Histology

1. Characteristics of epithelial tissue (Fares and Jamal)

Epitehelium is tissue organized as attached sheets of cells which line or
cover and form tubular structures within organs.
Location Covers all body surfaces/lines cavitary organs and forms exocrine
& endocrine glands.
They originate in all 3 embryonic layers: Endoderm Digestive, respiratory,
thyroid
Mesoderm Endothelium, Mesothelium
Ectoderm Epidermis, adenohypophysis
Composed of compact mass of specialized cells; EC matrix contains small
amount of cells with a highly organized basement membrane.
Characteristics- various cell shapes and functions, avascular, Innervated,
renewable, and can undergo metaplasia.
Shapes: Flatted (squamous), cuboidal and columnar
Functions: protection, absorption, transport of material at surface & gas
exchange, secretion, excretion and contraction.

1. Characteristics of epithelial tissue. (John)

Location
covers all body surface/lines cavitary organs
forms exo- and endocrine glands.
Origin - in all 3 embryonic layers
endoderm: digestive, respiratory epithelium, thyroid
mesoderm: endothelium, mesothelium
ectoderm: epidermis, adenohypophysis
Composed of
Cells: compact mass of specialized cells
Extracellular matrix:
small amount
highly organized - basement membrane
Characteristics:
Various cell shapes and functions
Cell shapes: flattened, cuboidal, columnar
The nuclear form often corresponds to the cell shape
Avascular

 Innervation
free nerve endings un-myelinated axons
depends on location of the epithelium and its exposure to stimuli
Renewal
Epithelia continuously renew their cell population
Different rates: fastest small intestine, slowest- skin
Metaplasia
=transformation into another type of mature epithelium, in pathological
circumstances
Tissue has the ability to transform into a different tissue if something
goes wrong. Can be reversed if the stimulus goes away.
E.g.

2. Polarity of epithelial tissue and epithelial cell. Differences between apical and
latero-basal domains of epithelial cells (Fares and Jamal)
Polarity is due to organelle distribution and membrane protein distribution
(membrane domain)
Apical domain: Proteins enzymes, transporters, channels
Lipids Cholesterol, sphingomyelin
Baso-lateral domain: Proteins Na+/K+ ATP-ase, transporters, channels,
receptors
Lipids Phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylinositol
Specialisations: Apical pole cilia, stereocilia, microvilli
Basolateral pole lateral interdigiations and basal labyrinth
& lamina

2. Polarity of epithelial tissue and epithelial cell. Differences between

apical and latero-basal domains of epithelial cells (John)
Cells will always have an apical pole, a lateral pole and a basal pole
The free or apical domain is always directed toward the exterior
surface or the lumen of an enclosed cavity or tube.
The lateral domain communicates with adjacent cells and is
characterized by specialized attachment areas.
The basal domain rests on the basal lamina anchoring the cell to
underlying connective tissue.
They are polarized:
Depending on the different tissue types, different things go on at each
pole
polarized distribution of organelles and membrane proteins,
depending on cell function

Organelle polarity in cells:

Type of cell
Apical pole
Absorptive cell
Mitochondria
Active absorption
requires ATP
Secretory cell
Golgi apparatus =>
secrete vesicles at the
apical pole

Baso-lateral pole

RER located here

(protein synthesis
Nucles located below

Polarity of membrane proteins and lipids- membrane domains:

Component
Proteins

Apical domain
Enzymes
Transporters
Channels

Baso-lateral domain
Na+/K+ ATP-ase
Transporters (am.ac.,
sugars)
Channels

Lipids

Cholesterol
Sphingomyelin

Receptors
Adhesion proteins
Phosphatidylcholine
Phosphatidylinositole

3. Specializations of the apical domain (cilia, microvilli, stereocilia):

structure, ultra structure, localization and functions (Fares and Jamal)
Cilia Seperated into motile and primary cilia)
- Primary cilia found in nearly every cell of the body, moves
substances using passive
flow of fluid, also can function as sensory antennae
- Motile cilia found in epithelia which are involved in transporting,
uses active movement
- Both types of cilia possess axoneme, basal bodies and intra flagellar
transport system
Stereocilia Actin filaments bundle anchored into a terminal web
- Located in male reproductive system (absorptive function) and
inner ear, where it
Functions as mechanoreceptors
Microvilli Also actin filaments bundled into terminal web
- Present in many epithelial cells
- increases absorptive surface of cells
- Visible in LM as striated/brush border
1. Specializations of the apical domain (cilia, microvilli, stereocilia):
Structure, ultra structure, localization and functions
In many epithelial cells, the apical domain exhibits special structural surface
modifications to carry out specific functions (shown in table below)
Microvilli and stereocilia:

Types of
cilia:

4. Specializations of the latero-basal domain (Fares and Jamal)

Fuck this bullshit question.
4. Specializations of the latero-basal domain (John)
Domain
Specializations
Lateral
Cell-to-cell complexes:
1. Tight junctions
2. Anchoring junctions
Two types (on lateral pole)
zonula adherens
macula adherens or desmosome,
3. Gap junctions
Basal

Cell-to-extracellular matrix junctions

anchor the cell
to the extracellular matrix;
1. Focal adhesions
2. Hemidesmosomes

1. Tight Junctions:
Impermeable and allow epithelial cells to function as a barrier.

Limit the movement of water and other molecules through the

intercellular space => maintain physicochemical separation of tissue
compartments.
Prevent the migration of lipids and specialized membrane
proteins between the apical and lateral surfaces, => maintain the
integrity of these two domains

2. Anchoring Junctions:
Provide lateral adhesions between epithelial cells, using proteins that link
into the cytoskeleton of adjacent cells.
zonula adherens ( pl., zonulae adherentes), which interacts with the
network of actin filaments inside the cell; and
macula adherens (pl., maculae adherentes) or desmosome, which
interacts with intermediate filaments
3. Gap junctions
Permit the direct passage of signalling molecules from one cell to another.
6 subunits (connexions) => connexons => gap junction
Allows cells to function together

(Basal pole)
1. Focal adhesions
Anchors actin of the cytoskeleton in the cell to the extracellular matrix
2. Hemidesmosomes
Anchors intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton to the extracellular
matrix

5. Lamina basalis and basement membrane

Basal lamina: Sheet of EC material between epithelial and connective tissue.
Only visible in EM; 20-100nm thick
Consists of lamina densa(fibrilar network) and lamina lucida
Composed of molecules secreted by epithelial cells: type 4 collagen, GPs
and PGs
Basement membrane is a thick structure formed by basal lamina and
reticular lamina.
It anchors down the epithelium to the loose connective tissue underneath
Both basal lamina and basement membrane are specializations of the
basolateral pole

6. Classification of covering epithelia

Based on number of cell layers:
- Simple
- Stratified
Based on cell shape:
- Squamous (flattened)
- Cuboidal
- Columnar
Types include: - Simple/stratified squamous/cuboidal/columnar
- Pseudostratified
- Transitional/urothelium

7. Simple epithelia: characteristics, locations, functions

Simple squamous: located in endothelium, mesothelium, bowmans capsule
etc.
Functions include filtration, diffusion, osmosis, secretion
(serosa)
Simple cuboidal: Located in kidney tubules, excretory ducts of excretory
glands and covering

Epithelium of ovary
Functions are secretion and absorption
Simple columnar: Located in digestive tract, fallopian tubes, excretory ducts
of salivary glands
Has apical surface specializations (cilia and microvilli), for
absorption,secretion

8. Pseudostatified epithelium: characteristics, locations, functions

Located in respiratory epithelium and male reproductive system
Functions include secretion (goblet cells), clearance (ciliated cells) and
absorption (stereocilia)
It has apical surface specializations: cilia and stereocilia
Constists of single layer of cells with nuclei similar to stratified epithelia
It gives the impression of more than one layer of cells but its a single layer
resting on basal lamina. This is because the nuclei are disposed at different
levels.

9. Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium: characteristics, location, functions,

Same as stratified squamous (layer of flat cells) but with dead keratinized
cells at surface
Forms the epidermis of skin
Protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion

10. Stratified squamous non keratinized epithelium: characteristics, location,

functions,
Same as stratified squamous (layers of flat cells) but has living, nucleated
cells at surface
Located in digestive tract from mouth to esophagus, and also in the vagina
and anterior cornea
Protects areas subject to abrasion

11. Stratified cuboidal and columnar epithelia: characteristics, locations, functions

Stratified cuboidal: - located in sweat glands and excretory duct
- functions are protection and secretion
- consists of layers of cuboidal cells
Stratified columnar: - located in ocular conjunctiva and large ducts of salivary
glands
- Functions are protection and absorption
- Layers of columnar cells

12. Transitional epithelium: characteristics, location, functions

Consists of basal cells, racket shaped cells and umbrella-like cells
Located in urinary excretory tract
Functions: stretches allows organs to distend
Protective osmotic barrier

13. Endocrine glandular epithelium: classification

Glandular epithelium is one or more epithelial cells highly specialized for
secretion.
Secretory process has 4 phases: Assimilation, synthesis, storage and
secretion.
Endocrine glands have no connection with the surface; completely
surrounded by conn tissue
Eliminates secretory product directly into blood stream
They can be classified based on:
- Cell grouping cords, follicles, islets, isolated cells
- Chemical structure of secretory product small polypeptides, cholesterol
- Moment of release of secretory product immediate release, after storage
- Range of action of secretory product autocrine (on itself)
- Paracrine (small range neighbouring cells)
- Endocrine (at distance)

14. Exocrine glandular epithelium: classification; examples

Exocrine glands are in contact with free surface of epithelium by an excretory
duct.
Eliminates product through a duct
Classification:
- By structure: Simple Tubular Lieberkuhn Gland
- Coiled tubular
- Branched tubular
- acinar
- Branched acinar
- By chemical composition of secretory product: Mucous gland (product rich
in GPs, viscous)
Serous gland (protein
secreting cell)

Mixed gland
- By secretion mechanism merocrine (exocytosis of stored granules)
- Apocrine (secretion of both product and apical
cytoplasm)
- Holocrine (destruction of entire cell during secretion)

15. Cells specialized for protein synthesis (serous cells)

Type of exocrine cell
Polarity: basal pole rich in RER
Golgi above round nucleus in central area
Apical pole with zymogen granules
Secretion: enzymes (pancreas, salivary glands)
Hormones (parathyroid - PTH)

16. Cells specialized for glycoprotein synthesis (mucous cells)

- Exocrine Cells
- Polarity:

Basal Pole: Nucleus, Organelles

Apical Pole: Secretory Granules

- Location:
epithelium

Mucus-secreting cells: Goblet Cells- intestinal + respiratory

Mucous Acini- salivary glands
Gastric Epithelium
Hormone-secreting cells: Adenohyphysis

17. Cells specialized for lipid synthesis

- Location:

Exocrine Cells - Sebaceous gland

Endocrine Cells Leydig Cells- Testis
Follicular Cells Ovary
Adrenal Cortex Cells

18. Cells specialized for amines and small peptides synthesis

= Digestive tract entero-endocrine cells

Somatostatin (D Cells)
VIP (D1 Cells)
Serotonin (EC Cells)
Colecistochinin (I Cells)
GIP (K Cells)
Motilin (Mo Cells)
Neorotensin (N Cells)
Secretin (S Cells)

19. Cells specialized for ions transport (serous cells)

Reabsorption:

- Uniferous tubules
- Excretory ducts, salivary glands
- Digestive tract

Secretion:

- Endothelial Cells- Ciliary processes

- Ependymal cells Choroid plexus

20. Myoepithelial cell

Location Surrounding secretory portion of: Salivary glands, lacrimal glands,
sweat glands + mammary glands
Features:

Cytokeratin filaments- epithelial tissue

Contractile filaments muscle tissue
GAP junctions- synchronizing
Desmosomes with epithelial cells
Hemidesmosomes with basement membrane

21. Merocrine, apocrine, holocrine mechanisms of secretion; examples

Merocrine secretion: Exocytosis of stored secretory granules
Apocrine secretion: secretion of product along with apical cytoplasm
Holocrine secretion: destruction of entire cell during secretion

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
22. Definition, basic structure and functions of connective tissues.

Definition: tissue that connects, supports, binds or separates other tissues

or organs typically having relatively few cells embedded in an amorphous
matrix often with collagen or other fibers.
Functions:

-Structural support (capsules, bone, cartilage)

- Nutrition
- Defense (nonspecific + immune)
- Cell growth + Differentiation
- Cell migration
- Insulation

Characteristics:
- common embryological origin = mesoderm
- Innervated + Vascularized (direct blood supply)
* cartilage is only exception with no capillary beds *
-EC matrix - ground substance (gelatinous glycoproteins)
- structural fibers (fibrous proteins eg: collagen, elastin,
reticulin)
Types:
-Connective Tissue Proper
- loose
- dense (fibrous) irregular
- dense (fibrous) regular
- Specialized Connective Tissue:
-adipose tissue
- reticular
- elastic
- cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartillage)
- bone
- blood

23. Structure and ultrastructure of connective tissue fibers: collagen,

elastic, reticular.
Fibers - proteins that are embedded in the ground substance
- provide structural support, adhesion, connect cells
- Collagen - tough; provides high tensile strength
- also called white fibers
- highly polymerized, gigantic molecules
- tough, moderate flexibility
- bone, cartilage, tendons ligaments
-Elastic fibers = Elastin
collagen

- branched; smaller, thinner fibers than

- very flexible + elastic but also strong

- can be stretched to 150% of its original length
- AKA: Yellow fibers
*Stain = Orcein
- Reticular fibers (Collagen type III) - branched fibers that form delicate
networks
- thin, less polymerized collagen fibers
*Stain = Silver impregnation
*Both Elastin and Reticular fibers require special stains to be seen in the light
microscope*

24. Collagen biosynthesis

1) Formation of mRNA for each type of -chain

2) Synthesis of -chains of preprocollagen. Clipping of signal peptide

3) Hydroxylation of specific prolyl and lysyl residues in the endoplasmic reticulum.
Vitamin C dependent.
4) Attachment of soluble galactosyl and glucosyl to specific hydroxylsylrisdues.
5) Assembly of procollagen molecules (triple helix)
6) Registration peptides
7) Transport of soluble procollagen to Golgi complex
8) Packaging of soluble procollagen in secretory vesicles
9) Secretory vesicles assisted by microtubules and microfilaments transport soluble
procollagen molecules to cell surface
10) Discharge of procollagen molecules to EC space. Procollagen peptidases cleave
most of the nonhelical registration peptides, transforming procollagen into soluble
tropcollagen which aggregates to form collagen fibrils
11) Fibrillar structure is reinforced by the formation of covalent cross-links between
tropocollagen molecules catalyzed by the enzyme lysyl oxides

25. Collagen types

- Collagen I
organ capsules
- Collagen II
- Collagen III
- Collagen IV

- forms fibrils, the most resistant to mechanical tension

- In: Connective tissue of skin, bone, tendon, dentin and
-

forms fibrils
In: hyaline + elastic cartilage
In: reticular lamina + reticular connevtive tissue
First collagen secreting in wound healing
Forms a network in basal laminae of epithelia

- Fibril forming collagen:

Types I, II, III, V and XI

- Fibril associated collagen:

- Network-forming collagen:
- Anchoring collagen:

Types IX + XII
Type IV
Type VII

26. Ground substance: molecular composition and functions

- participate sto binding cells to fibers
- colorless + transparent in usual stains
- May be solid, fluid or gel
-Components:
- Cell Adhesion Proteins
1) Fibronectin- binds cells, collagen + GAG
2) Laminin mediates attachment of epithelial cells to
basal laminae
- Proteioglycans large polysaccharide molecules bound to
protein core
- Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) linear polysaccharides
composed of repetitive disaccharide units, attached to
proteoglycans

27. Connective tissue cells: classification

Proper to connective tissue (Fixed Cells)
- Fibroblast- fibrocyte (condro- , osteo- )
- Myofibroblast
- Adipocyte (uni- , multiocular)
- Reticular
Migrated
- granulocytes
- B + T lymphocytes
- Macrophages
- Mast cells
- Melanocytes
- Plasma cell
Cells that produce/degrade the EC matrix
- fibroblasts, osteoblasts, condroblasts, macrophages
Metabolic Cells
- adipocytes
Defense (Specific/Non-Specific)

- lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, plasma cells

28. Fibroblast-fibrocyte: structure, ultrastructure, functions

Fibroblast
- Most frequent cell
- LM Elongated cells, 20m, branched processes, basophilic cytoplasm,
oval, euchromatic nucleus, 1 or 2 nucleoli
- TEM abundant RER + prominent Golgi apparatus
Produce:
- Elements of EC Matrix: Procollagen, proelastin, fibrilin, GAG, Proteoglycans
+ Glycoproteins
- Enzymes: Matrix metalloproteinases + Collagenase + Elastase
- Growth Factors
Properties:
- ability to switch its phenotype: Fibroblast Fibrocyte
- can change shape
- mobile
- induces differentiation of surrounding cells
(Myofibroblasts = Fibroblasts that contain actin)

29. Unilocular/white adipocyte: structure, ultrastructure, functions

- LM- round (when isolated) OR polygonal in groups
- one large lipid droplet (inclusion)
- A thin rim of cytoplasm at the periphery that contains a flattened,
heterochromatic nucleus (signet ring)
- TEM Small Golgi complex, RER, mitochondria + microfilaments
Functions: secrete adipokines, resistin, adiponectin, leptin + apelin.

30. Multilocular/brown adipocyte: structure, ultrastructure, functions

- smaller than white adipocytes
- Mostly found before birth and in neonates
- LM - many small lipid droplets in cytoplasm foamy look

- round central nucleus

- TEM many mitochondira (high concentration of cytochromes in the
mitochondria is responsible for brown color of the aggregates of multiocular
adipcytes; brown color also due tohigh vascularization 3 capilaries for each
brown adipocyte)

31. Reticular cell: structure, ultrastructure, functions

Functions
- Produce reticular fibers, which form the fine structural network of organs
such as the lymph nodes, spleen and bone marrow.
- Synthesizes type III Collagen
- They also direct B cells and T cells to specific regions within the lymphatic
tissue.
-LM - Star-shaped cells with long and thin processes that establish anchoring
junctions with neighboring cells; round, central, pale nucleus.
*Should not be confused with the reticulocyte, an immature erythrocyte

32. Macrophage: structure, ultrastructure, functions

Derived from peripheral blood monocytes, Involved in phagocytosis and
inflammatory response
- A family of cells with various shapes, localizations and names:
- Histiocytes: connective tissue
- Kupffer cells: liver
- Langerhans cells: intra-epidermal
- Alveolary macrophages/Dust Cells : lung
- Osteoclasts: bone
- Microglia: central nervous system
- They are part of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS/ RES).
Macrophages of the connective tissue:
- LM - about 30 mm, ruffled membrane (irregular shapes), acidophilic
lysosomes in the cytoplasm, can have various heterogenous inclusions
ingested material
Round, oval or kidney-shaped, eccentric nucleus; can have nucleoli

- TEM- numerous lysosomes, phagosomes and pseudopodia, abundant RER,

SER, mitochondria and Golgi complex.
Functions:
Main function: phagocytosis
- Triggered by a specific interaction between membrane receptors and
ligands.
Consequences:
Cell movement towards target particle
Pseudopodia formation engulfment
Respiratory burst
Secretion: cytokines, interferon, complement & coagulation factors
Production of matrix metalloproteinases

33. Mast cell: structure, ultrastructure, functions

Structure

Large, Oval cell, 20-30 mm Cytoplasm has numerous basophilic, metachromatic

granules

Ultrastructure

1. Many granules
2. extensive Golgi complex
3. cisternae of RER
4. free ribosomes, mitochondria and numerous microvilli and folds.
5. Rich in Histamine & Heparin

Functions

A mobile macrophage cell of the connective tissue, able to perform phagocytosis,

plays a major immune role in allergies, also involved in wound healing and defense
against pathogens.

Notes Very similar to basophil (both in function and appearance), it is located in most of
the loose connective tissue along blood vessels.

34. Plasma cell: structure, ultrastructure, functions

Structure

Pear/Ovoid shaped cells, basophilic cytoplasm (due to abundant RER) with a

perinuclear pale area (Golgi apparatus), can contain acidophilic Russel bodies
(secretory granules)
Eccentric and visible Nucleus, with hetero and euchromatin in a "clockface" pattern
meaning they're assembled in a circular manner around the periphery of the
nucleus (much like numbers on the clock)

Ultrastructure

Extensive Golgi complex, abundant RER, secretory granules (Russel bodies), free
ribosomes & methachondria.

Functions

Mainly secrete immunoglobulins (antibodies): IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE, they originate in B
lymphocytes that are terminally differentiated as a result of a response to an
antigen challenge.

35. Classification of connective tissues

The classification is based on the composition and organization of the
componants and its functions;
1. Embryonic connective tissue
Mesenchye
Mucous connective tissue
2. Adult connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
Dense (fibrous) connective tissue

Dense regular connective tissue

Dense irregular connective tissue
Reticular connective tissue
Elastic connective tissue
3. Specialized connective tissue
Adipose tissue
Cartilage
Bone
Hematopoietic (bone marrow)
Blood

36. Loose connective tissue: structure, localization

Structure

Comprised of all the main componants of a connective tissue in equal

proportions, very diverse in types of cells; most numerous being
fibroblasts & macrophages
Abundant ground substance, collagen, elastic and reticular fibers, very flexible and
very well vascularized, and relativly delicate.

Localization

Supports epithelial tissues

Ensheathes the lymphatic and blood vessels
Papillary layer of the dermis
The serosal linings of peritoneal and pleaural cavities
Glands and mucous membranes

37. Dense irregular connective tissue: structure, localization

Structure

Few cells (compared to loose CT), mainly fibrocytes (occasional mast cells &
macrophages)
Clear predominance of collagen fibers
Few ground substance
Less flexible thus more resistant to stress
The collagen fibers are bundled WITH NO DEFINITE ORIENTATION (hence
labelled irregular)
Three deminsional network > Resistant to stress from all angles

Localization
Capsules of the parenchimatose organs
Dermis
Submucosa of the digestive tract
Periosteum
Perichondrium

38. Tendon: structure, localization

Structure

Elongated, cylindrical structure, rich in collagen fibers, white and inextensible.

Parallel and closely packed bundles of collagen
Small quantity of amorphous intercellular substance
Fibrocytes in the tendon are named tendinocytes
Elongated nuclei parallel to the fibers
Sparse cytoplasmic folds envelop portions of the collagen bundles
The cytoplasm is rarely revealed in HE stain (stains the same color as
fibers)
Collective structure overview Primary collagen bundles loose connective tissue - endotenonium

Secondary Bundles of endotenonium loose connective tissue with blood

vessels and nerves - Peritenonium
External sheath of dense connective tissue - epitenonium

Localization

Between striated muscle and bone

39. Aponeuroses: structure, localization

Structure

inextensible structure that attaches striated muscle to bone (or other muscles)
Thick and predominant collagen fibers
Multiple layers:
Parallel in the same layer
perpendicular on the collagen fibers from the layers above and beneath
(textile aspect)
Fibrocytes - Flattened, narrow shaped
Note - the fastest and easiest way to identify on a slide is to pay
attention to the textile orginization of the collagen fibers

Localization

Between muscle and bones (and sometimes between muscles and other muscles or
structures, basically attaches the epiphysis of the bone to other structures)

40. Reticular connective tissue: structure, localization

Structure

Specialized loose connective tissue, double meshwork: Reticular cells & a

network of branched reticular fibers, reticular fibers are enveloped by the
cytoplasm of reticular cells; the fibers however are EXTRACELLULAR being
seperated from the cytoplasm by the cell membrane

Localization

Framework of the bone marrow and lymphoid tissue (lymph nodes, spleen),
supports the soft organs in the periphery.

41. Elastic tissue: structure, localization

Structure

Predominance of parallel thick elastic fibers (remember orcein & furschin

stain) and between them rare collagen fibers and flattened fibroblasts

Localization

yellow ligaments of the spinal chord

Suspensory ligaments of the penis
Function - Provide elasticity

42. Mucous tissue: structure, localization

An embryonic connective tissue

Structure
Gelatin-like extracellular matrix (very loose)
Abundance of amorphous ground substance (also know there as
wharton's jelly)
Thin collagen fibers
Spindle shaped cells (mesenchymal cells)

Localization

Umbilical chord

43. White adipose tissue: structure, localization

Structure

Fat cells & thin layers of loose irregular connective tissue

Unilocular (have only one cavity)/white adipocytes round (when isolated) or polygonal in groups
cytoplasm - a thin rim at the periphery One large lipid droplet (inclusion)
nucleus - flattened, heterochromatic "signet ring and compressed onto the cell
membrane by the lipid droplet.
White to dark yellow due to carotenoids (organic pigments)
Small amounts of collagen, elastic fibers and ground substance

Localization

Throughout the human body, distribution is regulated endocrinologically according

to gender and age.

44. White adipose tissue: function

Mainly store energy, insulate and cushioning of vital organs.
Energy storage Adipocytes are specialized for synthesis, storage, and mobilization of neutral fats
(triglycerides). Hormones, such as insulin, and the sympathetic nervous system,
which innervates adipose tissue, control these activities. These fats are stored in
nonmembrane-bound lipid droplets. When fats are needed to provide fuel for cells
in other tissues, adipocytes release them as fatty acids into circulation. Dietary
lipids from the intestine also circulate in blood as water-soluble lipoproteins called
chylomicrons. Together with very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) from the liver,
they reach the adipocyte surface via capillaries. Lipoprotein lipase, an enzyme
produced by adipocytes, releases fatty acids and monoglycerides from chylomicrons
and VLDLs that are then moved to the adipocyte cytoplasm. Re-esterification into
triglycerides occurs in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, followed by storage in
lipid droplets. Some fatty acids are also produced from glycogen in adipocytes.
Scattered mitochondria, a small Golgi complex, and cytoskeletal filaments are other
organelles in the cytoplasm. Adipocytes also secrete steroid hormones, cytokines,
and leptin, a peptide hormone, which functions in appetite regulation by acting on
the hypothalamus.

45. Brown adipose tissue: structure, localization

Structure

Predominance of brown adipocytes

Well vascularized
Brown adipocyte
Multilocular, polygonal and smaller comapred to white adipocytes
Spherical, central nucleus
Cytoblasm:
Great nuber of lipid droplets that vary in size
Numerous mitochondria with abundant long cristae
Epithelial-like arrangment where the cells are closely packed in masses and
assosiated with blood capillaries.
Subdevided by connective tissie into lobules, better delineated (compared to
unilocular adipose tissue)

Cells recieve direct sympathetic innervation

Localization

Large amounts in newborn

Scarce at the adult
In the cervical and mediastinum region (except perirenal & periaortic)

46. Brown adipose tissue: function

Thermogenetic activity;
Heat production, and the recruitment process in the tissue (that results in a higher
thermogenic capacity) are under the control of norepinephrine released from
sympathetic nerves. In thermoregulatory thermogenesis, brown adipose tissue is

essential for classical nonshivering thermogenesis (this phenomenon does not exist
in the absence of functional brown adipose tissue), as well as for the cold
acclimation-recruited norepinephrine-induced thermogenesis. Heat production from
brown adipose tissue is activated whenever the organism is in need of extra heat,
e.g., postnatally, during entry into a febrile state, and during arousal from
hibernation, and the rate of thermogenesis is centrally controlled via a pathway
initiated in the hypothalamus. Feeding as such also results in activation of brown
adipose tissue; a series of diets, apparently all characterized by being low in
protein, result in a leptin-dependent recruitment of the tissue; this
metaboloregulatory thermogenesis is also under hypothalamic control. When the
tissue is active, high amounts of lipids and glucose are combusted in the tissue. The
development of brown adipose tissue with its characteristic protein, uncoupling
protein-1 (UCP1), was probably determinative for the evolutionary success of
mammals, as its thermogenesis enhances neonatal survival and allows for active
life even in cold surroundings.

47. Hyaline Cartilage: structure, localization

Structure

CELLULAR COMPARTMENT:
Chondroblasts
Chondrocyte
Found in matrix cavities -lacunae
Arranged in isogenous groups (clusters or columns)
Perichondrium cells

MATRIX
Territorial matrix
interterritorial matrix
Components:
1. Fibers: collagen II.
2. Ground substance

Localization

In the fetus Forming the skeleton

In adults Nose, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus, Ventral end of ribs, Articular surface of
some bones & in growth cartilage of long bones

48. Elastic Cartilage: structure, localization

Structure

CELLULAR COMPARTMENT Chondroblasts

Chondrocytes larger number, smaller isogenous groups
MATRIX:
Prominent elastic fibers (remember it needs special staining bruh)
Collagen II
Ground substance

Localization

Epiglottis
Larynx (arytnoid cartilage)
Pinna of the ear, auditory canal, eustachin canal
49. Fibrous Cartilage: structure, localization

Appearance under microscope:

50. Chondroblast, and chondrocyte: structure, ultrastructure, localization

Definition:
Chondroblast: Immature chondrocyte
- Divide
- Shape: elliptical; long axis parallel to the surface of the cartilage
- Also secretes antiangiogenesis factor ; a substance that prevents blood vessel
growth)
Anti= against, angio= vessel, genesis = production => antiangiogenesis.
Chondrocyte: Mature cell of the cartilage
- Do not divide
- Shape: round
Chondrocytes are distributed either singularly or in clusters called isogenous
groups
When the chondrocytes are present in isogenous groups, they represent cells that
have recently divided. As the newly divided chondrocytes produce the matrix
material that surrounds them, they are dispersed
Cell type
Chondroblast

Structure
Nuclei:
Round and
basophilic
Euchromatic
(active)
1-2 nuclei
Cytoplasm:
Basophilic
Juxtanuclear pale

Ultrastructure
RER, Golgi,
Mitochondria,
glycogen, lipid
droplets all
present
Many short
cytoplasmic
projections

Localization
Cells are
isolated
located at
the
periphery
under the
perichondri
um
*Found in lacunae

region

Chondrocyte

Nuclei:
Round and
basophilic
Cytoplasm:
Acidophilic

Few organelles
Increased:
Glycogen
Lipid
droplets
Decreased:
Synthesis

AFTER they
secrete matrix
therefore most
peripheral
chondroblasts
arent in lacunae
Cells form
groups
centrally.
*Completely fill
lacunae

Both secrete all components of the matrix (fibres and ground substance)

51. General structure of osseous tissue.

Definition:
Bone is a specialized form of connective tissue that, like other connective tissues,
consists of:

Cells (osteoblasts and osteocytes)

Extracellular matrix).
Organic matter (osteoid): amorphous ground substance and collagen fibres
Inorganic matter (minerals)

The feature that distinguishes bone from other connective tissues is the
mineralization of its matrix, which produces an extremely hard tissue capable of
providing support and protection.
The mineral is calcium phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals

Forms of bone:
1. Microscopic
Form of bone
Primary (immature, woven)

General description
Irregular array of collagen fibres
Higher proportion of osteocytes
Lower mineral content
Regular bands of collagen fibres
arranged in sheets (lamellae)

Secondary (mature, lamellar)

2. Macrocopic
Form of bone
Compact (Dense) bone; C.B

Description
A compact, dense layer forming
the outside of the bone.

Cancellous (spongy) bone; S.B

a sponge-like meshwork consisting

of trabeculae (thin,
anastomosing spicules of bone
tissue) forming the interior of the
bone
The spaces within the meshwork
are continuous and, in a living
bone, are occupied by marrow and
blood vessels

52. Osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast: structure, ultrastructure, functions

Bone cell

Structure

Osteoblast

Shape: columnar,
cuboidal (matrix
synthesis), flattened
(inactive)
Nucleus:
Pale staining
Multiple
Cytoplasm:
Basophilic
Cytoplasmic
processes =>
contact with
neighbouring cells

Osteocyte

Shape:

Ultrastruct
ure
RER, Golgi,
Mitochondr
ia

Reduced

Localizatio
n
Lining
bone
(endosteu
m,
periosteu
m,
trabeculae
,
metaphysi
s); I.e
sites of
bone
where
remodellin
g is not
occurring
Located

Functions
NOT cell
division
Synthesize
the organic
component
s of matrix

Osteocytes

Osteoclast

Flattened
Elongated
Nucleus:
Flattened
Condensed chromatin
Cytoplasm:
Less basophilic and
more acidophilic
LONG, thin
cytoplasmic
processes=> enter
matrix canaliculi =>
adjacent cells make
contact via gap
junctions
Large
Multi-nucleated
Cytoplasm:
acidophilic

organelles

between
layers of
osteon( c
oncentric
arrangem
ent of
bone
tissue
around
blood
vessels)
and
occupy
lacunae

can
synthesize
new matrix

Numerous
lysosomes

Found at
sites
where
bone is
removed

Responsible
for bone
resorption

53. Intramembranous ossification

(difference with endochodral ossification);
http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20081211025324AAEOsLU
Definition: In intramembranous ossification; bone is formed by differentiation of
mesenchymal cells into osteoblasts.

For flat bones

Some of the pale-staining, elongated mesenchymal cells within the
mesenchyme migrate and aggregate in specific areas, the sites where bone is
destined to form. This condensation of cells within the mesenchymal
tissue initiates the process of intramembranous ossification.

Stages:
1. Group of mesenchymal cells differentiate osteoblasts; secrete matrix which
then becomes mineralized
2. Islands of developing bone (SPICULES);
3. Fusion of Spicules TRABECULAE in CANCELLOUS (spongy) bone
4. Growth and fusion of trabeculae COMPACT bone
54. Endochondral bone formation
Definition: Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts that, in turn,
produce cartilage matrix.

For long bones

Initially, a hyaline cartilage model with the general shape of the
bone is formed.
Process begins with the proliferation and aggregation of mesenchymal cells
at the site of the future bone

Stages:
The process begins with the formation of a cartilage model

1); A periosteal (perichondrial) collar of bone forms around the diaphysis (shaft) of
the cartilage model
(2); then, the cartilaginous matrix in the shaft begins to calcify

(3). Blood vessels and connective tissue cells then erode and invade the calcified
cartilage
(4), creating a primitive marrow cavity in which remnant spicules of calcified
cartilage remain at the two ends of the cavity. As a primary center of ossification
develops, the endochondral bone is formed on spicules of calcified cartilage. The
bone at the ends of the developing marrow cavity constitutes the metaphysis.
Periosteal bone continues to form
(5); the periosteal bone is formed as the result of intramembranous ossification.
Blood vessels and perivascular cells invade the proximal epiphyseal cartilage
(6), and a secondary center of ossification is establishedin the proximal epiphysis
(7). A similar epiphyseal (secondary) ossification center forms at the distal end of
the bone
(8), and an epiphyseal cartilage is thus formed between each epiphysis and the
diaphysis. With continued growth of the long bone, the distal epiphyseal cartilage
disappears
(9), and finally, with cessation of growth, the proximal epiphyseal cartilage
disappears
(10). The metaphysis then becomes continuous with the epiphysis. Epiphyseal lines
remain where the epiphyseal plate last existed.
55. Composition of plasma

56. Erythrocytes

Definition: aka red blood cells

Pathology:
cytopenia = lower than normal (associated with anemia),
cytosis = higher than normal (e.g. polycythemia vera)
Size:
- ~7.5 m diameter fresh;
- 7.2 - 7.4 in stained smears;
-0,8 2,6 m thick
Constant diameter allows RBCs
scale to compare with other

to be used as a
cells:

macrocytes > 9 m,
microcytes < 6 m
anisocytosis = variation in size

Structure
Biconcave disc
folding increases
surface area (30%
more surface area)
composition of
plasma membrane
gives flexibility
(squeeze through
capillaries)
97% hemoglobin

Ultrastructure
No nucleus
No centrioles
No organelles
No mitochondria

Function
no cell division (as
a result of no
centrioles, nuclei
or organelles)
no mitochondria
means they can
generate ATP
anaerobically =>
prevents
consumption of the
O2 that they
transport
Transport O2

57. Differential count of blood leukocytes

Aim: helps to indicate what type of disease may be present in a patient
Method:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Obtain sample of venous blood from patient

Place one drop of blood on to slide
Prepare a smear
Using light microscopy, count 100 blood cells, noting each leukocyte type and
their frequency.

Normal quantities in blood:

Neutrophils = 48-66%
Eosinophils = 1-4%
Basophils: 0-0.5%
Monocytes = 8%
Lymphocytes = 25-27%
Pathological results and indications:
Increase in:

Neutrophils: acute bacterial inflammation

Eosinophils: allergic reaction, parasitic infection, chronic inflammation
Basophils: allergic reaction therefore basophils release histamine
Lymphocytes: in viral infections and tumour cells

58. Neutrophil: structure, ultrastructure and functions

Definition:
Structure
Larger than RBC
Diameter = 10-12
micrometres
Polymorphonuclear:
Nucleus has
multiple lobes

Ultrastructure
Nucleus:
Has heterochromatin at
the periphery and
euchromatin more
centrally
Small golgi apparatus

Functions
Neutrophils are active
phagocytes that utilize a
variety of
surface receptors to
recognize bacteria and
other infectious

connected by
chromatin
Cytoplasm:
Contains specific
granules => cell is
Granulocyte
Granules have
affinity for Both
basic and eosin
dyes.

Few other organelles

Glycogen particles
Granules:
Specific granules
(primary)
Azurophilic
granules
(secondary, nonspecific lysosomes)
Tertiary granules

agents at the site of

inflammation.

59. Basophil: structure, ultrastructure and functions

Structure
The same size as
neutrophils
Nucleus:
Also
polymorphonuclear:
usually bi-lobed or trilobed.
Cytoplasm
Named basophil because
the numerous large
granules in their
cytoplasm stain with
basic dyes => blue
appearance
Therefore granules
cover BOTH
nucleus and
Cytoplasm

Ultrastructure
Nuclues:
Heterochromatin also
located at the periphery
and euchromatin
centrally
Granules:
- Specific (basophilic)
- Azurophilic (non specific
lysosomes found in all
leukocytes)

Functions
Basophils bind an
antibody
IgE, through high-affinity
Fc receptors expressed
on their cell surface. The
subsequent exposure to,
and reaction
with, the antigen
(allergen) specific for IgE
triggers the activation of
basophils and the release
of vasoactive agents
from cell granules.

60. Eosinophil: structure, ultrastructure and functions

Structure
About the same size as
neutrophils
Nuclues:
Basophilic
Polymorphonuclear:
nucleus is typically bi-

Ultrastructure
Nucleus:
As in neutrophils, the
compact heterochromatin
of eosinophils is adjacent
to the nuclear envelope,
whereas the euchromatin

Functions
Eosinophils are
associated with allergic
reactions, parasitic
infections, and chronic
inflammation.

lobed
Cytoplasm:
Contains large
acidophilic granules
which cover the
cytoplasm=> cannot see
whether the cytoplasm is
acidophilic or basophilic

is located in the centre of

the nucleus.
Few organelles
Granules:
Specific (large
eosinophilic)
Azurophilic (non
specific lysosomes)

61. Monocyte: structure, ultrastructure and functions

Structure
Largest of all the
leukocytes:
Diameter: 18
micrometres
Nucleus:
Typically more indented
than other leukocytes =>
kidney shaped
appearance
Basophilic
Agranulocyte nucleus
is non-segmented so cell
is described as
mononuclear
Cytoplasm:
Basophilic/azurophilic

Ultrastructure
Organelles:
Golgi apparatus
and centrioles are
located in the
indented area
around the nucleus
RER, SER and
small mitochondria
Granules:
Azurophilic
granules
(lysosomes
contained in all
leukocytes)

Functions
During inflammation, the
monocyte leaves the
blood vessel at the site of
inflammation,
transforms into a
tissue macrophage,and
phagocytoses bacteria,
other cells, and tissue
debris.
Remain in the
blood for only
about 3 days.

62. Lymphocyte: structure, ultrastructure and functions

Structure
Three groups of
lymphocytes can be
identified
according to size: small,
medium, and large
lymphocytes, ranging
in diameter from 6 to 30

Ultrastructure
Organelles:
Golgi, ribosomes,
mitochondria all
vary in amount
according to size
of lymphocyte

Functions
Immunocompetent
cells (i.e., cells that have
developed
the capacity to recognize
and respond to antigens
and are
in transit from one

micrometres
Nucleus:
Round
Mononuclear
(non-segmented)
Basophilic
Large and occupies
most of the cell
Cytoplasm
Appears as a
small, blue ring
around nucleus
(contains only
azurophilic
granules
Ribosomes =>
blue appearance
due to slight
basophilia

Granules:
Azurophilic

lymphatic tissue to
another)
Functionally different
lymphocytes:
T cells have a long life
span and are involved in
cell mediated
immunity.
B cells have variable
life spans and are
involved in the
production of circulating
antibodies.
NK cells are
programmed during their
development to
kill certain virus-infected
cells and some types of
tumor
cells.
They also secrete
an antiviral agent,
interferon

63. Platelet: structure, ultrastructure and functions

Structure
Small cytoplasmic
fragments derived from
megakaryocytes.
2-3 micrometres in
diameter
Membrane-bounded
Anucleate

Ultrastructure
Structural organization of
the thrombocyte
cytoplasm categorized
into four zones
The peripheral zone
consists of the cell
membrane
covered by a thick
surface coat of
glycocalyx.
- The integral
membrane
glycoproteins
function as
receptors in

Functions
Continuous surveillance
of blood vessels,
Blood clot formation,
Repair of injured tissue.

platelet function.
The structural zone
comprises microtubules,
actin filaments, myosin,
and actin-binding
proteins that form a
Network supporting the
plasma membrane.
- responsible for
maintaining the
platelets disc
shape.
The organelle zone
occupies the center of
the platelet. It
consists of mitochondria,
peroxisomes, glycogen
particles,
and at least three types
of granules dispersed
within the
cytoplasm.
The membrane zone