Chapter X

Crankshaft design
X.1 Function of the crankshaft:
The function of the crankshaft is to translate the linear reciprocating motion of a
pistons into the rotational motion required by the automobile. This is
accomplished by connecting the pistons to the crank throws, which are offset
from the central axis of the crankshaft to create a rotation about that axis.
Each crankshaft is designed for a specific engine. Using the example of a fourstroke engine, the crankshaft has four crank throws for connecting the four
pistons and is generally connected to the flywheel. During the combustion cycle
of the engine, these crank throws act as a lever arm for the piston to push,
thereby creating rotational motion.
When the crankshaft completes its rotation, the crank throw will return the piston
to the top of its cylinder.
In addition to the crank throws, the crankshaft is also comprised of carefully
designed weights and balances to reduce engine vibration. Either end of the
crankshaft is connected to the engine block by the crank bearings. To smooth out
the power delivery of the engine between the combustion cycles of the pistons, a
fly wheel is also incorporated onto the crankshaft.
X.2 Types of crankshaft:
A crankshaft is composed of the crankpins, crank arms, crank journals, and
driving ends. As a rule, crankshafts are forged in a single piece, but occasionally
they are up. Built-up crankshafts are used in small single- and double-cylinder
motorcycle engines. The enclosed flywheels of these engines take the place of
the crank arms, the crankpin and crank journals being bolted to the flywheels,
which latter are cast with solid webs. The built-up construction also has
advantages when it is desired to support the crankshaft in three or more ball
bearings, as with a one-piece shaft all intermediate bearings would have to be
stripped over the crank arms, and therefore would have to be made extraordinary
large.
A crankpin together with the two crank arms on opposite sides of it is frequently
referred to as a throw. In some crankshafts there is only a single throw between a
pair of main journals or supporting bearings, while in others there are two and
even three or four throws between main bearings.
Based on the position of the crankpin
1) side crankshaft or overhung crankshaft
2) center crankshaft

Based on the number of throw

1) Single throw crankshafts
2) Multi throws crankshafts
A crankshaft with only one side crank or center crank is called a single throw
crankshaft. A crankshaft with two sides cranks, one each or more center cranks
is called as multi throw crankshaft.
X.3 manufacturing:
Great care must be observed in the manufacture of the crankshaft since it is the
most important part of the engine. Small crankshafts are drop forged. Larger
shafts are forged and machined to shape. Casting of the crankshafts allows a
theoretically desirable but complicated shape with a minimum of machining and
at the smallest cost. These are caste using impermanent moulds for maximum
accuracy and a minimum of machining. While machining, the shaft must be
properly supported between centers and special precautions should be taken to
avoid springing. The journals and the crank pins are ground to exact size after
turning. After this, the crankshaft is balanced. Large shafts of low speed engines
are balanced statically. Crankshafts of high speed engines are balanced
dynamically on special balancing machines. Most crankshafts are ground at the
journals and crankpins. In some cases, grinding is followed by hand lapping with
emery
cloth.
Crankshaft used in high production automotive engines may be either forged or
cast. Forged crankshafts are stronger than the cast crankshaft, but they are more
expensive. Casting materials and techniques have improved cast crankshaft
quality so that they are used in most production automotive engines. Forged
crankshafts have a wide separation line where the flashings are to be ground off.
Cast crankshafts have a fine line where the mold parted. The flashings and
parting lines can be used for identification.
(A)Forged crankshaft:
Forged crankshafts are made from SAE 1045 or a similar type of steel. The
crankshaft is formed from a hot steel billet through a series of forging dies. Each
die changes the shape of the billet slightly. The crankshaft blank is finally formed
with the last die. The blanks are then machined to finish the crankshaft. Forging

makes a very dense, tough crankshaft with a metals grain structure running
parallel to the principle direction of stress.
(B)Cast crankshaft:
Cast automotive crankshafts may be cast in steel, nodular iron, or malleable iron.
The major advantage of the casting process is that crankshaft material and
machining cost are less than forging. The reason for this is that the crankshaft can
be made close to the required shape and size; including all complicated
counterweights. The only machining required on a carefully designed cast
crankshaft is grinding bearing journal surfaces and finishing front and rear drive
ends.
X.4 materials & heat treatment:
First we need to know what the consideration we take so the crankshaft should
full fill the following condition:
1. Enough strength to withstand the applied forces such as bending and twisting
moments.
2. Enough rigidity to withstand distortion.
3. Must withstand the stresses due to vibration of the shaft.
4. We should to minimize the weight as we can.
Crankshafts materials should be readily shaped, machined and heat-treated, and
have adequate strength, toughness, hardness, and high fatigue strength. The
crankshaft are manufactured from steel either by forging or casting. The main
bearing and connecting rod bearing liners are made of babbitt, a tin and lead alloy.
Forged crankshafts are stronger than the cast crankshafts, but are more expensive.
Forged crankshafts are made from SAE 1045 or similar type steel. Forging makes a
very dense, tough shaft with a grain running parallel to the principal stress
direction. Crankshafts are cast in steel, modular iron or malleable iron. The major
advantage of the casting process is that crankshaft material and machining costs are
reduced because the crankshaft may be made close to the required shape and size
including counterweights. Cast crankshafts can handle loads from all directions as
the metal grain structure is uniform and random throughout. Counterweights on
cast crankshafts are slightly larger than counterweights on a forged crankshafts
.because the cast metal is less dense and therefore somewhat lighter
Generally automobile crankshafts were forged in past to have all the desirable
properties. However, with the evolution of the nodular cast irons and improvements
in foundry techniques, cast crankshafts are now preferred for moderate loads. Only

for heavy duty applications forged shafts are favored. The selection of crankshaft
materials and heat treatments for various applications are as follows

:Materials

Carbon steel (S.A.E. steel No. 1045)

Carbon 0.43%-0.5%, manganese 0.6%-0.9%, sulphur must not exceed .05%,
phosphate must not exceed .04%.
A suitable heat treatment for drop forgings of this grade of steel is as follows:
normalize at 845 K to 1200 K, reheat to 1060K to 1116 K, quenching in oil and
draw at 1115 K, brinell hardness 225-235.
1%-Chromium-molybdenum Steel
This forging steel is used for medium-to heavy-duty petrol- and diesel-engine
crankshafts. The composition of this alloy is 0.4% carbon, 1.2% chromium,
0.3% molybdenum, and rest iron. The steel is heat-treated by quenching in oil
from a temperature of 1123 K and then tempering at 953 K. This produces a
surface hardness of about 280 Brinell number. For the use of harder bearings, the
journals can be flame or induction surface-hardened to 480 Brinell number. For
very heavy duty applications, a nitriding process can produce the surface to 700
diamond pyramid number (DPN). These journal surfaces are suitable for all tinaluminium and bronze plated bearings.
2.5%-Nickel-chromium-molybdenum Steel
This steel is opted for heavy-duty diesel-engine applications. The composition of
this alloy is 0.31% carbon, 2.5% nickel, 0.65% chromium, 0.55%
molybdenum, and rest iron. The steel is initially heat-treated by quenching in oil
from a temperature of 1003 K and then tempered at a suitable temperature not
exceeding 933 K. This produces a surface hardness in the region of 300 Brinell
number. This steel is slightly more expensive than manganese-molybdenum and
chromium-molybdenum steels, but has improved mechanical properties.
3%-Chromium-molybdenum or 1.5%-Chromium-aluminium-modybdenum
Steel.
These forged steels are used for diesel-engine crankshafts suitable for bearing of
hard high fatigue-strength materials. The alloying compositions are 0.15% carbon,
3% chromium, and 0.5% molybdenum OR 0.3% carbon, 1.5% chromium,
1.1% aluminium, and 0.2% molybdenum. Initial heat treatment for both steels is
oil quenching and tempering at 1193 K and 883 K or 1163 K and 963 K

respectively for the two steels. The shafts are case-hardened by nitriding, so that
nitrogen is absorbed into their surface layers. If the nitriding is carried out well in
the journal fillets, the fatigue strength of these shafts is increased by at least 30%
compared to induction and flame-surface-hardened shafts. The 3%-chromium steel
has a relatively tough surface and hardness of 800 to 900 DPN. On the other hand
the 1.5%-chromium steel casing tends to be slightly more brittle but has an
increased hardness, of the order of 1050 to 1100 DPN.
Chrome-nickel steel (S.A.E. 3140)
Used in the higher grade automotive engines.
0.38%-0.43% carbon, manganese 0.7%-0.9%, phosphorus not over 0.04%,
nickel 1.1%-1.4%, chromium 0.55%-0.75%.
The heat treatment for this steel consists in normalizing at 1143 K -1200 K,
annealing to the desired structure or machinability, heating to 1060 K- 1090 K,
quenching in oil, and tempering at 755 K , brinell hardness 295-305.

Heat treatment:
Flame and Induction Surface-hardening.
These are the surface hardening methods for steel having 0.3 to 0.5% carbons
without the use of special compounds or gases. The basic principle is to rapidly
apply heat to the surface followed by only water quenching. As it is heated locally
instead of heating the entire mass, the hardening is greatly reduced and distortion
of the journal is avoided.
Flame hardening is carried out by oxyacetylene flame at the surface layer
temperature between 993 and 1173 K.
Nitriding Surface-hardening Process.
In this process the journals are heated to 773 K for a predetermined time in an
ammonia gas atmosphere, so that the nitrogen in the gas is absorbed into the
surface layer. The alloying elements such as chromium, aluminium, and
molybdenum, present in the steel, from hard nitrides. Aluminium nitrides form an
intensely hard shallow case. Chromium nitrides diffuse to a greater depth than
aluminium nitrides. The molybdenum increases hardenability, gives grain
refinement, and improves the toughness of the core.
Carbonitriding Surface-hardening Process.

Tufftride is the best-know salt-bath carbonitriding process. The crankshaft is

immersed in a bath of molten salts at a temperature of about 853 K for a relatively
short cycle time of two to three hours. In the process both carbon and nitrogen
dissociate from the salts and diffuse into the surface. Since nitrogen is more soluble
than carbon in iron, it diffuses further into the material. Hard iron carbides and
tough iron nitrides are formed on the surface thereby resistance to wear, galling
(surface peeling), seizure, and corrosion are greatly increased.
Depending on the steel used, this outer layer is 6 to 16 jam deep with hardness
varying from 400 to 1200 DPN. Underneath this outer layer, the excess nitrogen
goes into solid solution with the iron due to which it is strengthened. This inner
diffusion zone forms a barrier which prevents spreading of cracks leading to
fatigue failure.

X.5 Crankshaft Oil-hole Drilling:

Oil from the main oil gallery reaches each individual main-journal and bearing.
Oil is fed through a central circumferential groove in the bearing and it completely
surrounds the central region of the journal surface. Diagonal oil hole drills are
provided in the crankshaft which pass through the webs between the main and bigend journals for lubrication of the big-end journal. For effective lubrication of the
big-end, these oil holes emerge from the crankpin at about 30 degrees on the
leading side of the cranks TDC position. The drilled oil passages should not be
close to the side walls of the webs or near the fillet junction between the journal
and the webs to avoid high stress concentration, which may cause fatigue failure.
Also the oil holes on the journal surfaces must be chamfered to reduce stress
concentration, but excessive chamfering can destroy the oil film.

X.6 Bearing Pressure and stresses in crankshaft

The bearing pressure are very important in the design of crankshaft. The maximum
permissible bearing pressure depends upon the maximum gas pressure, journal
velocity, amount and method of lubrication and change of direction of bearing
pressure.
The following two types of stresses are induced in the crankshaft.
1. bending stress
2. shear stress due to torsional moment on the shaft
Most crankshaft failures are caused by a progressive fracture due to repeated
bending or reversed torsional stresses. Thus the crankshaft is under fatigue loading
and, therefore, its design should be based upon endurance limit. Since the failure of
crankshaft is likely to cause a serious engine destruction and neither all the forces
nor all the stresses acting on the crankshaft can be determined accurately, therefore
a high factor of safety 3 to 4, based on the endurance limit, is used.
The following table shows the allowable bending and shear stresses for some
commonly used materials for crankshaft

X.7 Crankshaft balancing:

Balancing goes hand-in-hand with performance engine building. Balancing reduces
internal loads and vibrations that stress metal and may eventually lead to
component failure.
From a technical point of view, every engine regardless of the application can
benefit from balancing. A smoother-running engine is also a more powerful engine.
Less energy is wasted by the crank as it thrashes about in its bearings, which
translates into a more usable power at the flywheel. Reducing engine vibration also
reduces stress on motor mounts and external accessories, and in big over-the-road
trucks, the noise and vibration the driver has to endure mile after mile.
Though all engines are balanced from the factory (some to a better degree than
others), the original balance is lost when the pistons, connecting rods or crankshaft

are replaced or interchanged with those from other engines. The factory balance job
is based on the reciprocating weight of the OE pistons and rods. If any
replacements or substitutions are made, theres no guarantee the new or
reconditioned parts will match the weights of the original parts closely enough to
retain the original balance.
If the cylinders are worn and a block needs to be bored to oversize, the larger
replacement pistons may be heavier than the original ones. Some piston
manufacturers take such differences into account when engineering replacement
pistons and try to match "average" OE weights. But others do not. Most high
performance pistons are designed to be lighter than the OE pistons to reduce
reciprocating weight for faster acceleration and higher rpm. Consequently, when
pistons and rods are replaced theres no way of knowing if balance is still within
acceptable limits unless you check it.

X.8 Crankshaft calculation:

X.8.1 Design procedure for crankshaft:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

The following procedure may be adopted for designing a crankshaft.

First of all, find the magnitude of the various loads on the crankshaft.
Determine the distance between supports and their position with respect to the
loads.
For the sake of simplicity and also for safety, the shaft is considered to be
supported at the centers of the bearings and all the forces and reactions to be acting
at these point. The distances between the supports depend on the length of the
bearings, which in turn depend on the diameter of the shaft because of the
allowable bearing pressure.
The thickness of the cheeks or webs is assumed to be from 0.4 ds to 0.6 ds where
ds is the diameter of the shaft. It may also be taken as 0.22D to 0.32D where D is
the bore of cylinder in mm.
Now calculate the distance between the supports.
Assuming the allowable bearing bending and shear stresses, determine the main
dimensions of the crankshaft.
Notes: 1.The crankshaft must be designed or checked for at least two crank
position. Firstly, when the crank is subjected to a maximum bending moment and
secondly when the crank is subjected to a maximum twisting moment or torque.
2. The additional moment due to weight of fly wheel, belt tension and
other forces must be considered.
3. It is assumed that the effect of bending moment does not exceed two
bearing between which a force is considered.

X.7.2 design of center crankshaft:

We shall design the center crankshaft by considering the two crank positions, i.e.
when the crank is at dead center (subjected to maximum bending moment) and
when the crank is at angle at which the twisting moment is maximum. These two
cases are discussed in details as below:

When the crank is at dead center:

At this position of the crank, the maximum gas pressure on the piston will transmit
maximum force on the crankpin in the plane of the crank causing only bending of
the shaft. The crankpin as well as ends of the crankshaft will be only subjected to
bending moment. Thus, when the crank is at the dead center, the bending moment
on the shaft is maximum and twisting moment is zero.

Let

D = piston diameter or cylinder bore in mm,

P = maximum intensity of pressure on the piston in N/mm2,
W = weight of fly wheel acting downwards in N, and

The thrust in the connecting rod will be equal to the gas load on the piston (Fp). We
know that gas load on the piston,

Due to this piston load (Fp) acting horizontally, there will be two horizontally, there
will be two horizontal reactions H1 and H2 at bearing 1 and 2 respectively, such
that
Due to the weight of fly wheel (W) acting downwards, there will be two vertical
reactions V2 and V3 at bearings 2 and 3 respectively, such that
For simplicity we neglected the tension due to belts (T1+T2), so the resultant at
bearing 2 equal
R2=V2
And the resultant force at bearing 3
R3=V3
Now the various parts of the center crankshaft are designed for bending only, as
discussed below:
(a) Design of crankpin
Let
dc = diameter of crankpin in mm,
Lc = length of the crank pin in mm,
= allowable bending stress for crankpin in N/mm2.
The bending moment at the center of the crankpin,
And
From the two equations above, diameter of the crankpin is determined. The length
of the crankpin is given by

(b)Design of the left hand crank web

The crank web is designed for eccentric loading. There will be two stresses acting
on the crank web, one is direct compressive stress and the other is bending stress
due to piston gas load (Fp).
The thickness (t) of the crank web is given empirically as

The width of the crank web (w) is taken as

The maximum bending moment on the crank web,

And section modulus,

So bending stress

And direct compressive stress on the crank web,

Total stress on the crank web = bending stress + direct stress

The total stress should be less than the permissible bending stress.
(c) Design of right hand crank web
The dimensions of the right hand crank web (i.e. thickness and width) are made
equal to left hand crank web from the balancing point of view.
(d)Design of shaft under the flywheel
Let
We know that bending moment due to the weight of flywheel,

We also know that the bending moment at the shaft,

From equations, we may determine the shaft diameter (ds).
When the crank is at an angle of the maximum twisting moment
The twisting moment on the crankshaft will be maximum when the tangential force
on the crank (Ft) is maximum. The maximum value of tangential force lies when
the crank is at angle of 25 to 30 from the dead center for a constant volume
combustion engines (i.e. petrol engine)
Consider a position of the crank at an angle of maximum twisting moment as
shown in figure
If the p' is the intensity of pressure on the piston at this instant, then the piston gas
load at this position of crank,
And thrust on the connecting rod,

Where

The thrust in the connecting rod (FQ) may be divided into two components, one
perpendicular to the crank and the other along the crank. The components of FQ
perpendicular to the crank is the tangential force (Ft) and the component of FQ
along the crank is the radial force (Fr) which produces thrust on the crankshaft
bearings.

It may be noted that the tangential force will cause twisting of the crankpin and
shaft while the radial force will cause bending of the shaft.

Due to the tangential force (Ft), there will be two reactions at bearings 1 and 2,
such that

Due to the radial force (Fr), there will be two reactions at the bearings 1 and 2,
such that

The reaction at the bearing 2 and 3, due to flywheel weight will be the same.
(a) Design of crankpin
Let

The bending moment at the center of the crankpin,

And twisting moment on the crankpin,

Equivalent twisting moment on the crankpin,

The twisting moment on the crankpin,

From equations above crankpin diameter can be determined.

(b)Design of shaft under the flywheel
Let

The bending moment on the shaft,

And twisting moment on the shaft,

Equivalent twisting moment on the shaft,

The equivalent twisting moment on the shaft,

From the equations, the diameter of the shaft is determined.

(c) Design of shaft at the juncture of the right hand crank arm
Let

The bending moment at the juncture of the right hand crank arm,

And the twisting moment at the juncture of the right hand crank arm,

Equivalent twisting moments at the juncture of the right hand crank arm,

The equivalent twisting moment,

From equations the diameter of the shaft at the juncture of the right hand crank arm
is determined.
(d) Design of right hand crank web
The right hand crank web is subjected to the following stresses:
1. Bending stresses in two planes normal to each other, due to the radial and
tangential components of FQ.
2. Direct compressive stress due to Fr, and
3. Torsional stress.
The bending moment due to the radial component of FQ is given by,

It is known that

Where

From equations, the value of bearing stress is determined.

The bending moment due to the tangential component of FQ is maximum at the
juncture of crank and shaft. It is given by

It is known that

From equation the value of bending stress is determined.

The direct compressive stress is given by,

The maximum compressive stress will occur at the upper left corner of the cross
section of the crank.

Now the twisting moment on the arm,

The stress on the arm,

Maximum or total combined stress,

The value should be within safe limits. If it exceeds the safe value, then the
dimensions W may be increased because it does not affect other dimensions.
(e) Design of left hand crank web
Since the left hand crank web is not stressed to the extent as the right hand crank
web, therefore, the dimensions for left hand crank web may be made same as for
right hand crank web.
(f) Design of crank shaft bearings
The bearing 2 is the most heavily loaded and should be checked for the safe
bearing pressure.
The total reaction at the bearing 2,

And the total bearing pressure

Where