
variables. Integrating Eq.(3.15) between the limits as given below we get the Eq.(3.19), which can
be used to draw the curve of depressed water table.
x = ro,
y=h
x = x,
y
ydy =
h
y=y
Q
2 K
ho
dx
x
120
Q log e
2
y h =
y 2 = h2 +
y = h2 +
x
ro
(3.19)
K
Q
x
log e
K
ro
Q
loge
( which is the general eq. of depression line)
x
ro
(3.20)
Similarly the equation of depression line can be written in another way i.e. when:
x = x,
x = R,
H
y=y
y=H
Q
yd y =
2 K
dx
x
Q
1
R
(H 2 y 2 ) =
log e
2
2 K
x
y= H2
Q
R
log e
K
x
(3.21)
Putting different values of x in the above Equation, the corresponding values of y are
calculated, then with the set of x and y co-ordinates, curve of depression line can be drawn
provided K is already known.
If the value of drawn down S at any point x, from the center of well (along the curve of
depression) is required, the following basic equation is used.
Drawdown
S=Hy
S=H
H2
Q
R
loge
K
x
(3.22)
For pumping water out of the well (lowering of groundwater table) use minus sign and for
recharge of water into the well use plus sign before the square root.
121
Maximum draw down at the pumping well can be determined by putting x = rO in the
Eq.(2.22).
S max = H y = H
3.15.1.2
H2
Q
R
loge
ro
K
(3.23)
Yield of Well
Yield of the well means, the maximum discharge capacity of the well installed in any
water bearing strata. The yield depends on the permeability of the water bearing strata. The yield
can be determined by any of the following equations.
Q=
Q=
K (H 2 h2 )
R
loge
ro
loge
K ( H + h)( S max )
Q=
K ( H + h)( H h)
R
log e
ro
K ( H + H S max )(S max )

log e
K (2 H S max )( S max )
log e
Specific Yield:
R
ro
R
ro
R
ro
(3.24)
The specific yield of the well, q, is defined as its yield per unit length (1m) of draw
down in the well.
3.15.1.3
Radius of Influence
The radius of influence of the depression cone, R, is to be estimated from experience or

it is to be determined from observation in several bore holes (observation wells) made at different
distances from the test well. It can also be determined from any of the above equation, which
contain the term R.
According to Sichardt, for stabilized flow conditions, R is given by an empirical
equation as follows.
R = 3000 S K
(in meters units)
(3.25)
122
Where:
S = Maximum draw down in meters
K = Coefficient of permeability of soil in m/sec.
Kozeny gave an expression for the calculation of the radius of influence, R, in terms of
time, t, during which yield from the well of Q (m3/sec) has been attained.
R=
12t
n
QK
(in meters units )
(3.26)
Where:
n = Porosity of soil in decimal fractions.
K = coefficient of permeability of soil (m/sec).
The radius of influence increases with the fourth root of discharge, Q, and permeability
3.15.2
CONFINED AQUIFER
A subsurface permeable water bearing soil layer is known as an aquifer. When

the water bearing soil layer is sand-witch between two impermeable layers, above and
below, it is known as confined aquifer. The groundwater in such an aquifer is generally
is under pressure greater than atmospheric. A well sunk into a confined aquifer is termed
as artesian, or pressure, or confined well.
Consider a confined aquifer of thickness D. Since, the water is under pressure, it
will rise above the aquifer when the test well and the observation wells are sunk. The
water level in all the wells before pumping is the same and the line joining the water
levels is horizontal. When the pumping is started from the test well, the water level is
depressed and a cone of depression is formed.
In the case of confined aquifer the pump is drawing water from the layer of
thickness D.
The area of flow = A = 2xD

The equation, 2-14 for unconfined aquifer will modify as under.
Q=K
dy
2xD
dx
(3.27)
123
Fig: 3.12 Pumping test in a confined aquifer to find permeability.

Separating the variables
dx 2KD
=
dy
x
Q
Integrating between the limits
r2
r1
ln
1
2KD
dx =
x
Q
h2
dy
h1
r2
2KD
=
(h2 h1 )
r1
Q
r
Q ln ( 2 )
r1
K=
2D (h 2 h1 )
(3.28
)
All the qualities on the right hand side of the equation are measured during the test, hence K is
known.
124
3.16
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)
From the following statements encircle the correct statement.

1. a.
b.
c.
d.
2. a.
b.
c.
d.
3. a.
b.
c.
d.
4. a.
b.
c.
d.
5. a.
b.
d.
e.
6. a.
b.
c.
d.
7. a.
b.
c.
d.
8. a.
b.
c.
d.
9. a.
b.
c.
d.
10. a.
The co-efficient of permeability of a soil increases with an increase in temperature.

The co-efficient of permeability of a soil decreases with an increase in temperature.
The co-efficient of permeability of a soil is independent of temperature.
The co-efficient of permeability of a soil is inversely proportional to temperature.
The co-efficient of permeability of soil increases with increase in void ratio.
The co-efficient of permeability of soil increases with a decrease in void ratio.
The co-efficient of permeability of soil is independent of void ratio.
The co-efficient of permeability of soil is directly proportional to void ratio.
Variable head permeameter is used for sandy soil.
Falling head permeameter is used for fine grained soil.
Constant head permeameter is used for clayey soil.
Pumping test is used to determine permeability of soil in laboratory.
According to Darcys law V
i
K
A
Q
The co-efficient of permeability of soil increase with increase in effective grain size.
The co-efficient of permeability of soil increases with a decrease in effective grain size.
The co-efficient of permeability soil is independent of grain size.
The co-efficient of permeability soil is directly proportional to effective grain size.
D30 is known as the effective grain size.
Capillarity and permeability of soil have the same meaning
Capillarity means the movement of water through soil pores due to gravity.
Capillarity means the movement of water through soil pores due to capillary action.
Permeability of soil means the upward movement of water
Capillarity depends on permeability.
Capillary rise depends on the pore size.
Capillarity rise depends on the force of gravity.
Capillary rise depends on the specific surface of soil particles.
Stand pipe is in constant head permeameter.
Stand pipe is in falling head permeameter
Stand pipe diameter is more than diameter of the sample.
Stand pipe diameter is equal to the diameter of the sample.
Seepage discharge through the constant head permeameter need to be measured to
calculate the permeability of the sample.
b. Seepage discharge through the variable head permeameter need to be measured to
125
c.
d.
11. a.
b.
c.
d.
12. a.
b.
c.
d.
13. a.
b.
c.
d.
14. a.
b.
c.
d.
15. a.
b.
c.
d.
16. a.
b.
c.
d.
17. a.
b.
c.
d.
Seepage discharge through the constant head permeameter need not to be measured to
Seepage discharge through the stand pipe of falling head permeameter need to be
measured to calculate the permeability of the sample.
Permeability is directly proportional to the density of the permeant.
Permeability is inversely proportional to the density of the permeant.
Permeability has no relation with the density of the permeant.
Permeability of soil is equal to the density of the permeant.
Pumping test is performed in the laboratory to determine the permeability of soil strata.
Pumping test is performed in the field to determine the permeability of soil strata.
Pumping test is performed to determine the capillary rise in soil.
Pumping test is recommended only to determine the permeability clayey strata.
Pumping-out test is performed to determine the permeability of non water-bearing strata.
Pumping-out test is performed to determine the permeability of water-bearing strata.
Pumping test is performed to determine the capillarity potential in soil.
Pumping-in test is performed to determine the permeability of water bearing strata.
Distance from the center of the pumping well to the point where the depression curve
touches the static water level is known as the radius of influence.
Distance from the center of the pumping well to the first observation well is known as
radius of influence.
Distance from the center of the pumping well to the second observation well is known as
the radius of influence.
Distance between two consecutive observation wells is known as the radius of influence.
Draw down at any point is the level difference between the static water level and the
depression curve.
Draw down at any point is the level difference between the ground surface and the
depression curve.
ground surface.
impermeable layer.
Maximum draw down is observed at the first observation well.
Maximum draw down is observed at the second observation well.
Maximum draw down is observed at the pumping well.
Maximum draw down is observed out side the radius of influence.
The yield of a well depends on capillarity.
The yield of a well depends on density of soil.
The yield of a well depends on specific gravity.
The yield of a well depends on permeability.
126
3.17
EXAMPLES:
Example-3.1:
The void ratio of a soil is 0.65 and the effective grain size is 0.015 mm.
Estimate the maximum capillary rise and maximum negative pressure (tension)
in the water. Estimate the capillary in a similar soil but with an effective size of
0.035 mm.
Solution:
Given data
Void ratio of soil = e = 0.65
Effective grain size = D10 = 0.015 mm.
Effective grain size (soil-II) = D10 = 0.035 mm.
Required
Maximum capillary vise = hcmax
Maximum negative pressure
Maximum capillary rise in (soil-II) = hcmax
Take C = 20 mm2
From equation 3.6
hc max =
C
20
=
eD10 0.65 0.015
= 2051 mm = 205.1 cm
Maximum negative pressure = w hcmax = 1205.1
= 205.1 g/cm2
= 0.205 Kg/cm2
( hcmax )1 ( D10 ) 2
=
(hcmax ) 2 ( D10 )1
(hc max ) 2 = (hc max )1
( D10 )1
( D10 ) 2
.015
.035
hc max = 879 mm = 0.879 m.
= 205.1
Alternate method:
From Equation 3.5
127
hc max =
0.297
d
D10 .015
=
= 3 10 3 mm
5
5
= 3 10-4 cm
d=
hc max =
Example3.2
0.297
= 990 cm
3 10 4
A permeameter has a diameter of 8.5 cm which contains a soil sample of length

30 cm. It can be used as a constant head or a falling head permeameter. The
stand pipe used for a falling head test has a diameter of 3.0 cm. In a constant
head test the loss of head between two piezometers fitted at a level difference of
25 cm was measured to be 110 cm, when the rate of flow was 2.5 cc/sec. Find
the co-efficient of permeability for the soil.
The falling head test observations were then made on the same soil. Find the
time required for the head to fall from 100 cm to 50 cm.
Solution:
Given data
Permeameter diameter = D = 8.5 cm
Length of sample
= L = 30.0 cm
Stand pipe diameter
= d = 3.0 cm
Distance between pizometers = l = 25.0 cm
Loss of head
= h = 110.0 cm
Initial head
= h1 = 100 cm.
Vol
Rate of flow
=
= Q = 2.5 cc / sec
t
Final head
= h2 = 50 cm
Required
Permeability = K (For constant head test)
Time required = t (For falling head test)
K=
Vol. l Ql
=
t A h Ah
Area of sample = A =
K=
sin ce Q =
D2 =
Vol.
t
(8.5) 2 = 56.74 cm 2
2.5 25
= 0.01 cm / sec .
56.74 110
128
K = 0.01cm/sec.
K = 2.303
h
aL
log10 1
At
h2
Area of stand pipe = a =

0.01 = 2.303
.01 =
d2 =
(3.0) 2 = 7.068 cm 2
7.068 30
100
log10
56.74 t
50
2.59
t
T = 259.0 sec
Example-3.3
Solution:
Two canals are flowing parallel to each other at an average distance of 50

meters. The reduced levels of their water surfaces are 470 and 450 meters. A
layer of sand 1-meter thick intersects the two canals below their water levels.
The permeability of sand layer, which is sandwich between two impermeable
clay layers is 0.005 cm/sec. Calculate the seepage loss in m3/sec/Km from the
upper canal to the lower canal.
Given data
Distance between canals = L = 50m.
Difference in R.L of water surfaces = h = 470-450 = 20m.
Thickness of sand layer = 1.0m.
Permeability of sand layer = 0.005 cm/sec. = 510-5m/sec
Required
Seepage loss per kilometer length of canals
Area of seepage flow (loss) for one kilometer length
= thickness length
= 11000 = 1000m2
Hydraulic gradient ca sin g the flow = i =
Seepage loss = K A i
= 5 10 5 1000
h 20
=
L 50
20
50
= 0.02 m3/sec/Km.
129
Fig: 3.13 In-situ situation of the permeable sand layer.
Example-3.4
A pumping test was made in a sand deposit 20m thick, overlying an in

permeable rock stratum. When the discharge was 0.015 m3/sec, the draw downs
in the observation wells at 15m and 30m from the pump well were found to be
1.6m and 1.45m respectively. Before the start of pumping the original static
G.W.L. was 2m below ground surface. Determine.
ab-
Solution:
Co-efficient of permeability of the sand.

Effective grain size.
Given data
Discharge = Q = 0.015 m3/sec.
Total depth of sand stratum = D = 20m.
Depth of static water level = Dw = 2.0m.
Distance of 1st observation well = r1 = 15m.
Distance of 2nd observation well = r2 = 30m.
Draw down = S1 = 1.6m.
Required
Co-efficient of permeability = K
Effective grain size = D10
Thickness of water bearing stratum = H = D-Dw = 20-2
=18.0m.
Depth of water in the 1st observation well = h1 = H-S1
=18-1.6 = 16.4m.
Depth of water in the 2nd observation well = h2 = H-S2
=18-1.45=16.55m
Q log
K=
r2
r1
(h2 2 h1 2 )
130
30
)
15
K=
(16.55 2 16.4 2 )
.015 log e (
K = 6.696 10-4 m/sec

The above value of permeability represents medium coarse sand for which the value of
coefficient C may be taken = 100
K = C (D10)2
6.696 10-2 = 100(D10)2
D10 = 0.025 cm = 0.258 mm
Example3.5:
A pumping test was made in a confined aquifer 8.0m thick. When the discharge
was 0.15 m3/sec, the draw down was 0.7m and 0.3m in the observation wells at
distance of 45m and 90m from the test well respectively. The height of static
water level in the wells before pumping was 2m above the top of confined
aquifer. Determine the co-efficient of permeability of the aquifer.
Solution:
Given data
Discharge = Q = 0.15 m3/sec.
Thickness of aquifer = D = 8.0m.
Distance of 1st observation well = r1 = 45m.
Distance of 2nd observation well = r2 = 90m.
Original height water above aquifer = 2.0m
Required
Co-efficient of permeability = K
Total height of static water level = H = D + water height above aquifer = 8+2
= 10m.
h1 = H-S1 = 10-0.7 = 9.3m.
h2 = H-S2 = 10-0.3 = 9.7m.
r2
)
r1
K=
2 D (h2 h1 )
Q log e (
K=
0.15 log e (90 / 45)

2 (8) (9.7 9.3)
K = 5.17 10-3 m/sec
131
3.18
PROBLEMS
Prob.- 3.1:
The co-efficient of permeability a soil was determine to be 0.35 10-4 cm/sec

using a falling head test. The diameter of the sample was 8.5 cm and its length
was 10 cm. The drop of head measured in 5 minutes was from 30 cm to 25.5
cm, in the stand pipe. Calculate the diameter of the stand pipe.
Prob.- 3.2:
A tube well of 30 cm diameter is drilled to a depth of 15 m in a soil deposit

whose K = 0.01 cm/sec. The static water table is 2m below the ground surface.
If the draw down at a distance of 15 m is 0.5 m and in the pumping well is 2.0
m, determine the yield of the well.
Prob.- 3.3:
Estimate capillary rise in a soil deposit, whose in-situ void ratio is 0.8 and the
effective grain diameter is .09 mm. The water table is at a depth of 5.5 m below
the ground surface. Assume the coefficient C = 15 mm2.
Prob.- 3.4:
A constant head permeameter contains a soil sample of 80 mm diameter and

500 mm length. The loss of head between two points at 300 mm apart was 300
mm when the flow rate was 3.5 ml/sec. Determine the coefficient of
permeability of soil.
Prob.- 3.5:
A confined aquifer is 5 m thick and is lying at a depth of 3 m below the surface

of an impervious rock. When the test and observation wells were sunk the water
level rose to the rock/ground surface. The draw down in the two observation
wells at 10 m and 50 m distance from the test well was measured to be 1.5 m
and 0.6 m respectively. Find the co-efficient of permeability of the aquifer if the
well is discharging at 1.0 m3/sec.
132
CHAPTER-IV
4.1
SEEPAGE AND FLOWNET
INTRODUCTION
Seepage simply means the movement of groundwater through soil. Whenever water falls
(in any shape of precipitation) on the ground, it either flows on the ground surface towards lower
levels or is stored in natural depressions. During flow or in storage, some of the water percolates
down through the soil pores and is known as subsurface water. This subsurface water also flows
through the pervious soil layers due to gravity towards lower levels. The rate of flow, however,
depends on the permeability of soil. All other flow conditions being similar (e.g., gradient,
stratum thickness, time, etc.), the quantity of flow will be much greater in granular soil.
4.2
IMPORTANCE OF SEEPAGE STUDIES

The study of seepage through soil is important for the following engineering problems.
1- Determination of consolidation settlement (amount and rate) of a saturated compressible
soil subjected to loadings.
2- Determination of amount of seepage through the body of earth dams.
3- Determination of seepage loss through the foundation and reservoirs of dams.
4- Calculation of uplift pressure under hydraulic structures and their safety against piping
failure.
5- Stability analysis of slopes and cuts under seepage forces and control of land slides.
6- Subsurface drainage (Reclamation) of water logged soil.
7- Subsurface drainage under pavement structures in water logged areas.
8- Backfill drainage for retaining walls.
9- Groundwater flow towards wells.
10- Stability of base of excavations, when made below groundwater table.
11- Design of dewatering system.
4.3
LAPLACE EQUATION FOR TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW
Although for many practical cases, the factors which affect the seepage vary through out
the soil medium, simplifying assumptions are made regarding stratum and flow (e.g. soil is
homogeneous, thickness is uniform, permeability is constant in x & z directions, flow is steady,
continuous and two dimensional etc.) to analyze the seepage.
With all these assumptions, there are methods which give acceptable results. One of the
very simple and fairly reliable methods is graphical, known as flow nets, which is based on
Laplaces equation.
133
Assumptions:
123456-
Flow is laminar, continuous and two dimensional.

Flow is steady and Darcys law is valid.
Soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
Soil is saturated and capillary effects are negligible.
Both soil and water are incompressible.
The fluid (water) is ideal and the density remains constant.
Consider a soil element as shown in Fig., of dimensions dx, dz and dy; where, dy is the
dimension normal to the plane of paper. The flow is two dimensional which is taking place in the
x-z plane and no flow occurs along the y-direction. Let Vx and Vz are the components of velocity
in the horizontal and vertical directions (x-z plane) at the entrance of the element. When water
moves through the soil pores the velocity will change.
Fig: 4.1 Two-dimensional flows in x-z plane through a soil element.
134
Vx
Vz
and
being the rate of change of velocities in the x and z directions
x
z
V x
V z
respectively. The exit velocities will be (V x +
dx) and (V z +
dz ) respectively. Since the
x
z
flow is steady and no volume changes are taking place the quantity of water entering and leaving
the element is the same.
Let,
Quantity of water entering the element = d Qe

dQe = AV = Ax Vx + Az Vz
Ax = Area, normal to flow component in x direction = dzdy
Az = Area, normal to flow component in z direction = dxdy
dQe = dzdy Vx + dxdy Vz
(4.1)
Similarly;
Quantity of water leaving the element = dQL = AV
dQ L = dzdy (V x +
V x
V z
dx) + dxdy (V z +
)
x
z
(4.2)
Now;
(4.3)
dQe = dQL
Putting the values in Eq. 3.3 and simplifying we get.
V x V z
+
=o
x
z
(4.4)
This is known as the continuity Equation for two dimensional flow. If the total head in
h
and in z-direction,
the element is h, the hydraulic gradient component in x-direction, i x =
x
h
iz =
.
z
According to Darcys law
Vx = Kx ix and Vz = Kz iz
h
h
Vx = K x
Vz = K z
x
z
V x
2h
= Kx 2
x
x
V z
2h
= Kz
z
z 2
Putting the values in Eq: 4.4;
135
Kx
2h
x
+ Kz
2h
z 2
= o
(4.5)
Since, the soil is homogeneous and isotropic, Kx = Kz.

2h
x 2
2h
z 2
= o
(4.6)
This is the Laplaces equation, which gives the fundamental relationship for two
dimensional steady flow in isotropic soil. Mathematically, it states that the algebric sum of the
gradient changes in the x and z directions is zero. Graphically, it represents two groups of curves
intersecting at right angles in the x-z plane. These two groups of curves represent the lines of
constant head or potential and the path followed by water, within a flow field. The curves
indicating the constant head are known as equipotential lines and the path followed by moving
water are called the flow lines. These two groups of intersecting curves constitute a net,
commonly known as a flow net.
4.4
FLOW NETS
A flow net is a graphical representation used in the study of seepage through a soil mass
or through earth dams and levees.
It consists of an orthogonal net of flow lines and equipotential lines. It is used to find the
amount of seepage, up lift pressure under the structure foundations or base of dams or the
possibility of quick sand conditions and piping failure.
Flow Line:
The path followed by a water drop in its course of seepage through a saturated
soil mass is called a flow line. Thus a flow line defines the direction and pattern of flow.
The space between two adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel.
Equipotential line:
Along each flow line there is a point, where the water dissipates a certain
fraction of its total pressure head. A line connecting all such points of equal pressure
heads is called an equipotential line.
4.5
PROPERTIES OF FLOW NET

i.
In an isotropic flow, the flow lines and equipotential lines intersect at 90o
degrees and the direction of flow is perpendicular to the equipotential line.
136
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
4.6
The intersecting flow lines and equipotential line form an orthogonal net of
squares and is known as a flow field.
The amount of seepage through a flow channel remains constant, i.e. there is no
flow across the flow lines.
The drop in pressure head between two equally spaced equipotential lines is the
same and constant. This drop in pressure head equals a fraction of the total
pressure head difference between the upstream and the down stream.
Smaller the dimensions of the field, greater will be hydraulic gradient.
In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of the curves representing
either flow lines or equipotential lines is smooth.
There exist specific entrance and exit requirements, (boundary conditions)
which should be met.
While entering from a soil of one permeability value into a soil of different
permeability, the flow lines deflect, and the basic deflection rules must be
followed.
TYPES OF FLOW NETS
Flow nets are of many types. The types depend on the configuration and number of soil
zones (i.e., of different permeability) through which seepage is taking place.
The main types are as follows.
4.6.1
CONFINED FLOW (PHREATIC LINE KNOWN)
4.6.1.1 Flow Net for Confined Flow Through Homogeneous Sections

This is a type, where all seepage boundaries are known in advance of the flow net
construction.
For example; seepage under a sheet pile or beneath a concrete weir through a soil layer
of single permeability (Fig:)
By inspection of the cross-section of the (Fig:), the following flow net boundaries are
known.
Line AB :
The maximum equipotential line
Line CD :
The minimum equipotential line
Line BEC:
The shortest or upper most flow line
Line FG :
The longest or the lower most flow line.
137
Fig: 4.2-a Seepage under a dam.
Fig: 4.2-b Seepage under a sheet pile.
138
4.6.1.2 Flow Net for Confined Flow Through Composite Sections

There may be dams and other hydraulic structures founded on strata which contain two
or more layers of different permeability. The foundation strata will be treated as a composite
section.
Line AB:
The maximum equipotential line
Line CD:
The minimum equipotential line
Line BEC:
The shortest or upper most flow line
Line FG:
The longest or the lower most flow line.
Fig: 4.3 A dam founded on two layers of different permeability.
Assume that K2 = 5K1

Since the water is entering from a soil of low permeability into a soil of higher
permeability the square a x b must elongate to form a rectangle c x d due to the following reason.
The discharge through any flow channel is constant.

When water will enter a soil of higher permeability the seepage velocity will
increase.
Less area will be required to accommodate the same amount of flow, and the flow
lines will get closer and the flow net will be rectangular.
139
140
Fig: 4.4 Deflection of flow lines when seepage enters from a soil of lower permeability into a soil of higher
permeability. For clayey silt a x b is a square, for sand c=3d, for gravels c=5d.The dotted lines are drawn to form
squares. For sand, rectangle c x d accommodates 3-squares, while for gravels it accommodates 5-squares.
Therefore the flow lines for composite section will deflect when they the cross the
boundaries between two soils. The practical criterion used in drawing flow nets for composite
c K2
sections is;
=
,
d K1
The water is flowing from a soil of permeability K1 towards a soil of permeability K2,
and c is distance between equipotential lines, while d is gap between flow lines.
4.6.2
UNCONFINED FLOW (PHREATIC LINE NOT KNOWN)
4.6.2.1 Flow Net for Unconfined Flow Through Homogeneous Sections

In the case of confined seepage flow, the top most seepage or phreatic line is known and
to draw the flow net is simpler than for a cross section with an unknown phreatic line (seepage
through homogeneous earth dams).
Fig: 4.5 The upper boundary flow line (phreatic line BC) is not known.
The following flow net lines are known:
Line AB:
Line AC:
Maximum equipotential line (u/s face of the dam).

The lower most flow line (base of the dam)
The exact location of the phreatic line (upper most seepage line) is not known, however
the general condition of the free water surface (phreatic line) is known and is given as under.
At the upper most seepage line, the equipotential lines must intersect the free water
surface at equal vertical intervals. This requirement makes the free water surface to be
located simultaneously while a flownet is being constructed.
141
4.6.2.2 Flow Net for Unconfined Flow Through Composite Sections

A practical example for this is the seepage through a zoned earth dam. In this case the
topmost flow/seepage line will be located as discussed in 2-a., while the flow lines will also
deflect when they cross the boundaries between soil zones of different permeabilities as discussed
in 1-b.
Fig: 4.6 Location of the upper boundary flow line (phreatic line) for composite section.
Zone-1 has squares, while zone-2 show elongated rectangles.
Fig: 4.6 show a composite section that of a zoned earth dam.
The line PQ, indicates the boundary between zone-1 of permeability K1 and zone-2 of
permeability K2 such that K2 = 3K1.
A simple stepwise procedure to draw the flow net is as under.
1.
Locate the reservoir level and tail water level, so that the difference in head is
H.
2.
Draw the known flow net lines.

Line AB is the maximum equipotential line.
Line AC is the lower most flow line.
3.
Divide H into convenient number of equal parts say H. Draw a series of

horizental guide lines (head lines) at internal of H across the downstream part
of the section.
142
4.
Draw trial position of the phreatic line in zone-1, and draw preliminary flow
net. Adjust the shape of the phreatic line, so that the equipotential lines must
interesert the phreatic line at equal vertical intervals H, simultaneously making
a net of squares.
5.
When the flow lines will cross the boundary PQ, they will deflect depending
upon the permeabilities of the two zones. Since the permeability of zone-2 is 3times greater than that of zone-1, the flow lines will deflect so as to reduce the
area of flow channel. (Due to high permeability the seepage velocity will
increase and to carry the same quantity of flow, the channel area of must
reduce).
The flow lines therefore will deflect down wards.
6.
Adjust the shape of phreatic line in zone-2, to meet the condition of equal
vertical intervals, and giving a net of elongated rectangles of length to width
ratio c/d of 3, which is the ratio of permeabilities of the two zones. The dashed
lines in zone-2 divide the elongated rectangles into square. Note that in this case
(K2 = 3K1) each rectangle will accommodate 3-squares.
Alternately, if the flow nets are drawn as squares for zone-2, then the
flow nets for zone-1 will produce shortened rectangles with length to- width
ratio
1
c
of
(Fig:). Note that the length c is along the flow lines and the
d
3
width d is along the equipotential lines.
Fig: 4.7 Flow net for composite sections.

Zone -2 has squares while Zone -1 show shortened rectangles.
143
4.7
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The very important and the foremost step for construction of flow nets is to evaluate the
hydraulic boundary conditions associated with the particular problem.
The basic boundary conditions at entrance, exit and interface between zones of different
permeability, that must be met by flow nets was described by A. Cassagrande, in 1937.
The entrance conditions are shown in Fig., the exit conditions are shown in Fig., and the
conditions at interface between zones of different permeability are shown in Fig.
Fig: 4.8 Entry conditions for the line of seepage. The line AB indicates the entry surface
to the seepage zone and will represent the maximum equipotential line. Rock fill zone is
free draining and offers no resistance to flow i.e., water moves without head loss. (a) &
(b) When the slope of the line AB 900, phreatic line (the top most flow line) is normal to
the line AB. (c) When the slope of line AB < 900, the phreatic line at entry is horizontal
and not normal to the line AB, since water at zero pore pressure can not flow upwards.
.
144
Fig: 4.9 Exit conditions for the line seepage. Line CD represents the
exit surface for the seepage.
Fig: 4.10 Deflection of seepage line at boundary between soils of different

permeability. Line PQ shows the interface between two soils.
145
The flow field through which seepage is taking place is generally confined between the
following common boundaries.
1-
The maximum equipotential line which indicate the entry into the flow field
(line AB in the above figures).
2-
The minimum equipotential line, which will be located at the exit from the flow
field (line CD in the above figures).
3-
The upper most seepage line.
4-
The lower most seepage line
The above boundaries define the flow field within which flow net must be constructed.
These boundary conditions are known when the seepage studies are to be made beneath a sheet
pile wall or through the foundation of a dam or other structure impounding water, as discussed
already in section (3.6.1-a) and shown in Figs. However if the seepage is through the body of an
earth dam, levee, or other embankment, the upper boundary or the upper most seepage line is not
known in advance of the flow net construction as discussed in section (3.6.2-a) and shown in Fig.
In such cases, Cassagrande, 1937 described the following simple rule, to draw the upper most
seepage line.
At the upper most line of seepage, the equipotential lines must intersect the free water
surface at equal vertical intervals as shown in Fig.
The above requirement permits to locate the phreatic line simultaneously while a flow
net is being constructed.
The conditions that must be met, when the seepage water flow through sections of more
than one permeability are very important, and are discussed in detail in the following section.
146
Fig: 4.11 General conditions for the uppermost line of seepage, according to Casagrande, 1937.
4.7.1
FLOW THROUGH SOILS OF VARYING PERMEABILITY
When water flows across a boundary between varying permeability values, the flow lines
bend. The concept behind bending of the flow lines is that, the higher the permeability (higher is
the velocity) the smaller is the area required to pass a given volume of water and vice-versa,
therefore the lines bend accordingly to reduce or increase the flow area.
Alternately the concept of bending can be explained in term of hydraulic gradient. The
hydraulic gradient is steep in low permeability soils and flat in high permeability soils. The
deflection of flow lines when they cross boundaries between different permeability is shown in
(Fig: 4.11).
147
In Fig., K1 is higher than K2, therefore the hydraulic gradient becomes steeper when flow
enter in to K2 soil. The flow lines bend to conform to the following relationship.
tan
K
= 1
tan
K2
(4.7)
It should be noted that the square areas of intersecting flow lines and equipotential lines,
either elongate or shorten, depending upon the ratio of two permeabilities according to the
following relationship.
c K2
=
d K1
(4.8)
Where:
c, is the dimension of the flow net along the flow line, and d, is the dimension of the flow
net along the equipotential line.
K1 is the permeability of the first layer
K2 is the permeability of the 2nd layer
i.e., water flow from K1 soil into K2 soil.
A quite simple explanation of Eq: 4.8 is that, when water flows from a soil of low
permeability into a soil of high permeability (i.e., low resistance to flow and resulting high
velocity) the flow net squares must elongate, to form rectangles as shown in Fig., since less area is
required to accommodate the same quantity of seepage discharge. And the hydraulic gradient will
become flat.
Conversely, if the flow is from higher permeability to lower permeability the squares
will contract to form rectangles as shown in Fig., since the velocity will reduce, gradient will
become steeper and relatively more area will be required to accommodate the same amount of
flow.
148
149
Fig: 4.12 Deflection of flow lines when seepage enters from a soil of higher permeability into a soil of lower
permeability. Flow from sand to clayey silt the square a x b will contract to form a rectangle c x d where c=d/3, while
flow from gravels to clayey silt the square will contract to form rectangle of c=d/5. The dotted lines are drawn to form
squares.
4.8
ANISOTROPIC SOIL CONDITIONS
The Laplaces equation (Eq.3.6) for two dimensional flow is based on the assumption
that permeabilities in x and z directions are equal (i.e. Kx = Kz), this is not commonly true, as most
of the compacted embankments and many natural soil deposits are more or less stratified. They
often have horizontal bedding planes which make horizontal permeability (Kx) much greater than
the vertical (Kz).
From equation 3.5 we know that
Kx
2h
x 2
+ Kz
2h
z 2
=o
To reduce this expression to a Lapaces equation, the coordinate system(x,y,z) is

transformed to that of new coordinates(x-, y-, z-).
Where:
x =
y =
z =
x
Kx
y
Ky
z
Kz
According to the new coordinate system (x-, y-, z-) the Laplaces equation for two
dimensional flow is then written as follows.
2h
2
2h
2
= o
(4.9)
Equation 3.7 gives the Laplaces equation for anisotropic seepage condition. Flow net for
anisotropic soil is drawn on transformed section.
Generally the cross-section of anisotropic soil is drawn to a natural scale in z-direction
but to a transformed scale in x-direction.
Once again from Eq: 3.5 we know that
2h
Kx
+
K
=o
z
x 2
z 2
2h
150
K x 2h 2h
+
=o
K z x 2 z 2
Let
x = x
Kz
Kx
Then the above equation becomes

2h
_
2
2h
z 2
=o
(4.10)
Eqs: 4.8 and 4.9 both represent the Laplaces equation for two dimensional flow through
the transformed sections of anisotropic soils. Eq: 4.8 represents both axes (x and z) being on
transformed scale while Eq. 4.9 represents only x-axis on transformed scale, which is more
common method for construction of flow nets for anisotropic soil.
Under this condition the construction of flow net requires the dimensions of the crosssection to shrink in the direction of higher permeability.
For the construction of flow net for anisotropic soil, the cross-section is drawn to a
reduced horizontal scale, all dimensions parallel to x-axis being reduced by multiplying with the
Kz
factor
as shown in Fig).
Kx
(a)
Fig: 4.13 Adjustment in size for anisotropic soil
(a) Natural section. (b) Transformed section.
151
On the transformed section (Fig) the flow net is drawn in the ordinary manner. After
drawing flow net on the transformed section it is again redrawn on to a natural scale cross section.
The actual flow net on the original section (natural scale, Fig), thus will not have squares but will
be composed of rectangles elongated in the direction of higher permeability. The net will be
composed of rectangles having its length in x-direction increased by multiplying by the
factor
Kx
.
Kz
Seepage discharge can be calculated in the usual manner and using effective
Fig: 4.14-b True section and flow net for an anisotropic soil
Fig: 4.14-a Transformed section and flow net
permeability K of the transformed field.
152
Where:
K =
Hence Q = K
Kh Kv
Nf
Nd
(4.11)
The hydraulic gradient for anisotropic conditions however is determined by flow nets
constructed on sections drawn to the natural scale. Because the true distance over which a given
amount of head loss has occurred can only be measured on a natural section.
Important points worth noting to avoid mistake.
4.9
The section must be transformed before the flow net is constructed.

On the natural cross section the flow net will not give orthogonal squares but will
produce rectangles elongated in the direction of greater permeability.
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOWNET
Flow nets can be constructed by any one of the following methods.
12-
345-
Graphical method.
Electrical analogy method.
a- Electrical analogy tray
b- Conducting paper
Experimental soil models.
Plastic models.
Numerical solution of Laplaces Eq. (Finite difference method)
Out of all the above methods, the graphical method is the most commonly used method,
being the least expensive, quickest and the most convenient. Other methods generally demand
either special knowledge or elaborate equipment or both. They however sometimes may be used
to check the graphical method. Hence for the above said reasons only the graphical method will
be presented in this section.
The following is the very simple step-by-step procedure for the construction of a flow net.
12-
Draw hydraulic structure, the upstream water level, downstream or tail water level (if
any) and the soil strata to a convenient scale.
Identify the hydraulic boundary conditions. For the confined flow this usually means, the
two-limiting/ boundary flow lines and two limiting equipotential lines. These four
boundary lines define the entire flow field within which flow net is to be constructed.
The limiting flow line (upper most flow line/phreatic line) in case of unconfined flow is
not easily known and the technique will be discussed in later sections.
153
345-
6-
Sketch one flow line or one equipotential line adjacent to a boundary flow line or
equipotential line, make sure that they must intersect at right angles.
Expand the net by drawing more flow lines and equipotential lines, always keeping in
mind to develop orthogonal squares.
Have a careful look on the flow net as drawn in the step-4. Even an experienced person
may not be able to get a completely acceptable flow net in the first attempt. Therefore
look for the apparent discrepancies (usually non-square shapes and poor angles of
intersection) and redraw the net by adjusting either flow lines or equipotential lines or
both. Usually two-three trials will provide a perfect or reasonably acceptable flow net.
It is not necessary for the last flow channel to make proper squares and may form
rectangles of the same length to width ratio. In this case this last flow channel may be
counted as a fraction of channel and the number of flow channels would not be a full
integer.
While constructing a flow net the following main points are very helpful.
1234-
Too many flow lines during the first trial may be laborious. Normally four or five flow
lines are sufficient.
While expanding flow net, keep the entire flow field in mind and do not concentrate only
on a part of it.
The curves should be smooth with no abrupt bends except at the interface between
boundaries of dissimilar soils (discussed in section-4.7-a).
The sizes of squares in any flow channel usually are not equal and change gradually
from up stream to down steam.
It is quite fortunate with the method that the accuracy of measurement of hydraulic
qualities (e.g., seepage discharge etc.) does not depend very much on the exactness of the flow
net. A reasonably good estimate of the hydraulic qualities is made even with a rough flow net.
4.9.1
SEEPAGE THROUGH EARTH DAMS
Large earth dams consist of various sections/zones and are known as zoned earth dams.
Each section has a specific function and is composed of different soil types. However, small dams
are commonly made of one homogeneous section consisting of a single soil type and are known
as homogeneous dams. Water stored in dam reservoirs seeps through the dam as well as from
underneath the dam foundation.
The flow net technique is used to find the seepage through dams, the exit gradient and
other related hydraulic quantities. The methods for constructing flow nets has already been
discussed in the preceding sections both for confined and unconfined seepage flow. The seepage
through an earth dam is a case of unconfined flow, which was discussed only briefly in the
preceding section and is explained in detail in this section.
The main problem for an unconfined flow is the location of the top boundary of seepage.
The top flow line is known as the phreatic line which is the free water surface. The pressure at all
154
points on the phreatic line is atmospheric or pressure head is zero and the soil below this line is
saturated. Since the pressure head is zero, the total head is equal to the elevation head and
therefore, the successive equipotential lines must intersect the phreatic line at equal vertical
intervals. Once the phreatic line is located, the flow net is drawn by the usual manner.
Cassagrandes Method
In homogeneous dams, the phreatic line is close to parabolic in shape, except at the
points of entrance and exit, where the basic parabola does not conform to the boundary conditions
of the flow net and needs adjustment. Cassagrande (1940) suggested that the phreatic line be
shaped as a parabola with the necessary corrections at the entrance and exit faces.
4.9.1.1 Homogeneous Dam with Horizontal Drainage Filter

Let us consider a homogeneous earth dam constructed on an imperious foundation with a
horizontal filter at the exit end as shown in the Fig: 4.15. The following boundary conditions are
known.
iiiiiiiva-
The u/s face AB of the dam is boundary (maximum = H) equipotential line.

The surface of the filter drain FK is d/s boundary (minimum = 0) equipotential
line.
The surface of the impervious foundation AF (interface between dam body and
foundation stratum) is the lower flow line.
The phreatic line is then located by the following step by step procedure
according to Cassagrande graphical method.
The major portion of the phreatic line is parabolic, known as Kozeny basic
parabola with its focus at point F, which is the meeting point of the bottom flow
line and the filter.
____
b- The point P is the starting point of basic parabola ( PB
____
= 0.3 CB ) .
Fig: 4.15 Drawing of parabolic phreatic line by Cassagrande graphical method
155
____
c-
With P as center and PF as radius; draw an arc to intersect the water surface
line extended to the d/s side at point G.
____
d- Draw the vertical GL , which is the directrix of the parabola.

e- Bisect the length FL to get K, which is the vertex of the parabola. We now
have the Focus, the vertex, the Directrix and two extreme points P and K of the
parabolic phreatic line. The additional points, as many as required can be
obtained using the basic definition of parabola.
Just for refreshing the memory.

Definition of parabola
The parabola is the locus of all points which are equidistance from a fixed point called
the Focus and a line called the Directrix.
____
f-
____
Draw FM parallel to GL
parabola.
and equal to FL to get another point M on the

____
g- To obtain further points for parabola, say N, draw a line ON

____
parallel to the
____
Directrix GL . Then with focus F as center and the length OL as radius, draw
____
an arc to interest ON at the required point N. ( NF = NQ as per definition of

parabola).
h- More points can be located in the similar manner. Joint points P, N, M &K, by a
smooth curve, which is the required phreatic line.
i- Apply the upper end correction by using free hand sketching and draw a curve
BD such that it meets at point B on the u/s face (which is an equipotential line)
vertically and at point D on the parabola tangentially.
With these steps, the top flow line and thus the boundary line is established. The rest of
the flow net is completed in the usual manner and the hydraulic quantities may be determined as
described previously.
4.9.1.2 Homogeneous Dam without Filter Drain

The dams, which do not have any drainage filter/arrangement on the downstream side,
the phreatic line cuts the downstream slope above the base of the dam as shown below in Fig: P124. This situation is never permitted in earth dams as it causes the failure of the down stream
slope due to sloughing action. The case therefore, needs not to be discussed. Drainage
arrangements are always made on the down stream side of the dam to bring the phreatic line well
below the down stream slope to avoid slope failure due to sloughing.
156
Fig: 4.16 Phreatic line intersecting the down stream slope of the dam without drainage filter.
4.10
APPLICATION OF FLOWNET
A flow net is an important and a very simple tool for the measurement of the following
hydraulic qualities.
1234-
4.10.1
Seepage discharge
Hydrostatic pressure
Seepage pressure
Exit gradient.
MEASUREMENT OF SEEPAGE DISCHARGE
As discussed earlier, a flow net consists of flow lines and equipotential lines. The space
between two flow lines is called a flow channel. The head difference between two consecutive
equipotential lines is called potential drop.
The portion enclosed between two consecutive flow lines and equipotential lines is
known as a flow field. Consider a flow net shown in the figure.
Let:
Nf = No. of flow channels.

Nd = No. of potential drops.
Q = Total amount of seepage discharge
K = Coefficient of permeability
H = Total head causing the flow (diff. bet. u/s & d/s levels).
Consider the flow field abcd.
s = Length of the field in the direction of flow
b = Width of the field
h = Potential drop in length s when water moves from ab to cd =
H
Nd
q = Seepage discharge through one flow channel.

According to Dareys law,
q=KAi
157
A = area of flow = b 1 = b
(Considering unit thickness normal to plan of paper)
h
i=
s
h
q=Kb
s
a
b d
b s
c
b
=1
s
q=K h
H
q=K
Nd
Nf
Total discharge = Q = Nf q = K
H
(4.12)
Nd
This is the required equation for seepage discharge for isotropic soil.
Nf
Note that the ratio
is a characteristic of any particular flow net and depends only on
Nd
the shape of the entire flow field (soil mass through which seepage is taking place). It is known as
the shape factor and is independent of the permeability of the soil.
Since abcd is a square, therefore b = s or
4.10.2
MEASUREMENT OF TOTAL HEAD AND SEEPAGE PRESSURE
The flow nets are also used to find the seepage pressure at any point in a soil mass
through which seepage is taking place.
Let:
Total No. of potential drops in a flow net = Nd

Total head on upstream side = Hu
Total head on downstream side=Hd
Total head causing seepage=Hs=Hu-Hd
Loss of head between two consecutive equipotential lines= Hs/Nd
The total head at any points P = Hp
Hs
H p = Hu n
Nd
(4.13)
158
Where: n is the number of potential drops up to points P.

The seepage pressure at any point P = PS = HP
Hs
) W
Nd
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE HEAD AND PORE PRESSURE
=( Hu n
4.10.3
The pressure head at any point P during the course of seepage is equal to the total head
minus the elevation head. If the down steam water level is taken as datum, then the pressure head
hP is given by.
hP = HP ( - ZP)
hP = HP + ZP
(4.14)
Where:
HP = Total head at point P as measured above in subsection-2.

ZP = elevation head of point P, since point P is below the datum it is indicated
by negative sign.
It is clear from equation 3.14, that the pressure head is equal to the piezometeric head
(hw) at point P.
Therefore the pore pressure or hydrostatic pressure at point P = U P = W h p = W hw
4.10.4
MEASUREMENT OF EXIT GRADIENT
The hydraulic gradient at the exit point where the percolating water comes out of the soil
mass at the down stream end is known as the exit gradient. The measurement of exit gradient is
very important to check the stability of any hydraulic structure. If the value of the exit gradient is
more than the critical value, piping failure may occur.
The exit gradient is calculated using the flow net by the following simple expression.
ie =
Where:
h = Value of potential drop = Hs/Nd

= Average length of the last flow field of the flow net, measured according to
the same scale on which the cross-section is drawn.
159
4.11
EXAMPLES
Example-4.1:
A concrete dam is constructed to create a reservoir. The upstream water level is

20m and the tail water level is 1.0 m. The dam base resting on a permeable
stratum is 60m long. The co-efficient of permeability of the stratum is 1.27
10-3m/hour. An impervious stratum lies at a depth of 35m below the ground
surface. Draw a flow net and compute.
aSeepage discharge
bThe up lift pressure acting at the base of dam.
cThe exit gradient.
Solution:
Given data
Upstream water level = HU = 20m
Down stream water level = Hd = 1.0m
Total Head causing seepage = HS = HU-Hd = 19m
Thickness of stratum = 35m
Coefficient of permeability = K = 1.27 10-3m/hr.
Required
Given in the statement as a, b and c.
Draw the Dam, the stratum, the u/s and d/s water levels, according to scale.
Draw the flow net
From the flow net,
Number of flow channels, Nf = 4
Number of potential drops, Nd = 10
a-
Seepage discharge
Nf
=Q=
K HS
Nd
Fig: 4.17 Flow nets construction for example 4.1.
160
4
1.27 10 3 19
10
= 9.65 10-3 m3/hour
= 0.231 m3/day
=
b-
Up lift pressure
Considering the ground surface of as datum
Total head on u/s face = HU = 20m
Total head on d/s face = Hd = 1.0m
Total head causing seepage = HS = HU-Hd = 19m
No. of potential drops up to point A= n = 0.5
Total head at point A = HA = H U n
HS
Nd
= 20 0.5
19
= 19.05m
10
Pressure head at point A = HA ZA = 19.05 0

= 19.05m
No. of potential drops up to point B=n = 9.5
Total head at point B = HB = HU- n
HS
Nd
= 20 9.5
19
= 1.95
10
Pressure head at point B = HB - ZB = 1.95 0 = 1.95 m

Average pressure head at the base of dam =
Up lift pressure = 10.5 x
19.05 + 1.95
= 10.5m
2
= 10.5 9.81
= 103.0 KN/m2
Up lift force = 103 60 1 = 6180 KN per meter length of Dam.

To check stability of dam against uplift forces, the weight of the dam should be more
than the up lift forces with a reasonable factor of safety.
161
c-
Exit Gradient
h between two equipotential lines =
H S 19
=
= 1.9m
N d 10
Average length of the last flow field close to exit point B measured
according to scale = 4m
ie = h = 14.9 =
0.475
Important Note:
Point A is the upstream corner of the dam base. If point A is considered on left face of
the corner as shown,

then total head at point A is equal to the head of the
first/boundary equipotential line. The total head therefore, is equal to the u/s water depth,.(i.e. HU
= 20, for this example).
If A, is considered at the bottom of the corner, as shown
A is as given below
H
HA = HU n S
Nd
. Then the total head at point
19
= 19.05m
10
As shown by the dotted equipotential line for this example, n = 0.5
= 20 0.5
As uplift pressure is required, therefore point A should be considered at bottom, and not on
the left face of the corner.
Similarly with u/s sheet pile, the point A will be considered on the d/s side of the sheet
pile, to calculate uplift pressure under the Dam base at point A
Example-4.2:
For the concrete dam of Ex-3.1, all other data remains the same, except that the
dam base is 5.6m below the ground surface. Draw the flow net and compute
aSeepage discharge
bThe uplift pressure and force acting at base of dam.
cThe exit gradient.
Solution:
Given data
Upstream water level = HU = 20m.
Downstream water level = Hd = 1.0m
Total head causing the flow = HS = HU Hd = 19.0m
162
Thickness of stratum = 35m

Ground level being the reference datumn
Level of base of dam = Z = -5.6m
Co-efficient of permeability = K = 1.27 10-3m/hr.
Required
Given in the statement as a, b and c.
Draw the flow net.
From the flow net

Number of flow channels = Nf = 4
Number of potential drops = Nd = 12
a-
Seepage discharge
Q=
Nf
Nd
K HS
4
1.27 10 3 19
12
= 4.3 10-3m3/hr.
= 0.193m3/day
b-
Uplift pressure
Total head on u/s face = HU = 20m
Total head on d/s face = Hd = 1.0m
Total head causing seepage = HS = HUHd =19.0m
No. of potential drops up to the bottom point A of dam base = n = 1.5
163
Total head at point A = HA = HU n
HS
Nd
19
= 17.625m
12
Elevation head of point A = ZA = -5.6m
Pressure head at point A = HA - ZA
= 17.625 (- 5.6) = 23.225m
No. of potential drops up to point B = n = 10.5
H
Total head at point B = HB = HU n S
Nd
= 20 1.5
= 20 10.5
19
= 3.375m
12
Elevation head of point B = ZB = - 5.6m

Pressure head at point B = HB - ZB
= 3.375 (- 5.6) =8.975m
Average pressure head at the dam base
=
23.225 + 8.975
2
= 16.1m
Uplift pressure = 16.1 W = 16.1 9.81 = 157.94KN/m2

Uplift force = 157.94 Length of dam unit thickness normal to the plane of
paper.
= 157.94 60 1 = 9476.46 KN/m length of dam.
c-
Exit gradient
H S 19
=
= 1.583m
Nd
12
Average length of the last flow field close to exit point indicated by red line,
measured according to scale = 6.4m
ie =
Example-4.3:
1.583
= 0.247
6.4
A concrete dam similar to example 4.1 is constructed except with a sheet pile at
u/s and penetrating the permeable stratum to a depth of 15.0m, below the base
of the dam.
Draw flow net and compute
a- Seepage discharge
164
b- The uplift pressure acting at the dams base

c- The exit gradient.
Solution:
Given data
Same as for example 3.1
Depth of sheet pile = 15m
Required
Given in the statement above as a,b and c.
Draw the flow net

From the flow net
a-
Seepage discharge = Q =
Nf
Nd
KH S
4
1.27 10 3 19
13
= 0.178 m3/day
b-
Uplift Pressure
Total head on the u/s side = HU = 20.0 m
Total head on the d/s side = Hd = 1.0 m
Total head causing seepage = HS= HU Hd = 19.0 m
165
No. of potential drops upto point A at dam base =n= 5.5

H
Total head at point A = HA = HU n S
Nd
= 20 5.5
19
= 11.96 m
13
Elevation head of point A = ZA = 0

Pressure head at point A = HA - ZA = 11.96 0 = 11.96m
No. of potential drops up o point B = n = 12.5
Total head at point B = HB = HU - n
HS
Nd
= 20 12.5
19
= 1.73 m
13
Elevation head of point B = ZB = 0

= 1.73 m
Average pressure head at the dam base = 11.96 1.73
2
= 6.845 m
Uplift pressure = 6.845 W = 6.845 9.81
= 67.15 KN/m2
Uplift force = 67.15 60 1 = 4029 KN per meter length of dam.
c-
Exit gradient
H S 19
=
= 1.461
N d 13
Average length of the last flow field close to exit point B, measured
according to scale = 4.8m
h 1.461
=
= 0.304
e =
4.8
Example4.4:
A concrete dam stores 20 m of water. The tail water level is zero. The dam base
is 90 m long. The depth of permeable layer below the bore of dam is 35m.
The permeability of the layer in horizontal direction is
4 10-3 m/hr and in vertical direction is 1 10-3 m/hr
ab-
Draw flow net and compute

Seepage discharge
The up lift pressure acting at the base of dam
166
Fig: 4.19-b. True section and flow net for an anisotropic soil
Solution:
Fig: 4.19-a Transformed section and flow net
cThe exit gradient.
Given data
Upstream water level = hU = 20m
Down stream water level = Hd = 0
167
Total head causing seepage = HS = HU-Hd = 40m

Horizontal permeability = Kh = 4 10-3 m/hr
Vertical permeability = KV = 1 10-3 m/hr
Thickness of stratum = 35 m
Required
Given in the statement as a, b and c
Determine the factor for transformed
Scale = =
KV
=
Kh
1 10 -3
3
1 1`
=
4 2
4 10
Draw the section on transformed scale i.e., vertical dimension being the same
while horizontal dimension to be reduced to 1/2 .
Draw the flow net on the transformed section.
Fig: P-137-1.indicates the transformed section with square flow nets.
Fig: P-137-2.indicate actual section with elongated flow nets.
No. of flow channel = Nf
No. of potential drops = Nd
a-
Seepage discharge = Q =
Nf
Nd
HS K
Nf
Nd
HS
K h KV
4
40 4 10 3 1 10 3
10
= 3.2 10-2 m3/hr
= 0.768 m3/day
=
b-
Uplift pressure
Total head on u/s side = HU = 40m
Total head on d/s side = Hd = 0
Total head causing seepage = HS = HU Hd = 40m
No. of potential drops up to A (bottom point of dam on u/s side), on the
transformed section= n= 0.5
H
Total head at point A = HA = HU n S
Nd
= 40 0.5
40
= 38m
10
168
Elevation head at point A = ZA = 0 (since dam base is taken as datum)

Pressure head at point A = HA - ZA
= 38 0 = 38.0 m.
No. of potential drops up to B (bottom point of dam on d/s side) on the
transformed section = n = 9.5
H
Total head at point B = HB = HU n S
Nd
= 40 9.5
40
= 2.0 m
10

= 2.0 0.0 = 2.0 m
38 + 2
Average pressure head at base of dam
= 20m
2
Uplift pressure = 20.0 W
= 20.0 9.81 = 196.2 KN/m2
Uplift force = 196.2 90 1 = 17658 KN per meter length of dam.
Where, 90m is base length of dam.
1.0m is unit length normal to the plane of paper.
c-
Exit gradient
h (potential drop) between two equipotential lines =
H s 40
=
= 4.0m
N d 10
Average length of the last flow field (i.e. close to exit end B) measured
according to scale on the actual section = 4m.
h 4.0
=
= 1.0
ie =
4.0
Example-4.5:
Solution:
For the dam shown in Fig: 4.20

Determine the quantity of seepage per meter length of dam.
Given data
The dimensions of the dam cross-section are shown in the Fig.
Up stream water depth = 38m.
Down stream/tail water depth = 0.0m.
Co-efficient of permeability = K = 3.5 10-4 cm/sec.
Required
Seepage quantity = Q
Draw the cross-section of dam according to scale, show u/s & d/s water levels
and the filter drain.
169
Fig: 4.20 Flow net construction for example 4.5

Draw the phreatic line by trial method, such that, the equipotential lines
intersect the phreatic line at equal vertical interval. Few trials will locate the
phreatic line. Entrance and exit conditions should be met.
Once the phreatic line is properly located, draw other flow lines and
equipotential to complete the flow nets.
From the flow net of Fig: 4.20
Total head causing seepage = HS = HU-Hd
= 38-0.0 = 38.0m
= 3800 cm
Nf
Q = KHS
Nd
2
= 3.5 10-4 3800
6
= 0.4433 cc/sec
= 15.96 m3/hr
Alternate method
Draw the phreatic line, using geometrical techniques to get the standard
parabola, and by applying the entrance and exit conditions by free hand.
170
Fig: 4.21 Flow net construction for example 4.5 (alternate method).
Points P, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 are the points of standard parabola using geometrical
techniques as discussed in section 4.9-a. Join the point to get the required
parabola. After applying the entrance and exit boundary conditions, the phreatic
line is established, then draw other flow lines and equipotential lines to
complete the flow net.
The flow net is shown in Fig.
Comparing the flow nets drawn by trial method (equal vertical interval) shown
in Fig., and by standard parabola method shown in Fig., the flow nets are
exactly similar,
Hence
Q = 15.96 m3/hr
Example-4.6:
For the zoned dam shown in the Fig: 4.22. The dimensions of the dam and the
permeability values of the zones are given in the Fig. Draw the flow net and
find the seepage discharge.
Solution:
Given data
Data shown in the Fig: 4.22.
Required
Seepage discharge
Draw the flow net as discussed in see 4.6-a. The following procedural steps are
however given to ease the students.
1- Draw the dam cross-section according to scale. Locate reservoir level and
tail water levels. Find the difference of head H between reservoir and tail
171
water level, and divide H into convenient number of equal parts H on the
d/s side.
2- Draw a trial position of the phreatic line in both zones and draw a
preliminary flow net making squares in zone-1 and rectangles in zone-2.
The rectangles in zone-2 must satisfy the under mentioned basic
requirement.
C K2
=
d
K1
c = Dimension of flow field along flow line
d = Dimension/with of flow field along equipotential line.
K1 = Coefficient of permeability of zone -1
K2 = Coefficient of permeability of zone-2 (water moving from zone-1 to zone2)
For this example K2 = 3K1
C
= 3 (Rectangle with length = three time the width).
Therefore
d
3- Repeat the trials till a reasonably well-drawn flow net meeting the
conditions of equal head drop H and the required size of rectangle in
zone-2 is completed.
4- The 2nd fundamental requirement to be kept in mind for seepage studies
using flow net is as under
n f1
K
= 2
n f2
K1
n f1 = number of flow channels in zone-1 (count actual No. of flow channel in

the flow net with square flow fields)
n f 2 = number of flow channels in zone-2.
(calculate by the above relationship).
for the example 4.6
n f2 =
n f1
K2
K1
2 K1 2
=
3K 1
3
5- Compute the seepage discharge using either K1
or K2, as under
nf
Q = K1 H 1
nd
172
Fig: 4.22 Flow net construction for zoned dam of example 4.6.
Permeability of zone 1=K1=1.25x10-2m/hr
Permeability of zone 2=K2=3.75x10-2m/hr=3K1
nd = No. of potential drops for both zones = 5 (count nd within solid lines,
the dashed lines are drawn to bring out details/divide the elongated
rectangles into squares for visual check of flow net accuracy)
or
nf
Q = K2 H 2
nd
From the flow net of Fig., using K1
K1 = 1.25 10-2m/hr
H = 55m
n f1 = 2
nd = 5
2
= 0.275m 3 / hr
5
Using, K2=3.75 x 10-2m/h
From the flow net of Fig: 4.23.
n f1 = 2
Q = 1.25 10-2 55
nd = 15
173
Q = 3.75 10-2 55
2
= 0.275m 3 / hr
15
Fig: 4.23 Flow net construction for zoned dam of example 4.6 using square flow fields for
zone-2 and shortened rectangles for zone-1.
4.12
PROBLEMS
Problem: 4.1:
Draw a flow net for seepage under a vertical sheet pile wall penetrating 6m into
a uniform stratum of fine sand 15m thick. The water level on the up stream and
down stream sides is 10m and 2m respectively. The sand deposit is overlying on
impervious rock stratum. Calculate the amount of seepage per meter length of
wall. The coefficient of permeability of sand is 5 10-2 cm/sec.
Problem: 4.2:
A concrete dam stores water of 30m depth, and has a tail water level of 2.0m.
The dam is constructed on a permeable stratum (K = 2 10-3 cm/sec) and has a
base length of 70m. The dam is trapezoidal in shape and has a free board of
2.5m (assume missing dimensions for dam). The thickness of permeable
stratum is 30m and is overlying an impervious rock stratum.
Draw the flow net, and compute
a- The seepage discharge.
b- The uplift pressure acting at the base of dam.
174
Problem: 4.3:
All the data of the problem 4.2, except the dam now has a sheet pile at upstream
and penetrating to a depth of 6m below the dam base compute.
a- The seepage discharge under the dam.
b- The uplift pressure.
Problem: 4.4:
For the earth dam shown in the Fig., determine the quantity of seepage through
the dam, using flow net method.
Problem: 4.5:
For the earth dam shown in the Fig., determine the amount of seepage through
the dam using flow net technique.
Fig: Problem. 4.4
K2 = 4 x 10-4 cm/sec
Fig: Problem. 4.5
175
CHAPTER-V
5.1
PIPING CONTROL AND FILTER DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
Water for existence of life on the earth, occurs in many forms, e.g., vapors in the
atmosphere, surface water and subsurface water etc. The surface water which is derived from
precipitation (rain fall, snowfall, etc.) flows under the influence of gravity and ultimately forms
streams, rivers and lakes. A large amount of this surface water percolates down into the soil and
rocks through pores and fissures and is known as subsurface or groundwater. Since the soil pores
are interconnected, the groundwater moves from zones of higher pressure towards zones of lower
pressure. The level at which the pore water pressure is equal to that of the atmospheric pressure is
known as the groundwater table or phreatic surface or free water surface. The groundwater below
this level is known as gravitational water which flow under the influence of gravity. Water
bearing strata, if confined between relatively impermeable layers above and below, are known as
confined aquifer and the pressure is generally above atmospheric pressure (Not discussed in this
chapter).
River beds are permeable. When water flows in the rivers, sufficient amounts of water
percolates down into the bed material and is termed as groundwater. Depending upon the relative
values of heads of surface water and groundwater, the surface water seep down and join
groundwater or the groundwater may flow upwards to again join the surface water. The location
where the groundwater emerges to ground surface is commonly known as exit point and the
hydraulic gradient is known as exit gradient.
The construction of hydraulic structures, e.g., weirs and dams etc., create difference
between upstream and downstream water levels. Due to this head difference water seeps down
into the bed material (soil) at a much higher rate compared with normal river flows from the
upstream side of the hydraulic structure. On the downstream side, the level of surface/tail water,
in case of weir/dam is much lower, therefore the groundwater moves up towards the ground
surface. Depending upon the hydraulic gradient causing the flow, the seepage pressure at the exit
point commonly known as exit gradient may be higher or lower. If the exit gradient exceeds the
critical hydraulic gradient, the soil particles will be eroded away by upward flowing water,
leading to the formation of a pipe shaped channel (Fig 5.1). To prevent erosion of soil particles,
protective filters are used to allow safe exit of water.
176
Fig: 5.1 Back ward erosion piping through the dam foundation.
5.2
PIPING FAILURE
Piping failure generally occurs in hydraulic structures. Dams and weirs are the most
common hydraulic structures, which may fail due to piping, if the piping is not considered during
design. Dams and weirs are always built on river beds consisting of pervious material. The failure
caused by the formation of a pipe shaped channel through the pervious foundation material is
known as piping failure. The failure is initiated by the erosion of soil particles at the exit point,
when the water moving through the foundation has a high hydraulic gradient. There are two
modes of development of piping.
ab-
Backward-erosion piping.
Heave-piping
5.2.1 BACKWARD-EROSION PIPING

This type of piping begins when the exit gradient exceeds the critical hydraulic gradient.
The surface soil at some critical exit points becomes quick and is washed away by the water
percolating through the foundation of dam or weir. The erosion usually starts near the down
stream toe of dams, where the flow nets are smaller in size indicating concentration of flow lines.
As the particles are continuously eroded away with the flow, a cavity is developed. With the
initiation of cavity, the flow net gets modified. The flow lines deflect towards the cavity, which
causes further concentration of flow lines. This results in further removal of soil and the rate of
erosion gradually increases. The cavity gradually extends towards the upstream side and takes the
form of a pipe. The phenomenon of developing a pipe by this process of erosion is known as
backward piping. As the pipe grow in length in the backward direction (i.e., towards the u/s side),
the hydraulic gradient rapidly increases (due to decrease in length of seepage path) which speeds
up the erosion process and ultimate failure of the hydraulic structure occurs. As soon as the
177
channel approaches the reservoir, a large amount of water rushes through the channel formed by
piping action and the hydraulic structure fails.
Fig: 5.2 Backward erosion piping through the body of dam

Backward erosion piping may also occur in the body an earth dam. This happens when
the dam has no properly designed down stream drainage system (i.e. Toe filter) and the phreatic
line cuts the downstream slope of the dam. This is indicated by a progressive sloughing and
movement of the down stream slope (Fig). Particles are gradually carried away with the seepage
water and the process of backward erosion continues towards the upstream and a pipe in formed
in the body of the dam. It is worth while to mention that the failure due to piping action through
the body of dams can occur even if the exit gradient is low, since the water emerging and moving
down the slope can easily erode away the soil particles.
Backward erosion piping may also occur in the situations as given below.
abc-
Along any weak bedding plane in the foundation of hydraulic structures

Along the periphery of any conduit embedded in the earth dam.
Along any weak bedding plane in the body of an earth dam. The bedding planes are
formed since the dam is constructed and raised in layers.
5.2.2
HEAVE-PIPING
Failure by heave piping occurs at the down stream side of a hydraulic structure, when the
uplift forces of seepage exceed the downward forces due to submerged weight of the soil. Due to
high upward forces of seepage water, a large mass of soil rises or heaves up and is suddenly
blown out by the percolating water leaving a hole or pipe in the soil mass. This type of failure is
known as heave piping failure.
The most critical situation that may cause heave piping is the case of seepage under a
sheet pile or cut off wall at the downstream end of hydraulic structures. When seepage water
approaches the sheet pile the flow lines get concentrated and the flow fields of the flow net
become smaller in size. This results in increase of hydraulic gradient.
Hydraulic gradient at any point along a seepage path is equal to h/ . h is the potential
drop between any two consecutive equipotential lines and remains constant through out the
178
seepage path. For the small flow fields of a flow net,

increases.
is reduced and hence hydraulic gradient
When water flows past the sheet pile (the sheet pile at the D/s end) it moves upwards
towards the ground surface. Due to increase in hydraulic gradient, upward seepage force becomes
higher. This upward seepage force causes the entire soil mass, close to the down stream end of
sheet pile to heave up, when the submerged weight of the soil above the bottom end of the sheet
pile is smaller than the seepage force. The possibility of heaving up of the ground is higher if the
depth D of sheet pile from the downstream ground surface is smaller (Fig 4.3). When the depth
D, is smaller the submerged weight is smaller. To control heave piping, either, the hydraulic
gradient and the resulting seepage force is reduced or the weight is increased.
Fig: 5.3. Heave piping on d/s of a sheet pile.
5.3
FACTOR OF SAFETY AGAINST HEAVE PIPING
According to Terzaghi, heave piping commonly occurs within a distance D/2 on the
down stream of sheet pile, where D is depth of sheet pile from the D/S ground surface.
Consider a sheet pile shown in the Fig 4.3. The submerged weight of the soil prism
ABCD, adjacent to the downstream face of the sheet pile will be
W = sub vol. of prism
179
W = ( sat w ) D
D
1
2
(5.1)
(where,1 is the unit thickness normal to the plane of paper)

Let the average value of seepage pressure is s .
Then upward force at the bottom of prism =
D
1
2
(5.2)
The distribution of seepage pressure on the base BC of the prism is obtained from the
flow net (as discussed in section 3.10 and illustrated in example-3.4).
Since the piping occurs when the upwards seepage force is higher than the effective
downwards weight W, the factor of safety against piping is given by:
F .O.S . =
Effective weight
W
=
upwards seepage force D
s
2
( sat w ) D
=
D
2
D
2 = ( sat w ) D
(5.3)
Equation 5.3 indicates that factor of safety against piping increases as depth of pile
increases.
5.4
PREVENTION OF PIPING
Piping is a common cause of failure of earth dams, overflow weirs and other hydraulic
structures. Many hydraulic structures produce large hydraulic gradients that are conducive to
piping. The occurrence of piping through the body or foundation of earth dams is disastrous and
may cause catastrophe.
To prevent piping or to increase the factor of safety against piping, the following basic
measures are generally adopted.
a.
b.
c.
Reduction of seepage
Decrease of Exit gradient.
Safe disposal of seepage water.
Any one or a combination of the above techniques may be adopted for safety against
piping failure.
180
5.4.1
REDUCTION OF SEEPAGE
Seepage qualities can be reduced by the following methods.
i-
Seepage through the foundation may be reduced by any one or combination of the
following.
ii-
Cutoff walls/trenches
Sheet piles
Grout curtains
Upstream impervious blanket
Seepage through the body of dam can be reduced by embankment zoning. Impervious
core wall (Fig: 4.4) is commonly used in earth dams to reduce the amount seepage.
Fig: 5.4. Zoned dam with impervious core wall to reduce seepage
5.4.2
DECREASE OF EXIT GRADIENT
The exit hydraulic gradient depends on the length of seepage path. If the length of
seepage path is increased, the exit gradient can be reduced to value below the critical hydraulic
gradient. The length of seepage path can be increased by the following methods.
iiiiii
iv-
Widening the base of hydraulic structure.

Providing cutoff walls/trenches.
Driving a row of sheet piles, preferably at or near the upstream face (Fig 5.5).
Providing an upstream impervious blanket (Fig 5.5).
181
Fig: 5.5. Increasing length of seepage path to reduce exit gradient
5.4.3
SAFE DISPOSAL OF SEEPAGE WATER
The arrangement for safe disposal of seepage water which has reached the downstream
end is required to avoid piping failure. Safe disposal means the escape of seepage water without
movement of soil particles along with water. The following techniques are commonly used.
iiiiiiivv-
Down stream drainage blankets (Fig: 5.6.)

Toe drains (Fig: 5.6)
Chimney drains (Fig: 5.6)
Relief wells
Protective filters.
The first three methods are used for safe disposal of seepage water through the body of
dams, while the last two are used for safe disposal of seepage water through the foundation of
dams.
Fig: 5.6. Showing different components of an earth dam
182
5.5
PROTECTIVE FILTERS
The process by which seepage water or groundwater is removed from soils by natural or
artificial means is called drainage. A layer of pervious material which provides drainage without
movement of soil particles is known as a filter. Most of the soils and also some soft/weathered
rocks commonly present drainage problems, as unprotected surface of these materials are eroded
away by the forces of escaping water. The rate of erosion however depends on the type of soil and
the value of exit hydraulic gradient. The drainage surfaces of erodible soils therefore require to be
covered with special protective layers, which allow the water to escape safely while holding the
particles firmly in place.
For small amounts of seepage water, a single layer of well graded, moderately permeable
material may allow safe drainage. But for the removal of large seepage quantities for important
hydraulic structures properly designed filters are required.
5.6
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PROTECTIVE FILTERS
When seepage water flows from a mass of relatively fine soil into a coarse material (e.g.,
filter), there is a possibility of fine soil particles to migrate in to the coarser material. If the
migration of particles is allowed, it can lead to clogging of filters and drains, and in extreme
cases, to piping failure. A filter therefore should consist of any porous material whose openings
are small enough to prevent movement of soil particles and at the same time be sufficiently
pervious to permit seepage to escape freely without build up of large hydrostatic pressure and
seepage forces. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has developed design criteria for protective
filters which must meet the following four requirements.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The filter material should be more pervious than the base material so as to avoid the
build up of any hydrostatic pressure to disrupt the filter and adjacent structures.
The voids of the in-place filter material must be small enough to prevent base material
particles from entering the filter and causing clogging and failure of the protective filter
system.
The layer of the protective filter must be sufficiently thick to provide a good distribution
of all particle sizes through the filter and also to provide adequate insulation for the base
material where frost action is involved.
Filter material particles must be prevented from movement into drainage pipes by
providing sufficiently small slot openings or perforations, or an additional coarser filter
zone if necessary.
The soil to be protected by the filter is called base material.
5.7
TYPES OF FILTERS
ab-
The following two types of filters are mostly used to prevent piping.
Graded filters (Fig: 5.7-a.)
Loaded filters (Fig: 5.7-b.)
183
Upward flow
Fig: 5.7-a. Graded filter
Upward flow
Fig: 5.7-b. Loaded filter
184
5.7.1
GRADED FILTERS
A filter that consists of multiple layers of pervious material which permit the flow of
water but prevent the movement of soil particles is known as graded filter. The number of the
layers depends on the size (gradation) of the base material and the openings of the perforated
drainage pipes. Finer the base material greater will be the number of layers. The particle size in
any layer should be coarser than that in the preceding layer. However, the difference of sizes of
particles in the two consecutive layers should not be excessive otherwise the particles of the
preceding layer will move into the next layer. The particle sizes of different layers of the filter are
fixed according to the design criteria as discussed in section-4.6. According to the design criteria,
the following requirements are to be satisfied.
1-
The filter material should be pervious enough such that the seepage water escapes freely
without any build up of hydrostatic pressure in the base material or in any layer of the
filter.
Since the filter has to provide free drainage, it should be much more previous than the
base material. Experiments have shown that free drainage is achieved if the coefficient of
permeability of the filter material is 25 times or more than the coefficient of permeability of the
soil to be protected i.e., base material. Since the coefficient of permeability varies as square of the
particle size, the effective diameter of the filter material should be 5 times or more than that of the
base material. Therefore the first criterion for the design of filters is
D15 ( filter )
5
D15 (base)
2-
(5.4)
The openings of the filter should be small enough i.e., the filter material should be fine
enough such that the particles of the base material are not washed through the filter.
Experimental investigations have shown that it is not necessary for a filter to screen out
all the particles of the base material. Rather the filter opening need to restrain only the coarsest 15
percent i.e., D85 size of the base material. These 15% coarser particles (i.e., D85 and larger) of the
base material will collect over the filter opening as shown in the Fig: 4.8.
Fig: 5.8-a Large grain of base material screen small grains at filter opening
185
Their voids will form smaller openings to trap even smaller particles (i.e. remaining 85
percent) of the base material. Therefore the diameter of the openings of the filter must be less than
D85 of the base material. Since the effective pore diameter is approximately one fifth of D15,
therefore the second criterion for filter design is
D15 ( filter )
5
D85 (base)
(5.5)
The above two criteria can be combined together as under

D15 ( f )
D (f)
5 15
D85 (b)
D15 (b)
(5.6)
The U.S. corps of engineers also recommends that the ratio of the D50 filter and base
material should be as follows.
D50 ( filter )
25
D50 (base)
(5.7)
For the graded filter, each layer is designed considering it as a filter and the preceding
layer as a base material. The particle size in a layer increases in the direction of flow (Fig: a & b).
If the seepage water is to be collected and disposed away by the perforated drainage
pipes, then the material of the last layer should be coarse enough not be washed away through the
openings of the pipe. According to U.S. Bureau of Reclamation the following criterion should be
met to avoid movement of filter material into the drain pipes.
D85 ( filter )
2
Dia of perforatio n
(5.8)
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers uses the following criteria for gradation of filter
materials in relation to slots and holes:
For slots
85 % size of filter material
slot width
> 1 .2
(5.9)
For circular holes

85 % size of filter material
> 1 .0
hole diameter
(5.10)
186
For an efficient filter material in addition to the above design criteria the following
grading characteristics must also be satisfied.
1- The grain size curve of the filter material should be roughly parallel to that of the base
material.
2- To avoid segregating, filter should not contain the particles of size larger than 80mm.
3- The filter material should not contain more than 5 percent of fines passing 75 m sieve.
4- The thickness and area of the filter should be sufficient to safely allow the seepage
discharge.
5.7.2
LOADED FILTERS
Filters that are covered with surcharge weight to prevent uplifting by seepage forces are
called loaded filters (Fig: b).
Fig: 5.8-b Large grain of base material screen small grains at filter opening
5.8
EXAMPLES
Example-5.1:
A layer of stiff clay ( set = 19.5 KN / m3 ) 10m thick is underlain by sand. The
sand is under an artesian pressure of 7m (i.e., water rise to a height of 7m above
the sand layer if a bore is made in clay). Determine the maximum depth of
excavation that can be made in clay without causing heave.
Solution:
Given data
Density of clay = sat = 19.5 KN / m3
Thickness of clay = 10m
Pressure head at the bottom of clay = Artesian pressure in
sand layer = Hw
= 7m
187
Density of water = w = 9.81KN / m 3

Required
Depth of excavation in clay with out leave = H.
The figure given below shows the soil conditions.
Fig: 5.9 Example 5.1
Heave will occur when the downward pressure due to weight of remaining clay
layer (after excavation) is equal to the uplift pressure due to Artesian pressure, or in
other wards the effective stress at level x-x becomes equal to zero.
Down ward pressure or total stress at level x-x= = sat h = 19.5 (10-H)
= 195 19.5H KN/m2
Uplift pressure or pore water at level x-x = = w H w
= 9.81 7
= 08.67 KN/m2
Effective stress = = - = 0
= 195-19.5H 68.67 = 0
H = 6.478m.
Example 5.2:
A 10m thick layer of clay ( sat = 18.5 KN / m 3 ) overlies an alluvium. The

alluvium is under an artesian pressure of 12m. An excavation 1.5m deep is to be
made to place a foundation for a structural column. Determine the factor of
safety against heave when the excavation is made.
188
If column footing induces a pressure of 100 KN/m2, determine the factor of

safety when the column load is fully applied.
Solution:
Given data
Fig., shows the soil condition and the design parameters are given in the figure.
Required
aFactor of safety against heaving after completion of excavation
bFactor of safety against heaving after construction of column.
a-
Factor of safety after excavation
F=
Downward pressure at the top of gravel layer

upwards pressure at the top of gravel layer
F=
sat D 18.5 (10 1.5)

=
= 1.33
w Hw
9.81 12
b-
F.O.S. after construction
The downward pressure is increased due to the applied pressure of the column
footing.
189
F=
sat D + Applied pressure

w Hw
18.5 8.5 + 100

9.81 12
F = 2.18
Example 5.3
Determine the factor of safety against heave for the coffer dam shown in the
Fig: 5.11.
sat =18 5 KN/ m3

Solution:
Given data
Density of soil = sat = 18.5 KN / m 3
Other data in the Fig: 5.11.
Required
Factor of safety against heave piping
Datum
190
Draw the flow nets to find the average uplift pressure at the base of soil prism ABCD
Total head on u/s side = Hu = 9+6=15m
Total head on d/s side = Hd = 0
Total head causing seepage = Hs = Hu Hd =15m
No. of potential drops up to point B = n =3.5
Total head at point B = HB = Hu - n
Hs
=
Nd
15 3.5
15
= 8.437
8
Elevation head of point B = ZB = -7m

Pressure head at point B = HB ZB =8.437-(-7) =15.437m
No. of potential drops up to point, C = n = 6.2
Total head at point, C = He = Hu - n
Hs
= 15-6.2
Nd
15
= 3.375
8
Pressure head at point, C = He Zc = 3.375-(-7) =10.375m

Average pressure at the base of soil prism
=
=
14.437 + 10.375
2
12.406m
Seepage/Uplift pressure = w 12.406=121.70KN/m2

Downward pressure at the base of soil prism due to its own weight = sub depth
=(18.5-9.81)(7)=60.83 KN/m2
F.O.S=
60.83
= 0.499
121.70
Example 5.4:
For the soil (base material) shown by the gradation curve in Fig: 5.12 design the
filter material.
Solution:
Given data
The gradation curve of the base material as shown in Fig: 5.12. From the figure
we get,
D15 (b) = 0.01mm
D85 (b) = 0.16mm
191
192
Fig: 5.12 Filter design
Required
Design of filter (Gradation curves of filter material)
From the equation: 5.4

D15(f)>5D15(b)
D15(f)>5x0.01>0.05mm
From the equation:5.5
D15(f)<5 D85 (b)
D15(f)<5x0.16<0.80mm
Therefore D15 of filter material ranges from 0.05mm to 0.80mm
The filter design criteria require that the gradation curve of filter material should be
roughly parallel to that of the base material. The shaded area on the gradation chart
indicates the range of filter material.
5.9
PROBLEMS
Problem: 5.1:
For the sheet pile shown in the figure below, the flow net is drawn, determine
the factor of safety against heave piping. If an excavation is made on the down
stream side, find the depth of excavation for which the F.O.S. is just equal to
one. Take sat = 19.5 kN/m3.
Fig: 5.13 Problem 5.1
Problem: 5.2:
A coffer dam is shown in the Fig. An excavation is made within the coffer dam
and the water level maintained to the bed of excavation by pumping. Draw a
flow net and determine the rate of pumping required per meter run (K= 4.0105
m/sec). Also find the uplift pressure at the base of excavation.
193
Problem: 5.3:
Particle size analysis on the base material gave the following data. Design a
suitable filter material.
Sieve size (mm) = 0.8 0.5 0.1 .06 .02 .01 .002
%age passing = 100 95 76 68 44 21 0
Fig: 5.14 Problem 5.2
194
CHAPTER-VI
6.1
DAMS
INTRODUCTION
Dam is a structure built across a stream, river, or estuary to retain water in the form of a
reservoir. Its purpose is to meet water demands for human consumption, irrigation, industry,
reduce peak discharge of floodwater, increase available water storage for generating hydroelectric
power, or to increase the depth of water in a river to improve navigation. They are also
constructed sometimes to provide a lake for recreation. Auxiliary structure at a dam includes the
following,
Spillway,
Gates or valves to control the discharge of surplus water from the reservoir;
Intake structure conducting water to a power station or to canals, tunnels, or pipelines
for more distant use;
Provision for evacuating silt carried into the reservoir; and
Means for permitting ships or fish to pass the dam
A dam therefore is the central structure in a multipurpose scheme aiming at the
conservation of water resources. The multipurpose dam holds special importance in less
developed countries, where a small nation may reap enormous benefits in agriculture and industry
from a single dam.
Dams have several types based on profile and material used. The decision for the
selection of dam type depends largely on the foundation conditions in the valley and the
construction materials available. Broadly, the choice of materials now lies between concrete,
soils, and rock fill. Although in the past a number of masonry dams were built, the practice is now
quite obsolete. The monolithic form of concrete dams permits greater variations in profile,
according to the extent to which water pressure is resisted by the deadweight of the structure, is
transferred laterally to buttresses, or is carried by arching across the valley to abutments formed
by the sides of the valley.
6.2
TYPES OF DAMS
The volume of material used for the construction of dam body is very large and has great impact
on the overall cost of a dam. Based on material used, following are the main types of dams.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Masonry Dam
Concrete Dam
Embankment Dam (Earth-fill Dam, Rock-fill Dam)
Composite Dam
195
Masonry dams were used for low height small reservoirs in the past and presently are quite
uncommon. The above dams are further classified based on shape and arrangement of their
components.
6.2.1
TYPES OF CONCRETE DAMS
Based on shape, following are the types of concrete dams.

1.
2.
3.
Concrete Arch Dam

Concrete Gravity Dam
Concrete Buttress Dam
6.2.2 TYPES OF EARTH-FILL DAMS

Based on the arrangement of components and mode of construction, following are the types of
earth-fill dams.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Hydraulic-fill Dam
The first three dams are constructed using conventional earth moving and compaction machinery
and based on mode of construction they are known as rolled-fill dams. While hydraulic-fill is a
special technique for raising and constructing dam embankment. In this method soil is transported
to the dam site by pumping soil water mixture through pipes.
6.2.3 TYPES OF ROCK-FILL DAMS

Based on the arrangement of components, following are the types of rock-fill dams.
1.
2.
3.
6.3
Rock-fill dam with central core

Rock-fill dam with sloping core
Rock-fill dam with diaphragm
SELECTION DAM TYPE
The selection of dam type is made on the basis of the estimated costs of various types.
The most important factors are topography, foundation conditions, and the accessibility of
construction materials. In general, a hard-rock foundation is suitable for any type of dam,
provided the rock has no unfavorable jointing, there is no danger of movement in existing faults
and foundation under-seepage can be controlled at reasonable cost. Rock foundations of high
quality are essential for arch dam because the abutments receive the full thrust of the water
pressure against the face of the dam. Rock foundations are necessary for all medium and high
196
concrete dams. An earth dam may be built on almost any kind of foundation if properly
designed and constructed.
The chance of an embankment dam being most economical is improved if large
spillway and outlet capacities are required and topography and foundation are favorable. For a
wide valley, combination of an earth dam and a concrete dam section containing the spillway
and outlets is often economical. Availability of suitable construction materials frequently
determines the most economical type of dam. A concrete dam requires adequate quantities of
suitable concrete aggregate and reasonable availability of cement, while an earth dam requires
sufficient quantities of both pervious and impervious earth materials. If quantities of earth
materials are limited and enough rock is available, a rock-fill dam with an impervious earth core
may be the most economical.
6.4
SELECTION OF DAM SITE
This depends upon such factors as hydrologic, topographic, and geologic conditions;
storage capacity of reservoir; accessibility; cost of lands and necessary relocations of prior
occupants or uses; and proximity of sources of suitable construction materials. For a storage
dam the objective is to select the site where the desired amount of storage can be most
economically developed. Power dams must be located to develop the desired head and storage.
For a diversion dam the site must be considered in conjunction with the location and elevation of
the outlet canal or conduit. Site selection for navigation dams involves special factors such as
desired navigable depth and channel width, slope of river channel, natural river flow, amount of
bank protection, amount of channel dredging, approach and exit conditions for tows, and
locations of other dams in the system.
Unless topographic and geologic conditions for a proposed storage, power, or diversion
dam site are satisfactory, hydrological features may need to be subordinated. Important
topographic characteristics include width of the flood plain, shape and height of valley walls,
existence of nearby saddles for spillways, and adequacy of reservoir rim to retain impounded
water. Controlling geologic conditions include the depth, classification, and engineering
properties of soils and bedrock at the dam site, and the occurrence of sinks, faults, and major
landslides at the site or in the reservoir area. The elevation of the ground water table is also
significant because it will influence the construction operations and suitability of borrow
materials. The beneficial effects of reservoir water on groundwater recharge may become an
important consideration, as well as the adverse effects on existing or potential mineral resources
and developments that would be destroyed or required relocation at the site or within the
reservoir.
6.5
DETERMINATION OF DAM HEIGHT

The dam must be high enough to;
Store water to the normal full pool level required to meet intended functions of the
project,
2. Provide temporary storage needed to route the design flood flows through the spillway,
1.
197
3.
Provide sufficient freeboard height above the maximum pool level to assure an
acceptable degree of safety against possible overtopping form waves.
Physical characteristics of the dam and reservoir site or existing development within
the reservoir area may impose upper limits in selecting the normal full-pool level. In other
circumstances economic consideration governs.
Freeboard height is the distance between the maximum reservoir level and the top of
the dam. Usually 3-ft. or more of freeboard is provided to avoid overtopping the dam by wind
generated waves. Additional freeboard may be provided for possible effects of surges induced
by earthquakes, landslides, or other unpredictable events.
6.6
INSTRUMENTATION
Instruments are installed at dams to observe structural behaviour and physical

conditions during construction and after filling, to check safety, and to provide information for
design improvement.
In concrete dams instructions are used to measure stresses either directly or to measure
strains from which stresses may be computed. Plumb lines are used to measure bending, and
clinometers to measure tilting. Contraction joint openings are measured by joint meters
spanning between two adjacent blocks of a dam. Temperatures are measured either by embedded
electrical resistance thermometers or by adopting strain, stress, and joint measuring instruments.
Water pressure on the base of a concrete dam at the contact with the foundation rock is
measured by uplift pressure cells. Interior pressures in a concrete dam are measured by
embedded pressure cells. Measurements are also made to determine horizontal and vertical
movements; strong-motion accelerometers are being installed on and near dams in earthquake
regions to record seismic data.
Instruments installed in earth-dam embankments and foundations are piezometes to
determine pore water pressure in the soil or bedrock during construction and seepage after
reservoir impoundments; settlement gages to determine settlements of the dam foundation under
dead load; and inclinometers to determine horizontal movements along a vertical line.
6.7
INSPECTION OF DAM
Because failure of dam may result in huge loss of life or property in the downstream
area, it is essential that dams be inspected systematically both during construction and after
completion. The design of dams should be reviewed to assure competency of the structure and
its site, and inspection should be made during construction to ensure that the requirements of the
design and specification are incorporated in the structure.
After completion and filling, inspections may vary from cursory surveillance during
day to day operation of the project to regularly scheduled comprehensive inspections. The
objective of such inspections is to detect symptoms of possible distress in the dam at the earliest
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time. These symptoms include significant slough or slides in embankments; evidence of piping
or boils near embankments; abnormal changes in flow from drains; unusual increases in seepage
quantities; unexpected changes in pore water pressure or uplift pressures; unusual movement or
cracking of embankments or abutments; significant cracking of concrete structures; appearance
of sinkholes or localized subsidence near foundations; excessive deflection, erosion, or vibration
of concrete structures; erratic movement or excessive deflection or vibration of outlet or
spillway gates or valves; or any other unusual condition in the structure or surrounding terrain.
Detection of any such symptoms of distress should be followed by an investigation of
the causes, probable effects, and remedial measures required. Inspection of a dam and reservoir
is particularly important following significant seismic events in the locality. Systematic
monitoring of the instrumentation installed in dams is essential to the inspection program.
6.8
EMBANKMENT DAMS
Earth-fill dams and Rock-fill dams are known as Embankment Dams. Earth dams have
been used for water storage since early civilization. Improvements in earth moving techniques,
particularly the development of modern earth handling equipment, have brought about a wider
use of this type of dam, and today as in the primitive times, the earth dams are the most common
dams. Earth dams may be built of rock, gravel, sand, silt or clay in various combinations.
Most earth dams are constructed with an inner impervious core with upstream and
downstream zones of more pervious materials, sometime including rock zones. Earth dams
control the flow of water through the dam by use of fine-grained soils as impervious core. When
there is a sand or gravel foundation, the core may be connected to bedrock by a cutoff trench
backfilled with compacted fine-grained soil.
If such cutoffs are not economically feasible because of great depth of pervious
foundation soils, then central impervious core is connected to a long horizontal upstream
impervious blanket that increases the length of the seepage path. The impervious core is often
encased in pervious zones of sand, gravel, or rock fill for stability. When there is a large
difference in the particle sizes of core and pervious zones, transition zones are required to
prevent the core material from being transported into the pervious zones by seeping water. In
some cases where previous soils are scarce, the entire dams may be a homogeneous fill of
relatively impervious soil. Downstream previous drainage blankets are provided for safe
disposal of seepage passing through, under, and around dam abutments.
Materials can be obtained from required excavation for the dam and appurtenances or
from borrow area. Rock fill is generally used when large quantities of rock are available from
required excavation and in the surroundings or when borrow soil is scarce.
Earth fill embankment is placed in layers and compacted by sheep-foot rollers or heavy
pneumatic-tire rollers. Moisture content of silt and clay soils is carefully controlled to facilitate
optimum compaction. Sand and gravel are compacted in slightly thicker layers by pneumatic-tire
rollers, vibrating steel drum rollers, or placement equipments. The placement moisture content
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of pervious fills is less critical than for silts and clays. Rock fill is usually placed in layers 1-3 ft,
deep and compacted by placement equipment and vibrating steel drum rollers.
6.9
COMPONENT OF EARTH DAMS
Transition section
Transition section
Pervious shell
Pervious shell
Rip Rap
Rip Rap
D/S
Drain pipe
Impervious core
Impervious blanket
Cutoff
Toe drainage
Fig: 6.1 Components of Earth-fill Dam
6.9.1
IMPERVIOUS CORE
It is an impervious element which extends upwards from the base of the dam to the top
practically always constructed of impervious soil. It may simply be an extension of the cutoff
wall upwards to the top of dam. Although core wall is often located on the longitudinal centre
line of the dam, it may be located anywhere on the upstream side of the centre. Upstream sloping
core has the advantage that the construction of other components of dam can be continued in
unfavorable weather conditions when the construction of core it not possible. Impervious core is
the main component of the dam to control seepage and store water in the dam. The other
component parts are for the safety of the core.
6.9.2
CUT-OFF WALL
It is a relatively impervious element which extends downwards through the foundation

soil from the base of the dam. The function is to reduce the amount of seepage water flowing
through the dam foundation. The cut-off wall should be carried down to solid rock or other very
impervious material. Its effectiveness is greatly reduced, if it extends only part way and seepage
water may flow beneath the cut-off wall. It may be made of steel sheet pile or clay or reinforced
concrete or fine grained impervious soil.
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6.9.3
GROUT CURTAIN
For dam foundations comprising of rock (fissured and jointed), grout curtain is used to
reduce the seepage through the dam foundation. Different types of grout materials are used to
make the curtain. The details are given in section 6.12.
6.9.4
PERVIOUS SECTON
It is made up of pervious material. Its purpose is to safely drain water from the
impervious core. Under normal functioning of dam reservoir, the core gets saturated due to
seepage water. During rapid drawdown of reservoir, upstream hydrostatic pressure is removed,
while the pore water pressure within the core remains and dissipates slowly, both towards the
upstream and the downstream side depending upon permeability of the core. There is possibility
of downwards migration of fine particles of core with the dissipating water if pervious section is
not provided. Pervious section acts as a filter to allow safe dissipation of pore water without
migration of fine particles. Upstream pervious shell/section protects upstream slope against rapid
drawdown. Downstream shell provides protection against out drop of seepage under normal
functioning of dam.
6.9.5
TRANSITION SECTION
An intermediate grade of material is provided to form a section placed between the core
wall and previous shell. The material functions like a filter, and prevents de-silting or movement
of particles from the core walls in to the pervious section. Finest material is used in the core and
the particle size gradually increases moving either side (upstream and downstream) from the core.
A simple governing principal for the use of material size for dam sections is that each successive
section acts as a filter for the preceding section.
6.9.6
RIP RAP
It is placed on the upstream face as protection against wave wash and on the downstream
slope for protection against rain storm. It comprises of a 3-5 ft. thick layer of large stones (rock
fragment and boulder).
6.9.7
DRAINAGE
The material used in cores of zoned or body of homogeneous earth dams is not perfectly
impervious. Seepage do take place (may be more or less depending on the permeability of the
soil) through the dam. The uncontrolled seepage may impair the safety of dam due to piping,
sloughing at the toe, or other results of uncontrolled seepage. To protect a dam from the effects of
seepage, drains are provided. The drains completely intercept the seepage and the downstream
zone is kept free of saturation. The most commonly used methods are as follows:1.
2.
Longitudinal drains and blankets.

Chimney drains extending upwards into the embankment.
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3.
4.
Toe drains.
Relief wells.
Fig: 6.2 Components of Earth-fill Dam
6.10
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR EARTH DAM
For safe performance of a dam during the life time under all conditions especially
hydrologic conditions, the following criteria should be strictly followed.
1. The design should be such that there should be no danger of overtopping the dam during the
life time i.e., sufficient spillway capacity and sufficient free board should be provided. This
requires a detailed study of the flood hydrograph; its peak and duration. During monsoon if the
reservoir is already at full pool level, any flood inflow in to the reservoir will have to be
discharged through the spillway. If the spillway discharge capacity is less than flood inflow,
reservoir level will start rising above the full pool level. The reservoir level will continue rising if
the duration of the storm is longer and ultimately the over topping will occur when the entire free
board is utilized. Therefore based on the maximum anticipated floods, spillway capacity and free
board should be decided so that dam is never over topped. Unnecessary higher values will
tremendously increase the overall cost of the project.
Overtopping quickly erodes the downstream slope and the failure may occur. From the
knowledge of hydrology, free board height or spillway capacity is fixed so that dam is never over
topped even during the maximum anticipated floods. However economic consideration governs
the decision. Depending on the length of the dam and the spillway location, if greater free board is
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economical (in case of small length of dam) than bigger spillway, greater free board will be the
option to be adopted.
2. The seepage lines should be well below the downstream slope surface. If the lines are too
high they will intersect the downstream slope and the seepage water will break out on the slope
face. This situation produces a wet marshy condition in the vicinity of the downstream toe of the
dam. If the velocity of seepage water at the break out is great enough, erosion and sloughing of
the soil may occur and the dam may eventually fall. Provide artificial drainage for seepage water
to lower the seepage lines. A collection gallery for such seepage water and its disposal away form
the dam should be arranged.
3. The upstream slope should be safe against sudden draw down of the reservoir. Due to sudden
draw down, hydrostatic pressure from outside the slope is removed while the pore pressure within
slope remains due to saturation of soil. The dissipation of pore pressure takes long time due to
lower permeability of the core soil. Depending on the magnitude of pore pressure, effective stress
is reduced sometimes to critical values and the failure of the slope occurs. Therefore pervious
shell should be provided on the upstream side to quick and dissipation of pore pressure.
4. The upstream and downstream slopes should be flat enough to be stable and should have
satisfactory factor of safety under all conditions to which slopes are likely to be subjected during
the life time of the dam. The slope angle should be designed properly depending on the properties
of the material used inside them. The shear strength parameters used for the slope design should
be determined from tests on the remolded samples. Samples should be prepared (remolded) so as
simulate the real field conditions i.e., as the soil is compacted in the dam embankment.
5. The upstream and downstream slope should be flat enough so that the shearing stresses
induced in the dam foundation are less than the shearing strength of the foundation soil and the
factor of safety is satisfactory. Allow a greater factor of safety as compared with other earth
structure.
6. There should be no opportunity of free passage of water from the upstream to downstream
slope face. A good bond between the embankment soil and the foundation soil should exist. The
surface should be scarified before first layer of soil for the dam is laid and compacted. Provide
baffle walls (cut-off collars) at comparatively short intervals along the length of any conduit
which extends through the dam. They should completely encircle the conduit. If seepage water
emerges from the dam under sufficient pressure and with sufficient velocity to carry away soil
particles, condition known as piping develops. This is a sort of internal erosion by which small
channel gown in length from the down stream end. If unchecked it may completely damage the
dam. In a similar manner seepage water from the foundation may cause boils on downstream of
the dam. Place layers of coarse gravels/cobbles over the effected area until the weight of over
burden oven comes tendency towards boiling.
7. When seepage water passing through and under the dam reaches the down stream end its
pressure and velocity should be such that not to erode the material of the dam body and the dam
foundation or simply speaking the exit gradient should be les than the critical hydraulic gradient.
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Upstream and downstream slopes should be protected against erosion from the rains and
wave action. Place about 3-ft. thick layer of rip rap. Provide gravels of suitable size beneath the
rip rap in layers of 9 to 18-inches thickness to prevent washing away of the soil as water rushes
through rip rap stones during wave action.
6.11
TECHNICAL STANDARDS FOR EARTHFILL DAM
Different agencies have developed standards for the design, construction and operation
of dams to ensure that the risks to the community are tolerably low. The level of risk is
determined by the likelihood and consequences of failure. Hence, the standards for the design,
construction and maintenance generally reflect the level of potential adverse consequences from
dam failure.
These standards/requirements include the site-specific conditions, changing technical
and community standards, and established dams engineering practice. Although dam owners are
responsible for ensuring dams meet tolerably low risk levels, the controlling agency has the
responsibility to draw owners attention to any conceptual or detail issues which are questionable
in terms of established standards of good practice or which need to be further supported. The
standards list common design and construction issues, which are considered to be good practice
for most situations, but which are sometimes neglected. These standards should not be considered
as comprehensive design manual, or guidelines, and the full responsibility for design rests with
the owner and its professional advisers.
6.11.1
CBCWSEP TECHNICAL STANDARDS
Technical standards have been developed by the Canada-British Columbia Water Supply
Expansion Program for the design and construction of small earth-fill storage dams.
The construction and/or rehabilitation of an earth-fill dam must be under the direction of
a registered Professional Engineer. Prior to initiating construction, all applicable federal,
provincial, and local permits and licenses must be acquired.
The following information is the minimum standard that must be met in the design of an
earth-fill storage dam. Depending on the dam location, size, type, materials, and foundation
conditions, additional design information may be required. The following information has been
taken from the British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Fisheries Water Management
Fact-sheet 510.100.
6.11.1.1 Foundation
All vegetation and organic soil should be removed from the site to leave a firm
impervious foundation. Steep slopes within the foundation area should be changed to a slope of
2:1 or less.
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6.11.1.2 Earth-fill
The fill material must be impermeable enough to prevent harmful percolation through
the dam body. Rocks/gravels in excess of 6-inches should be removed. The fill should be placed
in horizontal layers of 6-inches and compacted properly using optimum moisture content by the
most efficient compaction plant.
The minimum slopes for the upstream face should be 3:1, and 2:1 for the downstream
face. (See figure 1.) The upstream face should be protected with rip-rap if any damage by wave
action can occur.
The crest width of dam should meet the design criteria. The minimum crest width is
determined by the following formula:
W = 10 + H/5
Where; W = top width in feet, and H = height of dam in feet.
An allowance of at least 10% must be made in the height of the dam to retain the design
free board after settling has occurred.
Whenever economically possible, seepage through a pervious foundation should be cut
off by a trench extending to bedrock or other impervious layers. The cut-off trench should be
located upstream from the centre-line crest of the dam.
Crest Width
W
Bottom of spillway
Outlet control
Discharge pipe encased in concrete
Toe drain
Cut off Collars
Cut off trench
Undisturbed ground
Fig: 6.3 Dam Construction Details - Side View
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*See outlet control structures.
Toe drain
Crest Width
Discharge pipe
Cut off Collars
Concrete
Undisturbed embankment
Spillway
(Constructed in
undisturbed soil)
Concrete sill
(Used to maintain spillway elevation)
Fig: 6.4 Dam Construction Details - Plan View

If the earth-fill dam is held at full storage for an extended period of time seepage may
occur on the downstream slope. A toe drainage system must be installed to prevent sloughing of
the downstream slope in these situations.
Fine rock
Graded gravel
6 Minimum
Drainage pipe
4-ft Minimum
5 Minimum
Sand
4-ft
Fig: 6.5 Earthfill Dam Toe Drain Specifications
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6.11.1.3 Spillway
The spillway must be constructed in undisturbed ground well out and away from the dam
structure.
The spillway must be capable of passing the design flood without exceeding the
freeboard requirements of the dam (figure 6.6). The spillway floor width should be at least 12 feet
wide, since a spillway is an essential requirement to ensure dam safety. A log boom installed at an
angle to the flow near the mouth of the spillway will deflect debris to the shore for easy removal.
Dam Crest
2:1
Spillway
(Capable of discharging
design flood)
Freeboard
(Minimum of 3-ft above
design flood water level)
Outlet
Fig: 6.6 Spillway and Freeboard Detail
6.11.1.4 Freeboard
Freeboard is the vertical distance between the design flood water level and the top of the
dam (figure 4). The minimum freeboard allowed is 3 feet above the design flood water level.
6.11.1.5 Outlet Pipe

The outlet pipe through the dam must be either reinforced concrete or steel pipe. If
reinforced concrete pipe is used it should be embedded up to its half diameter in concrete. Steel
pipe or culvert should only be considered as an inside form and be completely encased in 6-in. of
concrete with rebar. (See figure 6.7). The pipe should be placed on a slope of at least 1 foot per
100 feet. The pipe trench should be made in undisturbed ground. Cut-off collars should be
attached to the outlet pipe within the upstream half of the dam. The number and dimensions of the
collars must be sufficient to increase the path of seepage along the pipe by at least 20%. A
minimum of 3 cut-off collars should be used along the outlet pipe.
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Concrete
Steel or
concrete pipe
2C is the increase in the

effective seepage path
along the pipe
Undisturbed ground
Steel reinforcement (size
and layout depend on
individual design)
Fig: 6.7 Cut-off Collar Details
Example: How to calculate the number of Cut-off Collars

A 10-foot high dam has an overall base width of 67 feet. The cut-off collars must
increase the effective seepage length along the pipe by a minimum of 20% (13 feet). The total
seepage path along the pipe is then 80 feet.
If a 10-in. steel culvert is used for the discharge pipe, a 6-in. ring of concrete is required
around the pipe. The total pipe diameter is then 22 inches.
Using 4-Ft. Cut-off Collars

48 inches - 22 inches = 26 inches (the cut-off collar will protrude out 13 inches on either
side of the pipe, (C = 13 inches, see figure 5)
The effective increase in the seepage path per collar is 20 or 26 inches. A total of six 4-foot cutoff collars will then be required for a 10-foot high dam.
Using 5-Ft. Cut-off Collars
If 5-foot cut-off collars are used, a total of four collars will be required to make up the
13 - feet increase in seepage path length.
6.11.1.6 Outlet Control
The following are examples of outlet control works on the discharge pipe:
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6.11.1.6.1.Sluice Gate
Catwalk
Pipe encased in concrete
Gate
Fig: 6.8 Sluice Gate

A sluice gate is a common method of controlling the discharge from the outlet pipe. A
catwalk is required to obtain access to the sluice gate. In order for sluice gates to function
properly, a concrete headwall and apron may be required to properly operate the gate.
The advantage of having a gate on the up-stream side is that the outlet pipe is always empty when
the gate is closed. (This will prevent pipe freeze-up during the winter months).
It is difficult to install a sluice gate that will not leak over time. A sluice gate does not give a good
seal and is vulnerable to debris preventing the gate from closing completely. A trash rack installed
before the sluice will prevent debris from interfering with sluice operation.
The catwalk must be built to withstand ice uplift, wind blown ice damage, and wave action.
6.11.1.6.2. Flip Gate

Hand wheel
Gate stem inside pipe filled with heavy oil

when required to operate in ice
Concrete
Support stem and
pipe as required
Flip gate
Pipe encased in concrete
Fig: 6.9 Flip Gate

A flip gate has the advantage of being located on the upstream side of the outlet pipe but does not
require a catwalk to operate it. It has a disadvantage of being susceptible to debris becoming
entrapped at the gate and preventing it from closing. An open stem is suitable for installations that
do not require operation during reservoir freeze up.
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6.11.1.6.3. Floating Inlet System

Crest width
W
Bottom of spillway
Steel pipe encased in concrete
Toe drain
Flexible pipe
Cut off Collars
Cut off trench
Valve
Undisturbed ground
Fig: 6.10 Floating Inlet System

The floating inlet system should only be used for domestic water supply intakes, where
the outlet pipe size is 6-in. diameter or less.
The advantages of this kind of system are:
For reservoirs that have poor aeration, this type of intake will extract the better quality
water near the surface.
Easy access to the screen for cleaning when required. (If the flexible hose is long enough
the screen intake system can be dragged to one shore for cleaning.)
Easy access to the discharge valve which is located at the downstream toe of the dam. A
control valve must also be located on the upstream end to allow for shut down in case of
failure of the outlet pipe.
The intake should be lowered in the winter time to prevent freeze up. If water is not
removed from the reservoir during the winter months the upstream valve should be closed and the
outlet pipe should be allowed to drain.
6.11.2
NSW DAM SAFETY COMMITTEE TECHNICAL STANDARDS
New South Wales Dam safety committee has published technical standards for dam
design and construction in their information sheet DSC 18, April 2005 with the title Dam
Design & Construction Issues Requiring Particular Consideration, which is as follows.
6.11.2.1. Purpose
The NSW Dams Safety Committee (the Committee) has statutory functions under the
Dam Safety Act (1978) to ensure that all prescribed dams in NSW are designed, constructed and
operated to a standard where risks to the community are tolerably low.
This Information Sheet (DSC18) is intended to assist owners undertaking the design for
a new dam, or modification of an existing dam, by listing common design and construction issues,
210
which the Committee considers to be good practice for most situations, but which are sometimes
neglected, and are not covered in detail in other Committee documents.
It is intended that this document will be updated on a regular basis and modified to
reflect further issues that come to notice, and to take account of changing standards in the dams
industry.
6.11.2.2. Scope
The requirements of this Information Sheet, DSC18, apply to all prescribed dams in
NSW. Generally, these are dams storing water or other liquefiable materials that pose a potential
threat to the interests of the community and to the environment. Such dams include flood
retarding basins and service reservoirs but usually do not include farm dams where the
community consequences of failure are negligible.
The requirements do not normally apply to levees or road and railway embankments.
However, such embankments, designed primarily as dams but serving incidentally as roadways or
railways, would be subject to the Committees requirements.
6.11.2.3. Issues
The relevant issues for consideration are set out in the following sections, generally in
the same sequence as the engineering design and construction process.
6.11.2.3.1 General
Design standards for dams are always subject to revision and updating to reflect new
technologies and changing community standards. The Committee requires dam owners to
carefully consider the relevance of any reference used in the design and state these references on
any major design decision.
6.11.2.3.2 Geology/Geotechnical
A comprehensive geotechnical investigation should be undertaken, and a detailed report
prepared, for all Extreme, High and Significant Consequence Category dams. As a minimum, the
investigation report should include:
A description of the regional geology and structure;
A detailed description of the geological conditions at the site, highlighting any
geological structure, hazards or potential problem areas;
Detailed geological sections which allow an interpretation of the stratigraphy and
geological structure;
Detailed data on the permeability, strength, compressibility and erodibility of the
foundation, sufficient to allow an assessment of the depth to suitable foundation material
for the dam, and the need for any foundation treatment;
211
Comments on the stability of batters, crests, cracks and slips;

Data on the proposed sources and properties of all materials to be used in the
construction, including earthfill, rockfill, filters, rip-rap, concrete aggregate;
Details on the watertightness, erodibility and stability of the reservoir area and rim;
Comments on the seismicity of the region.
The report should be supplemented by the factual outcome of investigations, including:
Geological mapping;
Borehole logs;
Core photographs;
Foundation / Borrow Area test results (permeability, seismic, SPT, etc);
Trench and pit logs;
Laboratory test results (soil, rock);
Rock strength test results;
Petrology results.
Borehole cores should be systematically boxed, photographed, recorded and permanently
retained.
During construction, all excavations forming part of the permanent works are to be
geologically mapped. All foundation levels are to be recorded, so that the location of any part of
the foundations is permanently known. Extensive photography of the foundations is to be retained
permanently. Results of water tests and grouting are to be systematically recorded.
All of this work should be undertaken by suitably qualified personnel (e.g., engineering
geologist, geotechnical engineer).
6.11.2.3.3 Flooding
The Committee is especially conscious of the rapid pace of change in the methodologies
and availability of data in this field. In general, dam owners are required to collect all hydrologic
data in accordance with the Committees Data Form D6. In addition owners should ensure that:
All data, assumptions, other inputs, methodologies and outcomes of the hydrology study
are explicitly noted and documented;
Construction flood provisions are nominated and allowed for in the design, and the basis
on which the risks are assessed to be tolerable is documented;
For modifications to existing dams, the normal objective is to be that risks from flood
during upgrading are not greater than those existing prior to commencement of
upgrading. If this objective cannot be achieved, the owner is to demonstrate that the risks
are as low as reasonably practicable;
A flood frequency curve for the catchment and storage is prepared using the guidelines
provided in Australian Rainfall and Runoff 1999;
Seasonality of flooding is considered where appropriate;
The design of fuse plug type spillways considers all incremental surge impacts
downstream, so as to minimize these impacts where people are at risk;
212
The design of dams with limited spillway capacity includes consideration of long
duration flood, or prolonged or seasonal rainfall events, where the critical condition may
be based on flood, or long-term rainfall, volume and not the more typical flood peak
flow.
6.11.2.3.4 Earthworks
The Committee notes that the available statistical data on dam failures suggest that
earthen embankments experience the highest incidence of failure from all causes. Accordingly,
the design, or safety review, of all earthfill embankments should be undertaken by dams
engineers or geotechnical engineers experienced in this field.
Dam owners should ensure that:
The design of embankment dams clearly states the basis for design strengths, stability
methodology, assumptions on pore pressures and the factors of safety;
The design of all Extreme, High and Significant Consequence Category dams includes
calculated predictions of the settlement behaviour of the finished structure;
The design takes into consideration the issue of construction pore pressures;
The design of embankment dams includes an assessment of piping failure and states the
safety against piping.
6.11.2.3.5 Foundation/Abutments
The Committee places considerable emphasis on the lessons learned from dam failures.
In this regard, it is noted that failure initiated through conditions associated with dam foundations
has been a commonly recorded feature. Consequently:
For earth core dams, the dam body should be keyed into the abutments with end slopes,
in the direction parallel to the dam axis, flatter than 1.5 (vertical) on 1 (horizontal),
unless special provisions have been made for piping control at this interface;
The batters of core trenches, in the direction normal to the dam axis, should not be
steeper than 1 (horizontal) on 1 (vertical);
The layout of the dam should avoid any sharp changes in the profile of the foundation;
Foundation and abutment grouting should be planned and carried out with the assistance
of specialist advice;
The design of any permanent sheet piling shall make adequate provision for durability;
The design should consider the possibility of liquefiable sands in the foundations;
All exposed foundations and excavations for structures should be logged by a suitably
qualified engineering geologist. The resultant geological plans should be included with
the WAE drawings or otherwise retained as part of the permanent record;
The design should include assessment of foundation and foundation interface piping
potential and state the safety against piping;
Special care should be taken in the design of any interface between concrete structures
and earthfill to minimize the piping risks along the interface (e.g., appropriate
213
downstream filters, concrete slopes no steeper than rock abutments to maintain high fill
pressures);
The design of all Extreme, High and Significant Consequence Category concrete dams
reliant on uplift relief should consider the effectiveness of the uplift relief system and
make provision for its accessibility and maintenance.
6.11.2.3.6 Filters/Drains
The Committee is of the opinion that the design of effective drains and filters is highly
cost effective in terms of the total safety of embankment dams. The Committee has noted in
recent years that this issue is sometimes not given adequate consideration by dam designers. This
has resulted in time-consuming correspondence with owners to achieve necessary amendments to
the submitted designs. Important issues to consider are:
Slotted drain pipes, or pipes of any sort, should not be used for drainage under
embankments, except where they are readily accessible for maintenance or replacement
(for example, in toe drains running just inside the bank, with inspection pits);
Seepage collection and monitoring is required in all Extreme, High & Significant
Consequence Category dams;
Finger drains, as an alternative to blanket layers of filter media, generally do not provide
adequate seepage discharge capacity to prevent local or general saturation of the
downstream shell of earth dams. In this situation, such drains are generally unacceptable
to the Committee. Where their use is proposed, the owner is to demonstrate by
calculation, using the recognized high factors of safety for seepage discharge capacity,
that there will be no local or general saturation of the downstream shell;
In assessing the required discharge capacity of filter systems generally, consideration is
to be given to the risk of cracking in earth cores, or other impermeable elements, due to
such causes as earthquake shaking or differential settlement;
The treatment of foundation surfaces under blanket filters shall be such as will promote
flow of foundation seepage into the filter;
Special care is required when filter media are won from natural deposits of sand and
gravel, since the gradation and quality of material in such deposits can be highly
variable. Frequent sampling and testing, along with vigilant inspection by supervision
personnel, is needed in such cases;
Geotextile filter cloth is generally not acceptable as an alternative to a sand filter. In this
regard, the Committees policy is that geosynthetics should only be used where they are
not critical to the performance of the dam, and generally where they can be repaired or
replaced if necessary;
All Extreme, High and Significant Consequence Category earthfill and earth
core/rockfill dams are to have fully intercepting filters;
The design of concrete lined spillways shall consider the need for drainage under the
spillway slabs;
Designers shall consider the need for upstream filters in narrow earth core dams as a
crack stopper or to retain fines if rapid dewatering is a likely load case.
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6.11.2.3.7 Conduits
Outdated practices for the design and construction of conduits have been a major
contributing factor in the piping failure of embankment dams. There are numerous dams in
operation with aging pressure conduits, often un-encased metal, which present a significant safety
risk. The Committee requires that these outdated practices are eliminated in all new and modified
dams. The following issues should be considered in the detail design of conduits:
No un-encased metal conduits are to be used in any part of the dam, unless separated
from the embankment fill by an air space (for example, a small diameter pressure
penstock within a large diameter concrete conduit or tunnel);
Pressure pipelines, without an airspace separation from the embankment, are to be
continuously welded, fully concrete encased, and normally of cement-lined steel
construction. The encasement is to be reinforced so as to carry the full static and
dynamic head, without reliance on the contribution of the steel pipe. The steel, or other,
liner is to be checked against buckling due to the external water pressure;
No rubber ring jointed or bolted flange pipes are to be used in conduits, except for
penstocks with an air space separation within a larger conduit;
Where possible conduits should be embedded in the natural foundation and not located
in the embankment. Conduits, which project into the embankment fill, particularly the
earth core, promote low fill pressures adjacent to the conduit, with risk of hydraulic
fracture or other forms of piping;
If HDPE conduits are specified they should be concrete encased and checked to ensure
they can withstand external water pressures. They would normally only be considered
suitable on small dams with low failure consequences;
A downstream filter type collar, with large discharge capacity, is generally considered a
more effective protection against piping than a concrete cut-off collar. For new dams, the
Committee will look for means of protection against piping that are more effective than
cut-off collars.
6.11.2.3.8 Concrete
The Committee requires special consideration of the issue of durability in concrete
structures. Dams are considered to have a monumental design life, that is, with effective lives
well in excess of 100 years. Earth and rockfill have an indefinitely long life, as evidenced by
dams thousands of years old. The concrete elements are generally the controlling factor in the
longevity of a dam structure. The design of the concrete mix and the concrete detailing should
reflect this reality. Consequently:
The concrete mix design should give due consideration to the durability of the concrete,
especially if Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) is proposed;
Those RCC dams so far constructed in Australia have exhibited much higher
permeability than is normal for conventional concrete dams. Also, the cementitious
content is typically lower than for conventional concrete. Consequently, the Committee
has some concerns regarding the durability of RCC where dams of that material are to
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have along service life. In such cases, the owner needs to demonstrate that the RCC will
have the desired durability;
The susceptibility of the concrete to Alkali Aggregate Reaction should be determined
and reported to the Committee;
The cover to flexural steel reinforcement should be more generous than for normal
building construction;
Careful attention must be given to the durability and performance record of water stops
used for sealing joints in concrete water retaining structures;
The specification should carefully consider and detail appropriate repair methodologies
for defects in the concrete.
6.11.2.3.9 Tendons and Post-Tensioning

The stabilization of dams using post-tensioning technology has been widely adopted
over the past few decades because of its cost effectiveness. This technology has developed
significantly over this period, and the design of some older anchors is now considered unsuitable
for use in dam construction.
The current requirements of the Committee are:
Only restressable and monitorable post-tensioning tendons are to be used;
Tendons are to be fully encapsulated in protective grout and there is to be an
impermeable barrier between the tendon and the rock foundation;
Access and monitoring requirements for post-tensioning are to be assessed and stated;
All tendon top anchorages shall be checked for bursting and spalling stresses;
One stage grouting of the cable length is required to maximize corrosion resistance;
Provision shall be made for the monitoring of anchor head condition, and replacing of
the grease in the top anchorage of tendons, at periods not exceeding two years;
All anchors are to be proof tested during installation and records kept of anchorage
installation and stressing details;
The first Surveillance Report after anchor installation (i.e. after one year or first filling)
is to outline the results of recent load testing of ALL anchors, comparing performance
against installation conditions and recommending future monitoring arrangements (eg
number of tendons to be checked, frequency);
After this initial testing, the Committee requires a proportion of anchors to be tested at
five yearly intervals and reported in the corresponding Surveillance Report for the dam
along with recommendations for future monitoring. As a minimum, the Committee
requires the following progressive sampling of anchors at five yearly intervals:
1.
2.
3.
Extreme Consequence Category Dams 50%

High Consequence Category Dams 33%
Other Dams 10%
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6.11.2.3.10 Hydraulics
The Committee has noted instances in recent years of designs that have not adequately
considered the dynamic forces arising from spillway, channel and outlet works flows and their
implications for dam safety.
The Committee now requires that:
The design of erosion resistance for all discharge channels shall make appropriate
allowance for envisaged flow depths and velocities particularly where there may be
sudden changes in channel cross-section or direction of flow;
The design shall investigate and consider standing wave patterns in open and natural
channels;
In the design of major dams the designer should consider the value of physical modelling
of spillways in addition to modern numerical modelling technology;
For embankment dams particularly, adequate protection is to be provided from spillway
outlet flows to the dam toe and groins. This is best achieved by a separation between the
dam structure and the spillway, with a positive substantial barrier of natural ground
between the two elements.
6.11.2.3.11 Mechanical / Electrical

A current issue before the Committee is the emergency preparedness of dams reliant on
electrical and mechanical systems for dam safety. This includes flood warning systems, gated
spillways and automated outlet works, including the associated monitoring and control systems.
In this regard, designers shall ensure that:
All mechanical/electrical systems essential for dam safety shall have adequate back up
provisions including back-up power sources;
The design of monitoring and control systems is to consider the availability to the owner,
throughout the life of the dam, of electronic and other components, and of specialist
technicians. It is essential that such systems can be maintained in an as new condition
of effectiveness indefinitely. Complex systems should be avoided if the supply of needed
components in the future is doubtful or if suitably trained people will not be available to
maintain the system;
The need to consider the safety of operating personnel should not compromise the safety
of the dam. For this reason, as an example, it would generally be preferable that spillway
gates or emergency release controls, can be operated from a safe location not on the dam
structure, the safety of which may be questionable in an extreme flood event or
following a severe earthquake;
The design should make adequate provision for night lighting for access to all essential
systems at the dam.
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6.11.2.3.12 Gates/Valves
As noted above, the design of all dams reliant on mechanical flow control devices should
place due emphasis on the design for, and planning of, operational issues.
To this end:
A plan should be prepared for formal internal briefing on spillway gate opening practices
and procedures to be carried out at regular intervals;
The design of gated systems shall include a risk assessment of the potential for gate or
control system failures, including failure of multiple gates, and the impact of the time
required for opening, especially during extreme loading events. Such an assessment
should include human factors, such as the predicted effectiveness of communication and
decision systems, the availability of specialists such as electricians, the training status of
personnel, and the likelihood of operator error;
All emergency opening and closing devices should have protected access for all
emergency conditions;
The design of the outlet works shall consider the adequacy for emergency dewatering,
and, if practicable, conform to the USBR Criteria set out in Criteria and Guidelines for
Evacuating Storage Reservoirs and Sizing Low-Level Outlet Works, US Department of
the Interior, ACER Technical Memorandum No. 3, 1990.
6.11.2.3.13 Construction for Dams

To assist in the achievement of safe dams, and to facilitate their maintenance, repair or
upgrading during their long life:
The Committee requires the following:
The employment of experienced construction supervisors who will ensure faithful
adherence to the design or will recognize the need for consultation with the designers;
The involvement of the designer during construction, including periodic inspections of
the works by the designer;
That no changes are made to the design without the approval of the designer;
That a record of all design changes is kept;
That a construction certificate, in the form specified by the Committee, is submitted
upon completion of construction.
That proper records of construction are kept, including a photographic record with date
and time and a log of all significant events (e.g. date, time and location of concrete
pours);
That the location, date, time and results of all grouting activities and all embankment
testing (e.g. compaction, concrete strength) are kept;
That the final foundation configurations are recorded (see Sub-section 3.2 above);
That geological mapping of excavations is prepared and preserved (Sub-section 3.2
above);
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That all design drawings are preserved;

That Work-as-Executed (WAE) drawings are prepared and preserved;
That construction reports be prepared for all new and modified significant, high and
extreme consequence category dams with their comprehensiveness related to the dams
consequence category. The Committee recommends that basic construction reports be
prepared for other dams.
6.11.2.3.14 Operations and Maintenance, Instrumentation

The Committee considers that effective operation and maintenance procedures, in
conjunction with appropriate instrumentation, and monitoring and surveillance procedures, can
significantly reduce the risks posed by dams. Some of the aspects, which the Committee considers
important, are listed below.
All Extreme, High and Significant Consequence Category dams are to have an Operation
and Maintenance (O&M) Manual (see DSC12) ;
A plan should be prepared for the training of all operations personnel;
All systems shall have formal incident reporting after any incidents. This process shall
be internal and to the DSC;
Significant scour of abutments and toe shall be monitored and reported internally and to
the DSC;
All Extreme and High Consequence Category Dams should have automatic and
telemetered monitoring systems for storage level and seepage (where practicable);
Provision shall be made for chemical testing of seepage water where the foundations or
dam materials are of a soluble or dispersive nature;
The selection of transducers should be carefully considered to suit the specific conditions
of the site and operating procedures including appropriate lightning protection.
6.11.2.3.15 Peer Reviews

Independent reviews are to be undertaken of the designs and safety reviews for all
extreme, high and significant consequence category dams with these reviews forwarded for the
Committees consideration. The detail required in these independent reviews will relate to the
nature of the works required and the consequence category of the dam.
6.11.2.3.16 DSC Design Submission Checklist

A check list of pertinent matters to be considered in design submissions to the
Committee is included as an addendum (DSC18-1) to this information Sheet.
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6.11.2.3.17 Documentation
The Committee is concerned that, with the rapid pace of organizational change,
documentation and archiving may not be given adequate priority and resources. The Committee is
of the opinion that access to design, construction, O&M and surveillance data is an essential
feature of the duty of care of dam owners and requires that:
All important design decisions are to be recorded in a formal Design Report for both new
dams and modifications of existing dams. The report shall include, as a minimum, the
factual results of investigations, the interpretations made from those results, the assessed
input values, the analysis methodologies used and the output values, and the justification
of decisions;
Specifications for the construction, or modification, of an extreme, high or significant
consequence category dam are to require that a formal Construction Report, including
Work-As Executed drawings, be prepared on completion of the works;
Dam owners are to have an effective long term archiving system of all important
documentation relating to the dam, including reports, geotechnical data, inspection check
sheets, monitoring results, operation and maintenance records, and design and
construction drawings;
Independent reviews are to be undertaken of the designs and safety reviews for all
extreme, high and significant consequence category dams with these reviews forwarded
for the committees consideration. The detail required in these independent reviews will
relate to the nature of the works required and the consequence category of the dam.
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CHAPTER-VII
7.1
HYDROPOWER PROJECTS
INTRODUCTION
Hydropower projects are, in general, economically the most attractive, since they are
based on the exploitation of a renewable energy source. They are also the safest since they are
environmentally sustainable as no waste is generated. Potential energy is used to generate
hydroelectric power. Water collected at a high place usually behind a dam is continuously
supplied to the turbines, making them rotate. Generators that are attached to the turbines also
rotate and thus electricity is generated.
Fig: 7.1 Hydro-electric power generation
7.2
COMPONENTS OF HYDELPOWER SCHEME:
A Hydropower development basically utilizes the available power in the fall of a river
and generates power by means of hydraulic turbines. To utilize its power, water is confined in
channels or pipes and is supplied to the turbines. The essential components of a water power
development are the following.
7.2.1
DAM
It is a structure built at a suitable location across the river, both to create head and
reservoir from which water can be readily made available. In many cases the power house is at or
close to the dam, utilizing the available head at the dam only, known as concentrated fall
development. Depending upon the topography of the region, in some cases, additional head is
obtained by carrying the water in a waterway for some distance downstream to the power plant,
known as a divided fall development.
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7.2.2
WATERWAY
A component of a hydropower scheme conveying water from the water source to power
plant is known as waterway. It may be a canal, penstock (closed pipe) or a combination of both.
7.2.2.1 Power Channel

When large quantities water is to be carried a long distance from the water source (dam
reservoir, barrage or the bore-bay) to the power house, an open channel is usually an economical
option. Such channel may be lined or unlined. For example; for Ghazi-Brotha power project, a
power channel with concrete lining has been adopted to convey water from the barrage at Ghazi
to the power house at Brotha. Lining was required to avoid water losses since the channel is
passing all the way through the sand deposits of Attock District.
7.2.2.2 Penstock
A penstock is a pipe that conveys water from a fore-bay, reservoir, or the source to a
turbine in hydroelectric plant. It is usually made of steel, but reinforced concrete and wood-stave
pipe have also been used. Pressure rise and speed regulation must be considered in the design of a
penstock.
Pressure rise, or water hammer, is the pressure change that occurs when the rate of flow
in a pipe or conduit is changed rapidly. The intensity of this pressure change is proportional to
the rate at which the velocity of the flow is accelerated or decelerated. Accurate determination of
the pressure changes that occur in a penstock involves consideration of all operating conditions.
For example, one important consideration is the pressure rise that occurs in a penstock when the
turbine wicket gates are closed due to the loss of electric load.
The term penstock refers to relatively short pipe or pipes near the powerhouse
connecting the wheel units (turbine) with main waterway or intake at the Dam. The waterway
often being an open channel terminating in an enlargement or fore-bay from which penstocks take
off. In the case of a short penstock, there could normally be a pipe for each wheel unit.
In the location of penstock the economically shortest route is desired. It is usually
desirable to have the penstock always sloping towards the powerhouse, but its grade may be
varied as desired to fit the topography. In order to minimize the pressure and hence cost of pipe,
the greater part of length of penstock be kept on as flat a grade as possible and with sudden pitch
to the powerhouse through a relatively short distance.
The intake of the penstock at the dam or fore-bay of the canal must be at a level low
enough to provide an adequate water seal under all conditions, particularly at low water. This
will commonly mean that the top of penstock at its intake should be 4 or 5ft. or more below the
lowest water level contemplated at the dam or in the fore-bay. The desirable amount of water seal
varies with the size of penstock and velocity of flow. If there is too little depth of cover,
222
whirlpools will tend to from and carry air into the penstock and to the turbine tending to lessen
the power output.
A gate and usually racks are placed at the entrance to the penstock. An air vent or a
stand pipe connecting the top of the penstock with the open air should be provided below and near
the gate. The stand pipe or air vent should be to a level above the head water. This is to permit
air to enter the penstock when the head gates are closed and water drawn off through the wheels,
otherwise dangerous collapsing pressure may be exerted on the penstock. Care must also be taken
in operation to see that the water in the vent pipe does not freeze, thus preventing the entrance of
air.
In addition to proper depth of water seal, the entrance to the penstock should be flared to
avoid any loss of head by contraction. Sharp bends in the penstock lines should be avoided, as far
as possible, as they cause loss of head and require special anchorages.
7.2.3
POWERHOUSE AND EQUIPMENT
This includes the hydraulic turbines and generators and their various accessories and the
building required for their protection and convenient operation.
7.2.4
TAILRACE
It is the waterway from the powerhouse back to the river. In many cases the powerhouse
is located on the river bank so that no tailrace channel is required, but occasionally, to develop
additional fall, a tailrace channel of some distance is used.
7.2.5
SPILLWAY
A spillway releases water in excess of storage capacity so that the dam and its foundation
are protected against erosion and possible failure. All dams must have a spillway, except small
ones where the runoff can be safely stored in the reservoir without danger of overtopping the dam.
Ample spillway capacity is of particular importance for large earth dams, which would be
destroyed or severely damaged by being overtopped. Failure of a large dam could result in severe
hazards to life and property downstream.
7.2.6
SURGE CHAMBERS
In a hydroelectric plant the flow of water to a turbine must be decreased very rapidly
whenever there is a sudden drop in power load. This rapid decrease in flow will result in high
water-hammer pressures and may result in the need for a very strong and hence expensive pipe.
There are several ways to handle a situation of this sort; one is by use of surge tank, or surge
chamber. A simple surge chamber is a vertical standpipe connected to the pipeline as shown in
Fig: 7.2. With steady flow in the pipe, the water level zs in the surge chamber is below the static
level (z = 0). When the valve is suddenly closed, water rises in the surge chamber. The water
surface in the tank will fluctuate up and down and ultimately damp out by fluid friction. The
223
section of pipe (penstock) upstream of the surge tank will therefore be protected from the high
waterhammer pressures that would develop on valve closure if there were no chamber.
Surge chambers are usually open at the top and of sufficient height so that they will not
overflow. In some instances they are permitted to overflow if no damage will result. There are
many types of surge chambers. Some have a restriction at entry; others have a closed top so that
there is an air cushion within the tank during operation.
The surge chamber, in addition to providing protection against water-hammer pressures,
fulfills another desirable function. That is, in the event of a sudden demand for increased flow, it
can provide some excess water, while the entire mass of water in a long pipeline (penstock) is
being accelerated.
Z max
Static level
Z=0
Hydraulic grade line
Reservoir
ZS
Surge chamber
Penstock
Turbine
Fig: 7.2 Definition sketch for Surge Chamber
7.3
FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMY OF PLANT
Two basic principles to be kept in mind in planning a water power development are
economy and safety, or in other words, a maximum of power output at a minimum cost, but at the
same time a safe and proper construction that can meet the exigencies of operation. The relative
economy of a water power development depends mainly the following:
1.
2.
7.3.1
Site Characteristics
Use and market
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
The site characteristics particularly affect the construction and operating cost of the plant
and therefore, the conditions which are most likely to decide first of all whether a site is worthy of
development and, if so, the best manner of making this development include the following.
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7.3.1.1 Geologic Conditions

The geologic conditions worth consideration for a power site are the suitable foundation
for structures particularly the dam and spillway. The absence of a suitable rock foundation for the
dam/spillway may even prevent the utilization of a power site.
7.3.1.2 Topographical Conditions

They are also of great importance in determining the dimensions of the dam and thus
largely affect its cost. The topographical conditions greatly affect the head to be developed by the
dam or by the waterways as well as the manner in which the waterway may be constructed,
whether canal or penstock or a combination of these.
7.3.1.3 Slope of River

It is important, as it affects necessary length, cost of waterway, and amount of storage
obtained at the dam.
7.3.1.4 Head to Discharge Relationship

The water horsepower generated is a function of head and discharge. The relative values
of head and discharge therefore, greatly affects the desirability of a power development. For a
given amount of hydropower generated, the greater the head as compared with discharge the less
costly will be the development owing to the greater capacity required for all the features except
the dam, as discharge increases. In general therefore, the higher head developments are always
less expensive per horsepower of capacity than those of lower head.
7.3.1.5 Operating Costs

The operating costs may be affected by especial conditions which may prevail at a given
stream. Thus a stream subject to frequent floods or high-water periods may have the power at a
given site frequently curtailed by back water in the tailrace, and on such a stream flash boards on
the dam may require frequent renewal.
7.3.2
USE AND MARKET
7.3.2.1 Location of Market

The characteristics of use and market include the conditions particularly affecting the
sale price and value of the developed power. Thus proximity to market is a vital consideration. A
water power site which may be developed at low cost due to favorable natural features
(topography, geology), but situated so far from any possible market as to be unworthy of
consideration for development. In this respect, the radius of possible transmission of power is
constantly growing, and today lines of 200 to 300 miles are quite common. On the other hand, to
transmit power such distances economically requires relatively large blocks of power, and in
225
many events the cost of transmission must be included in power cost in competing with other
power plants (thermal, Nuclear etc.) at a distance.
7.3.2.2 Load Factor

Load factor is the ratio of peak power load to average load. Load factor which depends
on the manner of use of power is therefore, of great importance, as certain features of the water
power development, particularly the power house and equipment, vary in cost nearly inversely as
the load factor. It is of advantage, therefore, to keep the load factor at a hydro-electric
development as high as possible.
7.4
GENERAL TYPES OF PLANT LAYOUT
No two hydropower developments which are exactly alike will probably ever be built,
and every water power site has its special problems of design and construction which must be met
and solved. However, certain general types of plant layouts consistent with the general site
characteristics of importance e.g., head, available flow, topography of river and vicinity etc. are
discussed. All the above factors are more or less interdependent, which affect the manner of
development.
7.4.1
CONCENTRATED FALL
The location of power house with reference to dam will depend upon local conditions.
Often a low-cost development could be made by placing the power house in the river at one end
of the dam (Fig. 7.3-a). This would generally result, however, in an undesirable limitation in
length of spillway and possible subjection of power house to flood and ice hazards. To obtain
necessary spillway length, therefore the power house must often be located in some such manner
as shown in (Figs. 7.3-b, c, d). A few developments utilizing concentrated fall have been made
using a hollow concrete dam of the Ambursen type with power house within the dam.
7.4.2
DIVIDED FALL
Various typical arrangements with divided fall are shown in (Figs. 7.3-e - h). The
deciding feature is the topography of the region adjacent to the river. Thus in (Fig. 7.3-e, f) the
river banks are high and provide space for a canal development which provide an additional head
to be utilized due to fall in the river between dam and the tailrace level.
In (Fig. 7.3-g), the topography is such that a canal can be used for only a part of the
distance. If the flow is large, it may be necessary here to use more than one penstock lines,
although such a development would result in increased cost, as compared with (Fig. 7.3-e & f) for
a given total length of waterway.
In (Fig. 7.3-h), the manner of development is similar to that of g but advantage is taken
of a bend in the river to utilize a greater head for a given length of waterway.
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Head
Gates
DAM
DAM
P.H
P.H
DAM
P.H
Tailrace
Tailrace
Tailrace
(a)
(c)
(b)
Head
Gates
Head
Gates
DAM
DAM
P.H
Canal
Tailrace
Forebay
P.H
(d)
Tailrace
(a-b-c-d)
Concentrated fall
Extended / Divided fall

(e)
Fig: 7.3 Different options of Concentrated and Divided Fall arrangement
227
In (Fig. 7.3-k), the flow is small enough to permit the use of a penstock throughout the length of
waterway, which is kept at relatively high level to save cost. If the penstock is kept sloping
through out its length, the water pressure will be higher requiring a stronger pipe and hence more
cost. Therefore the penstock is kept at a flat grade for greater part of its length until near the
power house, where a quick descent is made. Depending on the relative cost, individual penstocks
to each turbine unit may be provided for the entire length or a single penstock of bigger diameter
for the most part of its length and then bifurcated to number of penstocks for each turbine unit
near the power house.
Head
Gates
Head
Gates
DAM
DAM
Canal
Forebay
Canal
Penstocks
Forebay
Penstocks
P.H
P.H
Tailrace
Tailrace
River flow
River flow
(f)
(g)
Fig: 7.3 Different options of Concentrated and Divided Fall arrangement
228
Head
Gates
DAM
DAM
Head
Gates
Penstocks
Canal
Forebay
P.H
Penstocks
Tailrace
River flow
P.H
Tailrace
River flow
(k)
(h)
Fig: 7.3 Different types of Divided Fall arrangement
7.5
GOVERNING OF AN IMPULSE TURBINE (PELTON WHEEL)
In actual practice, power load on the generator is always fluctuating. This fluctuating
load on the generator will affect the turbine speed because the generator is directly coupled to the
turbine. During night the load will increase (when all the lights are switched on) and will reduce
the turbine speed consequently the generator will produce low voltage. Therefore to produce same
voltage at different loads, the speed of the turbine must be kept constant. The speed of the turbine
is dependant on water striking the turbine blades. Hence water flow rates have to be varied to
keep the turbine running at uniform speed under all electric loads on the generator. The process of
controlling the flow (according to the changing load conditions), is known as governing of the
turbine. Though there are many methods of governing an impulse turbine, yet the Servomotor
method or Relay cylinder method is commonly used these days which is discussed below:
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The Servomotor method is a mechanism consisting of the following parts as shown in

Fig. 7.4.
1. Centrifugal governor,
2. Control valve,
3. Servomotor,
4. Gear pump,
5. Oil sump,
6. Spear or needle, and
7. A set of pipes, connecting oil sump with control valve, and control valve with relay
cylinder.
The centrifugal governor is driven from the main shaft of the turbine, either by belt or
gear arrangement. The control valve controls the direction of flow of the liquid (which is pumped
by gear pump from the oil sump) either in pipe AA or BB. The servomotor or relay-valve has a
piston (whose motion, towards left or right, depends upon the pressure of the liquid flowing
through the pipes AA or BB) is connected to a spear or needle, which reciprocates inside the
nozzle as shown in Fig. 7.4.
When the turbine is running at its normal speed, the positions of piston (in a servomotor
or relay cylinder), control valve and fly balls of centrifugal governor will be in their normal
positions as shown in the figure. The oil pumped by the gear pump, into the control valve, will
come back to the oil sump as the mouths of both the pipes AA and BB are closed by the two
wings of the control valve.
Now, let the load on the turbine increase, which will decrease the speed of the turbine.
This decrease in the speed of the turbine runner will also decrease the speed of centrifugal
governor; as a result of which, the fly balls will come down, thus decreasing their amplitude (due
to decrease in centrifugal force). This coming down of the fly balls, will also bring down the
sleeve, as the sleeve is connected to the central vertical bar of the centrifugal governor. This
downward movement of the sleeve will raise the control valve rod (as the sleeve is connected to
the control valve rod through a lever pivoted on a fulcrum). Now, a slight upwards movement of
the control valve rod will open the mouth of pipe AA (still keeping the mouth of pipe BB closed).
Now the oil (under pressure) will rush from the control valve to the right side of the piston in the
servomotor through the pipe AA. This oil, under pressure, will move the piston and spear
towards the left, which will open more area of the nozzle controlling the flow to the turbine. This
increase in the area of flow will increase the rate of flow; as a result of which there will be an
increase in the speed of the turbine. When the speed of the runner will come up to the normal
speed, fly balls will move up and the sleeve as well as the control valve rod will occupy its
normal position.
It may be noted that when the load on the turbine decreases its speed will increase. As a
result of this the fly balls will go up (due to increase in centrifugal force) and sleeve will also go
up. This will push the control valve downwards. This downward movement of the control valve
rod will open the mouth of the pipe BB (still keeping the mouth of the pipe AA closed). Now the
oil (under pressure) will rush from the control valve to the left side of the piston in servomotor
230
through the pipe BB. The oil, under pressure, will move the piston and spear towards the right,
which will decrease the area of the nozzle and ultimately decrease the rate of flow. This decrease
in the rate of flow will decrease the speed of the turbine till the speed, once again, comes down to
the normal.
Centrifugal Governor
Fly Balls
Lever
Sleeve
Control Valve
Pivot
A
Gear Pump
Spear
B
Oil Sump
Servomotor of
Relay Cylinder
Fig: 7.4 Governing Of Impulse Turbine
7.6
DIFFERENT TYPES OF HYDROPOWER SCHEMES
Water potential energy can be obtained in many different ways. Depending upon the
mode and availability of water, site conditions and the mode of power demand, following are
different types of hydropower schemes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Pump type
Afflux type
Pondage type
Reservoir type
Aqueduct type
Dam type
Dam-aqueduct type
231
7.6.1
PUMP TYPE
Reservoirs are located both above and below the generator plant. Water is pumped from
the lower to the upper reservoir during the night in order to generate electricity during the day,
when demand is highest. Surplus energy is stored in reservoirs in the form of water.
Peak time
Aqueduct
Power
plant
Aqueduct
Electricity
Thermal/nuclear
Power plant
Night
(water is pumped to
the upper reservoir)
Aqueduct
Power
plant
Thermal/nuclear
Power plant
Aqueduct
Electricity
Fig: 7.5 Pump Type
7.6.2
AFFLUX TYPE
In this case, a natural river flows right through the power plant. The amount of power
generated fluctuates during dry and wet seasons.
Rive
Aqueduct
Power plant
Floodway
channel
Fig: 7.6 Afflux Type
232
7.6.3
PONDAGE TYPE
River water is temporarily diverted to a regulation pond in order to control water

volume; from there it flows through the power plant. Doing so makes it possible to regulate the
amount of power generated over a period of 1-3 days.
River
Regulation
pond
Power plant
Floodway
channel
Fig: 7.7 Pondage Type
7.6.4
RESERVOIR TYPE
Because the reservoirs used here are much bigger than regulation ponds, it is possible to
store enough water to continue to generate power even during dry seasons. This could be
described as a dam or dam/aqueduct type from a structural perspective.
Reservoir
Power plant
Floodway
channel
Fig: 7.8 Reservoir Type
233
7.6.5
AQUEDUCT TYPE
In this case, the river's headwaters are dammed and water is diverted via aqueduct to the
point that is high enough to generate potential energy at the power plant below.
Intake dam
Intake
Regulation
pond
Aqueduct
Pipeline
Floodway
channel
Power plant
Fig: 7.9 Aqueduct Type
7.6.6
DAM TYPE
A dam is constructed in a steep gorge or canyon, and the river that runs through it is
diverted to a manmade reservoir.
Dam
Reservoir
Power plant
Floodway
channel
Fig: 7.10 Dam Type
7.6.7
DAM-AQUEDUCT TYPE
Water kept in a dam is diverted via aqueduct to create a large head drop.
234
Dam
Reservoir
Aqueduct
Pipeline
Floodway
channel
Power plant
Fig: 7.11 Dam-Aqueduct Type
7.7
GHAZI-BAROTHA HYDROPOWER PROJECT
The report of the Ghazi-Barotha hydropower project is given as an example to

familiarize the students about the stages for materialization of a project.
7.7.1
PREAMBLE
Shortage of electrical power is the main hurdle in the economic and industrial growth of
Pakistan. The growth of demand for electrical power is high and the country's ability to install
generation facilities at a matching rate will be a key factor in achieving rapid economic
development. With only limited quantities of indigenous oil, gas or fossil fuels, these additions to
the generation capacity should preferably be based on hydropower so that the ever-increasing
burden of fuel imports can be minimized. Hydropower projects are, in general, economically the
most attractive, since they are based on the exploitation of a renewable energy source.
The Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project is economically highly attractive and the
country needs such hydropower projects to provide cheap electricity and to meet the everincreasing gap between demand and power generation.
7.7.2
THE GHAZI-BAROTHA PROJECT
The Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project will be located on the Indus river downstream
of the Tarbela dam. The Project will develop the hydraulic head available between the tailrace at
Tarbela and the confluence of the Indus and Haro rivers for power generation. In this reach, the
bed of Indus river drops by 76 m in a distance of 63 km.
235
The Project comprises of three basic components: a barrage 7 km downstream of

Tarbela, a power channel of 1,600 cumecs capacity, and a power complex that will generate
power and discharge the water back into the Indus river. There will thus be no consumptive use of
the water. The Project will have an installed generating capacity of 1,450 MW, with an average
annual energy output of 6,600 million kWh.
The engineering study for the Project (feasibility, tender designs and tender documents)
was carried out with funds provided by the UNDP and the Government of Pakistan. The World
Bank supervised the studies in the capacity of Executing Agency and the Pakistan Water and
Power Development Authority (WAPDA) acted as the Government Cooperating Agency.
Pakistan Hydro Consultants (PHC), a joint venture of five engineering firms (National
Engineering Services and Associated Consulting Engineers of Pakistan, Binnie & Partners and
Ewbank Preece of the United Kingdom, and Harza Engineering Company of USA) carried out the
studies. The joint venture continues to provide services for the pre-construction phase of the
Project.
Environmental and resettlement considerations have formed an integral part in the
evaluation of project layout and design alternatives with the result that the Project has minimal
environmental and resettlement impacts. The environmental assessment and social impact
analysis of the Project have been based on the guidelines established by the Government of
Pakistan and the World Bank procedures for environmental assessments given in a series of
"Operational Directives" (ODs). In addition, scoping sessions were held with public
representatives, potential affectees and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to obtain
valuable inputs for the assessment of the effects of the Project.
The review and scrutiny of the Project by two independent international panels of
experts, one technical and the other environmental, has helped ensure that the Project proposals
are technically sound, and environmentally and socially acceptable.
The numbers of dwellings to be relocated due to displacement by Project structures are
relatively small (110 dwellings) and are planned to be relocated close to the original sites. A
detailed Resettlement Action Plan has been prepared by WAPDA consistent with the guidelines
of the Government of Pakistan and of the World Bank, and in accordance with the advice of the
Environmental Review Panel.
The total capital cost of the Project, at September 1993 prices, has been estimated as US$ 1,899 M, including physical contingencies and engineering. The Cost of the transmission link
from the Project to the national grid system has been estimated at an additional US $ 29 M,
including physical contingencies and engineering.
The Project cost, excluding the transmission link, comprises a local component of US $
716 M and a foreign component of US $ 1,183 M. This division into local and foreign currency
components has been based upon the currency in which the expenditure will be incurred.
236
The economic and financial studies have confirmed that the Project forms part of the
least cost generation expansion plan for Pakistan over the full range of sensitivity analyses carried
out. The inclusion of the Project in the expansion of the national power system results in a present
value of savings (at a discount rate of 10%) of US $ 638 M in total system costs.
The Project offers attractive economic returns with an EIRR of 22.0% and an FIRR of
14.9%. These indices are well above Pakistan's opportunity cost of capital. The unit cost of
generation is significantly lower than those of thermal plants.
The Project is thus technically sound, environmentally and socially acceptable, and
economically attractive.
Gilgit
GHAZI-BAROTHA
HYDROPOWER PROJECT
Kabul
River
Tarbela
Dam
Jammu and Kashmir
Islamabad (Disputed territory)
Rawalpindi
Mangla
Jhelum Dam
Mianwali Chenab
Sargodha
River
Peshawar
AFGHANISTAN
Jhelum River Lahore

Ravi River
Quetta
Dera Ghazi Khan Multan
Sutlej
River
Bahawalpur
Rahimyar Khan
IRAN
INDIA
Indus River
Pasni
Hyderabad
Karachi
100
50 0
ARABIAN SEA
100 200km
50 100miles
SCALES
Fig: 7.12 Location of the project
237
7.7.3
NEED FOR THE PROJECT
Shortage of electrical energy is one of the most serious handicaps restricting Pakistan
development progress. The demand for electricity is growing rapidly and requires a considerable
increase in the rate at which new generating capacity is introduced. Measures being adopted to
conserve energy are not expected to have a significant impact on the additional generation
requirements. At present, the total installed generation capacity is about 11,500 MW and the
forecasts indicate that a minimum of 7,000 MW of firm generation capability is required to be
added to the power system by the end of the century.
Peshawar Distt.
To Peshawar
Presently demand is met through a mix of thermal and hydroelectric plants constituting
about 55% and 45% respectively of tile annual energy produced. The thermal generation
primarily depends on oil and gas. The percentage of thermal generation has continued to increase
in recent years, with a noticeable impact on the overall unit cost of generation.
Jahangira
Swabi Distt.
Flow
Tarbela Dam
nd
Indus River
Attock Distt.
Dakhner
Flow
Galla
R S Rumian
Barotha
Khalo
Ghurghushti
North
Headpond
South
Headpond
Hazro
BARRAGE
Ghazi
Road
Gariala
Flow
To Sulemanabad
Topi
GT Road
Kamra Complex
Existing Railway Line
Attock City
Abandoned Railway Line
Lawrencepur
Haro River
Chandghar Mountains
Haripur Distt.
To Fatehjang
Power Channel
To Rawalpindi
6km
SCALE
Power Complex
Fig: 7.13 Project Layout
238
The proposed Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project is designed to have a powerhouse with

5 power units of 290 MW each (1,450 MW in total) and will annually add an average of 6,600
million KWh of energy to the national grid. In addition to this sizable increase in generation
capacity, the Project will also provide a significant benefit as a result of generating maximum
power during the critical period of May-June, when generation from other hydro sources is
considerably reduced due to low reservoir levels.
7.7.4
ENGINEERING STUDY
Engineering study comprised the following stages;
Stage-1: Feasibility study
Task-I: Comparison of alternative layouts
Task-II: Feasibility of the selected layout
Stage-2: Design studies and preparation of tender documents
Task-I: Engineering design of scheme
Task-II: Preparation of tender documents
On the basis of a pre-feasibility study carried out by WAPDA, the Government of

Pakistan and the UNDP, with the World Bank acting as the executing agency, decided to proceed
with studies covering the feasibility of the Project (comprising primarily of a barrage, a power
channel and a power; complex) and the preparation of detailed designs and tender documents.
The studies performed by the Consultants have been periodically reviewed by an
independent Panel of Experts, comprising of Messrs Ivor Pinkerton, S.S Kirmani, Alfonso
Posada, L. Wolofsky, Walter L. Long, John M. McKenna, Khalid Mahmood and Gunter Lein.
Studies related to the environmental assessment and social impact analysis of the Project
have been reviewed by an independent Environmental Review and established for the Project,
comprising of Messrs K. Kawata, J. Kindler and Anis Dani.
7.7.4.1 Layout Study

The purpose of the layout study was to make a comprehensive comparison of alternative
Project layouts; particularly with regard to:
The location of the barrage;

The alignment of the power channel, and
The location of the power complex.
A 5 km stretch of the Indus was examined for possible barrage sites. After a preliminary
evaluation of five sites, two were selected for detailed evaluation.
On the basis of a comparison of technical, environmental and economic aspects the
upstream site was selected for further investigations and the preparation of feasibility-level
designs.
239
For the power channel alignment, careful attention was paid to minimizing the adverse
impact that the channel could have on the communities living along its route. The channel follows
a uniform gradient and, for much of its length, is entirely in cut. A number of alternative
alignments were developed, their costs were compared and the most favorable alignment was
determined. The alignment selected avoids villages and graveyards.
Five different sites for the power complex were studied. These ranged over 8 km of the
left bank of the Indus river upstream of the Haro river confluence. After a preliminary evaluation,
three sites were selected for detailed evaluation. These sites were, studied in sufficient detail to
permit a valid comparison of technical, environmental and economic aspects. On balance, the
Barotha site was judged to be preferable and was selected for detailed investigation and
feasibility-level designs.
The results of the layout study were presented in the Report on Selection of Project
Layout in September 1990. This Report was reviewed by the Panel of Experts, WAPDA and the
World Bank. The Panel concurred with the recommended layout of the Project.
7.7.4.2 Feasibility Study

The scope of the feasibility study covered work required to assess the technical
feasibility, environmental and social acceptability, and economic viability of the Project.
The designs prepared for the layout study were reviewed and refined as additional data
became available from field investigations, and as the engineering, environmental, social and
economic studies progressed.
Environmental and social aspects continued to be given considerable weight in the
location of Project components. Alternative layouts and designs were evaluated keeping
environmental and social as well as engineering and economic considerations in view.
Scoping sessions were held with public representative and potential affectees to obtain
valuable inputs for the assessment of the effects of the Project.
Possible configurations for the power transmission lines were, studied and the most
satisfactory configuration selected.
The results of the feasibility study were presented in the Draft Feasibility Report
(Volumes 1 to 9) in April 1991. The designs presented in the Draft Feasibility Report, and the
studies and data on which they are based, were sufficient for the technical and economic
feasibility, as well as the environmental and social acceptability, of the Project to be demonstrated
with confidence.
The Draft Feasibility Report was reviewed by the Panel of Experts, WAPDA and the
World Bank in May 1991. The Panel concurred with the conclusions of the Report that the
feasibility of the Project had been clearly demonstrated.
240
The environmental assessment of the Project (Volume 7 of the Report) was reviewed in
May 1991 by the Environmental Review Panel. The review found general acceptability of:
The approach used in the environmental and social impact analysis of the structural
elements of the Project, including the location and design approach for the; barrage, power
channel and power complex; the recommended mitigation plan for resettlement and
compensation, and the proposed mitigation plan for archaeological, historical and religious sites.
Supplementary environmental studies undertaken at the request of the Panel were
reviewed and approved by the Panel. The Feasibility Report was finalized in August 1991 on the
basis of the comments received on the Draft Report.
Subsequent to the finalization of the Feasibility Report, it was decided in October 1991
to reduce the capacity of the power channel to 1,600 cumecs as a prudent measure in view of the
limited experience with such large canals. The installed generating capacity was to remain at
1,425 MW, with daily peaking capability provided by head pond storage. The design and tender
documents for the Project were to be developed for this revised channel capacity.
7.7.4.3 Engineering Design and Preparation of Tender Documents

The scope of the design stage of the study covered the development of tender designs
and the preparation of civil works tender documents.
Environmental and social aspects continue to be given considerable weight in the design
of Project components. Further scoping sessions were held with public representatives, potential
affectees and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).
Supplementary environmental studies were carried out, covering the ecology of the
Indus river flood plain, river water quality, public health, animal health, resources of the Indus
river gorge, and archaeological surveys of proposed borrow areas. The results of these studies
were subsequently reviewed and accepted by the Environmental Review Panel.
The development of the tender designs, as well as the design criteria and concepts on
which these designs were based, were reviewed by the Panel of Experts in October 1991 and
February 1992.
Based on the tender designs, tender documents for the civil works were prepared for the
following three contracts barrage and ancillary works power channel and ancillary works, and
power complex and ancillary works.
On the basis of their review of the draft tender documents in July 1992, the Panel
concluded that the Project was ready for international tendering.
7.7.5
PROJECT COMPONENTS
The Project comprises the following three main components:
241
1. Barrage. A barrage located 7 km downstream of Tarbela dam, forming a pond which

allows diurnal re-regulation of the discharges from Tarbela and diverting water into the power
channel.
2. Power Channel. A 52 km long concrete-lined power channel, with a capacity of 1,600
cumecs, located on the left bank of the Indus river and following a uniform gradient to the power
complex.
3. Power Complex. A power complex, located near the confluence of the Indus and Haro
rivers, comprising a forebay, spillway, 25 M cu m capacity head ponds, intake, penstocks, 1,450
MW power house, and a tailrace channel.
Gilgit
Chitral
Indus River
AF
GH
Indus River
TARBELA DAM
JAMMU AND KASHMIR
(Disputed Territory)
Kabul River
ARSAK
es
MANGLA DAM
sl
GHAZI-BAROTHA
HYDROPOWER
PROJECT
aw
hel
ian
helum
ujr
INDIA
henab
D
era Ismail
aho
ais
0
0
avi
100km
50miles
Fig: 7.14 Project Vicinity Map
242
7.7.6
PROJECT AREA
7.7.6.1 Indus River

The Indus river is one of the world's major rivers, with an average flow of 2,350 cumecs
at Tarbela. Natural flows in the river entering the Tarbela reservoir have a large seasonal
variation, with about 83% of the total annual flow occurring from May to September. The Tarbela
reservoir is used to regulate these flows.
Downstream of Tarbela, the Indus river flows in a relatively wide channel until the
confluence with the Kabul river at the start of the Attock gorge. Downstream of the gorge, the
river flows in narrow confines. The Haro river joins it near the village of Barotha and represents
the southern limit of the Project area, about 63 km by river below Tarbela.
7.7.6.2
Climate
The average annual rainfall at Tarbela is about 860 mm, while at Attock it is about 600
mm. About 40 - 45% of the annual rainfall occurs in the two monsoon months of July and
August. The monsoon rainfalls are intense and the maximum one-day rainfall occurs in these
months.
The mean maximum temperature in the entire Project area remains above 30 0C during
April to October. The highest maximum temperature can reach 47 0C during June. Minimum
temperatures during winter seldom fall below the freezing point.
7.7.6.3
Water Availability
The, live storage available in Tarbela reservoir at the time of commissioning of the
Project would be about 9,700 M cu m (7.86 MAF) about 13% of the average annual flow volume.
The releases from Tarbela reservoir are governed by the requirements of the irrigation
system. On average, the Tarbela 10-day releases are above 1,600 cumecs for about 49% of the
time. There is a low-flow period starting from middle of October until early May, when the
natural flows are supplemented by storage releases in order to meet the irrigation demand.
Future availability of water for the Project would be affected by the mode of operation of
Tarbela. This will depend upon the downstream irrigation demand, reservoir sedimentation,
conjunctive operation with Mangla reservoir and implementation of the proposed Kalabagh
and/or Basha dams. Simulation studies have been carried out to determine the water availability
for the Project under different scenarios.
7.7.6.4
Sediment Outflows from Tarbela

The sediment outflows from Tarbela are dependent on the river inflows and the
reservoir operation. At present, the sediment delta is about 14 km from the dam. The
243
sediment discharged comprises clay and silt, and is about 10% of the average sediment
inflow.
9
8
Flow (Thousand cumecs)
7
6
Historical Inflow
5
4
3
2
Historical Releases
1
0
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
MONTH
Fig: 7.15 Historical operation of Tarbela Reservoir

These conditions are not expected to change significantly until the delta reaches the dam,
which may occur around the year 2015. At that time, the amount of fine sediment discharged will
increase significantly, with most of the annual total being released in late May and June when the
reservoir is drawn down.
In the long term after about the year 2045 when the ability of Tarbela to trap sediment is
expected to reduce significantly, the sediment outflows will rise to match the inflows. However,
most of the annual outflow will still be discharged in May and June.
Various sediment control measures have been adopted in the design of the structures so
as to minimise sedimentation impacts. These include self-cleansing velocities in the power
channel, the provision of under sluices at the barrage and the provision of a skimming plat form at
the head regulator. In addition, the construction of upstream dams will significantly reduce and
delay the sand out-flows from Tarbela.
244
7.7.6.5
Geology
At the barrage, the riverbed comprises alluvial sandy gravel and cobbles with some
boulders. Bedrock is exposed on the right bank and has been found at varying depth in some of
the boreholes within the river channel.
The route of the power channel crosses recent alluvial silts and silty sands. Near Kamra
and in the high ground north of Attock city, argillite rock is exposed.
The groundwater level is below channel invert for the first 20 km and between RD 27
and RD 31. Elsewhere, it rises to follow the high ground. Near Rumian, between RD 42 and RD
45, the water table is above the channel full supply level.
At the power complex, the geological succession comprises recent silts and thick
siltstone, Siwalik-type sandstones of varying thickness, and variably cemented sandy gravels.
7.7.6.6
Seismicity
The Project is located in an area near which there are several important faults. The
Operational Basis Earthquake (OBE) has been estimated to be 0.17 g and the Maximum Credible
Earthquake (MCE) to be 0.5 g. The critical Project structures, whose failure could lead to
flooding and loss of life, have been designed for the MCE while all other structures have been
designed for the OBE.
7.7.7
BARRAGE
7.7.7.1
Normal Pond Level
The normal top water level at the barrage should be as high as possible, keeping in view
the effect on the Tarbela powerhouse tailrace, to ensure, that both the pond storage and the head
available for the Project wil1 be maximum practicable. Accordingly, a normal pond level of EI.
340 m has been selected. The pond will have an initial live storage capacity of about 62 M cu m.
7.7.7.2
Floods
For the design of the barrage, the following floods have been selected:
The design flood, to be passed through the barrage with all gates open and the pond at
normal retention level, This has been take as equal to the flood of record at the site, i.e., 18,700
cumecs (660,000 cusecs).
The survival flood caused by a probable maximum flood event, which after routing
through Tarbela, would result in a flow of 46,200 cumecs (1,631,000 cusecs). This will be passed
through the gated waterway of the barrage and through a fuse plug provided within the right guide
bank, with a maximum surcharge of 1.5 m.
245
As an extreme case, the possibility of an emergency drawdown at Tarbela requiring all

of the outlets to be opened rapidly has been considered. The resulting maximum discharge would
be similar to the survival flood but the rate of rise of the water level in the barrage pond would be
faster. There would be sufficient notice for the fuse plug to be breached in advance.
Right Flank
Road Link
Spur
Cunetle
Standard Bays
Fuse Plug
Right Guide Bank
Flow
Indus River
Barrage pond
Control Building
Dividing Island
Undersluices
Separation Dyke
Skimming Platform
Left Guide Bank
G
h
a
Abandoned
Railway Line
Head Regulator
100 0 100 200m
Power Channel
Scale
Fig: 7.16 Barrage Layout
7.7.7.3
Sedimentation
Extensive studies have been carried out of the sedimentation aspects of the Project. In
the initial years of the Project (up to about 2015), before sand starts passing through Tarbela, the
silts and clays will fill the dead storage within most of the barrage pond to about EI. 332 m during
late May and early June, when high sediment outflow will be combined with moderate flows.
Subsequently, as flows increase, during July and August, material will be eroded from the bed of
the pond but the limit of erosion is likely to be around EI. 329 m.
246
After about 2015, when large quantities of clay, silt and fine sand will be discharged
from Tarbela at the end of May and the beginning of June, a residual channel will be created in
the pond, whose cross section will be determined mainly by the dominant discharge from Tarbela
in each flood season.
From July until the following May, almost no coarse sediment will be discharged from
Tarbela. In May and June the large concentrations of sediment expected will temporarily reduce
the size of the residual channel until a balance is reached with the sediment transport capacity of
the steeper channel. This channel will then be eroded by the increasing flows until these reach
their maximum in August.
Simulation studies carried out for typical conditions for the years 2028 to 2030 show
that, assuming that no dam is built upstream of Tarbela during the intervening period, the
maximum concentration of sediment that will approach the head regulator in these circumstances
may exceed the power channel sediment transport capacity for short periods.
Since the high sediment concentrations will occur when the average daily flows from
Tarbela exceed the power channel capacity, that sediment concentrations entering the power
channel will be reduced by the operation of the under sluices, assisted by the provision of a
skimming platform.
7.7.7.4 Barrage Hydraulic Model Studies

The following physical models have been used to investigate various aspects of the
hydraulic design of the barrage:
A river and barrage model at scales of 1: 30 vertical and 1: 120 horizontal;
A comprehensive barrage model at 1: 50 scale;
A sectional model of the undersluices and standard bays at 1: 20 scale, and
A sectional model of the head regulator at 1: 20 scale.
The models were used to study:
The siting and orientation of the barrage structures and embankments in relation to the
main river channel;
Hydraulic characteristics of the principal barrage discharge structures together with their
stilling basins;
Confirmatory testing of tender designs
Operation of the fuse plug, and
Diversion arrangements during construction
7.7.7.5 Barrage Design

The barrage bays will be in two groups, standard bays and undersluices. There will be 20
open-flume standard bays, each 18.3m wide, with a crest level of EI 332.2 m and radial gates. The
247
discharge intensity at normal pond level will be about 37cumecs/m width, which is appropriate
for a barrage on coarse alluvial foundations.
Fig: 7.17 Downstream View of Barrage Model

There will be eight orifice undersluices, each 18.3 m wide with a crest level of EI. 326.0
m. Radial gates will limit the discharge intensity to about the same as that for the standard bays.
This relatively low crest level has been chosen to make diversion easier and to help control
sediment entry into the power channel.
A plastic concrete diaphragm cutoff wall will be provided below the barrage to control
seepage gradients and flows through the foundation alluvium. Uplift pressures will be further
reduced by the provision of filtered drainage wells. Drainage blankets will also be provided below
the barrage stilling basins to reduce uplift pressures.
In order to provide good approach conditions for the flows through the barrage and head
regulator, two guide banks and a dividing island are proposed.
The right guide bank incorporates a fuse plug designed with low sections of its crest
where initial flows will trigger its collapse in the event of the pond level rising more than 1.4 m
above normal retention level in addition, a breaching section with blasting points will be included.
248
The fuse plug will be founded on a rollcrete raft tied into the cutoff. The raft will assist
in protecting the cut-off during the construction phase and will facilitate rebuilding if the fuse
plug is ever breached.
Fig: 7.18 Downstream View of Standard Bays

Model
Crest Asix
Bridge
Gantry crane rail
10 0
10
20m
Scale
Normal pond level 340.00
EL 331.79
EL Varies
Drainage
gallery
EL 319.00
EL 316.00
15.0
32.0
EL 310.00
Drainage blanket
2.50
47.00
Drainage
wells
22.00
56.00
Cut off
EL 310.00
23.00
9.00 17.00
Fig: 7.19 Section of Standard Bays
249
Crest Asix
Bridge
Gantry crane rail
10 0
10
20m
Scale
Normal pond level 340.00
EL 326.00
EL Varies
EL Varies
Drainage
gallery
EL 319.00
EL 316.00
EL 310.00
Cut off
Drainage
wells
Drainage blanket
14.0
EL-305.00
2.50
29.0
47.00
43.00
Varies
8.00 15.00
Fig: 7.20 Section of under sluices

Downstream of the right guide bank, a road on a low embankment will allow traffic to
cross between the barrage and the right bank of the river. This will complete a new road crossing
of the Indus river. The left guide bank will be located on the bank of the river and the low-lying
area behind will be backfilled with excess spoil.
The dividing island will act as two guide banks one for the standard bays, the other for
the undersluices and head regulator.
Downstream of the barrage, a separation dyke and a cunette will assist in developing a
central river channel for flows from the standard bays.
The head regulator will comprise eight bays with radial gates, each of the same size as
the standard bay gates. During the low-flow period, these will control the flow into the power
channel while allowing the pond level to fluctuate in response to diurnal variations in flow from
250
Tarbela. A skimming platform upstream will draw off the lower layers of the approaching flow,
which will contain higher concentrations of suspended sediment.
The performance of the barrage and its principal elements has been assessed in a series
of hydraulic model studies and the detailed designs incorporate the results of these tests.
Fig: 7.21 Downstream View of Undersluices Model
7.7.8
POWER CHANNEL
7.7.8.1 Channel Design

The power channel has been designed as a single, concrete lined, channel to convey
1,600 cumecs from the barrage to the power complex. In developing the design of the power
channel, a balance has been maintained between its width, depth, quantities of excavation, type of
lining, water velocity, longitudinal slope and sediment transport capacity.
The channel will have a bed slope of 1:9,600 and side slopes of 2H: 1V. As a prudent measure,
the depth has been limited to 9 m, which is within the limits of proven experience.
The velocity in the channel, when full, will be 2.33 m/s. The concrete lining will be 135 mm thick
and reinforced. Near the culvert and piers of bridges and super passages, the lining will be
thickened.
251
Fig: 7.22 View of Power Channel Model
N.S.L. Varies
10.00
Servic
e
9.00
Under range
10.00
Servic
e
1.50 Freeboard
Concrete lining
Sumps
58.40
Sumps
10
10
20m
Fig: 7.23 Power Channel-Typical Cross Section
252
To Peshawar
To Jahangira
Flow
Tarbela dam
Indus River
Indus River
Topi
GT Road
Barrage
Dakhner
Flow
Galla
RS Rumian
Barotha
Khalo
Ghurghushti
North
Headpond
South
Headpond
Hazro
Ghazi
Road
Abandoned railway line
Kamra Complex
Gariala
Existing railway line
Power Complex
Power Channel
Attock city
Lawrencepur
Flow
Haro River
3 6km
Scale
Fig: 7.24 Power Channel Layout Plan
7.7.8.2 Channel Alignment

A number of options for the power channel alignment have been considered prior to
selecting the proposed alignment on the basis of environmental, social, technical and economic
considerations.
In the initial reach, up to the Grand Trunk road, the power channel follows a contour
route as closely as is practicable; while avoiding villages and graveyards. At the Kamra complex,
a route for the power channel has been agreed with the Kamra authorities, which avoids all major
facilities but will require the relocation of certain office and residential accommodation.
Downstream of Kamra, the channel has to cross high ground at elevations up to 360 m.
In a part of this reach, the channel alignment passes through rock. The rock is generally rippable
and the route in this reach has been selected to minimize construction costs.
253
7.7.8.3 Under Drainage

In order to ensure that there will be no uplift pressures on the lining, extensive under
drainage is proposed along all reaches where the maximum groundwater level at present is higher
than 3 m below the channel invert level.
In those reaches in which the maximum level of the water table is currently more than 3
m below the invert level of the channe1, no under drainage has been provided. If during the life of
the Project piezometric monitoring indicates that the groundwater level is approaching the
channel invert, tube wells can be installed to maintain the groundwater level below the invert.
Under drainage will be provided at all cross drainage structures.
The under drainage system will comprise a filter layer placed under the concrete lining
along the bed and sides of the power channel. Water collected in the layer will be removed
through pumped sumps at regular intervals. The under drainage system will maintain groundwater
levels below the invert level of the channel and piezometers will allow continuous monitoring
along the entire channel.
Service road
Service road
Pedestrian
Crossing
Nullah
Flow
Nullah
Flow
Power
Channel
Super passage
Stilling basin
LAN
SECTION AA
Fig: 7.25 Super passage
7.7.8.4 Cross Drainage Structures

The channel crosses a large number of nullahs having catchment areas varying from 1 to
40 sq km. For each nullah, flood return periods have been assessed. Some of these nullahs can
254
easily be combined by training works and excavation, so that the design of the channel will
include 45 structures to accommodate nullah flows.
For 18 small nullahs, each of whose estimated 100-year return period peak flow is not
more than 40cumecs, it is proposed to pass the flows into the power channel by means of inlet
structures. Each inlet structure has been designed with a concrete weir and sediment trap having a
capacity sufficient to retain three times the expected volume of sediment that would be
transported in a 100-year flood. The velocity through the trap will be limited so that only fine
sediment is carried into the power channel.
One culvert will be provided at the crossing of an incised nullah. The remaining nullahs
will cross the channel in superpassages designed to pass the 500-year return event. The
superpassages have been designed to withstand rare higher flows, with excess water overflowing
across side weirs into the power channel. The superpassage design has been tested on a 1: 25
scale hydraulic model.
Fig: 7.26 View of Super passage Model
7.7.8.5 Escapes
Five escapes are included along the length of channel. These are of the duckbill or
labyrinth type, designed, to discharge excess flows, e.g., from nearby, super passages, into
suitable nullahs. Each escape has been set above the maximum water level reached following a
full load rejection. This will avoid sudden flows endangering people and animals walking in the
cry nullah beds downstream of the escapes.
255
7.7.8.6 Regulators
The power channel will be operated to avoid unnecessary fluctuations in flow or water
level, as frequent changes in water depth could be detrimental to the life of the lining. Control of
flow and level will be by the head regulator at the barrage and a tail regulator.
The tail regulator, with 4 radial gates, will be operated to maintain a constant level on its
upstream side. The flow out of the power channel into the forebay of the power complex will be
kept equal to the steady flow rate for that day, while water levels in the forebay will fluctuate in
response to power generation requirements.
7.7.8.7 Bridges
An arterial road bridge will be provided for the Grand Trunk road crossing. In addition,
there will be 7 district road bridges, 6 village road bridges and 20 minor bridges. The minor
bridges will permit single-lane vehicular traffic to cross the channel and will be located where
footbridges would be adequate at present. This will allow for the future economic development of
the area along the channel.
A major railway bridge will be provided near Rumian where the channel will cross the
main railway line from Rawalpindi to Peshawar.
7.7.9
POWER COMPLEX
7.7.9.1 Location
Five possible sites for the power complex were identified arid studied. After a
preliminary evaluation, the sites, at Jaba, Dher and. Barotha were selected for a detailed
comparison.
The economic studies showed that the three sites were very similar in economic terms.
The environmental and social studies indicated no significant preference for any of the sites. On
technical grounds, the Barotha site was found to be preferable and was therefore selected.
7.7.9.2 Main Components

The structures in the power complex comprise the following main components:
A forebay at the end of the power channel;
A self-priming siphon spillway of 1,600 cumecs capacity, with energy dissipation in a
stilling basin and a baffle chute;
Two headponds connected to the forebay by low concrete sills which can be isolated by
stoplogs;
A power intake structure with gates and bulkheads;
Five penstocks of 10.6 m diameter;
256
A powerhouse with five 290 MW turbo-generators and ancillary equipment, and

A tailrace channel connecting the powerhouse and spillway to the Indus river close to its
confluence with the Haro river.
7.7.9.3 Power Complex Hydraulic Model Studies

A large physical model of the power complex to a scale of 1: 40 has been tested to
determine the flow characteristics of the open channel sections of the power complex, including
the forebay, spillway and tailrace.
Flow
North
Headpond
Power Channel
Road
To
Dakhner
A sectional model of a single barrel of the spillway siphon headworks to a scale of 1:8
has been tested to evaluate the performance of the siphon. The layout and design of the power
complex structures have been refined on the basis of the results obtained from these model
studies.
Intake
North Sill
Penstocks
Forebay
Powerhouse
Tail Regulator
South Sill
South
Headpond
Barotha
Spillway
Tailrace channel
Haro River
To Attock
Indus
Switchyard
200 0 200 400m

Scale
Fig: 7.27 Power Complex Layout Plan
257
Fig: 7.28 View of Escape Model
7.7.9.4 Spillway
The siphon spillway will bypass any flow from the power channel that will be more than
can be discharged through the turbines or stored in the head ponds.
The stilling basin has been set at a level above the level that would be reached by a flood
of record in the Indus river with Kalabagh dam built:
This will ensure satisfactory operation at all times. The discharge from the stilling basin
will flow down a baffle chute, in which the energy in the water will be dissipated continuously
down the chute.
258
Fig: 7.29 Spillway Longitudinal Section

10.0
EL. 339.00
Retention level 334.00
EL. 334.00
A
P
Normal drawdown level 329.00

EL. 327.00
N.S.L
F2
ZONES EMBANKMENTS AND OTHER FILLS

Zone
A
B
C
D
F1
F2
Description
Sandy gravel
Cobble gravel bedding
Rolled siltstone
Gravel drain
Sand filter
S2
Sand filter
W
Zone
Description
G
Gravel
P
Cobble gravel slope protection
R1, R2
Stone riprap
S1
Rolled sandstone and sand
Rolled sandstone and sand
Random fill
10
10
20m
Scale
Fig: 7.230 Head pond Embankment-Typical Cross Section
259
Fig: 7.31 Section of Intake and Penstocks
7.7.9.5 Head Ponds

The layout of the headponds has been determined by topography. Their combined
surface area will be about 540 ha, with a live storage capacity of about 25 M cu m.
The maximum embankment height above the existing ground level will be about 60 m.
The foundations are generally of low-permeability siltstone and a deep cutoff wil1 not be
required. The embankments have been designed to be safe with a maximum credible earthquake
acceleration of 0.5 g.
Each head pond will be connected to the forebay through a wide sill structure, designed
to minimise head losses in either direction of flow over the full range of operating levels. In the
event that a headpond has to be isolated for any reason, stop logs will be installed, allowing
operation of the Project to continue
Each headpond will have a low level outlet with a Howell-Bunger valve, discharging
into a nullah. These outlets will provide for drainage during construction and for emergency
drawdown.
260
Sedimentation will not affect the headpond live storage capacity for at least the initial 15
to 20 years, and dredging will enable the live storage to be maintained thereafter.
7.7.9.6 Intake and Penstocks

The intake will be a concrete structure fitted with trashracks emergency gates and
bulkheads. Each penstock will be built of a steel liner encased in reinforced concrete. Studies
have shown that the surges resulting from load rejection do not cause negative pressures on the
liner.
7.7.9.7 Powerhouse
The powerhouse arrangement, to house five Francis turbines, follows conventional
practice (see drawing on page next). The powerhouse will beset in a deep excavation and founded
on variably cemented sandy gravels. Access for plant installation will be from the north side, to
avoid crossing the spillway. The range of possible tail water levels is large, from EI. 260 m to EI.
291 m, the latter being the level expected to be reached with a PMF at Kalabagh dam. The
powerhouse will withstand levels up to EI. 291 m.
7.7.9.8 Tailrace
The tailrace channel has been routed to the south of Barotha in order to maximise the
available head at the turbines. Initially, it follows the Barotha nullah, which is deeply incised.
Near the village of Barotha, the channel lies on the far side of the nullah to avoid undue
disturbance to the village and its adjacent land.
7.7.10
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
7.7.10.1 Unit Capacity

The power channel has a design capacity of 1,600 cumecs. The available operating head
could vary between 47 m and 74 m, with normal variations in the range from 60 m to 72 m. Based
on extensive studies of Project operation and costs, the proposed installed capacity is 1,450 MW,
consisting of five units of 290 MW each. The units have a design flow of 400 cumecs at the
optimum gate opening, a flow of about 460 cumecs at full gate opening and a design head of 69
m.
7.7.10.2 Power plant Equipment

The main items of power plant equipment required for satisfactory integration within the
WAPDA system are as follows:
Five 257/295 MW Francis turbines designed for a head range of 47 m to 74 m and a
specific speed of 273.1 rpm (m-kW units):
Five 290 MW generators with 0.9 power factor, generating at 18 kV, 50 Hz at a
synchronous speed of 100 rpm;
261
Five three-phase banks of transformers, ratio 18/500 kV, each three-phase bank
comprising 3 single-phase units of 107.5 MV A each;
500 kV conventional outdoor switchgear configured in one-and- a-half breaker
arrangement;
Powerhouse cranes;
Powerhouse mechanical and electrical auxiliary services, and
A comprehensive control and instrumentation, SCADA and telecom system linked to the
National Control Centre at Islamabad and to Tarbela.
Fig: 7.32 Section Through Powerhouse
7.7.10.3 Power Transmission System

The Project will be connected with the national grid with a new 500 kV line to Peshawar,
and one of the existing 500 kV Tarbela-Gatti lines will be directed through the Barotha
switchyard with an 'IN' and 'OUT; arrangement.
262
7.7.10.4 Gate Equipment

The gates and operating systems for flow control at the barrage, head regulator and tail
regulator will be conventional radial gates, with vertical fixed-wheel gates being adopted for the
power intake structure.
Stoplogs and bulkheads will be provided for installation during inspection and
maintenance of the gates. Stop logs will also be provided for installation at the sills between the
forebay and the two head ponds. Low-level outlet valves and gates will be installed at each
headpond.
For Inspection and maintenance of the spillway siphons, one set of upstream and
downstream stoplogs will be provided so that one bay can be isolated at a time.
Gantry cranes will be provided at the intake and draft tubes for erection and maintenance
of the radial gates, bulkhead gates and stoplogs. A mobile telescopic crane will be used for the
stoplogs at the head pond sills and the spillway siphons.
7.7.11
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS
7.7.11.1 Approach Adopted for the Project

The guiding principle in the Ghazi-Barotha Project has been to maintain close contact
between the engineering planners and the environmental and social scientists from the early
feasibility stage through the Project construction Gradually, the environmental responsibility will
pass from the Consultants to WAPDA's Environmental Cell, which will continue to monitor the
Project throughout operation.
Emphasis has been placed on early identification of environmental impacts at all levels
of planning. Environmental and social considerations have been included in the process of
selection of alternatives, especially during the siting of structures, but also with regard to land
acquisition, design of components, public safety and Project operation. This process has allowed
the planning team to identify and avoid, or at least mitigate, the potentially serious adverse
environmental, social and archaeological effects.
Another major planning activity, important in making the Project environmentally and
socially acceptable, has been early and frequent interactions with the local people, directly and
through government agencies. This has kept the planning team attuned to public concerns and
desires, and facilitated the inclusion of the local population in the planning process.
Scoping sessions were held with the civil administration with national, provincial and
district level public representatives, and, with the local population at the village level. Separate
meetings for males and females were conducted at the village level by social scientists. Meetings
were also held with the provincial government of the NWFP, and non-governmental organisations
(NGQs) such as the international Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
263
(IUCN/Pakistan), the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF/Pakistan) and the Sungi Development
Foundation, a 1ocal NGO.
A focused census and sample surveys were carried out to obtain accurate information on
the actua1 numbers of affectees, their socio-economic status, and the pattern of impact on various
groups (owners, tenants labourers, etc) with special attention to the impact on women.
In line with the provisions of the World Bank Operational Directive 4.01,
"Environmental Assessment", and Operational Directive 4.00, Annex B, "Environmental Policy
for Dam and Reservoir Projects", an independent Environmental Review Panel was established
for the project. The Panel participated in the environmental assessment of the Project, reviewing
reports on the environmental and social studies undertaken and specifying aspects requiring
additional studies. The participation of the Environmental Review Panel is proposed to be
continued through the implementation and evaluation phases of the Project.
7.7.11.2 Environmental Setting

The Project area crosses the, Chhachh and Sarwala plains. The Chhachh plain, which lies
between the Grand Trunk road and the Indus river to the north is a region that is rich in history,
archaeology, and communities that for centuries have drawn their sustenance from the fertile
alluvial soil. The Sarwala plain lies to the south of the Grand Trunk road and is a dry tract of land,
which is poor sparsely populated and dependent on barani (rain-fed) cultivation.
Two other areas will also be affected by the Project. The most significant of these is the
broad Indus flood plain and the riverbank villages on both sides of it. These villages use the river
and its islands for water, fuel wood and grazing.
The other area is the Ghandghar Mountains, which close off the Chhachh plain on its
eastern side. The population of this upland and mountainous area depends on the lowlands for
market, employment, and health and educational facilities. Considerable two-way traffic passes
between this area and the market villages of Ghazi and Khalo.
From the start of the power channel to the Grand Trunk road, there are many villages,
graveyards and shrines. After the Grand Trunk road, the Kamra Aeronautical Complex lies across
the route of the channel. Downstream of Kamra, the land is undulating and there are few villages
up to the Indus river.
The Indus river between Tarbela and the mouth of the Kabul river flows in a braided
channel with a number of islands (belas) which are either temporary or permanent. Some
permanent belas are flooded only very rarely and these support a climax vegetation of trees,
shrubs and grasses. Those located near the river banks are grazed by large numbers of cattle,
while some are cultivated.
The Project area supports no permanent natural wetlands or open water bodies, other
than pools along the Indus. There is little aquatic vegetation in these pools or in the, river.
264
The rich animal life that existed in the Project area early in this century has been
decimated by habitat destruction and hunting. What remains is largely limited to the wilder areas
of the Kala Chitta Range (south of the Project area).
Densities of waterfowl and other water-related birds are not large. The lack of suitable habitat and
the variability of the water regime make it unlikely that the stretch of the floodplain in the braided
channel zone is more than a temporary resting place for water birds on their way to the coastal
wetlands.
The most abundant fish in the Indus are the mullah, mahseer and chaina, which are
caught by fishermen who live on the islands for part of the year. A few families near the river fish
at the subsistence level, using nets and rods.
7.7.11.3 Effects of the Barrage

Downstream of the barrage, the Indus water is used for many purposes, the most
important being watering livestock, washing and some sewage disposal. Little water is taken for
irrigation or drinking, reliance being placed instead on wells and tubewells. Adequate
compensation water will be provided downstream of the barrage through releases from the
barrage supplemented by the provision of tubewells.
The land required for the barrage structures and pond (1,180 ha) is c state-owned.
The effect of the Project on flora and fauna of the riverain area will be minimal. The loss in
riverain ecosystem in the barrage pond is expected to be balanced by the development of an
aquatic ecosystem in this reach and an increase in riverain ecosystem downstream of the barrage
due to reduction in flood peaks.
Riverain fisheries may be affected by the reduction in dry season flows, but with
effective management, the barrage pool fisheries will replace this loss.
At present, the Indus river is eroding the lands of the villages on the left bank
downstream of the barrage site. The barrage will significantly reduce this attack.
The provision of a new crossing of the Indus river, much shorter and more convenient than the
crossing over the Tarbela dam, will be an important regional benefit, in addition to boosting the
economy of adjacent villages.
7.7.11.4 Effects of the Power Channel

By avoiding villages, graveyards and shrines, the potential adverse environmental effects
of the power channel have been minimized.
The channel alignment is substantially in cut, so that a total of about 70 M cu m of
excess spoil will have to be disposed of. The proposal for the disposal of spoil has been designed
to avoid excessive costs in hauling the material over long distances, whilst providing an
environmentally satisfactory permanent solution.
265
The spoil will be used for banks providing additional channel freeboard, concrete
aggregates construction of spoil banks along the power channel, terracing of wasteland,
reclamation of land along the left bank of the Indus river, and filling of deep gullies and nullahs.
The spoil banks and terraces will be levelled, covered with topsoil, provided with tubewell
irrigation and resold to interested affectees.
Fig: 7.33 Typical Spoil Banks

The major impact of the power channel thus centres on the land required for its
construction and the disposal of excess spoil. Extensive village surveys have been carried out to
ascertain the views of potential affectees. These have shown that some of the affected people
would prefer to have land for land, but would not wish to move elsewhere. Since much of the land
is barani, many people would be prepared to work with less land if it were irrigated by tubewells.
Therefore, of the 2,640 ha to be acquired for the power channel and spoil banks, about
1,640 ha will be developed for irrigated agriculture and resold to the affectees.
As a safety measure, chain link fencing will separate the channel from populated areas.
Other safety measures will include cattle grids to prevent livestock from wandering on to the
service roads, high kerbs on the channel side of the service roads to prevent traffic being driven
close to the channel1s edge, handrails at points of public access, and frequent floating booms and
grab rails to assist in climbing out of the power channel.
There will be a total of 47 crossings of the channel, somewhat closer together in the
more populous upstream region. Most of these are 1ocated at the traditional crossing points. Thus
the impact on pedestrian, livestock and vehicular traffic will be minimal.
266
7.7.11.5 Effects of the Power Complex

The head ponds and their embankments will require about 636 ha of poor, rain-fed
agricultura1 land and woodland. The power complex structures, switchyard and tailrace will take
a further 214 ha of land.
About 100 ha will be required for the power complex colony and access roads. The
effects of taking this land will be mitigated by the development of tubewell-irrigated agriculture
on the more fertile river terraces.
The irrigated land near Barotha village, which takes its water from the small perennial
flows in Barotha nullah, will have its supplies safeguarded. The head ponds will provide
opportunities for fishery development.
New roads will be constructed to link the villages with the secondary road system. A
road bridge across the tailrace channel will ensure that the present access between Barotha village
and its lands to the south of the Barotha nullah will be maintained.
7.7.11.6 Potential Effects on Health

Possible causes of changes in the health of the local population are the creation of the
barrage pond the head ponds at the power complex, the reduction in low- season flows in the
Indus down to the confluence with the Kabul river, and the high-velocity flows in the power
channel.
Malaria mosquitoes presently breed in pools along the Indus riverbed, and in
waterlogged depressions in the Chhachh plain. The Project will reduce the former and perhaps the
latter. The barrage ponds and the head ponds will be poorly suited to mosquito breeding but, if
this becomes a nuisance, the larvae could be dislodged by rapidly varying the water level by 0.3
to 1 m.
Oriental sore could become a problem among construction workers but can be readily
controlled by destroying rodent burrows, using residual insecticides inside dwellings and other
measures.
7.7.11.7 Archaeological Sites

A survey of archaeological, historical and religious sites was conducted as a part of the
Project study. There are several mounds along the channel corridor. Two of these are of
archaeological interest and will be excavated beforehand. Another site lies in an area to be
covered by spoil banks and will be protected. Fourteen graves and a mosque located along the
power channel alignment will be moved to an adjacent location by WAPDA after obtaining a
religious pronouncement.
267
Only one significant cultural property has been identified in the proposed borrow areas
and this area will not be used as a source of material for the Project.
The environmental mitigation and monitoring program includes procedures to be
adopted if any archaeologically significant properties are uncovered during the construction
activities, and all construction contracts will contain these provisions.
7.7.11.8 Resettlement Action Plan

A detailed Resettlement Action Plan, consistent with the guidelines of the Government
of Pakistan and the provisions of the World Bank Operational Directive 4.30, "Involuntary
Resettlement", has been prepared by WAPDA under the advice of the Environmental Review
Panel.
The Resettlement Action Plan provides entitlements to persons who lose their land or
other property as well as to those others whose livelihood is directly affected by the acquisition of
land. The Plan incorporates the land for redeveloped land procedure aimed at using the surplus
spoil generated by the construction of the power channel to create more productive farmland than
was generally present before the Project. This means developing the land by providing permanent
tube well irrigation and aims to improve the productivity of redeveloped spoil areas sufficiently to
accommodate those who will have permanently lost their land to this channel right-of-way.
Providing redeveloped land and irrigation on leveled spoil areas will eliminate the need for a
costly out-of-area resettlement program.
A total of 4,770 hectares of land will be required for the construction of the Project. Of
this total, 3,130 hectares will be permanently acquired for the physical components of the project,
while 1,640 hectares will be temporarily acquired for building spoil banks along the power
channel. About 1,313 hectares of the land required for the construction of the Project is stateowned. Thus the net loss of privately owned land to the Project will be 1,817 hectares.
Most of the privately owned land to be taken by the Project, about 81.9%, is barani land
(rain-fed). The next largest category is uncultivable (14.7%), followed by irrigated land (3.4%),
A study of the productivity potential of the spoil banks has shown that the productivity
of the irrigated spoil banks should be up to four times that of barani lands in the area. Thus the
productivity of the 1,640 hectares of spoil banks should be nearly doubled that of the 3,456
hectares of land being acquired.
The privately owned land to be acquired has a total of 19,875 owners. The large number
of owners is due to the multiplicity of ownership resulting from inheritance over a number of
generations. The average cultivable landholding being acquired is less than 0.2 ha per owner,
The size of landholding being lost by the majority of these owners is so small that the
resulting loss of income will not significantly affect their total income. The vast majority of these
owners (16,463) have landholdings in addition to the land being acquired, with the average size of
268
this additional landholding being 2.7 ha. The number of owners who will be losing all of their
landholding is 3,412. Of these, less than 100 do not have significant other sources of income.
All persons losing irrigated and barani land will be entitled to both cash and land
compensation. Cash compensation will be based on the market value of land plus an additional
15% as compensation for compulsory acquisition of the land. Losers of irrigated land will be
entitled to purchase, at barani rates, the same amount of irrigated land on the spoil banks as they
lost to the Project. Losers of barani land will be entitled to purchase half the amount of irrigated
land on the spoil banks that they lost to the Project, at the same rate. The savings in cash
compensation will be used to support their households until irrigated land becomes available on
the spoil banks and to provide resources to invest in their new farms.
In order to minimize the period during which affectees will be deprived of agricultural
income, they will be permitted to farm the land, even after WAPDA has taken possession, until
the land is required for construction. Thus the period for which affectees will not have land for
cultivation will be less than two years.
A total of 110 dwellings will have to be relocated due to displacement by Project
structures and resettlement will be accomplished close to the original sites of the houses. Three
model villages for resettling affected families will be developed near the power channel alignment
as part of the Project. Compensation for immovable property will be based on replacement cost,
and moving expenses will also be paid.
The Project will provide opportunities for employment for local people during
construction and operation, and the Resettlement Action Plan provides the mechanism for
achieving this.
Village landless groups losing their household livelihoods due to land acquisition will
receive special consideration both in work opportunities, as holders of high priority work permits,
and in the programs of vocational training, credit and self-employment generation.
WAPDA will underwrite the preparation of an integrated regional development plan
with a mandate to facilitate the economic development of the Project region and providing small
scale inputs for such development. The plan will include specific programs for women and other
vulnerable groups.
7.7.11.9 Monitoring of Land Resources

The critical area of land sources requiring monitoring wil1 be the spoil areas and the
river banks to identify possible excessive erosion, cropping problems and failure of the land to
reenter, the agricultural system.
Although the Project is expected to have a negligible effect on the riverain morphology
and ecosystem, these aspects will also be monitored.
269
7.7.11.10 Monitoring of Water Resources

A regular program of water quality analysis will be conducted; in cooperation with local
and regional health authorities, to ensure that compensation water releases are sufficient to
maintain dry season water quality in the river downstream of the barrage.
Groundwater will also be monitored. The most important issues included in the
monitoring programme are the groundwater recharge from the, barrage pond, changes in
groundwater movement that maybe caused by the power channel and seepage from the headponds
and the power channel. Moreover, the power channel under drainage system may affect water
levels in wells falling within the effective zone. All of these aspects will be monitored on a
regu1ar basis throughout the Project life.
7.7.11.11 Monitoring of Biological Resources

The ecosystem of the braided channel zone will be monitored to assess the change in
plant succession. The grazing trend will also be monitored and mitigation actions taken if
deterioration of the ecosystem is observed.
The monitoring program will include monitoring of fish, other aquatic species, birds and
other wildlife in the barrage pond, the Indus river below Ghazi, and the head ponds and adjacent
habitat near the power complex.
7.7.11.12 Monitoring of Social Effects

The Project's mitigation and monitoring program cannot be a panacea for all the
problems that may emerge in the Project area. But the program can seek to mitigate those direct
effects of the Project that have been anticipated and seek timely intervention in those that have
not. Monitoring will therefore be also carried out to ensure that social mitigations and safeguards
are implemented.
7.7.12
PROJECT OPERATION
The normal operation of the Project will be straightforward and will comprise:
Discharging excess flows through the barrage during the high-flow period when the
average daily discharge exceeds the power channel capacity;
Re-regulating the daily peaking discharges from, Tarbela within the barrage pond during
the low-flow period.
Releasing a constant flow into the power channel, by appropriate operation of the head
regulator gates, equal to the average daily release from Tarbela less water discharged
through the barrage, water lost through seepage and water provided to the existing Pehur
canal upstream of the barrage;
Maintaining full supply level at the downstream end of the power channel, by
appropriate operation of the tail regulator gates;
270
Operating the turbines at higher discharges during peak hours, automatically drawing on
water stored in the head ponds, and,
Outside peak hours, reducing turbine output in order to allow the flow in the channel to
refill the head ponds before the next peak demand period.
The operation of the barrage gates will also take into account the need for flushing
sediment from the barrage pond and reducing sediment entry into the power channel.
Fig: 7.34 Monthly Power and Energy Generation
271
The resulting patterns of maximum power, base load energy and total energy generation
on a period by period basis for average hydrology are shown above. The maximum power
available in May and June indicates the contribution of the Project to meeting the annual system
peak demand, which occurs in this period.
The monitoring and maintenance requirements for the Project have been studied and
appropriate provisions, including staff colonies, have been incorporated.
7.7.13
PROJECT CONSTRUCTION
7.7.13.1 Construction Access

The main road approach to the Project will be from the Rawalpindi-Peshawar Grand
Trunk road.
The Lawrencepur- Tarbela road on the left bank and the Jehangira-Topi road on the right
bank run close to the barrage site and both provide links to the Grand Trunk road. These existing
roads, which are connected by the road passing via Tarbela dam, provide access to the two banks
of the river in the barrage area.
The contractor will have to build temporary access roads alongside the power channel
for, construction access to, various parts of the Site, though some points would also be accessible
from the existing road network.
The main access route to the power complex will be from the Grand Trunk road at the
Kamra aeronautical complex via the outskirts of Attock city, which will be bypassed. The
delivery of construction plant and materials will generate heavy traffic, and some of the existing
roads will need to be rebuilt to provide adequate width, grade and curvature.
7.7.13.2 Land Acquisition and Preparatory Works

In order to enable the contractor(s) to undertake the main construction activities without
loss of time, certain preliminary works will be completed ahead of the award of the main
contract(s) for the civil works. These include:
Acquisition of land for the barrage, power channel, power complex, access toads and
areas for the permanent and temporary colonies, offices, workshops, warehouses and
yards;
Provision of power supply, including substations, and telecommunication facilities at the
barrage, power complex and power channel construction sites, and
Construction of the new access road to the power complex site, bypassing Attock city.
272
Fig: 7.35 Access Roads

In addition, construction of the permanent colonies and offices for operation of the barrage,
power channel and power complex will also be started beforehand so that they can be used by the
construction supervision staff of WAPDA and the Consultants during the construction stage, and
the Contractor's senior staff during the initial stages of construction.
The required relocation works (shifting of roads, power lines, gas pipeline, telephone line,
etc) will also be carried out at an early stage.
7.7.13.3 Construction Schedule

A CPM analysis has been carried out to develop the construction schedule for the
Project, which has been based upon a detailed study of the construction methods, plant, and
equipment required to perform economically the construction activities within an appropriate time
span.
273
The estimated principal quantities of work are:

Excavation
Fill materials and filters
Channel lining
Concrete structures
105 M cu m
24 M cu m
0.8 M cu m
1.9 M cu m
The overall program for the Project is shown below in the form of a bar chart.
Activity
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Year 8
Year 5
Year 6
J M M J S N J M M J S NJ M M J S N J M M J S N J M M J S NJ M M J S NJ M M J S N
LAND CQUISITION
RELOCATION
PREPARATORY
WORKS
BARRAGE
POWER CHANNEL
POWER COMPLEX
UNITS
1 2 3 4 5
LEGEND:
UNIT 1
First Unit Commissioned

Contract Award
Fig: 7.36 Project Construction Schedule

The first unit will be commissioned 4 years and 8 months after award of the main
contracts, and the fifth unit 8 months later.
In developing this program, the following factors have been taken into account:
Construction of the barrage and head regulator will be closely linked to the periods of
high flows in the Indus. Two diversions will be necessary, one for the undersluices and head
regulator, the second for the standard bays. Thus the minimum period for construction will be
four years and 3 months, including mobilization.
274
The critical path for the power channel lies through the completion of the excavation and
lining. Special earthmoving plant will be required to move nearly 76 M cu m of material and
dispose of it properly and special plant will be required to trim the excavation and line the
channel. The schedule allows for relevant cross drainage works to be completed before each
monsoon season to avoid the risk of floods damaging the excavated channel.
The construction of the power complex has been estimated to take longer than the other
components of the Project and thus influences the overall completion period of the Project.
The time needed for the design, model testing, building and delivery of the turbines will require
the tenders for this contract to be awarded within three months of the main civil contract(s).
7.7.14
COST ESTIMATES
Cost estimates have been prepared for the Project on the basis of analytical heavyconstruction methods, and detailed estimates of the quantities of the principal items of excavation
and fill concrete, steelwork, plant and equipment required for each element of the Project. In
addition the necessary ancillary works, permanent colonies, land required and mitigation works
have been estimated and costed. The total capital cost of the Project, at September 1993 prices,
has been estimated as US $ 1,899 M, including physical contingencies and engineering the cost of
the transmission link, from the Project to the national grid system has been estimated at an
additional US $ 29 M, including physical contingencies and engineering.
The Project cost, excluding the transmission link, comprises a local component of US $
716 M and a foreign component of US $ 1,183 M. This division into local and foreign currency
components has been based upon the currency in which the expenditure will be incurred.
The relative cast of each component at the project is as follows:
Engineering and Administration 7.4%
Physical Contingencies 7.3%
Power Complex 36.6%
Land and Relocation 4.2%
Preparatory Works 1.2%
Barrage 15.7%
Power Channel 27.6%
The Project costs, and the yearly expenditures with price contingencies, are given in the
following Tables.
275
7.7.14.1 Cost Tables

Table 1
Summary of project cost
Based on September 1993 prices
(US $ 1.00 = Rs. 30.0)
ESTIMATED COST
Expressed in US $ M
Expressed in Rs. M
Local
currency
component
Foreign
currency
component
Total
Local
currency
component
Foreign
currency
component
Total
Land,
Relocation &
Resettlement
80.29
0.23
80.52
2,408.70
6.90
2,415.60
Preparatory
works
21.67
0.65
22.32
650.10
19.50
669.60
Barrage
121.86
176.78
297.64
3655.80
5273.40
8929.20
Power channel
192.79
331.13
523.92
5783.70
9933.90
15717.60
Power
complex
194.35
500.69
695.04
5830.50
15020.70
20851.20
Subtotal
610.96
1008.48
1619.44
18328.80
30254.40
48583.20
Physical
contingencies
52.37
86.71
139.08
1571.10
2601.30
4172.40
Total
663.33
1095.19
1758.52
19899.90
32855.70
52755.60
Engineering
and
Administration
@ 8%
53.07
87.62
140.69
1592.10
2628.60
4220.70
Total project
cost
716.40
1182.81
1899.21
21492.00
35484.30
56976.30
Description
Note:
Contingencies have been applied at 5% to land, relocation & resettlement preparatory works and
basic M & E cost, and 10% to the civil works of the barrage, power channel and power complex.
The base cost in this table does not include transmission cost of US$ 29.20 M.
276
Table 2
Yearly expenditures (US $ m)
(Excluding interest during construction)
(September 1993 price level)
Description
199394
199495
199596
199697
199798
199899
19992000
Total
Local currency
component
14.09
62.46
98.56
153.53
235.54
150.28
1.94
716.40
Foreign
currency
component
0.00
0.73
102.87
322.74
430.52
283.05
42.90
1182.81
Project cost
without price
contingencies
14.09
63.19
201.43
476.27
666.06
433.33
44.84
1899.21
Local price
contingencies
0.20
2.03
5.94
14.62
31.45
26.03
0.42
80.69
Foreign price
contingencies
0.00
0.02
6.20
30.72
57.49
49.03
9.19
152.65
Total price
contingencies
0.20
2.05
12.14
45.34
88.94
75.06
9.61
233.34
14.29
64.49
104.50
168.15
266.99
176.31
2.36
797.09
0.00
0.75
109.07
353.46
488.01
332.08
52.09
1335.46
14.29
65.24
213.57
521.61
755.00
508.39
54.45
2132.55
Local currency
component
with price
contingencies
Foreign
currency
component
with price
contingencies
Total project
cost with price
contingencies
Note:
Yearly expenditures are based on award of civil works contract by May 1995.
Price contingencies are based on the annual inflation rates provided by the World Bank (2.79%,
2.27%, 3.09% and 3.5% onward starting from year 1993/94).
The base cost in this table does not include transmission cost of US $ 29.20 M.
277
Table 3
Yearly expenditures including transmission link (US $ m)
(Excluding interest during construction)
(September 1993 price level)
Description
199394
199495
199596
199697
199798
199899
19992000
Total
Local currency
component
14.09
62.46
98.56
153.53
238.46
153.18
1.94
722.22
Foreign
currency
component
0.00
0.73
102.87
322.74
442.21
294.74
42.90
1206.19
Project
cost
without price
contingencies
14.09
63.19
201.43
476.27
680.67
447.92
44.84
1928.41
Local
price
contingencies
0.20
2.03
5.94
14.62
31.84
26.53
0.42
81.58
Foreign price
contingencies
0.00
0.02
6.20
30.72
59.05
51.05
9.19
156.23
Total
price
contingencies
0.20
2.05
12.14
45.34
90.89
77.58
9.61
237.81
Local currency
component
with
price
contingencies
14.29
64.49
104.50
168.15
270.30
179.71
2.36
803.80
0.00
0.75
109.07
353.46
501.26
345.79
52.09
1362.42
14.29
65.24
213.57
521.61
771.56
525.50
54.45
2166.22
Foreign
currency
component
with
price
contingencies
Total project
cost with price
contingencies
Note:
Yearly expenditures are based on award of civil works contract by May 1995.
Price contingencies are based on the annual inflation rates provided by the World Bank (2.79%,
2.27%, 3.09% and 3.5% onward starting from year 1993/94).
The base cost in this table does not include transmission cost of US $ 29.20 M.
278
7.7.15
PROJECT ECONOMIC STUDIES
7.7.15.1 Methodology
Comprehensive economic and financial studies have been carried out for the GhaziBarotha Project with the objectives of:
Identifying the economically optimum Project in terms of the main physical features and
method of operation;
Confirming that the Project forms part of the least cost generation expansion plan for
Pakistan;
Estimating the Project economic internal rate of return (EIRR);
Preparing a financial analysis including estimation of the financial internal rate of return
(FIRR), and
Determining the sensitivity of Project selection and of the Project economics to a range
of key variables.
The basis for selecting the economically optimull1 Project, has been to examine
alternative schemes in the context of their role in the expansion and operation of the Pakistan
power system for each Project option, a least- cost generation expansion sequence has been
computed including that option, and the present value of expanding and operating the power
system has been compared with those computed for other options. The scheme which results in
the lowest present value calculated at the test discount fate is then taken as the economically
optimum option.
The cost-benefit analysis has been carried out using established methods for estimating
power benefits, based on additional tariff revenues and fuel savings achieved as a consequence of
commissioning the Project compared to the situation with no suitable Project built. The
economic benefits also include an element of consumer surplus to reflect the economic value to
consumers of the electricity sold.
Estimates of the future demand for power and energy were provided by WAPDA,
together with performance data for existing thermal plant and future plant including hydropower
options.
The effects of both an early and a delayed construction of Kalabagh dam have been
studied. Sensitivity studies have been carried out to assess the effect of variations in the key
inputs on the Project optimization and economics.
7.7.15.2 Results
The optimization studies have shown that the Project is part of the least cost generation
expansion program for the Pakistan power system, This conclusion remains valid irrespective of
the date of commissioning of the Kalabagh Dam Project, and over the full range of sensitivity
analyses carried out.
279
The studies have also shown that head pond storage will be advantageous. The provision
of head pond storage enables additional peaking generation capacity to be installed on the system
at a lower cost than alternative thermal plants.
The inclusion of the Project in the expansion of the national power system results in a
present value of savings (at a discount rate of 10%) of US $ 638 M in total system costs.
The Project offers very attractive economic returns. The Project EIRR is 22.0%,
considerably greater than the opportunity cost of capita1 in Pakistan. The Project has a
benefit/cost ratio of 2.58, and an FIRR of 14.9%. The unit cost of generation for the Project is
significantly lower than those of thermal plants.
7.7.16
PRINCIPAL PROJECT DATA
7.7.16.1 Barrage
Normal pond level
Maximum (survival) pond level
Design flood discharge capacity
Discharge intensity (average)
Survival flood capacities
Gated sections
Fuse plug
Combined
Construction flood
Standard bays
No of gates
Gate size
Gate type
Crest level
Undersluices
No of gates
Gate size
Gate type,
Crest level
Head regulator
No of gates
Gate size
Gate type
Crest level
340.0 m (1115.5 ft)

341.5 m (1120.4 ft)
18, 700 cumecs (660,000 cusecs)
36.5 cumecs/m (393 cusecs/ft)
23,000 cumecs (812,000 cusecs)

46,200 cumecs (1,631,000 cusecs)
8
18.3x8.3 m (60x27 ft)
Radial
332.2 m (1090.0 ft)
8
18.3x3.5 m (60x11.5 ft)
Radial
326.0 m (1069.5 ft)
8
18.3x7.5 m (60x25 ft)
Radial
333.0 m (1092.5 ft)
280
7.7.16.2 Power Channel

Design flow
Longitudinal slope
Length,
Full supply depth
Bed width
Side slope
Total excavation

1:9,600
52,027 m (32,3 miles)
9.0 m (29.5 ft)
58.4 m (191.6 ft)
IV: 2H
76 M cu m (99 M cu yd)
7.7.16.3 Power Complex

Penstock diameter
Turbines Type
Number
Full gate output
Design net head
Design flow
Runner discharge diameter
Elev. of distr'r centre line
10.6 m (34.8 ft)

Francis
5
295 MW
69 m (226 ft)
400 cumecs (14,125,cusecs)
7.0 m (23.0 ft)
256.3 m (840.9 ft),
Generators
No. x capacity
Synchronous speed
5x290 MW = 1,450 MW
1 00 rpm
Headpond & Forebay

Area
Live volume
Full supply level
Annual average energy output
540 hectares (1,334 acres)

25.5 M cu m (20,670 acre ft)
334.0 m (1095.8 ft)
6,600 GWh
7.7.16.4 COST AND ECONOMIC DATA

Capital Cost (September 1993 prices)
US $ 1,899 M
EIRR
FIRR
Benefit/cost ratio
22.0%
14.9%
2.58
281
ABBREVIATIONS
CMP
cu m
cumec
cusec
cu yd
EIRR
EI
ft
GWh
ha
Hz
km
kV
KWh
m
M
MAF
MCE
mm
MVA
MW
NGO
NWFP
OBE
PMF
RD
Rs
s
SCADA
sq km
US $
Critical path method

Cubic metre
Cubic metre per second
Cubic feet per second
Cubic yard
Economic internal rate of return
Elevation (above sea level)
Feet
Gigawatt-hour
Hectares
Hertz
Kilometre
Kilovolt
Kilowatt-hour
Metre
Million
Million acre-feet
Maximum credible earthquake
Millimetre
Megavolt ampere
Megawatt
Non-governmental organisation
North West Frontier Province
Operational basis earthquake
Probable maximum flood
Reduce distance (km)
Rupees
Second
Supervisory control and data acquisition
Square kilometer
United States Dollar
282
INDEX
A
AASHTO, 12, 13
classification, 8, 11, 12, 13, 64, 65, 70, 71, 76,
83, 95, 197
classification table, 12
compaction, 6, 21, 36, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60,
70, 80, 81, 112, 196, 199, 218
Aeolian, 9
Air-voids, 56
Alluvial soil, 9
Aqueduct, 231, 234, 235
Arch Dam, 35, 196
Atterberg limits, 68
B
Backward erosion, 16, 178
Barrage, 222, 236, 239, 241, 242, 244, 245, 246,
247, 248, 250, 251, 256, 263, 265, 267, 270,
271, 272, 273, 274, 276
Blanket, 12, 24, 181, 199, 214
Boils, 16, 17, 199, 203
Boulders, 7, 8, 12, 245
Boundary conditions, 15, 137, 144, 146, 153,
155, 171
Bulk density, 55, 86, 96, 97, 98
C
Canal, 24, 129, 197, 222, 225, 226, 270
Capillarity, 12, 78, 99, 101, 102, 126
Capillary affects in soil, 101
effect of Temperature, 106
Capillary effects in soil
Effect of Angle of Contact, 106
Effect of Dissolved Salts, 107
Effect of Particle Size, 105
Effect of Soil Density, 105
Factors affecting, 105, 109, 224
Height, 22, 23, 35, 38, 42, 46, 61, 81, 96, 97,
99, 101, 102, 105, 131, 187, 196, 197,
198, 202, 205, 224, 260
movement, 8, 17, 99, 102, 125, 133, 178, 182,

183, 185, 186, 196, 199, 201, 230, 270
Capillary effects on soil
Importance of, 102, 133
Capillary Moisture, 61
Capillary rise, 99, 101, 102, 105, 126, 127, 132
Cassagrande apparatus, 94
Central core, 36, 196
Channel, 16, 136, 137, 139, 143, 154, 157, 168,
172, 176, 177, 178, 197, 203, 217, 222, 223,
236, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 247,
248, 250, 251, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258,
261, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271,
272, 273, 275, 276
Chimney drain, 182
Clay, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 41, 50, 51, 53, 56, 60,
63, 64, 66, 67, 70, 71, 82, 83, 87, 89, 92, 93,
97, 98, 99, 114, 129, 187, 188, 199, 200, 244,
247
Coarse grained soil, 53, 61
Cobbles, 7, 12, 203, 245
Coefficient of curvature, 78
Cohesion, 11, 12, 54, 66, 70, 99, 103
Colloid, 13
Colluvial soil, 10
Composite Dam, 195
Compressibility, 14, 52, 64, 77, 211
Concentrated fall, 221, 226
Concrete Dam, 35, 195
Confined Aquifer, 123
Consistency Limits, 63
Constant head permeameter, 112, 125
Core wall, 181, 200, 201
Crest, 23, 38, 39, 42, 45, 47, 280
Cut off wall, 178
Cut-off collars, 203, 207, 208, 215
D
Dam, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27,
29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42,
43, 44, 46, 48, 76, 96, 103, 141, 142, 146,
154, 155, 156, 157, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164,
165, 166, 168, 169, 171, 174, 175, 176, 177,
178, 181, 182, 190, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198,
283
199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207,

208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217,
219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 233, 234,
235, 242, 243, 244, 247, 258, 261, 265, 272,
279
Darcy's law, 108
Decrease of Exit gradient, 180
Degree of saturation, 56, 84, 91, 92, 93, 95
Density, 10, 17, 51, 52, 58, 77, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86,
95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 105, 110, 126, 134
Discharge well pumping test, 116
Dispersed structure, 50
Divided fall, 221, 226
Drain, 12, 155, 169, 186, 201, 210, 214
Dunes, 9, 10
Dupuit thiem's theory, 117
Dynamic Load, 15
E
Effective grain size, 78
Elongated particles, 52
Embankment dam, 43
Equipotential line, 136, 137, 139, 141, 142, 146,
148, 154, 155, 156, 162, 172
Free board, 174, 202, 203, 205
Frost action, 76, 183
Frost heave, 83
G
Gallery, 203
Geology, 211, 245
Glacial soil, 8
Gradation curves, 76, 78
Graded filter, 184
Granular structure, 50
Gravel, 7, 9, 12, 52, 71, 102, 114, 199, 214, 245
Gravitational forces, 13, 17, 61
Gravity dam, 35, 46, 47, 48, 196
Grout curtain, 181
H
Heave piping, 178, 179, 190, 193
factor of safety, 15, 18, 161, 180, 188, 189,
190, 193, 203
Homogeneous dam, 154
Erosion, 11, 16, 18, 19, 176, 177, 178, 183, 199,
203, 204, 217, 223, 246, 269
Expansive soil, 68
F
Film moisture, 61
Flaky particles, 52
Flocculent structure, 50, 51
Flow curves, 74
Flow index, 73
Flow net
application of, 6
Flow nets, 133, 141, 143, 144, 151, 153, 154,
158, 168, 170, 171, 177, 191
boundary conditions of, 155
construction of, 6, 13, 16, 21, 27, 49, 76, 96,
102, 103, 105, 144, 151, 153, 176, 189,
195, 200, 204, 215, 244, 266, 268, 273,
275, 279
properties of, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, 49, 52, 54, 58,
71, 75, 197, 203, 212
types of, 8, 11, 14, 35, 36, 40, 82, 116, 183,
195, 196, 201, 224, 226, 229, 231
Fly ball, 230
Hydraulic gradient, 16, 55, 71, 108, 114, 117,
135, 137, 147, 148, 153, 159, 176, 177, 178,
179, 181, 183, 203
Hydropower, 23, 221, 235, 239
Hygroscopic moisture, 61
I
Igneous, 8
Illite, 56
Impervious blanket, 181
Impervious core, 103, 105, 181, 199, 201
Intake, 22, 210, 222, 242, 256, 261, 263
Internal erosion, 203
L
Landslide, 17, 66
Laplace equation, 133
Levee, 76, 146
Liquid limit, 64, 94
Liquidity index, 70, 82, 94
Loaded filter, 184
Loess, 9, 10, 56
284
M
Mangla dam, 16, 17
Metamorphic rock, 8
Moisture, 6, 10, 11, 12, 18, 21, 49, 52, 53, 55, 60,
61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,
73, 74, 83, 84, 86, 87, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,
99, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 199
chemically bound, 62
content, 6, 12, 18, 21, 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 60,
61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73,
74, 82, 84, 86, 87, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97,
98, 99, 103, 105, 106, 107, 199, 215
film, 61, 62, 66, 67
hygroscopic, 61, 83
O
Optimum moisture content, 70
Organic matter, 6, 7, 12, 49, 82
Organic soil, 204
Over topping, 202
P
Particle size distribution, 54, 75, 76
Peat, 56
Penstock, 6, 215, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228,
261
Permeability, 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 51, 76, 77, 78,
99, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 116,
117, 118, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130,
131, 132, 133, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144,
146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157, 158,
160, 163, 166, 168, 169, 171, 172, 174, 185,
201, 203, 211, 212, 215, 260
factors affecting, 105
measurement of, 81
Pervious section, 201
Piping, 6, 16, 56, 133, 136, 159, 177, 178, 180,
182, 183, 199, 201, 203, 213, 215
backward piping, 177
prevention of, 180
Plastic limit, 64
Plasticity, 12, 54, 64, 68, 71, 72, 74, 75, 82, 83,
94, 95
Plasticity chart, 71
Plasticity index, 68, 70, 71, 94
Poorly graded soil, 82, 83, 109
Porosity, 49, 58, 59, 63, 96, 97, 98

Power house, 6, 24, 221, 222, 226, 228, 242
Protective filter, 183
design criteria for, 183, 202
Protective filters, 176, 183
Pump type Hydropower, 231
R
Radius of influence, 118
Reduction of seepage, 180
Relative Density, 80
Relief well, 17
Reservoir, 6, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27,
33, 39, 42, 46, 48, 105, 142, 160, 171, 178,
195, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203, 209, 210,
212, 221, 222, 223, 232, 234, 239, 243, 244
Residual soil, 9
Retaining wall, 12
Rockfill dam, 214
Rounded shape, 52
S
Safe disposal of seepage, 180
Sand, 8, 9, 10, 12, 41, 52, 56, 60, 61, 81, 82, 83,
84, 97, 99, 101, 102, 103, 109, 110, 123, 129,
130, 131, 136, 174, 187, 199, 214, 222, 244,
246, 247
Sandy soil, 70, 82, 95, 109, 110, 125
Scouring, 19, 21
Seepage, 6, 15, 16, 17, 24, 40, 59, 63, 76, 107,
129, 133, 136, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, 146,
147, 148, 150, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161,
163, 165, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175,
176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185,
186, 187, 191, 196, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203,
205, 206, 207, 208, 214, 219, 248, 270
Seepage studies, 133
Seepage through earth dam, 154
Seepage through earth dams
through homogeneous, 137, 141
Shape, 11, 12, 35, 38, 49, 51, 52, 53, 63, 64, 70,
101, 109, 111, 133, 137, 143, 155, 158, 174,
196, 197
angular, 12, 52
elongated, 52, 143, 152, 153, 168, 173
rounded, 10, 12, 44, 52
Shrinkage, 11, 21, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 82, 83, 111
Shrinkage limit, 64, 69
285
Silt, 8, 9, 10, 12, 26, 39, 41, 44, 46, 48, 53, 68,
70, 99, 114, 195, 199, 244, 247
Sloping core, 36, 196, 200
Social issues, 27
Soil, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 25, 36, 41, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66,
67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78,
80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 94,
95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106,
107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
116, 117, 118, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 132,
133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 141, 142, 148, 150,
151, 153, 154, 155, 158, 159, 176, 177, 178,
179, 182, 183, 185, 188, 189, 190, 191, 196,
198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 212, 264
colour, 11, 12, 33, 49, 65
formation of soil, 6
phases, 49, 56, 57, 264
structure, 10, 12, 16, 21, 25, 49, 50, 51, 52,
62, 65, 66, 71, 111, 136, 146, 153, 159,
176, 177, 178, 181, 195, 198, 199, 203,
207, 211, 213, 215, 217, 221, 255, 256,
260, 261, 263, See
types, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 35, 36, 40, 56, 66, 78,
82, 102, 112, 116, 137, 154, 183, 195,
196, 201, 224, 226, 229, 231
Specific gravity, 49, 54, 55, 56, 84, 86, 87, 91,
92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 126
Spillway, 22, 30, 197, 199, 202, 203, 207, 213,
214, 217, 218, 223, 225, 226, 242, 256, 257,
258, 261, 263
SPT, 81, 212
Static load, 14
Storage capacity, 19, 22, 24, 25, 197, 223, 245,
260, 261
Surge chamber, 223, 224

Swelling, 11, 21
T
Tailrace, 6, 32, 223, 225, 226, 235, 242, 245,
257, 261, 267
Thawing, 6
Toe drain, 182
Topography, 196, 197, 221, 222, 225, 226, 260
Toughness, 75
Toughness index, 75
Transition section, 201
Tunnels, 13, 24, 195
Turbine, 222, 223, 228, 229, 230, 231, 271
U
Unconfined, 117, 123, 153, 154
Unconfined flow, 141, 142
Uniformity coefficient, 83
Uniformly graded, 83
V
Variable head permeameter, 112, 114, 125
Void ratio, 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 60, 63, 80, 86, 89,
96, 97, 98, 110, 111, 125, 127, 132
W
Waterway, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 228, 245
Weir, 137, 176, 177, 255
Well graded soil, 82
286
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 2
2-1.
1085 kg
2-2.
1.085 m3
2-3.
e1 = 0.792
(50 )
( 60 )
( 70 )
= 1.57 g/cc
= 1.61 g/cc
= 1.64 g/cc.
2-11.
e f = 0.344
e = 0.88
m f = 13%
n = 47%
b = 1.85 g/cc
e = 0.57
S = 48%
m = 21%
s = 2.65 g/cc
2-4.
b = 2090 kg/m
S = 93.35%
2-12.
m = 7%
e = 0.69
n = 41%
S = 27%
2-5.
d = 1558 kg/m 3
sat = 1977 kg/m 3
2-13.
e = 1.14
b = 1.90 g/cc
buoyant = 977 kg/m 3

m = 24.2%
s = 2.92 g/cc
b = 1935.21 kg/m 3
n = 53%
S=100%
2-6.
S = 99.3%
2-7.
2-14.
e =0.73
n = 42%
S=100%
rb = 1.98 g/cc
d = 1924.78 kg/m3
n = 27.64 %
S = 90.5 %
2-8.
s = 2.7 g / cc
Ww =148.6 kg = 148.6 Liter

2-9.
d = 1.682 g/cc
2-10.
m = 27%
2-15.
e f = 0.97
287
CHAPTER 3
4-3.
a = 1.47 x 10-3 m3/sec/m
b = 113.5 kN/m2
c = 0.24
3-1.
d = 0.685 cm
3-2.
0.0024 m3/sec
4-4.
hc(max) = 208.33 mm
4-5.
3-3.
Q = 2.625 x 10-5 m3/sec/m

4 x 10-5 m3/sec/m
3-4.
k = 0.069 cm/sec
CHAPTER 5
3-5.
k = 0.057 m/sec
5-1.
(a) F.O.S = 0.65,
(b) F.O.S is already less then 1,
further excavation cannot be made
CHAPTER 4
4-1.
Q = 2 x 10-3 m3/sec/m
4-2.
a = 1.6 x 10-4 m3/sec/m
b = 156.96 kN/m2
c = 0.4
5-2.
Q = 9.33 x 10-5 m3/sec/m , Uplift
press. = 69.75 kN/m2
288

Final Draft Introduction To Soil and Dam Engg. 12-3-2009

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Final Draft Introduction To Soil and Dam Engg. 12-3-2009

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SOIL AND DAMS

Soil Mass Subjected To Different Types Of Forces

Salient Features Of Dams

CHAPTER-II PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Particle Shape And Size

Air Void Ratio Or Air Content

Atterberg Or Consistency Limits

Particle Size Distribution

Relative Density (Dr) Or Density Index (Id)

Multiple Choice Questions (Mcq)

CHAPTER-III CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY

Capillary Affects In Soil

Capillary Movement In Soil

Importance Of Capillarity In Civil Engineering

Factors Affecting Capillarity

Factors Affecting Permeability

Constant Head Permeameter

Variable Head Permeameter

Field Determination Of Permeability

Theory Of Ordinary Perfect Wells (Dupuit Thiems Theory)

Derivation Of Equation For The Co-Efficient Of Permeabilityity K

Multiple Choice Questions (Mcq)

CHAPTER-IV SEEPAGE AND FLOWNET

Importance Of Seepage Studies

Laplace Equation For Two Dimensional Flow

Properties Of Flow Net

Types Of Flow Nets

Anisotropic Soil Conditions

Anisotropic Soil Conditions

PIPING CONTROL AND FILTER DESIGN

Factor Of Safety Against Heave Piping

Design Criteria For Protective Filters

Selection Dam Type

Selection Of Dam Site

Determination Of Dam Height

Component Of Earth Dams

Design Criteria For Earth Dam

Technical Standards For Earthfill Dam

Components Of Hydelpower Scheme:

Factors Affecting Economy Of Plant

General Types Of Plant Layout

Governing Of An Impulse Turbine (Pelton Wheel)

Different Types Of Hydropower Schemes

Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project

SOIL AND DAMS

The moisture content present in the soil pores

Top Soil (Highly Organic)

(Some Fissures in the

Fig: 1.1 Different stages of weathering of rocks and formation of soil.

Fig: 1.2 Sand dunes

Particle edges having positive & negative charges.

Particle surface having a net negative charge

Fig: 1.4 Electrical charge on clay

Table: 1.1 Nomenclature of material (soil type) and range of sizes

1.5 SOIL MECHANICS

1.6 SOIL MASS SUBJECTED TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF FORCES

SOIL SUBJECTED TO STATIC LOAD:

There should be no shear failure of the supporting soil.

Fig: 1.5 Concrete gravity dam

SOIL SUBJECTED TO DYNAMIC LOAD:

SOIL SUBJECTED TO WATER FORCES:

Fig: 1.6 Uplift Pressure on concrete gravity dam