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FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION
(Vertical Stress Increase)
CONSOLIDATION:
Volume change in saturated soils
caused by the expulsion of pore
water from loading.
SAND
Saturated Soils:
CLAY
SAND
DEPTH
Slide 1 of 74
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION
(Vertical Stress Increase)
SAND
CLAY
Variation in Total, Pore water, and Effective Stresses
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1b. Das FGE (2005)
SAND
DEPTH
after Figure 7.1a. Das FGE (2005).
Revised 03/2013
Slide 2 of 74
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION
(Vertical Stress Increase)
Between time t = 0 to t =
SAND
CLAY
Variation in Total, Pore water, and Effective Stresses
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1c. Das FGE (2005)
SAND
DEPTH
after Figure 7.1a. Das FGE (2005).
Revised 03/2013
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION
(Vertical Stress Increase)
At time t =
SAND
CLAY
Variation in Total, Pore water, and Effective Stresses
in Clay Layer
Figure 7.1e. Das FGE (2005)
SAND
DEPTH
after Figure 7.1a. Das FGE (2005).
Revised 03/2013
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONSOLIDATION
(Vertical Stress Increase)
SAND
CLAY
SAND
DEPTH
after Figure 7.1a. Das FGE (2005).
(a)
Initial
Loading
(b)
Dissipation
of Excess
Water
Water takes
Pressure
load
Water
dissipating
Revised 03/2013
Soil (i.e.
spring) has
Soil starts to
no load
t k l
(c)
Final
Loading
Water
dissipated
Soil has load
Slide 5 of 74
Consolidometer
Revised 03/2013
Slide 6 of 74
Slide 7 of 74
1D CONSOLIDATION TESTING
LOAD INCREMENT DATA
THREE STAGES
Stage I: Initial Compression
Primarily caused by preloading.
Stage II: Primary Consolidation
Excess pore water pressure
dissipation and corresponding
soil volume change.
Stage III: Secondary Consolidation
Occurs after excess pore
water pressure dissipation.
Due to plastic deformation/
readjustment of soil particles.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 8 of 74
Vv H v A H v
eo
Vs H s A H s
Slide 9 of 74
1 1
Change in Void
Ratio due to 1st
Loading (e1):
New Void Ratio
after 1st
Loading:
Revised 03/2013
H1
e1
Hs
e1 eo e1
Figure 7.6. Das FGE (2005)
Slide 10 of 74
2 2
Change in Void
Ratio due to 2nd
Loading (e2):
New Void Ratio
after 2nd Loading:
Revised 03/2013
e1
H 2
Hs
H 2
e2 e1
Hs
Figure 7.6. Das FGE (2005)
Slide 11 of 74
Slide 12 of 74
Graphical Method
(Casagrande, 1936)
Where:
c
OCR
Slide 14 of 74
Sensitivity (St) St
qu ( undisturbed )
qu ( remolded )
Revised 03/2013
Slide 16 of 74
Revised 03/2013
Slide 17 of 74
Revised 03/2013
Slide 18 of 74
V Vo V1 HA ( H S p ) A S p A
Where:
Revised 03/2013
Slide 19 of 74
V S p A Vvo Vv1 Vv
Where:
Vvo = Initial Void Volume, Vv1 = Final Void Volume
Vv eVs
Where:
Vo
AH
Vs
1 eo 1 eo
Where:
Revised 03/2013
Slide 20 of 74
Therefore:
AH
V S p A eVs
e
1 eo
or
e
Sp H
1 eo
e
v
H 1 eo
Sp
Figure 7.11. Das FGE (2005).
Revised 03/2013
Where:
v = Vertical Strain
Slide 21 of 74
VOID RATIO
eo
NC Clay
Where:
Cc = Slope of Field Virgin
Consolidation Curve
= Compression Index
Cs
or
Cc
Cr
~0.4eo
v (Log Scale)
Revised 03/2013
vm = o
Slide 22 of 74
VOID RATIO
eo
o
Cc H
log
Sp
1 e0
o
Cs
or
Cc
Cr
ef
~0.4eo
v (Log Scale)
Revised 03/2013
NC Clay
vm
= o
Where:
Sp = Settlement
H = Height of Soil Layer
vm = Final Vertical Effective
Stress
= o - Current Vertical
Effective Stress
= Change in Vertical
Effective Stress
f = Final Vertical Effective
Stress
ef = Final Void Ratio
Slide 23 of 74
VOID RATIO
eo
Virgin
Consolidation
Lines
Cs
or
Cc
Cr
OC Clay
Where:
Cc = Slope of Field Virgin
Consolidation Curve
= Compression Index
Cs (or Cr) = Slope of
Rebound Curve
= Swell Index
vm = Maximum Past
Pressure
~0.4eo
v (Log Scale)
o vm
or
Revised 03/2013
Slide 24 of 74
OC Clay
VOID RATIO
Sp
Cs
or
Cc
Cr
ef
~0.4eo
v (Log Scale)
o vm
C H
Cr H
log vm c log o
1 e0
o
o 1 e0
Where:
Sp = Settlement
H = Height of Soil Layer
= Change in Vertical
Effective Stress
o = Initial Vertical Effective
Stress
f = Final Vertical Effective
Stress
ef = Final Void Ratio
or
Revised 03/2013
Slide 25 of 74
Cc Equation
Undisturbed Clays
Cc 0.009( LL 10)
Disturbed Clays
Cc 0.007( LL 10)
Cc 0.0115Wn
Reference
Terzaghi & Peck (1967)
Cc 1.15(eo 0.35)
Clays
Cc 0.012Wn
Cc 0.01( LL 13)
Varved Clays
Uniform Silts
Cc 0.20
Revised 03/2013
EM 1110-1-1904
Slide 26 of 74
Cc Equation
Clays
1 eo
Cc 0.141Gs1.2
Gs
Clays
LL
Cc 0.2343
G s
100
Reference
2.38
Rendon-Herrero (1983)
Nagaraj & Murty (1985)
Where:
Gs = Specific Gravity of Solids
LL = Liquid Limit (in %)
Wn = Natural Water Content
eo = Initial Void Ratio
Revised 03/2013
Slide 27 of 74
Revised 03/2013
Cc Equation
Clays
1 eo
Cc 0.141Gs1.2
Gs
Clays
LL
Cc 0.2343
Gs
100
Reference
2.38
Rendon-Herrero (1983)
Nagaraj & Murty (1985)
Slide 28 of 74
GIVEN:
1.1
OC CH layer
1.08
1.06
o = 855 psf
1.04
vm = 1460 psf
1.02
= 1005 psf
eo = 1.1
0.98
0.96
500
600
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Height of CH
Layer = 10 ft
Slide 29 of 74
e
Sp H
1 eo
eo
1.1
1.1
Cs
1.08
e 1.11.045 0.055
1.076
1.06
ef
1.045
1.04
eo 1.1
Cc
0.055
S p (10 ft)
11.1
S p 0.262 ft
1.02
1
'
1
S p 3.14in 3 in
4
0.98
0.96
500
600
'o 1000
'vm
'f2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Slide 30 of 74
TOTAL STRESS
()
0
2000
Q = P = 144 kips
EFFECTIVE STRESS
(')
0
2000
PORE PRESSURE
(u)
0
2000
10
10 10
10 10
10 10
10
15 15
15 15
15 15
15
20 20
20 20
20 20
20
25 25
25 25
25 25
25
CL
sat = 105 pcf
15
20
SM
sat = 115 pcf
B = 6 ft SQ
MH
sat = 115 pcf
25
Revised 03/2013
2000
2000
2000
Slide 31 of 74
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
100
Revised 03/2013
200
400
600
800
1000
2000
4000
6000
Slide 32 of 74
TOTAL STRESS
()
0
2000
Q = P = 144 kips
EFFECTIVE STRESS
(')
0
2000
PORE PRESSURE
(u)
0
2000
0
0
' o
A
B
315
525
635
'f
315
60
525
2525 5
575
1455
CL Layer 1
10
CL
sat = 105 pcf
250
980
10 10
730
10 10
1250
10 10
435
1325
10
890
1185
15
CL Layer 2
1670
15 15
20
SM
sat = 115 pcf
625
15 15
1045
15 15
1240
810
2015
15
1205
1345
20 20
2360
20 20
1000
20 20
20
1360
B = 6 ft SQ
MH
sat = 115 pcf
25
Revised 03/2013
1250
2820
25 25
25 25
2000
2000
1570
25 25
0
25
2000
Slide 33 of 74
CL Layer 1
S p1 H1 v1
S p1 (6 ft )(0.065)
S p1 0.39 ft
S p1 4.7in
20
25
30
v1 = 6.5% = 0.065
35
40
45
50
100
Revised 03/2013
200
400
600
800
'o1
1000
'f1
2000
CL Layer 2
S p2 H 2 v2
S p2 0.14 ft
S p2 1.7in
Total Settlement
SPtotal S p1 S p2
S p2 (6 ft)(0.024)
25
30
35
v2 = 2.4% = 0.024
40
SPtotal 6.4in
45
1
SPtotal 6 in
2
50
Revised 03/2013
CL Layer
Sample from 12 ft
20
'o2
100
200
400
600
800
1000
'f2
2000
Slide 36 of 74
Slide 37 of 74
Slide 38 of 74
V
v z
dz
dxdy
v
dxdy
v
z
z
dt
or
v z
V
dxdydz
dt
z
Flow of Water @ Point A
Figure 7.17b. Das FGE (2005).
Where:
V = Volume of Soil Element
vz = Velocity of flow in z direction
Revised 03/2013
Slide 40 of 74
v z ki k
h
k u
w z
z
k 2u
w z 2
1
V
dxdydz t
V
V Vv Vs eVs Vs
e
Vs
e s
t
t
t
t
t
t
Flow of Water @ Point A
Figure 7.17b. Das FGE (2005).
Revised 03/2013
Where:
Vs = Volume of Solids
vv = Volume of Voids
Slide 41 of 74
V
e
V Vv Vs eVs Vs
e s
Vs
t
t
t
t
t
t
Assuming soil solids are incompressible
Vs
0
t
and
Vs
V
dxdydz
1 e o
1 eo
V dxdydz e
1 e o t
t
Revised 03/2013
Combining equations:
k 2u
w z 2
1 e
1 e o t
Slide 42 of 74
k 2u
1 e
w z 2 1 eo t
e av av u
av = Coefficient of Compressibility.
Can be considered constant over
narrow pressure increases.
Combining equations:
k 2u
av u
u
m
v
w z 2
t
1 eo t
Flow of Water @ Point A
Figure 7.17b. Das FGE (2005).
mv = Coefficient of Volume
Compressibility.
mv
Revised 03/2013
av
1 eo
Slide 43 of 74
k 2u
av u
u
m
v
w z 2
t
1 eo t
av = Coefficient of Compressibility.
mv = Coefficient of Volume Compressibility.
mv
av
1 eo
Rearranging Equations:
2u
u
cv 2
t
z
Flow of Water @ Point A
Figure 7.17b. Das FGE (2005).
Revised 03/2013
k
cv
wmv
Slide 44 of 74
u
2u
cv 2
t
z
Can be solved with the following
boundary conditions:
z 0, u 0
z 2 H dr , u 0
t 0, u u0
The solution yields
2uo Mz
u
sin
H dr
M
m 0
M 2Tv
e
Slide 45 of 74
2uo
Mz
u
sin
H dr
M
m 0
M 2Tv
e
Where:
2m 1
2
uo Initial excess pore water pressure
cv t
Tv 2 TIME FACTOR
H dr
Clay Layer Undergoing
Consolidation
Figure 7.17a. Das FGE (2005).
Revised 03/2013
Slide 46 of 74
uo u z
uz
Uz
1
uo
uo
Slide 47 of 74
Revised 03/2013
Slide 48 of 74
2 H dr
S
U t 1
Sp
2 H dr
u z dz
0
uo
Where:
U Average degree of Consolidation
St Settlement of layer at time t
S p Settlement of Layer from Primary Consolidation
Substituting U for u
m
2 M 2Tv
U 1
e
2
m 0 M
For U 0% to 60%, Tv
U%
4 100
For U 60%, Tv 1.781 0.933 log(100 U %)
Slide 49 of 74
TIME RATE OF
CONSOLIDATION
Variation of Tv with U
Revised 03/2013
Slide 50 of 74
Revised 03/2013
Slide 51 of 74
(Taylor, 1942)
Revised 03/2013
Slide 52 of 74
Revised 03/2013
Slide 53 of 74
T50 0.197
cv t50
2
H dr
or
2
0.197 H dr
cv
t50
Revised 03/2013
Where:
Hdr = Average longest drain path
during consolidation.
Slide 54 of 74
T90 0.848
Figure 7.20. Das FGE (2006).
Revised 03/2013
cv t90
2
H dr
or
2
0.848H dr
cv
t90
Slide 55 of 74
5ft
SC ( = 115 pcf)
CL ( = 115 pcf)
SM ( = 115 pcf)
3ft
4ft
6ft
o
Cc H
log
Sp
1 e0
o
S p S p f
o f
Cc H
log
1 e0
o
Where:
f = Change in vertical stress due to Fill added.
Revised 03/2013
Slide 57 of 74
Where:
Sp = Settlement due to structural load.
Sp+f = Settlement due to structural load
and Fill.
Slide 58 of 74
PRECOMPRESSION PLANNING
Mathematical Equations
U
o ( p ) ( f )
log
( p )
log 1
o
U
( p ) ( f )
log 1
o
( p)
Substitution
Revised 03/2013
Slide 59 of 74
PRECOMPRESSION
PLANNING
Where:
Slide 60 of 74
PRECOMPRESSION
PLANNING
STEPS:
1. Calculate primary consolidation
settlement from planned loading (Sp).
2. Calculate primary consolidation
settlement from planned loading plus
surcharge (Sp+f ).
3. Calculate average degree of
consolidation U. Note U = Sp/Sp+f.
Can also use Figure 7.27 or
Eqn 7.56 (Das FGE 2006).
1. Find Tv from calculated U. To find
time to when surcharge loading
should be removed (i.e. t2):
Revised 03/2013
2
Tv H dr
t2
cv
Slide 62 of 74
Revised 03/2013
Slide 63 of 74
SURCHARGING EXAMPLE
SP FILL ( = 115 pcf)
5ft
SC ( = 115 pcf)
CL ( = 115 pcf)
SM ( = 115 pcf)
3ft
4ft
6ft
Slide 64 of 74
Section View
Revised 03/2013
SAND DRAINS
4
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(Kirmani, 2004)
Revised 03/2013
Slide 66 of 74
Conceptual Concept
Courtesy of www.americanwick.com
Courtesy of
www.americandrainagesystems.com
Slide 67 of 74
Courtesy of www.americandrainagesystems.com
Courtesy of www.nilex.com
Revised 03/2013
Courtesy of www.nilex.com
Slide 68 of 74
8Tr
U r 1 exp
Barron (1948)
n2
3n 2 1
ln( n )
m 2
4n 2
n 1
d
de = Effective Diameter
n e
rw = Sand Drain Radius
2rw
cvr t
Tr 2
de
cvr
Revised 03/2013
kh
e
(1 e ) w
o
Revised 03/2013
Slide 70 of 74
Revised 03/2013
Slide 71 of 74
U v ,r 1 (1 U r )(1 U v )
Sand
Where:
Drain
Drainage
Clay
Sand
Slide 72 of 74
CONSOLIDATION MONITORING
SETTLEMENT PLATES
Settlement Rod
(Steel)
Fill Layer
Rod Protection
(Typically PVC Pipe)
Settlement
Plate Base
(Plywood or Steel)
General Concept
Revised 03/2013
Slide 73 of 74
Settlement Platforms
Permanent Fill
Drainage
Blanket
Soft Clay
Vertical
Drain
Firm Soil
Piezometers
Revised 03/2013
Not to Scale
Courtesy of www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov
Slide 74 of 74