ISSN 1068798X, Russian Engineering Research, 2014, Vol. 34, No. 11, pp. 680686. Allerton Press, Inc.

., 2014.
Original Russian Text G.G. Skrebnev, A.S. Ananev, 2014, published in Vestnik Mashinostroeniya, 2014, No. 8, pp. 2834.

Load Distribution between Hob Teeth

G. G. Skrebnev and A. S. Ananev
Volgograd State Technical University, Volgograd
email: stanki@vstu.ru
AbstractA method is proposed for automated determination and prediction of the position of the most
loaded hob teeth. Experiments confirm the validity of the proposed mathematical model.
Keywords: hob, tooth profile, wear, rear angle, calculation, cutting configuration
DOI: 10.3103/S1068798X14110185

Hobs are routinely modified to reduce tooth wear

and even out the load distribution, with adjustment of
the cutting configuration. Therefore, the correction of
the tooth dimensions must be based on the type of
wear and the thickness of the layers removed by the
hob teeth [1].
To reduce wear, chip formation must be improved.
That entails redistributing the chip removal from the
three cutting edges of the tooth (in complex Ltype
cutting), so as to prevent their mutual influencein
other words, to ensure free cutting, in which the chip
produced by each tooth of the hob departs freely.
The wear of the hob depends on the size and shape
of the cut layer and the conditions in which the hob
tooth enters and leaves contact with the partthat is,
on the geometry of the cut layer. Other conditions
being equal, the stress of the teeth at the hob turn and
the cutting edges of the tooth will depend on the cut
ting cross section. The correction of the hob teeth with
change in cutting configuration will depend on the
geometry of the cut layer. Therefore, to specify the
correction by analysis of the cutlayer geometry, we
need clear ideas regarding the size and shape of the cut
layer.
Analysis of the literature on simulation and deter
mination of the cutting parameters shows that the best
approaches are based on geometric analysis of the
machining process [13].
In the present case, comprehensive analysis of the
load on the hob teeth calls for a research tool providing
a precise map of the cutting processthat is, the
tracks formed by the successive instantaneous cutter
positions within the cutting plane and, finally, the size
and shape of the layers cut by the hob teeth at any
moment. To that end, software for AutoCAD graphics
applications is written in the AutoLISP programming
language, so as to construct the cutting map and
obtain the geometry and dimensions of the chip cut by
the hob teeth.

BASIC ALGORTHM
Since the load on the tooth and its kinematic
parameters depend on the tooth position along the
mill axis, while the number of the tooth characterizes
its position relative to this axis, we need to clearly
establish the numbering of the hob teeth. The central
tooth (number 0) is such that its symmetry axis lies on
the interaxial perpendicular of the hob and blank
(Fig. 1)in the present case, the Y1 axis. The teeth on
the input section of the hob have negative numbers
(1, 2, ); those on the output section have positive
numbers (1, 2, ).
In the first stage, we specify the tooth profile in the
normal cross section, corresponding to the closed
halfline passing through the corners of the tooth pro
file. To specify the profile with the necessary modifica
tion, we may use not only the subprograms created to
construct the profiles of some basic hob modifications
but also the AutoCAD drawing facilities.
Then we calculate the spatial trajectory of the tooth
and obtain the tooth track in cutting by forcing the
specified halfline along the resulting curve. The tra
jectory is specified by a set of points, each of which is
obtained with motion from the preceding point. The
number of points on the curve, which determines the
precision of the trajectory, depends on the increment
in the angle of hob rotation. In cutting a spur gear, the
increments are given by the formulas
i = i n z0 /z,
S i = S o i n z0 /z180,
where i and i are increments in the rotary angles of
the blank and mill; nz0 is the number of turns of the
hob; Si is the supply increment; z is the number of gear
teeth; So is the supply per turn.
At this stage, we specify the dimensions of the cyl
inder (blank). The preparation stage is then complete.

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681

Z1
1
X1

S0

Y1
se
0

Interaxial perpendicular
Fig. 1. Machining of a gear by a hob.

In the next stage, the cylindrical blank is machined

by the tooth tracks. In other words, bodies obtained in
motion of the profile are removed from the cylinder.
After each cut, the track is shifted by the design supply:
xi on the X1 axis; and zi on the Z1 axis. The gear cylinder
is shifted by the angle
x i = t 0 cos /z 0 ,
z i = t 0 sin /z '0 S z ,
2

z '0 = z 0 / cos ;

= 2n z0 / ( z 0 z ),

where Sz is the supply per tooth; t0 is the pitch of the

turns along the axis; is the inclination of the turns;
z0 is the number of chip channels in the hob; z '0 is the
number of chip channels for the case of a complete
circle.
The process is continued until the slot has been cut.
Then the gear cylinder is put in its initial position, the
track is shifted by the supply So, and the machining is
repeated, with chip formation. The cut layer is
obtained as a result of interference of the hob tooths
track and the slot in the gear. The cutting parameters
are calculated automatically by a program written in
Visual Basic and attached to a Microsoft Excel file as a
macro.
The software generated permits the determination
of the size and shape of the cut layer for any hob tooth
with any modification, for any machining parameters.
As an illustration, we analyze the operation of a hob
with module m = 4.25 mm in machining a gear with
z = 24 teeth, in the case of opposing supply So =
2 mm/turn (Fig. 2).
Tooth 15 is the first to begin cutting. It machines
an input lateral slot (with hob rotation by 15 =
14.2726.70) and an input radial slot (15 =
25.2827.52) in the gear, by means of its cutting
edges. Subsequently, the operation of teeth 14, 13,
and 12 is the same; only the contact angle and the
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active length of the cutting edges are increased. In fact,

the teeth cut simple layers, if we take into account that
they operate for a short time and are not active over the
whole radial edge.
Tooth 11 begins to operate at the tip, with the
removal of chip over a contact angle of 1.37 (11 =
30.3231.69) at the input section of the edge. With
the next tooth, the output radial edge comes into play:
this is the section adjacent to the tip. It is cut in a layer
over an arc of 0.5 (beginning with 10 = 31.41).
These teeth begin to cut Lshaped chip with a small
contact arc at the departure from cutting.
For teeth 9 and 8 cutting at the output edge is
discontinuous: first, a section close to the contact
point of the linear and radial output edges is active
(9 = 5.210.31 and 8 = 0.5516.57); then, on
leaving the cutting region, a section close to the tip is
active (9 = 27.5632.75 and 8 = 23.233.35).
From tooth 7 to tooth 0, all the edges of the teeth
are operative. First the tooth cuts separately at the
input, output, and tip edges; then the contact sections
of these edges with the blank coalesce as the mill turns.
Closer to the central tooth, the tip begins to cut earlier,
and a complex Ushaped layer is formed over a greater
contact arc.
Tooth 7 machines a slot by means of its input lin
ear edge and output linear and radial edges, over an arc
corresponding to 7 = 16.44 from insertion. Then,
the tip and input linear edges become active, while the
output linear edge becomes inactive (7 = 19.26). In
this section, the tooth produces Ushaped chip. With
hob rotation by 7 = 29.03, the input linear edge is
withdrawn from contact, and the tip and radial edges
of the tooth continue to operate.
The operation of the subsequent teeth (up to tooth 1)
is not significantly changed. With tooth 5, the output
linear and radial edges cut separately at the beginning
of contact; closer to tooth 1, they cut for a longer
time. On approaching the interaxial perpendicular, the

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SKREBNEV, ANANEV

Tooth 9

Tooth 8

Tooth 7

Tooth 5

Fig. 2. Layers cut by hob teeth.

Appearance in
ZX plane

Appearance in
ZY plane
0
5
10
15

out
24

in

25
A
A

42

30

15

25

20

1.25

15

20

40

10

35

30
A

0.074
1.25

35
A
A

40

0.142

40

Fig. 3. Layer cut by the hobs central tooth.

output linear edge becomes inactive at larger angles,

and the input edge at smaller angles.
We now consider in more detail the operation of
the hobs central tooth. In Fig. 3a, we show the contact
angles of the input (in) and output (out) cutting edges
of the tooth in the ZY plane, as well as the total contact
angle of the mill tooth with the blank; in Fig. 3b, we
show the cross section of the layer cut by the given mill
teeth.
First, the tooth cuts at three edges. In tooth rota
tion, the layer cut by the tip splits into two at 0 =
11.7: one component coalesces with the layer cut by

the input edge; the other gradually moves to the output

edge and coalesces with the layer cut at that edge.
Thus, the central tooth cuts an Lshaped layer, first by
its output and input edges (0 = 7.3821.07) and
then by the tip and the output edge (0 = 2132).
The operational time of the input edge of this tooth is
55% of the total machining time; for the output edge,
the corresponding figure is 90%.
On the shaping section of the hob (with tooth num
bers greater than 0), the tip is not involved in cutting,
while the lateral cutting edges cut elementary layers.

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LOAD DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN HOB TEETH

(a)

683

(b)

Tooth 7

2
2

1
1

Tooth 5

2
1

Fig. 4. Chip (a) cut by the input (1), output (2), and output radial (3) edges and corresponding computer images (b).

Tooth 1 cuts a layer whose width increases toward

the output, over an arc corresponding to 1 = 37.92,
by means of its output edge; the linear section corre
sponds to the range from 1 = 1.2 to 1 = 33.83,
and the radial section to the range from 1 = 22.91 to
1 = 36.72. The radial and linear sections of the input
edge first operate separately, removing layers that coa
lesce as the hob turns (to 1 = 6.3). Cutting by the
input edge continues until 1 = 19.45.
On moving away from the interaxial perpendicular,
chip formation is qualitatively unchanged; only the
contact arc and the length of the active section within
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the cutting edges are reduced. Beginning with tooth 7,

the input cutting edge ceases to operate. The last active
tooth is tooth 11, whose output edge only touches the
blank at a 7 arc.
In Fig. 4a, we show chip obtained in machining a
slot in a gear by particular hob teeth; in Fig. 4b, we
show the corresponding chip obtained in simulation.
Comparison shows that the chip cut by the output
edge of the tooth (more precisely, its linear section) is
helical. Such chip is formed because, in cutting, the
contact area of the tooth with the cut metal moves
along the output edge from the base of the tooth to its

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SKREBNEV, ANANEV
Elementary volume
Vi of the cut metal

Vi cos0
Normal direction of
of chip departure
from the cutting edge

Vi sin0
Output edge

Resultant direction of
chip departure in the
given cross section

(Vi cos0)

0
i

Input edge

(Vi sin0)

Fig. 5. Determining the angle i for one cross section of the cut layer.

tip. Thus, the cut layer moves along the edge of the hob
tooth, and helical chip is formed, at least until the cor
ner and tip of the tooth become involved in cutting,
when complex chip will be formed.

The processes accompanying incision will be

assessed by means of a coefficient taking account of
the cutlayer thickness at the onset of cutting

The form of the chip cut by the tooths input edge

arises because this edge is constantly in contact with
the blank in the same sectionin the vicinity of the
contact point of the linear and radial edges. Conse
quently, the chip takes the form of a flat spiral.

where lin is the length of the tooths contact arc at

insertion when the cutlayer thickness is less than or
equal to the rounding radius of the cutting edge; l is the
length of the tooths contact arc with the blank.
However, Kin takes no account of the mutual influ
ence of the chip when cutting layers with complex L
or Ushaped cross sections. To take account of com
plex cutting conditions on the wear, we introduce a
complexity coefficient expressing the deviation of the
chip from the normal direction at each point of the
cutting perimeter

Comparison of the simulation results and the chip

formed in hob cutting of a gear shows that the simula
tion conforms well to practical observations.
In research into the dependence of the hob length
on the mean thickness ame of the cut layer, the length l
of the contact arc, and the conditions in which the
tooth makes and breaks contact with the blank,
expressed by the ratio = aout/ain, it is found that has
a very considerable influence not only on the hob wear
but also on the dependence of the wear on the mean
thickness of the cut layer and the contact arc between
the tooth and blank. However, this research did not
take account of the complex cross section of the cut
layer in hobbing, although it is obvious that not only
the parameters of the cut layer but also its shape must
be taken into account in establishing the dependence
of the tooth wear on the volume of cut layer.
We now address this issue. In describing the shape
of the cut layer, we must take account of its parameters
affecting the cutting processthat is, the conditions
in which the tooth makes and breaks contact with the
blank, the physical constraints on chip formation, and
so on. The conditions in which the tooth makes and
breaks contact with the blank may be assumed to have
little influence on the wear if the inclination of the
output plane is no more than 30, according to [4, 5].
That is the case here.

K in = l in /l,

K co = de /,
where de is the angular deviation at the given point,
which is the sum of the angles i found for each cross
section of the cut layer over the contact arc
V i cos 0
i = 0 /2 arctan 
.
V i sin 0
Here Vi is the elementary volume of metal removed by
the section of profile in the given cross section; 0 is
the profile angle at the given point (Fig. 5).
On the basis of the foregoing, we write a form factor
Kf = f(V', l, Kin, Kco). Then, for points of the tooths
cutting perimeter, we obtain
h' = f ( K T, K in, K co, V', l ),
where h' is the modeled wear; l is the length of the con
tact arc at the profile point; V' = V/Vh is the relative
volume of metal cut by the given point of the tooth
profile; Vh is the volume of metal cut by the hob as a
whole.

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LOAD DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN HOB TEETH

r

X4 X3

X5

685

Input X5
cutting edge

X2 Output
cutting edge

X2

0
X6

X1
Fig. 6. Wear topography for a hob tooth.

In this case, the modeled wear characterizes the

load on the hob teeth.
Experiments on tooth wear are conducted in the
laboratory on a 5312 hobbing machine, which con
forms to State Standard GOST 65989.
Steel 40X cylindrical spur gears with external invo
lute engagement (modulus m = 1.56.5 mm; crown
width 100 mm) are machined. The number of teeth
varies from 20 to 100. In hobbing, the supply S = 1
6 mm/turn; consistent and opposing supply is
employed. The mill speed n = 100 rpm. The free play
of the mandrel and attachment points is no more than
0.02 mm. The chemical composition and mechanical
properties of the blank correspond to State Standard
GOST 454371.
Standard onepiece P6M5 steel hobs correspond
ing to State Standard GOST 932480 are employed.
The tooth wear is studied by means of an M24 bin
ocular magnifier (12 1.65 magnification; scale divi
sion 0.038 mm). Wear at the rear surface of 0.8 mm is
regarded as critical. On reaching the critical wear, the
tooth profile is measured and photographed. The
experimental results are used in simulating the wear
topography and determining the position of the tooth
with the greatest load.
In Fig. 6, we show the wear of hob tooth 3 (m =
4.25 mm, z = 24, So = 1 mm/turn) and the corre
sponding wear topography.
We also consider data on the wear and performance
of hobs at Volgograd state tractor plant, Altai tractor
plant, and Leningrad Eskalator facility.
Note that, in the experiments, the change in the
number z0 of chip channels and the external hob diam
eter da0 with change in the module is taken into
account in accordance with State Standard GOST
932480.
We use the software already developed to simulate
the hobbing of spur gears by standard hobs with con
sistent and opposing supply; the model parameters are
determined.
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The experiments show that the wear increases with

increase in the cutlayer volume V. This pattern is also
observed in the simulation. An exception is the section
with nearzero cutlayer volume, where there is a peak
in the wear.
The dependence of the wear on the contact arc
length l of a point on the tooths profile is similar to the
dependence of the wear on the cutlayer volume,
except for the section with very small l. In cutting with
small l, there is practically no wear in comparison with
sections of the cutting edge at large l.
With increase in the complexity coefficient Kco, the
simulated wear increases; the dependence is practi
cally linear. Contrary to expectation, the dependence
of the wear on the coefficient Kin, which takes account
of the conditions in which cutting begins, is extremal.
With increase in Kin, the wear first rises and then, at
Kin = 1.251.30, reaches a maximum, with subsequent
smooth decline practically to zero (Kin = 1.451.50).
In Fig. 7, we show the actual (hme) and simulated
(h') wear in machining steel 40X cylindrical spur gears
(modulus m = 4.25 mm; crown width 20 mm, z =
24 teeth) with opposing supply So = 1 mm/turn. The
greatest wear is predicted at the output cutting edge;
slightly less wear at the input cutting edge; and almost
no wear at the tip. This pattern is observed in practice.
Obviously, the wear is greatest at the output cutting
edge; the maximum wear is observed at the point X2
where the linear and radial cutting edges meet. In
addition, we know from practical experience that the
most worn section of the tooth profile is the point
where the linear and radical cutting edges on the out
put side of the tooth meet. Hence, in determining the
tooth with the greatest load, which limits the overall
hob life, it is sufficient to consider a group of points on
the output side of the profile.
Analysis shows that, with opposing supply, the
position of the most worn tooth relative to the interax
ial perpendicular varies as a function of the number z
of gear teeth in the same way as the position of the mill
tooth cutting the maximum volume of metal: with

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SKREBNEV, ANANEV
hme,h', mm
0.9
Tooth 0
0.8
0.7

hme

0.6

Tooth 1

Tooth 2

Tooth 3

Tooth 5

h'

hme

hme

hme

0.5

h'

h'

h'

0.4

hme

0.3

h'

0.2
0.1
0
X2

X5

X2

X5

X2

X5

X2

X5

X2

X5

Fig. 7. Actual (hme) and simulated (h') wear topography over the hob teeth.

increase in z, it is shifted toward the mill teeth that first

begin cutting. With consistent supply, conversely, this
tooth is shifted toward the central tooth of the hob.
That it is because increase in z is associated with
growth in the distance between the hob teeth corre
sponding to Vmax and hmax, but the position of the teeth
removing the maximum metal volume Vmax is shifted
away from the interaxial perpendicular more rapidly
for opposing supply than for consistent supply.
If we can find or predict the teeth with the greatest
load or the most worn teeth, we can take appropriate
measures to equalize the load over the hob teeth. In
addition, we need to know the position of the tooth
most predisposed to wear in order to specify the cor
rection parameters of the hob in complex cutting.
Thus, our conclusions on the basis of simulation
are as follows.
(1) The simulated wear increases with the cutlayer
volume V.
(2) With increase in the gear module, the position
of the tooth with the greatest load is shifted to the input
part of the hob.
(3) With increase in the number of gear teeth, the
position of the most worn tooth relative to the interax
ial perpendicular is shifted toward the teeth that first
begin cutting in the case of opposing supply; and
toward the central tooth of the hob in the case of con
sistent supply.
(4) With increase in the supply, the position of the
most worn tooth at first moves away from the interaxial

perpendicular but then begins to move toward the cen

tral tooth of the hob.
On the basis of the proposed mathematical models,
the position of the most worn tooth in the hob may be
predicted with high precision (no less than 95%). Our
research shows good agreement between the simula
tion and experimental data.
REFERENCES
1. Medveditskov, S.N., Narozhnykh, A.T., Skrebnev, G.G.,
and Churbakov, V.F., Method calculating the correc
tion parameters for hobs with a complex cutting config
uration, Tekhnologiya i avtomatiztsiya mashinostroi
telnogo proizvodstva. Nauch. tr. Volgogradskogo
politekhn. instituta (Manufacturing Technology and
Automatic Systems: Proceedings of Volgograd Poly
technic Institute), Volgograd: VPI, 1975, no. 6, pp. 2631.
2. Bashkirov, V.N. and Serova, A.A., Determining the cut
cross section in the hobbing of cylindrical gears,Stanki
Instrum., 1984, no. 1, pp. 1820.
3. Tokarev, V.V., Mathematical Model of the Hobbing
Geometry: Metrological Aspects and Algorithms,
Cand. Sci. Dissertation, Volgograd State Technical Uni
versity, Volgograd, 1998.
4. Loladze, T.N., Prochnost i iznosostoikost rezhushchego
instrumenta (Strength and Wear Resistance of Cutting
Tools), Moscow: Mashinostroenie, 1982.
5. Pekelharing, A.J., The exit failure in interrupted cut
ting, CIRP Ann., 1978, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 510.

Translated by Bernard Gilbert

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